The Struggle for Land

The Struggle for Land

Relations with NativesIn the same time period that slavery gained a permanent foothold in North American, both New England & Virginia fought major wars against Native AmericansWhy?Desire for landResult?For both sidesWidespread destruction to the towns Inflicted human casualtiesLeft a legacy of bitterness on both sidesFor coastal tribesDisastrous time of defeat and declineFor colonistsWars contributed to the turbulence of the lat 1600s & early 1700s

King Philips WarBackgroundWhere? New EnglandBackground:Following the Peqout War of 1637 in New England, the Wampanoags and Narragansetts, whose fertile land lay within the boundaries of Plymouth & Rhode Island attempted maintain their distance from the New England colonistsProblem:New Englanders coveted Indian territoriesQuarreled among themselves over provincial boundariesResult:Colonists gradually reduced the Indians land baseBy 1670sNew Englands population: 50,000 & growingYounger Indians began brooding over their situationMetacomet (names King Philip by the English) Son of Massasoit (Wampanoag who had allied himself with first Plymouth settlers in 1620- died in 1660)Brother died in 1661 under mysterious circumstances while Plymouth officials questioned him about a rumored Indian conspiracyKing Philip faced one humiliating challenge after another1671:Plymouth forced Metacomet to surrender large amount of guns & accept a treaty of submission acknowledging Wampanoag subjection to English lawResult: Metacomet convinced that more setbacks would follow and humiliated by the discriminatory treatment of Indians brought before English courtsHe began recruiting for a resistance movement triggering incident- June 1675Trial & execution of 3 Indians by Puritan court for an act of tribal revenge against John Sassamon (Christianized Indian who was found murdered)Root cause of warRising anger of the young Wampanoag malesYounger Native Americans refused to imitate their fathers (compromise their sovereignty) Attempt a pan-Indian offensiveRevitalization of their ancient culture through war

Events of war

Summer of 1675Natives unleashed daring hit & run attacks on villages in PlymouthFall of 1675Many New England tribes (including Narragansetts) joined MetacometTowns all along the frontier reeled under Indian attacksBy NovemberMobile Indian Warriors had laid waster to the entire upper Connecticut River valley March 1676Metacomet forces were attacking less than 20 miles from Boston & Providence Assumptions about English military superiority fadedRESULT:New England officials passed Americans 1st DRAFT LAWSEvasion was widespreadPolitical fraction among New England colonies also hampered a united counteroffensiveSpring 1676Metacomets offensive faltered: food shortages & diseaseMohawks refused to support them b/c want to protect their fur tradeSummer 1676Groups of Indians were surrenderingIndians moved westward seeking shelter among other tribesMetacomet died in battle

Wars End

Several thousand colonists and 2x as many Indians diedImpact on PuritansOf 90 Puritan towns: 52 attacked and 13 destroyed 1,200 homes ruined8,000 cattle diedCost of war: exceeded the value of all personal property in New EnglandFrontier line would not extend past what it was in 1675 until 40 years laterIndians:Indian towns devastated even morePraying IndiansSome converted to Christianity Allied with whitesEntire generation of men annihilatedMany sold into slavery in West Indies

Bacons Rebellion BackgroundWhere? Virginia Why?Struggle between the red and white population AND a civil war within the colony Caused by arrival of Cambridge educated planter- Nathaniel Bacon Impact100s of colonists and Indians died in Virginia & MarylandJamestown (Virginias capital) lay smolderedEnglish troops cross Atlantic b/c King labeled fighting as a rejection of his authority Source of internal turmoil Indian Policy of Virginias royal governor, Sir William Berkley1646: End of the 2nd Indian uprising against the Virginians, the Powhatan tribes had accepted a treaty granting them exclusive rights to territory north of York River, beyond the limits of white settlement Why governor pass policy?Stable Indian relations suited the established planters (they traded profitably with Indians)Problems with policy- seen as obnoxious by: New settlers in 1650s & 1660sIndentured servants who had served their time and were hoping to find cheap frontier land

