1I

!j:

Reprinted from: Managed Grasslonds, cd. by A. Breymeyer© Eisevier Scicnce Publishers B.V., Amslerdal11- Printed in The Nelherlands

Chapter 3

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN

PEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FILLAT

INTRODUCTlON

Spain is a very old country, with diversiliedlandscape and rich history. The present features ofits counties and lields 'are the result of a very longevolution, with Ínteractions of climate, animalsand human cultures.

As a normal country of the temperate zone,Spain was largely forested,. mainly with evergreenoaks; also the mountains and the western side werecovered by deciduous oaks, beech, pine and mixedforests. Only at the top ofthe mountains and in theendorheic basins were there natural grasslands.The wild animals and natural lires extended thegrassland into forests and, latel', the farmers andshepherds produced a big expansion of open land.

The Iberian Peninsula is the biggest and themost mountainous region in southwestern Europeand'is eharacterized by a continental c1imate andstrong contrasts from Atlantic to Mediterraneanor sub-desertic environments. Cultural infiuencesfrom the Near East arrived quickly by maritimeroutes and more slowly through North Africa orEurope. Thus, diversilied influences in space andtime are at the origin of the present mosaic ingrasslands, flocks and human uses.

In this paper we intend to introduce the maingrazing systems of Spain now; they are c1assiliedand named by Spanish words taken from names ofplants (zulla), landscapes (boo/al', dehesa, borreguil,majada), types of herds (manchega, segul'eña) orcultural traditions (minifundus, pasiego, borda,Mesta). Of course, geographic or ecological de­scriptions are used in each case.

Basic )nformation is drawn mainly from ourown experience; the specialized literature has beencited and listed synthetically, and for the statistical

37

data we use recompilations: Climatology (InstitutoNacional de Meteorologia, 1983), Agriculture(Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación,1980), History (Vicens Vives, 1954; Ubieto, 1970).

Knowledge of historical development and pre­sent-day diversilication make it possible to predicthow to utilize the existing ecological diversity ofthe country in order to exploit the geographical,phytosociological and cultural possibilities. Spainis mountainous, with many poor soils well adaptedto extensive husbandry.

GENERAL ASPECTS

In a map taken from the work of HernándezPacheco (1932) (Fig.3.1), we have outlined themain features of the ''Three Spains": the siliceousarea on the west, the calcareous lands on the east,and the c1ay areas making up the main river valleysof Spain (Duero, Ebro, Guadalquivir), with thelimestone mountain ranges in the east (the Le­vante), the Cordillera Iberica and the Cantabrian­Pyrenean Mountains. The evaporites' of LaMancha and those of the Duero and Ebro Riversare also shown in the map.

The dotted areas indicate mountains and moun­tain chains over 1000 m above sea-Ievel; on theislands only the Sierra de Mallorca rises above1000 m, while the Sierras of the other islandshardly reach a height of 300 to 400 m.

The complex orography, with an average heightof c. 800 m, gives rise to a great variety of

lEvaporites: Rocks formed by the evaporation of brackishwater.

38 PEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FILLAT

1°0°0°01 EVAPORITES

OYER 1000 M

SI LI CEOUS LAND

CALCAREOUS LAND

CLAYEY LAIID

Fig. 3.L Thc lithology of Spain andBalcaric Isles (based on HcrnándezPachcco, 1932).

environments ",ith valleys and eroded slopes, andto lithosoils in which geological features predomi­nate. The rainfall is moderate, while vegetation issparse, and dense woodland is rareo Soils areinappropriate for sustained agricultural exploita­tion, and advantage can be taken ofrough pasture­land only by a specialized and diversified animalhnsbandry. [See also Aguilar (1961) and Selec­ciones (1962) with maps on these topics.]

General charaeteristies of bioelimate

A description of the bioclimatic conditions ofSpain is based on 30 years' measurements(1931-1960) by the Servicio Meteorológico Na­cional. In the plnviometric map (Fig. 3.2A) it ispossible to see the main ranges of rainfall c1imate;

(a) Very humid in Galicia and the Cordillera

Cantábrica with isolated points in central andsouthern Spain (Sierras de Gredos, Guadarramaand Grazalema, and the Serrania de Ronda).

(b) Humid with dry periods and 800 to 1400 mmof precipitation in mountains of northern andcentral Spain, with isolated areas in the Sierra deGuadalupe, Montes de Toledo, Sierra Aracena,Sierra Madrona, La Sagra, Sierra -Nevada, SierraMariola in Alicante and the Sierra de Montsenyand Guillerias near Barcelona.

(c) Dry clima tes in the Duero and Ebro Valleys,La Alcarria and the valleys ofthe Jalón and Jiloca;the drought is extreme in the southeastern sub­desertic climate of the Almeria Region.

Temperatures are related to altitude and lati­tude. In Fig. 3.2B we have shown the generalmeteorological features with the distribution of theminimum temperatures of a typical anticycIone

THE SYSTEMS üF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN

- .(.,.

[2JO··.-.'::'.

r:cl~

~~".-.;¡~

•

> 2000 mm

] 500-2000 mm

1000-1500 mm

800-1000 mm

600-800 mm

(A)

0400-600 mm

0300-400 mm

0200-300 mm

1:.;:·.:·1 <ZOO mm

39

7

(E)

~ COLD AND DRY WINDS

--- HOT AND TOO DRY WINDS

(_~~~ THERMAL INVERSION

3, -2 MINIMUM TEMPERATU RES IN oC

Fig. 3.2. Pluviometry, lemperaturcs and winds in Spain. A. AllIlUUl prccipitation (Servicio Meteorológico NaciOllal, 1965).B. Winds <'lud tcmpcratures. Minimum tempcratures on 4 Februury 1983 (from Servicio Meteorológico Nacional, 1972 and InstitutoNacional de Meteorología, 1983). Small squares are lhe main tO\VIlS.

40

day' when the areas of important thermal inver­sion are localized in the Duero and Ebro Valleysand in La Mancha. In areas c10se to the ocean(Galicia and Cantabrian coasts), the high atmo­spheric humidity tempers extreme changes oftemperatllre, so the summers are reasonably coal,favouring the growth ofmeadow without necessityof irrigation. In thc northeast, especially aroundGerona, humidity from the Mediterranean Seaacts as a thcrmal regulator preventing extremedesiccation. In the south and the Balearic Islands,summer droughts are more extreme, due to theexcessive 1085 of llloisture caused by.long hours ofstrong sunshine heating the soi!. Andalucia isunder a joint influence of the Atlantic and theMediterranean Sea with a mari time climate in theStrait of Gibraltar, cool and wet except at theheight of summer.

Wind plays an important part in mountainareas, such as the leeward foehn typical ofthe greatmountain ranges. Moist maritime air is drawn upover the crest and mists are frequen!. Thedescending currents of air are hot and dry. Wehave endeavoured to show (Fig. 3.2B) those windsthat are best known and intense in action such asthe aptly-named Tramontana (the Mistral ofAmpurdán) the Cierzo and MeS/l'a/ of the EbroValley and Tarragona, and the Abrego, a hot drywind which blows down from the Meseta towardsthe Cantábrico. The Regañon blows from. Galiciatowards the Duero Valley.

