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The Story of the North American Model for Wildlife Conservation: Opportunity for All
RMEF & Conservation Visions 2006
History of Wildlife Management
• When did we start managing wildlife? Why?
• How have attitudes towards wildlife and wildlife management changed through time? Why?
• What are some of the significant laws and events related to wildlife and its management? What makes them significant?
History of Wildlife Management
• Who are some of the notable people in wildlife? Why are they notable?
• How has our thinking about wildlife and conservation changed through time?
• How does knowing this help me as a wildlife biologist/manager?
History of Wildlife Management
• The beginning of mankind (~4 mya)
• Native peoples (N. Am.: 8,000-10,000 ya)– Sustained harvest– Habitat modifications
• Pleistocene Overkill
History of Wildlife Management
• 3800 BC: Weirs built in America’s
• 0 AD: Evidence of wild turkey domestication in Mexico and Southwest
History of Wildlife Management
• Bible (Deuteronomy 22:6)
• 1215-1294: Kublai Khan • 1215: Magna Charta
• 1500s: Spanish introduce horses, pigs, sheep, goats, and cattle to New World
History of Wildlife Management
• 1581: Pheasant & partridge protection statute
• 1616: Bermuda protects cahow• 1620: Bermuda protects green turtles
• Many other laws to improve hunting for nobility
History of Wildlife Management
• U.S.– Era of Abundance (1600-1849)– Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)– Era of Protection (1900-1929)– Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– Era of Environmental/Ecological Management
(1966-present)
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Abundance (1600-1849)– Most wildlife very abundant, thought inexhaustible– People starting to have negative affects– Predators and harmful wildlife persecuted– Some local efforts to boost populations
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Abundance (1600-1849)– 1630: 1st predator bounty (wolves in MA)– 1646: 1st closed season (deer in RI)– 1650: Beaver nearly gone in the East– 1677: CT prohibited game exports
– 1700s: most colonies past deer harvest laws, but no enforcement
– Early 1700s: 40+ million bison and 10+ million pronghorn roam the West
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Abundance (1600-1849)– 1708: 1st closed seasons on game birds
(ruffed grouse, turkey, bobwhite quail, and heath hens in some parts of NY)
– 1710: MA prohibits some boat types for hunting waterfowl
– 1718: MA closed deer season for 3 years
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Abundance (1600-1849)– 1739: 1st wardens in MA– 1768: Steller’s sea cow extinct
– 1776: 1st federal game law closing deer season in all colonies except GA
– 1782: Bald Eagle recognized as National Symbol– 1790: Exotic wildlife released (NJ; Hungarian
partridge)
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Abundance (1600-1849)– 1800: Jaguar extinct in U.S.– Early 1800s: Audubon counts a billion passenger
pigeons in a flock
– 1836: Ralph W. Emerson - Nature
– 1842: U.S. Supreme Court decision – oysters• Affirms the “Public Trust Doctrine”
– Natural resources belong to all people in the U.S.
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Abundance (1600-1849)– 1844: Great auk extinct– 1844: New York Sportsman’s Club to protect game
– 1846: 1st law against spring shooting some birds (wood ducks, black ducks, woodcock, and snipe)
– 1849: Dept. of the Interior (USDI or DOI) established
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)– Declines in many game species (e.g., bison)
• Increased human population and settlement• Transcontinental railroad• Market hunting• Sport hunting
– Some conservation initiated
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)– 1850: Eastern elk, bison, and beaver gone– 1850-1860: WI protected prairie chickens;
CA protected elk and pronghorns
– 1850: 1st protection of non-game (screech owls and insectivorous birds in NJ and CT)
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)– 1851-1864: non-game bird protection
established in 12 states
– 1852: 1st salaried game wardens (ME)
– 1854: Henry D. Thoreau - Walden
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)– 1856: 1st wildlife department (MA Commission
of Fisheries and Game)
– 1860: Estimated 60 million bison in U.S.
– 1864: Man & Nature published (G.P. Marsh)
– 1864: 1st state hunting license (NY)
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)– 1864: closed season (spring) on bison, elk,
deer, pronghorn, mountain goat, and sheep
– 1872: Yellowstone Park Act
– 1872: Labrador duck extinct
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)– 1878: 1st game bird bag limit (25 PC’s in Iowa)
– 1880: by this time all states had some game laws
– 1883: American Ornithologists’ Union (AOU) established
– Late 1800s: Sea mink extinct
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)– 1886: Federal Division of Economic
Ornithology & Mammalogy established
– 1886: Audubon Society formed
– 1886: 540 bison remain in U.S.
– 1887: Boone and Crockett Club formed
History of Wildlife Management• Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)
– 1889: 150 wild bison in U.S.
– 1891: Forest Reserve Act
– 1892: Sierra Club formed
– 1895: 1st resident & nonresident hunting licenses in several states
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)– 1896: Division of Biological Survey (BS)
formed
– 1896: Geer v. Connecticut
– 1898: Pinchot named head of USDA Division of Forestry
– 1899: Refuse Act
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Protection (1900-1929)– Many wildlife populations very low– Increase in protection and regulation by
government• Except predators & harmful wildlife
– 1st conservation movement begins– Roosevelt’s Wise Use Doctrine– 1st attempts to look at entire systems
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Protection (1900-1929)– 1900: Lacey Act
– 1902: 1st wildlife managers meeting (wardens) in Yellowstone
– 1903: 1st federal wildlife refuge established
– 1905: Creation of the U.S. Forest Service (USFS)
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Protection (1900-1929)– 1907: the term “conservation” is coined
(prudent use).