Important Events

Summer of 1675Violence breaks out overLand hungerDissatisfaction with declining tobacco pricesrising taxeslack of opportunity Frontiersmen used an incident with a local tribe as an excuse to attack the Susquehannocks Gov. Berkley denounced attacks but few supported his position Result: Susquehannocls prepare for warWinter of 1675-1676Indians attack and kill 36 VirginiansSpring 1676Bacon became the frontiersmen leadersJoined by 100s of runaway servants and some slavesLaunch a campaign of indiscriminate warfare on friendly & hostile Indians Berkleys actionsRefuse to sanction attacksBacon ignored his authorityBacon declared a rebel and sent out 300 militiamen to get him Bacon gather more troops

Summer of 1676

Bacons & Berkleys troops maneuver around each other Bacons men continued to attack against IndiansBacon even captured the capital of JamestownRazed the statehouse, church & other buildings Gov. Berkley took flight across the Chesapeake Bay Public opinionVirginians at all levels chafed under Berkleys rule b/cHigh taxesIncrease in govts power at expense of local officialsMonopoly of Indian trade by Berkley and his friendsAttempts to obtain public support Hold new assembly electionsExtend the vote to all freemen (no property requirement) New assembly actionsTurned on BerkleyPassed a set of reform laws intended to make govt more responsive to the common peopleend rapacious office holdingmade enslavement of Native Americans legal

Ending of WarFall of 1676Time was on Berkleys sideBacon crushed the IndiansBacons followers drifted home to tend to their cropsBerkleys reports of rebellion brought the dispatch of 1,100 royal troops from EnglandOctober 1676Bacon had died of diseaseBerkley rounded up 23 rebel leaders & hanged them without civil trialJanuary 1677English troops arriveMost followers melted back into the frontierRoyal investigators: remarked on genocidal mentality of Bacons followers

Impact of rebellion

Hatred of Indians bred into white society became permanent feature of Virginian lifeEmerging planter aristocracy annulled most of the reform laws of 1676Rebellion relieved much of the social tension among white VirginiansNewly available Indian land created fresh opp for small planters & former servantsTurn to new sources for labor needs (Africa)A racial consensus united whites of all ranks in common pursuit of a prosperous, slave based economy

Impact (outside to Virginia)North CarolinaMany of Bacons compatriots took refuge hereThey joined dissident tobacco farmers who were distressed byRecent Indian uprisingsExport duties on tobaccoQuitrents controlled by a mercenary eliteActions:Led by George Durant & John CulpeperDrove the governor from office & briefly seized the reins of powerMarylandProtestant settlers chafed underHigh taxesQuitrents (rent)Officeholders regarded as venal (corrupt), Catholic, or bothDeclining tobacco pricesFear of Indian attacksSummer of 1676Some small planters tried to seize the Maryland govtTwo of the leaders were hanged1681Two former Baconists (Josias Fendall & John Coode) lead another uprisingAttempt to kidnap the Catholic proprietor failed Fendall executed & Coode banishedRole of socialite norms in tensionsDescription of social lifePeculiar Family formation retarded by imbalanced sex ratios and fearsome mortality Geographic mobility was highLittle social cohesion or attachment to community could growMissing in southern coloniesStabilizing power of mature local institutions A vision of a larger purposePresence of experienced and responsive political leaders

An Era of Instability

Following Native wars- series of insurrections: Why?Rebellions in colonies triggered by the Revolution of 1688 (AKA- Glorious Revolution)

MercantilismEnglish assumed- overseas settlements existed to promote National interests at homeAKA: Mercantilist Theory Colonies =Outlets of English manufacturing goodsProvided food stuffs & raw materialsStimulated tradeExported goods (sugar & tobacco)- had dutiesEngland =Provide protection Guarantee markets