Finally, to give an idea of the seasonal fluctua­tions of rainfall in different parts of Spain we havedrawn a map (Fig. 3.3) showing the predominanceof rainfall in any given season. The typical winterrains of the Atlantic zone do not penetrate very farinland due to the action of the Iberian anticyclone;located in the centre ofthe Peninsula in this season.However, these heavy winter and autumn rains doprevail in some valleys, Iike that of the Guadalqui­vir and especial1y the Tajo.

Moving inland from the Atlantic-CantabrianRegion and because of the altitude it can be seenthat the maximum amount of rain falls in winterand spring ("winter-spring-autumn-summer" onthe map). In the east, the rains are characterized byMediterranerlO infiucnce and the autumn is thetypical season (Balearic Islands, Valencia); in theEbro Valley the spring rains are more important("autumn-spring-winter-summer" on the map).

PEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FILLAT

The dotted areas on the map indicate the c10sedinterior valleys of the Peninsula where Iittle rainfalls, and it is irregularly dispersed tending to fall inthe hotter months as a result of convectionalstorms. In these valleys there is a predominance ofspring rains ("sprin'g-autumn-winter-summer").Only in a few places such as the basins of the Jilocaand Alfambra (Teruel), La Cerdaña, the eastemPirinéos and Cadí, thcrc are frequent summerstorms and this season is the rainiest ("summer­spring-autumn-winter").

The areas which have been left blank are thoscwhel'e c1imate is very changeable, oscillatingbetween the types aIready mentioned.

Logically, the regions with autumn and winterrains are those affected by the above-mentionedmaritime air-masses during the colder months andwhere, therefore, the humidity is acting as athennic regulator. The summers are usually dryand, since vegetation is scarce, this general charac­teristic of Spain has contributed to the traditionalimportance of sheep, which must be moved to theweUer and cooler mountain areas. The autumnand spring rains characteristic of the Mediterra­nean c1imate facilitate the growth of trees such asthe evergreen oak and the pine, especially Pin"sha/epensis. As one moves further inland theweather becomes variable with sudden changes oftemperature, and the vegetation becomes steppe­like, dry, with scrubbier grazings and very roughgrasses.

The c1imatological studies of Spain are numer­ous and we select only some papers like: Filia t(1983) for seasonality of rains, and a simplifica tionby leona and González Rebollar (1974). Maps arebased also on those of the Servicio MeteorológicoNacional (1965, 1972) and the Instituto Nacionalde Meteorologia (1983). Regional studies includethose on Galicia by Diaz Fierros (1971); onCataluña, by Febrer(l930); on Aragón by Lisoand Ascaso (1969); and central Spain by SánchezEgea (1975).

1Priday 4 February 1983, mininlllm temperatures. Highpressure centre of 1043 robar in 43°N, 17°W; anticyclol1c curveson thc Iberian Peninsula.