– 1911: Seal Treaty– 1911: American Game Protective &
Propagation Association (AGPPA) established
– 1913: Tariff Act of 1913– 1913: Weeks-McLean Migratory Bird Act
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Protection (1900-1929)– 1914: Last passenger pigeon & Carolina
parakeet died
– 1915: Act of Congress to control harmful wildlife
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Protection (1900-1929)– 1916/1918: Migratory Bird Convention & Migratory
Bird Treaty Act (MBTA)
– 1916: creation of the National Park Service
– 1924: Gila Wilderness in the Gila NF becomes the first Wilderness Area
– 1929: Migratory Bird Conservation Act
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– Protection not good enough, needed active
management and conservation• “Wise Use” taking hold
– Increased funding– Enforcement becomes more effective
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1930: American Game Policy (Aldo Leopold et al.)
– 1930: Tariff Act of 1930
– 1931: Animal Damage Control Act
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1933: Heath hen extinct
– 1933: 1st wildlife professor
– 1933: Game Management (Aldo Leopold)
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1934: Darling’s NYC meeting
– 1934: Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act (Duck Stamp Act)
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1934: Division of Game Management created
within Bureau of Biological Survey– 1934: Taylor Grazing Act
– 1935: Wilderness Society formed– 1935: 1st Cooperative Fish & Wildlife Research
Unit formed– 1935: USDA - Soil Conservation Service formed
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1936: 1st National Wildlife Conference (NAWNRC)
– 1936: Mexico joins MBTA
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1937: Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act
(Pittman-Robertson Act)• ~$6.5 Billion to states• ~42,500 animals reintroduced• ~3 million hunter education students• ~173,000 private landowners assisted• ~4.9 million acres acquired or leased
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1937: Ducks Unlimited (DU) formed
– 1937: The Wildlife Society (TWS) organized
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1939: BS moved to USDI
– 1940: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service formed
– 1946: The Wildlife Management Institute (WMI) formed
– 1946: USDI – Bureau of Land Management (BLM) established
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1947: Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, &
Rodenticide Act
– 1948: Federal Water Pollution Control Act– 1949: Leopold – A Sand County Almanac
– 1950: Federal Aid in Fish Restoration Act (Dingell-Johnson Act)
– 1950: The Nature Conservancy (TNC) formed
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1954: Flood Control Act
– 1956: Fish & Wildlife Act
– 1960: Sikes Act– 1960: Multiple Use Act– 1960: Cooperative Research & Training Units Act
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Game Management (1930-1965)– 1961: Wetland Loan Act
– 1962: Rachel Carson – Silent Spring
– 1964: Wilderness Act– 1964: Land & Water Conservation Fund
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– Active management and conservation continue– Increased funding– Non-game, endangered species, community,
ecosystem, and biodiversity conservation– 2nd conservation movement begins
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1966: National Wildlife Refuge System
Administration Act
– 1966: Endangered Species Preservation Act
– 1968: Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1969: National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
– 1969: Endangered Species Conservation Act
– 1970: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1970: Clean Air Act
– 1970: First Earth Day
– 1971: Wild Free-roaming Horses and Burros Act
– 1971: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar)
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1972: Japan joins MBTA
– 1972: National Marine Sanctuary Act
– 1972: Marine Mammal Protection Act
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1972: Clean Water Act– 1972: Coastal Zone Management Act– 1972: DDT banned in U.S.
– 1973: Endangered Species Act (ESA)
– 1974: Forest & Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1973-1975: Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
– 1976: National Land Policy & Management Act– 1976: National Forest Management Act
– 1977: Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1978: Russia joins MBTA
– 1980: Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act
– 1980: Fish & Wildlife Conservation Act (Non-game Act)
– 1981 Lacey Act amended
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1984: Wallup-Breaux Act
– 1985: Food Security Act (The Farm Bill)
– 1986: North American Waterfowl Management Plan
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1987: Montreal Protocol– 1989: NA Wetlands Conservation Act
– 1990: Oil Pollution Act– 1990: Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and
Restoration Act
– 1990-present: several states ban the use of traps
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1992: United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change
– 1993: National Biological Service (NBS) formed
– 1996: NBS becomes Biological Resources Division of USGS
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 1997: Kyoto Protocol
– 1997: “Organic” legislation for National Wildlife Refuge system
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 2002: Hawaiian Islands National Marine Sanctuary– 2006: Northwestern Hawaiian Islands becomes a
national monument
– 2008 Lacey Act amended: plants
– 2010 USFWS bans some constrictor snakes under the Lacey Act
History of Wildlife Management
• Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)– 2010: estimated 30,000 bison in NA
– 2000-?: State Wildlife Grant Program (SWG)• Teaming with Wildlife• Conservation and Reinvestment Act?
Notable Wildlifers
• John J. Audubon (1785-1851)
• George Perkins Marsh (1801-1882)
• Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)
Notable Wildlifers
• Frederick Law Olmsted (1822-1903)
• John Muir (1838-1922)
• George Bird Grinnell (1849-1938)
Notable Wildlifers
• Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919)
• Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946)
• Stephen T. Mather (1867-1946)
Notable Wildlifers
• Jay Norwood “Ding” Darling (1876-1962)
• Aldo Leopold (1887-1948)
Notable Wildlifers
• Paul L. Errington (1902-1962)
• Olaus Murie (1869-1963)
• Rachel Carson (1907-1964)
So what!