Steps to Regulation of Colonies(1) 1621: Kings Council forbade tobacco growers to export their crop anywhere but England(2) 1624: Virginia Company of London became a royal colony1st time Parliament considered regulating colonial affairs(3) 1651: Navigation ActOrder to protect English trade from foreign competition Why? In reaction to the colonies trading freely with the commercially aggressive DutchSuppose to be only temporary Goods imported or exported by the colonies in Africa and Asia must be shipped out or imported only by English vessels and the crew must be 75% British(4) 1660: 2nd Navigation ActsRenewed the 1651 actMore comprehensiveSpecified certain enumerable (numbered) articles which could be exported only to the English or to another English colony in 1660Among these goods were tobacco, rice and indigoAmerican shipbuilding thus prospered and there was a stable protected market for producersWhy? Took aim at Hollands domination of Atlantic commerceIncrease Englands revenue by imposing duties on enumerated articles(5) 1663: 3rd Navigation ActDisallowed importing goods in ships not made and produced by the EnglishContd prohibiting exporting certain goods anywhere except to England

Lack of enforcementWhy the colonists not upset? 1685: James II took throneFormer Duke of YorkBrother of Charles II- he restored the monarchy following the Civil WarWhy was this problem?Devote Catholic & Flaunted CatholicismIssued Declaration of Indulgence: granted liberty of worship to allUnacceptable to Protestants because they believed this was a way to make his appointments of Catholics to high governmental positions acceptable (e.g., command of Navy)Growing divide: Tories (supporters) v. Whigs (opposition)

Jamess Actions1685: The Dominion of New England estdPrepared to go even further to maintain control over coloniesResult: Established unified govt for all New England, New York, & New JerseyAbolish representative assembliesFacilitate the imposition of the Church of England1686- sent Sir Edmond AndrosQuickly alienated New EnglandersEnded trial by juryImposed Taxes without legislative consentAbolished the General Court of Massachusetts (which had met annually since 1630)Muzzled Bostons town meetingChallenged the validity of all land titlesHe mocked the Puritans by converting a Boston Puritan church into an Anglican chapel & holding services there on Christmas Day Rejected their practice of suppressing religious dissent1687: dissolved Parliament1688: Son was born (guarantee a Catholic succession)RESULT: Protestant leaders secretly plot the kings downfallInvite William of Orange (Prince of the Netherlands) & his wife, Mary (older daughter of James) to invade EnglandRESULT: Bloodless Glorious revolution (b/c James abdicated crown)Creation of a constitutional monarchy

Impact on ColonistsNew England1689: Imprison Andros ( a suspected Papist) For 3 years- an interim government ruled Massachusetts while the Bay colonists awaited a new charter and a royal governor 1691- the charter of Massachusetts (including Plymouth) restored but as a royal colony (but not as tightly controlled)Mass & New Hampshire became royal colonies with governors appointed by the kingConnecticut & Rhode Island were allowed to elect their own governors New royal charter in Mass. Eliminated church membership as a voting requirementBut no internal revolution took place however: growing social stratification and the emergence of a political elite led to some disturbing effectsSome citizens challenged the traditional view that those at the top of society were the true guardians of the public interest.They argued that men of modest means but common sense might better be trusted with powerNew York The Glorious Revolution was similarly bloodless at first but far more disruptiveNot necessary to overthrow royal government it simply melted awayLocal militia captain -Jacob Leisler showed up at Fort James & royal Governor Nicholson quietly stepped downestd interim govtRuled with a an elected committee of safety for 13 months until government appointed by King William arrivedReaction of peopleSmall landowners and urban laboring people like Leister Upper class detested him b/c move up from common soldier Dutch people dont like rich either b/c felt they were being pushed out of their landEthnic frictionAnglo- Dutch hostility Leisler shared Dutch hatred toward English eliteActions of LeislerLeisler freed imprisoned debtorsPlanned a town-meeting system of government Replaced merchants with artisans in important official postsFall of 1689Leislerian mobs were attacking the property of some of NYs wealthiest merchants1691- new English governor arrivedAnti-Leislerians embraced him & charged Leisler with treasonLeisler hanged for treason

MarylandRuled by a Catholic proprietor July 1689: Protestant majority seized on word of the Glorious Revolution Proprietorship was abolished Why?Cleanse Maryland of its papish hueReform a corrupt customs serviceCut taxes & feeExtend the rights of the representative assemblyJohn Coode- former Anglican minister- assumed control1692- arrival of 1st Royal governor 1715: Proprietorship restored when Baltimore family became Protestant & Catholics were barred from office