THE SYSTEMS üF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN 41

FRANCE

~

~

~

~~~

nrr.

aYER 1000 MWINTER-AUTUMN-SPRING-SUMMERWINTER-SPRING-AUTUMN-SUMMERAUTUMN-WINTER-SPRING-SUMMERAUTUMN-SPRING-WINTER-SUMMERSPRING-AUTUMN-WINTER-SUMMERSUMMER-SPRING-AUTUMN-WINTER

Fig. 3.3. Seasonal distribulion of precipitalion. Thc scasons are ordcrcd froro the railliest to Ihe driesL

Dynamies of vegelalion related to soH andtopography

There is a tendeney of plant eommunities lochange until lhe oplimum vegetation for lhe soilconditions establishes itself, Ihat is unlil a climax isreaehed. Where there is a genller lopography anderosion is mínimal, a balance can be reached fOI

given climatic conditions, if this is not prevented bylhe aclion of animals or mano Exploitation byanímals togcther with acute erosion on mountainslopes results in a simplifieation of local planlcommllnities, until autogenic succession balancesthe losses. Every permanent cornmunity is an

expression of this balance.The formation of the soil layer is slow and Ihe

natural plant commllnities tend to preserve it.Compact shoots, 8tolon8 and rhizomes, intcrwcav­ing of roots al the surface and deeper down,prevent Ihe soil being carried away and contribulelo the formation of a glacis. Herbs eovering a soilwhich is basically unslable provide a dynamic andefficient protection.

The main topographieal features of lhe Peninsula(Fig. 3.4A)The Pyrenees were formed by a very fragmenled

42 PEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FILLAT

a

b

AtlanticOcean

a

CordilleraIbérica

~+-~- -r +

"Macizo Hespérico"

Pyrenees

Ebro~Valle~.

\' b

W Spain

e

(A)

Pasture

+ +

"Alcarria" "Síerras"

d

E Spain

Crest ~

-='r:-:¡=

(E)

Fores t

Headows

Glacis

RiverCulture

:. 1 •••• 6" • " •

Fluvial terraces

Pig. 3.4. A. The main lopographical [catmes of Lhe Peninsula. a-b is a cross-section from Portugal to the Pyrenees, c-d is a cross­section fmm Ihe Meseta lo lhe Mediterranean Sea; lhe gcomorphological names in Spanish are puL on lhe drawing. n. Typical slopewilh lopographical sequences.

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN

ancient socIe l and its recent üligocene orogeny isvery rich in lime and flysch.

The great "Macizo Hespérico"2 of Caledonian­Hercynian orogeny presents an overall homogene­ity except at the extreme edges where Meso­Cenozoic mountains are found (Montes Cantábri­cos, Montes Ibéricos, Sierras Béticas). It is a horstlimited by a system of faults to the northeast (theEbro Basin) and south (the Guadalquivir Basin).

Duúng the Miocene, the Pliocene and at thepresent time, evaporites have been laid down in theEbro Valley (dry with strong W-NW winds), inCastilla and La Mancha. The endorheic basinswere of less importance in the Guadalquivir Basinbut they are still to be found in the great mountainranges of the southeas!. The tilting of the Meseta,combined with partial subsidence on the Atlanticside (Rías gallegas), drained Castilla and LaMancha, reducing endorheism but re-activatingerosion along the Iberian edge, with the conse­quent renewal of soHs and the expansion ofgypsophilic communities.

TopographieaI mieroelimatesOn mountain slopes microclimate varies accord­

ing to the degree of exposure to sunshine and thetype of prevailing winds. They can be ascendingwinds, with the formation of mist or descendingfoehn winds. When there is a channelling of wind(Venturi elfect) it causes drought in certainlocalized spots (this is often caused by descendingwinds). Each type of microclimate favours adilferent kind of plant growth, and as a result theflora of the Iberian Peninsula is very rich. Beeauseof the mountain-valley sequenees already men­tioned, drought conditions can be found even inenvironments with a wet oceanic type of c1imatc.This is a source of diversity, with prcservation afvery particular plants, and also eausing greatspeeialization in pasture management (see alsoMontserrat, 1980, 1981, 1983).

Thc dynamies of waterAs mentioned aboye, the prcsence of water

¡nfluenees temperature due to its high specifie andlatent hea!. Water also causes erosion throughfreezing-thawing, imbibing-drying out· and run­olf. On the other hand, in its role as transportagent, it eontributes to fertilization and facilita tesplant reeuperation. The topography, frequency of

43

mists, water-vapour condensation under ground,etc., all inOuence the dynamism of pasture-Iands,as do both erosion and rapid soi] reeovery.

Erosion is a process which liberates soil-enrich­ing nutrients, the loss of which is prevented by soilbacteúa aud the iutense root activity of certainplants. This activity is greatest in luxuriant arcasbordeúng forest, in meadows, and espeeially wherethere is a productive grassland. Watercourses havebeen changed to irrigate pasture-Iand, fodder eropsare grown where they are appropriate to thesurrounding environment, with an eye to choosingspecies that resist unpredictable periods of dryness,and the herds are moved to places where thetopographical microclimate is optimal. Plants,animals and human activities are a refiexion ofclimate,

Watercourses and associated phenomena(Fig. 3.4B)Topographieal sequences on slopes are linked

mainly to geophysical characteústics like rockhardness, 01' to protection of the soil by plantsagainst erosiono Deeper soils are found mainly onfluvial terraees and glacis, but also on slopes,cl/estas, protected by hard rocks (polycyc1ic relief)as in our scheme, obviously favouring accumu­lation of soil, and the establishment of grasses andtrees, and causing great diversity in a restrictedspace.

The rclationship between the animals and en­vironment is reciprocal; fOI example, mountaintops are fertilized by animals in their search forcool windy areas where they will not be plagued byflies. Although high mOllntain erests are oftenlInproductive and stony, they are nevertheless asouree of the water needed for lower mountainpastnres.

The deve!opment of the vegetation, transhu­manee of animals and human activities have beenshaped by the variation of these environments,forming repetitive patterns which can be studied.Since snch diversity exists in Spanish valleys itmight be helpful to study some examples which willenable us to nnderstand the general trends of

lThc Axial Pyrenecs formed during Hercynian orogeny.

2The olclest part of the Ibccian Peninsula.

44

animal husbandry in the past and also its futurepossibilities.

Soil evolution in different habitatsIt seems necessary to consider not only the

climatic and topographical frames within whichsoil develops but also the type of rock which formsthe parent materia!.

In siliceous zones of Spain, and also in a part ofPortugal, the so-calIed "Escudo Hespérico" withPalaeozoic mountains is formed mainly of siliceousrocks (Galicia, Montes de León, Sierras de Gredosand Guadarrama, Oretana 01' Montes de Toledo,and Sierra Morena), and this is most evident on theCambrian slates 01' in the granitic regions. Moun­tain crests where quartz is present in quantity haveresisted erosion, but the soil is very pOOl". TheSpanish oak (QlIerclIs pyrenaica) in these areaseffectively mobilizes and retaios mineral cationswhich would otherwise be lost to the pastureland,and thus helps to form the grazed bardal, a verytypical kind of Spanish westem grasslands.

Hard limestone rocks, which form cliffs andstony mountain crests, provide a suitable base forthe deep-rooted legumes so sought by sheep.Mixed woods evolve at the base of these cliffs.They are rich in a variety of species and readilylend themselves to pastoral exploitation. Thefrequency of alternating areas of marl, sandstoneand conglomerates favours diversity of soH typesand the different kind of pastures which may befound in valleys dedicated to grazing.

Finally, the geological deposition of evaporitesin the wide valleys of Aragón, La Rioja and LaMancha has helped to preserve a very speeializedfiora, adapted to the presence of both gypsum andsalt. The large quantity of gypsum prevents theformation of black alkali (sodium carbonate),which has had such a devastating effect on similarenvironments in other countries.

Diversiflcation of pasture-landTaking a broad view of the dynamics of (he

natural vegetation and its development, especiallythat which has been subjected to erosion, recoveryand diversificatiol1, the extreme importance of suchdiversification can readily be understood.

By observing the behaviour of gregarious ani­mals man leamt how best to make use of thesediversities. Gregarious ethology, and knowledge of

PEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FtLLAT

the traditional methods of the past, both contrib­uted to the development of grazing land and alsoto the integration of the farmer with his surround­¡ngs. For this reason it is necessary to describe theinterplay between the animals and their habita t,whether in terms of plants and animals found there01' geophysical conditions. Any given breed is theconsequence of ¡ts evolution in a specific envirOll­ment. The group adapts by a process of selectionand the resulting genetical evolution. This means,within any given mountain habitat, that it ispossible to preserve those breeds that are not onlywell adapted but can be maintained at a minimumcosto

An historieal perspeetive of animal husbandry inSpain (Fig. 3.5)

The shepherd of the Neolithic revolution(Moore, 1981) leamt fram the wild fiocks. Nomad­ism and also fiock movements in the moming,resting at noon and sheepfolding, have evolvedfrom the behaviour of wild animals. Similarly,gregariousness and graup life pass directly framanimals to meno

We present by maps (Fig. 3.5) the culturalinftuences in Spain from Neolithic times to theMiddle Ages. Megalithism and "Campaniforme"culture carne fram Egypt to the Balearic Islandsand southem Spain. In Fig. 3.5A we show a rangeof these infiuences fram 4000 years ago. Megalith­¡sro was very rare in central Spain.

From 2000 RC until the beginning ofRomaninftuence (200 B.C.) there was a continuous fiow ofinftuences from the Near East (Phoenicians,Greeks) to eastem and southem Spain (Fig. 3.5B)and also fram the northwest of Africa (Argarculture). Before the Romans carne to Spain(900-650 RC.), the Celts infiuenced Spain, mainlyin the northwest. In our map we outline approxi­mately the zones of infiuence and their limits.

Romanization was ¡ntense in eastern Spain andAndalucía (Fig. 3.5C), developing the agricnlturaltechniques founded in the villa organization of theconntry (this is found typicalIy in the mas of thenortheast and the cortijo in southem Spain).Roman penetration to the west of the Peninsula(Evora and Mérida) was slow and only veryscattered, limited to mines or thermal waters incentral Ol' nol'thern Spain. Wine and cereals wcrc

THE SYSTEMS üF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT INSPAIN 45

)\-THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUJION E- THE CONQUEST OF ISLAM

zones

,<ipaníshMarch

The end ofIiReconquista" (1492)

716-719

F- THE CHRISTIAN KJNGDOMS

AT THE END OF MIDDLE AGES

~::-

------.,__ -----= . ~- ~-/---::-l~,~c:...:::.

~Desertic

<'>

4!

._--- -- ==------~

IN SPAIN

q,

""'"&-i.:J- --(j' • " ....... .........

-,

....... ,;":~r, -'J!j[",.;;)',~, "'"~q,

OS; 122 Be

.:::.:: :.. ':'::.

Southernborde r oí

____~~_t~

Fig. 3.5. Historical events. A and B: Thc litllc dats aud black squares are hislorical towns. Thc dates explain the exp,msion of evcryevent (from Vicens Vives, 1954, 1974 and Ubieto, 1970).

46

the main products of Roman villa development,and rcaring animals in the north was infiuenccd bythe Celts.

This old division of Spain into Celtic andMediterranean infiuences has persisted till now.Many cultural features are linked to this historicalfacl. Byzantium (Fig. 3.5D) was also important,intlueneing mainly the Balearic Islands and thesontheast of the Peninsula; the Visigoths infiu­eneed aH Spain and the fieree tribes of the Asturianand Cantabrian Mountains remained isolatcd inthe uorth.

Islam came to Spain in 714 A.D. but some partsin the north [the Spanish March (Catalonia),Navarra and the Asturias] (Fig.3.5E) remainedoutside this influence. Islamic infiuence was intensein southern and central Spain (Córdoba andToledo) but minimal in the wes!, north andnortheast of the conntry.

For centuries the Christian frontier was stabil­ized at the rivers Duero (León-Castilla) and Ebro(Aragón-Cataluña). In Fig. 3.5E a large part ofCastilla, from Duero to Sierra de Guadarrama,was devastated by incursions from the CórdobaEmirate 01' by Christians. Open grazed landswithout any trees and with many castles werecharacteristic of this time, and this history isessential to the understanding of grassland andhusbandry evolution in Spain. The muslims ofGranada (Figs. 3.5E and 3.5F) stayed till 1492 insouthern Spain, and this enables one to understandsorne moriscos infiuences in villages and farming.

In more recent times, from the 16th century, theSpanish kingdoms were united by a very diversifiedadministralion persisting till the centralized systemof the Bourbons (rise to power of this royal familyin 1700). The powerful herdsmen's organizationsin Aragón and León-Castilla infiuenced farmmanagement and grassland composition.

Communal exploitation is typical of the conntryunder Celtic infinence in northwestern Spain(Navarra, Vizcaya, Castilla and Asturias), andfamily holdings (villa, mas, pardina and cortijo)which have persisted in eastern and southern Spainfrom Mediterranean-Roman influence. Medievalinfiuence caused only superficial changes in herds,grassland and meno More striking changes andpolitical infiuence carne from the modern (16th to18th century) organizations ofherdsmen in Castil­la-León (Mesta) and Aragón (Mesta de Albarrac-

PEDRO MONTSERRAT .nd FEDERICO FILLAT

in and Casa de Ganaderos de Zaragoza).Recent centralism (Napoleonic administration)

destroyed in part the communal organizations.Intelligent mcn were migrating to the town, andonly old people remained in the mountains. It isnecessary to change this mentality because the citymen coming back to the country are not able tomake a success of shepherding.

Traditional breeds of farm animals in Spain

The maps in Fig. 3.6 show the geographicaldistribution of dilTerent types of farm animals.Figure 3.6A shows the four main groups of sheepbreeds as c1assified by Sánchez Belda and SánchezTrujillano (1979): I-Merino, 2-Churra, 3-Ibéricaand 4-Entrefina.

The Merino group carne originaHy from ancientTarsus; they are gregarious, and well adapted tothe conditions of southwestern Iberia and totranshumance from the summer grazing area to thewinter one. The Churro stock is native to the northof Spain with a coat of rough and long wool; thesesheep move about less than the Merino. TheIberian group is well suited to mountain ranges,and the three arcas where they still remain areshown. Lastly the Entrefina breeds are selectednow in arder to increase lamb production.