VirginiaStill recovering from Bacons RebellionGovernor (Catholic Lord Howard of Effingham) installed a number of Catholic officials RESULT: made it easy for rumors to spread that a Catholic conspiracy was hatchingWhen news of revolution in England- planters attempted to overthrow the govtUprising quickly faded when the governors council asserted itself & took measures to remove Catholics from positions of authority

Fight for the Control of North America At the end of the seventeenth centuryFollow era of Indian wars & internal upheavalConfront period of international warBetween Holland, Spain , France & EnglandNorth America was less an arena of armed rivalry among the European powers than were the sugar rich islands of the Caribbean

French Expansion 1661: French king, Louis XIV ushered in a new era for New FranceRegarded North America & the Caribbean with renewed interest under leadership of French Governor such as Count Frontenac- New France population grewEconomic strength1670s- Louis Jolliet & Father Jacques Marquette (Jesuit Priest) explored territory watered by Mississippi & Missouri rivers1680s- Rene Robert de La Salle canoed down Mississippi to Gulf of MexicoFrench had better relationship with Natives than EnglishRESULT: Growing conflict with English(1) Commercial Rivalry(2) Religious hostility 1689- Begin European Wars

Fighting with the English English struck 3 times at the centers of French powerPort Royal (access to the St. Lawrence River)Quebec administrative capitalDuring King Williams War (1689-1697) capture Port Royal but returnedfail to gain Quebec Queen Annes War (1701- 1713)Attack Port Royal 3 times capture it in 17101711- fail to capture Quebec again

Use of the NativesEuropean style warfare unsuccessful RESULT: subcontract military tasks to Indian allies (mercenaries)More successful for French- sent their own troops into the fray with IndiansIroquois (English ally) only in 1st war sat out 2nd war

Results of the WarPeace of Utrecht (1713) English- receive Newrfoundland, Acadia (Nova Scotia), St. Kitts & NevisFrench recognize English sovereignty over Hudson Bay territory France maintain control over Cape Breton Island (control entrance to the St. Lawrence River) Spain lost its provinces in Italy, holdings in the NetherlandsEnglish gained business of supplying the Spanish empire in America with African slaves (formerly French controlled)

French Big losers but did not abandon their ambitions in the New World1715: Louis XIV diedThe Regency government of the duke of Orleans tried to regain lost time in America by mounting a huge expedition to settle LouisianaProblem?France had deported many undesirables to the colony French aristocracy destroyed by wild speculation the stock that financed the projectResult? Few French immigrants joined the settlement of New OrleansNew France only expanded in Caribbean By 1750- islands of Hispaniola, Martinique, & Guadeloupe counted 46,000 whites & 250,000 slaves

SpainRetained on paper- a vast empire in North AmericaHowever: its hold was very tenuous on the southern tier of the continentRESULT:Thinly people missions & frontier outposts could be crippled or destroyed by Native Americans or invading English1st half of 1700s: Settlements were stagnatedWhy? suffer from Spains colonial policy that regarded colony asMarginalMoney losing affairsSeen as only defensive outposts Priority:Not to expand its presence in North AmericaPreserve what it had by keeping other away from itIncreasingly became difficult over time

EnglandNew England suffered mostMassachusetts 1/5th of all able-bodies males participated in Canadian campaigns (1/4th died)Numerous war widows- poverty became a problemPrice inflationNew York Lost one of its best grain markets when Spain, allied with France, outlawed American foodstuffs in its West Indian coloniesFrench navy plucked off nearly 30 New York merchant vessels (1/4 of ports fleet) Southern colonies (South of New England)Remained on the sidelines during most of the warLessons of war: Burdens & rewards fell unevenly on the participantsSome men made riches (e.g., William Phips) or increased their wealth (e.g., Andrew Belcher)Most men (especially those who did the fighting) gained little, however, & many lost allMost troops taken from lower-class ranks (indentured servants, new immigrants, unskilled laborers, farmers)Especially harsh in the navy