Figure 3.6B shows the distribution of the pigpopulation, which is divided into two main groups:the Ibérico, adapted to roaming free on mountainsand in marginal regions; and the Celta, used inintensive pig farming.

With reference to the equine population(Fig. 3.6C) we have singled out the pony found innorthern mountains, and the Andaluz horse. Thedonkey comes from northerly regions (Zamoraand Cataluña) and has been used in crossing toproduce lhe much appreciated mule.

The distribution of catlle (see Fig. 3.6D) has itsroots in prehistoric time (Sánchez Belda, 1976).The peripheral zanes where Red and Blondanimals are found coincide with areas wheremegalithic cultures existed. The Iberian Black,found in the interior of Spain, is concentrated inthe wooded grassland and mountains. Otherbreeds are found in specific localities like theCantabrian coast or sorne parts of the IberianMountains. Thc White of Cáceres (Blanca cacere­ña) has practically disappeared.

...,:t"''"~~'"o."

Cl¡:;'"'"r>­Zo¡,:>-

~¡,:

"'~Z

~Z

RED AND BLDNDt:::::Eí RETINTA~MURCIANA

c:::::;:::::::lMARINERAc::;::J PIRENAICAEIJ]PASIEGAc:::=JASTURIANA DE

LOS VALLES§ CAMPURRIANA

q~GALLEGA

BLACK

~ SAYAGUESAm:rrm MORUCHA~AVILEÑA

2- CELTA

i§ CELTA~ CHATO VI­~TORIANO

~BAZTANEZ3 LERMEÑOITIIJIl VICH

oo

orU"ERs

<7e

d

qCD

1- IBERreo

CSl IBERreoo MURCIANO~BALEAR

~TUDANCA

~CASINAITJIIII] MANTEQUERA LEONESA~CAMERANA

~PINARIEGA

[!±]BLANCA CACERE~A

B- SWINE

""'#~W~/

"

,. .

'--=;~~

---'=,"

0"0-o~ nDNKEYS

~ ANDALUZ ~ANDALUZPONY GALAICD- " " ZAMDRJ\.-

~ ASTUR m::::B NO-LEONES

ITlIIIlJl PON'! VASCO- CIDVICHNAVARRO

DONKEYS

~"'?J~ 1> []]TXISQUETtU 3-IBERICA EaZi0JALADA

[gMONTEsn~

Q:L2] RASA mSEGUREf:I~ RIPDLLESA BGUIRRA

4-ENTREFINA mJ CASTELLANA~ ALCARRE~A

~ l1I\NCHEGA

A - SHEEP

Fig. 3.6. Geographical distribution of farm animals. A. Breeds of sheep (from Sánchez Belda and Sanchez Trujillano. 1979). B. Swine breeds (from de Juana and Zuzuarregui,1966). C. Horses and donkeys (from Saraza Ortiz et aL 1975). D. Cattle (from Sánchez Belda. 1976 and Saraza. 1975).

:':;

48

Information on the distribution of traditionalherds in Spain can be found in general books, forinstance, Sarazá et al. (1975) 01' in regionalmonographs: Rodríguez (1955); Echevarria Belzu­negui (1975); Francia (1978); de Miguel (1978);Sánchez (1978).

THE MAIN GRAZING SYSTEMS IN SPAIN AT THE

PRESENT TIME

Inlroduelion

The maps in Fig.3.7 summarize the uses ofagricultural and forested land. They are based onthe most recent statistics supplied by the Ministeriode Agricultura (1980). Our main aim has been toshow, quantitatively, the relationship of differentprovinces to ane another.

The relative importance of different types ofland usage is summarized in the central diagram,that is, agricultural, forested, meadow and pasture­land and other miscellaneous uses. More than 70%of the land is taken up by cultivation and forestry.

The great plains of the Duero, the Tajo, LaMancha, La Campiña in Andalucía and a big partof the southeast (Murcia-Alicante) have beenploughed for centuries. Permanent grasslands arefound in the northern region 01" in mountains, andalso in lhe lVestern region (Salamanca-Extrema­dura and western Andalucía) IVhere the dehesaorganization of pasture-Iand is typical. Extensivereforestation has taken place in Galicia, theBasque country, and the provinces of Barcelona,Gerona and Huelva.

Figure 3.8 sholVs further details of land use withspecia! reference to grazing land. In the north andlVest the distribution of grassland is dependent onhumidity and edaphic factors and it is generallyprivately owned, while the rough pastures arecommunal. In areas such as the dehesa (a type ofnatural evergreen oak [orest, managed underextensive farming), the timber production is unim­portan!. Lastly (Fig. 3.80) there is the southeast­ern region with "Esparto" (Stipa tenacissima)rough grassland.

To complete the picture, lVe have also shown(Fig.3.9) the areas IVhere trees are cuitivated fortheir fruit (olives, almonds, etc.) and the dehesarcgion.

PEDRO MONTSERRAT "nd FEDERICO FlLLAT

Sorne types of grazing syslems

Figure 3.10 sholVs sixteen different types ofpasture-Iand found in Spain and the main routes oftranshumance traditionally followed by flocks toreach areas of winter grazing.

European-Atlanlic sector

Canlabrian meadows. General characlerislics(Montes Cantábricos and Galicia Regions, No. la,lb and Ic in Fig. 3.\0). In a wet climate it is easy tomaintain the meadows in good condition byperiodic cutting. Maritime air and also frequentmists provide the necessary humidity to pasturessurroundcd by 1V00dland. Grazed lands are foundin the more rocky rugged slopes (brañas in theCantabrian Mountains) and meadows in moreaccessible regions for cutting and storing (hay orsilage). The grass lVas fonnerly scythed up to aslope of 30-40°, although nOlVadays, because mostof this grassland has been abandoned, bracken andna tural woods have replaced meadolVs while thelVarmer, lower slopes have been reafforested withpine (Pinus radiata) or ElIcalyptus.

Near the more densely populated coastal re­gions, IVhere there are scattered factories, one findsthe so-called prado-jardín or grasslands dedicatedto dairy cattIe. This dual activity (industry andcattle) is typical of Cantabria, Asturias andGalicia, with well-managed meadows interspersedwith small allotments. Most of these grasslands aredominated by Fes/uca arulldinacea, a spontaneousgrass standing up well to frequent cutting, andcharacteristic of good soils near the Cantabriancoast (Sociedad Nestlé, 1980).

Further inland, winter production decreascstogether with cutting frequency. Away from thevillages there are stabIes near the cut grass and theproduction is stored as hay for feeding to stock in\Vio ter; generally, pastures are more importantthan in the coastal region. There are plantcommunities of Arrhenalflefion e1a¡;oris or Cynosu­rion (Tiixen and Oberdorfer, 1958) and Nardetalioin the wetter depressions. The practice of burningwinter grassland has given rise to communities ofheathlands (mainly Ulex europeus or U. gallii).Erica l'agan~ abounds in dry limestone mountainregions, as against E. cinerea and Calfuna vulgaris\Vhere the substrate is siliceous. The big Edca

...,:t

'"~ms:'"O."

O

'",.'"'"s:zOs:~Oms:~51~51

<J<;J,

m>25

i?"

o<;J,

i?~

, 00>25eGRASSLAND ANO ~ 15-25ROUGH GRAZINGS E1D-15

(%) 0<15

~

B FORESTEDLAND (%)

TOTAL

,

A

~~

.~,

<?~

Q~

A

1!!Il!!II> 60

rz:z¡ 50-60 FORESTED B§ 30-50 LAND (%)=20-30 --c:::::J <: 20

e Ga¿~;I~~~NGS (:"\~:~;:--:':--I

CULTIVATEDLAND (%)

1iI§¡¡IlI>60~ 50-60§ 30-50[[[]] 20- 300<20

Fig. 3.7. Usage ofland in Spain. Fonr main statistical categories (from Ministerio de Agricultura. 1980).

<\;

Pig. 3.8. Usage ofland. Sorne subdivisions. A and B are two subclasses ofFig. 3.7C. e The "over 75%" category represents the dehesa zone; the figures are for the proportion offorest land (Fig. 3.7B) Dot producing timber. D. Grazed agriculturalland; the Erial a pastos class is typical ofthe driest part ofSpain (% afthe "Others" category in Fig. 3.7D).

~

•,Po."

'"tJ'"~8."

~:¡

~~¡::

~'"~

~liil!!!I >75~ 50-75

e:@?~

~e;¡o

Q~

!ii28l > 75EZ!!J 50-758 25- 50rrm <25

FORESTED, NO!e PRODUCUilG TIMBER(% o f total forested)

I .

Il 'l:in'ill~~ml('-""I I '--l :"-'·.... ···.:....:....-.:;:i.:::~ .....J#,0.. - ",'!.Ih~,-:I. '"_r_ ~_~ %." "''''

II

<;;CCJb

oc:j

(;;

4'/QData still being collected

ilIIIIIIIl>75~50-75825-50rrm 15-25CJ<15

1W1! >75~50-75

825-50ITOJ15-25c::=l < 15

~"""-'",.' -"'" .-, , I " , ----,.. "

--.=:

///~/~i/" r':

"./

';"'~',: ... ,.. .,... ~.,>

A GRASSLAND(%)

THE SYSTEMS üF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN

Fig. 3.9. Usage of land in Spain. Summary.

arborea is typical of good woodlands with deepsoils, sometimes associated with Gel/ista florida.Bracken (Pteridiwl1 aqllilil/llm) quickly colonizesderelict grasslands in the hills, but occurs only onthe southern slopes of the highest mountains;everywhere the prevalence of bracken is reduced byheavy cattle grazing 01' early cutting in spring.

The Galician minifllndlls (la in Fig. 3.10). Evennowadays the poplIlation of Galicia is widelydispersed (there are here 32700 hamlets, a similarnumber to the total of aH vilIages in the rest ofSpain) covering an area where the resources forcultivatiou are few (less than20% oftotal surface).This means that the farms are smalI (5.5 haaverage) consisting of a great number of plots(average 22) at sorne distance one from other(10-15 km) (Otero Díaz, 1977). Given these cir-

51

&>'"CULTIVATED J,AND (over 50 %)

FDRESTED LAND (aver 50 %)

GRASSLAND ANDROUGH GRAZINGS (over 15 %)

DEHESA ZONE

[MJ OLIVE-TREESv (over 5 % of cultivated land)

C-:J OTHER

cumstances it is not surpnsmg to find thal theGalician farmer is very attached to his smalI­holding, espeeialIy as the whole family is usualIyinvolved in its management. In spite of this, theIand has been abandoned in certain mountainregions and is now overgrown with scrub (utexellropells) and heather (Erica species 01' Cal/lino),which may cover up to 34% of the nominalIyforested areas.

It is thought, historicalIy, that the practice ofsplitting up land into plots originated with theSuevi (Sánchez, 1978), when Ihey divided up theland. During the Reconqllista (9th, 10th and Illhcenturies) stock-farming in Galicia was under thecontrol of the feudal lords and the monasticorders. The autochthonous eattle breed (/'libiagallega) increased after the po tato and maize wereintrodueed from America (afiel' 1541 when Perú

Over 1000 m

lI'ays of traditional "transhurnance"(from summer to winter pastures)

@'

r\

Fig. 3.10. The main grazing systems in Spain at presento

""+ ....

"....-'t-

o""

----

"

4@o

l. European-Atlantic sector

La -The Galician minifuncluslb -Mou:l.tain grasslandle -The "pasiego" type

2. The pyrenean sector

28 -SubcarLtabrian part of Burgos-K1.v¿Jn:a2b -Ar<.lgón2c -The t-:orth-East s<::.ctot' of Cataln¡;a

3. T~e Central Mountains of Spctin

3a -'rIle Cameros3b -lhgll mountains of Terud3c -Carpetana mountains

4. The M.esta type in León-Castilla

5. The "Manchego" system of husbandry

6. The "Sequ~efi.a" type

7. Tbe "Dehesa" type' in the west

8. The high P.lountains of southern Spain

9. The hUrnid grassland in southern 5paín

10. The Balearic Isles

~

'"

;;:el

5¡::

~'"'";O'";:¡•il..."

~elelO.."t=~

-

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN 53

was finally conquered), thus enriching lhe tradi­tional range of foodstuffs, such as rye, turnips,linseed, acorns and chestnuts.

Al lhe end of the 18th century, as lhe result ofSpain's ties wüh lhe United Kingdom and lhegrowth in demand from urban centres of induslri­alized England, a new market for lhe exporl ofmeat was crealed. This broughl about the speciali­zation of the rubia gallega as beef cattle, whichlater found a new markel in the induslrial cenlresof Spain (Rodríguez el al., 1979).

Generally speaking, Friesian cows are found onthe richer grazing land of lhe Atlantic coastal areaswhile lhe rubia gallega breed has spread furtherinland. Two importanl varieties of this breed havegradually evolved, lhe dairy cattle of lhe valleysand lhe mounlain beef-cattle. Nowadays, in spiteof lhe small scale of farming in Galicia (96% offarms support less than 6 cows) and difficultieswüh feeding because of the intricate syslem of verysmall plots, Galicia produces something more lhan23% of the calves raised in Spain. These are laterfattened in arcas situated closer lo lhe mainmarketing cenlres.

Mountain grassland (1 b in Fig. 3.10). The Canta­brian Mountains act as a filter for the moisl sea airwith frequent mists on lhe norlh-facing slopes andto lhe northwest. On lhe leeward side, thecombination of drier descending currents of airand a southerly orientation is associated wilh achange in the lype of pastures and woodland foundlhere. Meadow-Iands are restricted here lo thedeeper soils in the valley bottoms or irrigatedgentle slopes. Looking at the map one canappreciale lhe imporlance of lhese mountains andtheir role as a screen against moisture-carryingwinds.

The walershed is complicated especially roundthe Picos de Europa which form a gianl barrier. Inlhe southern part of the mountains the drylimeslone supports good pastures which, logetherwilh eroded slopes on slate rock making ploughingdifficult, have facilitated the development of thenomadic movements of sheep flocks (trashuman­cia). The basic major routes are shown in Fig. 3.10;they are called lhe "Zamorano-leonesa" and the"Segoviana" ane.

Figure 3.11 shows a lransection from Cabuér-

SUl'NER PASIURE

~

®

©

B

Bihcena

//

//

//

./

././

./

/,/," , ,, ,, , , , ,

" , ,"

................ ----....

Cantabrian Sea

>O" m150() "~1.~: o.,

A

~"WN'

¡ ~ "INVERNALf,S"

"- ''''VILLI,GE '"

Fig. 3.11. MOUlllaill grasslands in Cantabda province (from Montserrat and Fillat, 1978).

54

niga (Valle de Cabuérniga), on the norlh side of theCantabrian Mountains, to the river Ebro nearReinosa (Bárcena). This is lypical of many moun­lains of northern Spain, with humid cloudy slopeschanging to lhe sunny climale of lhe Ebro Valley.

The gentle slopes nol very far from the MarCantábrico are cultivaled, and very good meadowsare dominanl, grazed or heavily cul near lhehouses. Hedges are common with relics of climaxoak (Quereus roblll'J and ash (Fraxinus exeelsior).The doudy slopes (ascending mari time winds)have dense forests of beech (Fagus sy/vatiea),meadows, grazed pastures, and bracken (Pter¡diul1laquifil1um) in sorne cases. The cross-section e is amore detailed representation of lhis part.

As one moves lowards the 1000 m conlourgrazing becomes more intensive and beech dis­appears, givillg way lo holly (l/ex aquifoliul1l),hawthorns (erataegus l1lonogyna) and gorse (UlexgalliO with healh (Edea vagans). This is lhe Montetojo, lhe home ground of very wild cattle, lheTudanea breed. Fires and grazing acting lhroughcenluries have impoverished lhe highest parts ofthe cornmunal pastures.

The maritime winds, with frequent rain, passacross lhe mOllnlains and drop down towards lheriver Ebro, so lhal fine weather is dominanlthrollghoUl lhe year in this part. The dry air wilhsunny soulh-facing slopes, means dry-pasturedominantes logether wilh lhe characleristic pior­na/es (Genista oblusiramea and Cytisus pllJ'gans), a"retamoid" type of shmbs very lypical of Spain. Inthe upper Ebro Valley very deep soils are found inthe bottom of the glacis on gentle slopes; only nearthe top part is lhe piorna/ dominanl, logether withhard grasses like Festuea indigesta and Agrostisdelicatu/a. Shrubs like Eriea G/'borea and Genistaflorida are found in hedges on the besl soils, bulnear lhe villages ashes and oaks also help lo crealea very lypicallandscape (see Fig. 3.lIB).

The climax fores! of this region is fonned ofQuerells (Q. pyrenaica, Q.faginea), and grasslandsare good because lhc soil is deep and rich inlimestone; but it is dry in summer, and irriga tian i8essential in order lo have good meadows. TheTlIdanea breed is well adapted to (hese grasslandsbut now it i8 necessary to change it8 utilization fromoxen for throughing and ploughing lo meal produc­tion by erossing (heterosis) with olher breeds (seealso FilIal and Montserrat, 1978; López, 1978).

PEDRO MONTSERRAT ,ud FEDERICO FILLAT

The Pasiego in lhe mountains of Burgos-Canlabria(lc in Fig.3.1O and Fig.3.12). While moreextensive grazing systems are dominant in thewest-northwest of Reinosa, intensive systems pro­ducing milk from grass are found in the norlheasl­cm mountains. The pasiego people have manyspecial cullural characteristics sludied by de Terán(1947), Madariaga (1970), Tax de Freeman (1970),Ortega Valcarcel (1974, 1975) and Leal (1976).

Figure 3.12B is a detailed map showing thescattered "habita!" of the lhree municipalitieswhich make up lhe pasiego region of the Canta­bria. The farm buildings (cabañas) are located inplaces where grass is mosl easily grown. Eaehfamily owns several houses in differenl places,living firsl in one and then another depending onlhe needs of their cattle and lhe condition of lhepaslures in any given area (these moves can takeplace as often as once a week). The hay is harvesledin summer and lhen stored, together with lucernewhich is purchased. The farmer of this region hasperfected the melhod of converting healhland orareas of bracken into meadows. The land to beused as meadow is covered with a certain quantityof manure enough lo buffer lhe pH and ensure arapid enrichment of the soi!. Each year a little moremeadow can lhus be rec1aimed depending on theneed of lhe cattle owned by each family.

In Machorras (a Iittle village in the north ofBurgos Province), lhe meadows closed by walls ofstone and their concomitant farmhouses arecharacleristic of the area, whieh exlends from analtitude of 800 to 1300~ 1400 m. Here, the grazingsare periodically burnl olf, and are domina ted byUlex gallii and Eriea vagans. The latter are grazedby horses and donkeys, cows and sheep (lheChurro breed). The farmers bum lhe roughpasture in February-March while lhe ground isstill frozen and winds are nol likely to be strong.The origin of the pasiego system reaehes a long wayback and is historically interesting.

Future perspeetives. Within a relatively small areaof lhe greal mountains and the ,associated valleysthere is a gamut of habitats, dlfferenl vegetalioncommunities, different typcs of woods, meadowsand pasture-Iand with lhe accompanying variationof animal breeds. Associated with the animalswhich have adapled to lheir particular environ­menl, human groups have grown up with a

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN 55

<,,"

• <

"oo'

/San ROlJ.uede Riomi era

•

•

Provinciade Burgos

• e.,\

. '"•

""\ -., .",

~,. - , \ .I ••• \ I

",.. ..'\ Vega de Pas __ .1

\:.... '"$~_:~__~-'_~~¡; l', e."- . .A Pas. • .... •

(. .I ~ ••,. .\., e.e •

" ..1" ..! t. ..-1\. : :1"._.. ••\ ... • 'Cl,... San Pedro del Romeral'\. .-:~. . /'-l. • • •••••\. . .. .\" : .... ..

" •• ".. ~ ....t-

- .. _e.. ,.' '~-i-""~'"

\"PASIEGOS"

SANTANDER

(A)

(B)

Fig. 3.12. The pas;ego peapie in the l110untains of Burgos-Cantabria. A. Tur/(mcos region with rough grazings described in the texto B.The scaltered habitat lype of the pasiego peoplc in Canlabria province. Evcry do! is a hOllSC, making thrcc municipalities named in thisfigure.

specialized knowledge of animal husbandry. If onetakes into consideration the great natural diversity,which is nevertheless unified by a long commonevolution, one can sec that there are manypossibilities for improved organization in theforeseeable future.

To the south of Campoó, in the province ofPalencia, lhe land opens out to form the greatplains of Tierra de Campos. The transition isgradual, and near the Cantabrian Mountains wefind habitats where aH types of meadows andforage erops can be cultivated, the most importantbeing lucerne. This latter is grown either wilh orwithout the help of irrigation. This is an area wherethe old cattle markets and fairs were held; herenowadays there are experiments in the crossing ofdifferent breeds to produce hybrids showing heter­osis. It is also an area where sheep densityincreases, the Churra breed being mainly utilizedfor the production of milk. There has been anincrease in both cattle and sheep production in thiszone. Cow husbandry has created areas of shortpasture which, in turn, the sheep resident here

graze with facility. Since this expansion hasdeveloped to different stages in dilTerent places, it isnow possible to stlldy directly the progress whichhas been made.

The Pyrenean sector

Grazed forests in lhe subeantabrian part of Burgos­Navarra (2a in Fig. 3.10). This is a mountainouspart of Spain drained by lhe Ebro VaHey. Theclimate is fI transition from the humid Cantabrianto the continental Mediterranean type. Erosionbecomes strong on these steep slopes, and accord­ingly the traditional agriculture evolved by usingonly restricted ploughing and by saving naturalforest subject to limited grazing.

The dominant trees are semideciduous oaks(Qllerclls faginea ssp. /la\'arrana, Q. pubescens, andQ. pyrenaica) and Q. robur remains rare on themore humid soils. Box (Buxus sempervil'ens) andQ. ilex make a dense canopy on the driest slopes.Naturally this landscape is the "home" of pigs (ofthe types chato alavés, lermeño and baztanés).

56

However, nowadays the autumn grazing of acornsby pigs (montanera) has disappeared and the lachasheep are grazing all the year in foresl and serubs,logether wilh an inereasing number of horses. Thepony (jaca navarra) is also typieal of lhis land­seape.

Al lhe present time, the more intensified agrieul­lure is limited to the deep vaIley soHs, but the fieldsare aIways surrounded by hedges, shrubs and trees,mainly relicts fram the anclent forests. Permanentgrasslands are dominant on slopes, situated bolowthe grazed forests.

Pastures with Brachypodium pinnatum domi­nanl, togelher with Erica vagans or braeken(Pteridium aquilinum) show bad grazing teehniquesin lhis landseape, promoted by the abandonmeutof marginallands. Ecological diversity is favouringgrazing husbandry in this attractive part of Spain.The communal organizalion and other historiealinfluences, together with an improved road system,will be helpful in improving a new animalhusbandry.

Aragón (2b in Fig. 3.10)The boa/m·es. The villages of lhe Huesca

Pyrenees, like many other agrieultural provinees ofSpain, retained sorne plots of forest from lhecommunal property. Traditionally these plols weregrazed by traetÍon animals (oxen, horses, mulesand donkeys). They are ealled dehesa boyal, boveral01' boalar, meaning a surface reserved fOI oxeo. Thedominant tree is a local oak or quejigo (manyslrains of Q.faginea) or in the more Mediterraneanpart lhe evergreen oak (Q. ilex subsp. I"Otundifolia).Until recent times (1940-1960) shrubs were verysparse under the trees, and were eliminated byheavy grazing, but since the use of mechanicflltraetors has become frequent, this special grass­land has evolved towards a natural forest.

Every hamlet in this part of the Pyrenees has itsown boalar wilh an area of 2 to 10 ha according tothe exigences of ploughing. Under this very sunnyclimale, good grassland can be proteeted by acanopy screen of pruned trees. Animal dung andurine ereate good eonditions for grass under heavygrazing pressure. This special sod and very pro­duetive lurf should be used in the future todiversify the grassland in every mounlain village,mainly because it is aeeessible and well adapted tograzmg.

PEDRO MONTSERRAT aud FEDERICO FILLAT

Developmenl of meadows from fields of sainfoinand lucerne. Same characteristics of mountainmeadows are summarized in Fig. 3.13. The graph(Fig.3.13c) explains two importanl effects onquality of meadows. The ordinate axis is a qualityindex for the firsl eul [DNDF~Digestibility of theeeIl-wall material (neutro-detergent fibre - Goe­ring and Van Soesl, 1970-)] and the abseissa theeutting date. The oeeanic type of climate of themore westerly sites (Hecho and Siresa) wilh amilder spring faeilitate an early cut as camparedwith Anciles and Cerler. The hay quality is betterat lower (Hecho, 833 m) than al higher altitude(Siresa, 1050 m), and the same is lrue in theeomparison belween Anciles (1200 m) and Cerler(1500 m) in the easlern Alto Aragón.

Table 3.1 shows the location of eight samplingsiles on present-day grassland: sorne of them arecoming from old fields (2, 3 and 5), others fromlucerne fields (1 and 4) and finally one comesdireetly from a cleared foresl (8). In the lasl yearssome fieIds were sown with selecled grassland seed(6 and 7). In general, we can see lhe height ofgrasses and the stabilization of legumes at lowlevels.

Table 3.2 summarizes the total production(eutting and grazing) of a typieal meadow of lhisreglOll.

Table 3.1 emphasizes the effeet of manuring onlhe first cut (June 1977) under diversified eondi'tions of mountains. Lucerne remains many yearstogether with new-coming spontaneous species,and maintains fertility in the topsoi!. In the sameway, sainfoin improved soil ferlilily on dry slopeson limes tone. In order to establish new meadows, itwill be essential to use adapted legumes and grasseslike eoeksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) or other se­leeted seeds, always wilh heavy manuring.

Thc borda for hay and animals. In the SpanishPyrenees, bordas are not very frequent except in thecenlral region where the big valleys are suitable forimportant hay produetion. Figure 3. 14C shows thebig dissimilarily between lhe easlern and westernsides of the Monte Perdido, in lhe centre of thisseelion. The Aneient Pyrenees (of Primary orPalaeozoie age) are more important lo lhe east,while the Sierras Interiores (more reeent, ofOligocene age) are predominant in lhe west;consequently, the big valleys are frequenl in theeast. The altitudinal distribution of bordas is

THE SYSTEMS üF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN 57

SmlMER BEGINNING SU.M1lER F.ND

~·M

PASTURE

~¡ean DE plantbiomass offered:

7000 kg [resh ha-1

CALF

Growth of:

60-150 kg

PLAN! RESIOUES

4-50 % oEoffer

DUNG

1000 lloiLsha

CADAVERS

1-2 % of

to tal animalsgrazing

®GENERAL CHARACTERISTTCSOr PASTURES qN A SLOY~

Non disturbed pastureNos.: 1,2,3,4

Pasture disturbad bytIJe ,,,ild hoar

Nos.: 5 3

Floodccl zoneNos. : G 7

1950 m

1900

1830

1780

1750

1720

ravin~

6 I 7,hut

I8 ,

Zaragoza

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ALTITUDINAL INFLUENCES

DNDF (% ofdry maller)

40

35

30

25

20

ON HEADOWS

• ~ Hechot Siresa

833 m

1050 m>1- [ Ancílcs

Cerler1200 ID

1500 m

June30 15

July31 20

August

Flg. 3.13. Same characteriSlics of Pyrcncan paslurcs and meadows. A. A lypical scasonal sequence ror cows in a Pyreneall grassland. B.A lopographical sequencc in the weslern Pyrenees from 1720 lo 1950 m. The diversified production is specified in Tablc 3.3. C. Thefigure cxplains thc productiol1 ofmeadows situatcd in (he \Vcstern and Centml Pyrcnccs. Produclion is indicatcd (Tablcs 3.1 and 3.2).

58 PEDRO MONTSERRAT .ud FEDERICO FILLAT

TABLE3.[

Same characleristics oC Pyrcncall meadows

Siles Height oC Fresh weight Composilioll % oC DM DMplants (cm) g m- 1 %

grasscs legumes composites othcrs

pal1icles foliagcI 60 40 [592 76 21 O J 272 70 45 2365 80 10 6 4 203 60 30 1632 90 8 O 2 224 45 1482 22 59 [4 5 245 70 35 1715 81 18 O [ 256 95 45 1865 86 11 2 1 307 105 70 24[5 51 43 O 6 218 105 70 2165 65 17 O [8 19

l. Siresa (960 m). Secolldary succession aftce five years of cultivated lllcernc.2. Siresa (1000111). Sccondary succession after cuW"ated manurcd cereal.3. The same origin as 2, but less manurcd.4. Hecho (900111). Lucerne field foue years old wilhoul manurc.5. Hecho (900 m). "Natural" meadow ten years oId. Sccondary succession ance cullivMed cereal.6. Hecho (800 m). Meadow five ycars old sown wilh selecled seed.7. Anciles (1130 m). Meadow three years old sown wilh sclcctcd sced and manured.8. Anciles (IDO m). "Natural" meadow 20 ycars old.Date of sampling: Junc 1977.

TABLE3.2

Tolal production of a lypical Pyrenean meadow

shown in Fig. 3.14D. In lhe easlem AlIo Aragón(Sobrarbe and Ribagorza), one finds Ihis type offarm building caHed borda where hay is slored onIhe firsl floor, while the lower part is devoled loanimals. That is the essenlial conslruction, but insorne villages a smaH hut may be included, in which

Firsl cutSecond cutSpring and autumn

grazing

Total

kg DM ha- I

32001920

594

5714

lhe herdsman and his family can slay for sornedays during lhe hay harvesl.

The cows are stabled only for sorne monlhs - asufficient time for lhem lo eal lhe slored hay culfram the neighbouring meadows. During lhespring, lhese meadows receive all lhe manureproduced in lhe borda. Thus, lhe building acts as acollector of fertilizers coming from pastures, in itstum favouring hay-making. These plols are privaleproperties mixed among the cornmunal pastures,and they need pralection by hedges.

Traditional utilization of bordas was in cerealcullnre, and lhey were nol formerly as big as al thepresenl lime. Isolation and demographic pressureforced cereal cultivation up lo 1950 m on sornefavourablc siles (pallares), wilh a very longgrowing period (13 monlhs, from August loSeptember oflhe next year). Nevertheless, in recenl

Fig. 3.14. Pasture managcment in the central part of the Pyrcnees. A al Id B. Schemcs showing the transhumancc offlocks of sheep andcattlc in Aragón. e aud D. The situation ofthe villages and temporary houscs (borda or pardina) in connexion with a1titnde jn lhe AxialPyrenees and in lhe yonngcst Sierras Interiores. The mountain villages are indicated by their initial leHer: F= Fago; A = Ansó;H=Hccho; A=Aragués; A=Aisa; B=Borall; C=Canfranc; A=Acin; A=Acumuer; B=Biescas; Y=Yesero; L=Linils; B=Broto;F=Fanlo; N=Nerín;" A=Ainsa; B=Biclsa; G=Gislain; S=Scira; B=Benasque; C=Castancsa; B=Bono. In D, lhe numbersindicate: J=crest rocks; 2= alpine pasture; 3 = subalpine paslure alld shrubs; 4= foresl; 5 =cuhivated land; 6 =shrubs aud dry forests;7=evcrgrccn oaks; and 8=steppe vegefation.

SUMMERPASTURES

THE SYSTEMS QF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN

rn1I Summer pastures propertyrn =Spring and autumn p. land

€;; winter pastures of cattle O Land on

q¡¡¡o Winter pastures of sheephire

©l'erdido

®-lj~ i/;Od~~ItLZJ VILLAGE

\

30-40 km1 day

"PARDINAS"@ZüNE

130-HIO xm10-15 days oE"cranshumance"

WINTERPASTURES

VIELLA

Shcep andcattie grazeLt months(June-Sept.)

Sheep andcattie graze2 months(May and Oc t.)

CatCle graze6 months(Nov .-Apr i 1)

Shcep graze6 months(Nov.-April)

59

km • Mountain vil1ages

3000 ID

2000 ID

1000 ID

H AABCAA y T. B F N

3000 ro

B .-Ancl-ent Pyrenees- Secondary "Sierras"

.,"

The western .'Alto Arag6n

,,1,/~

2300 ,1

", ti@

2000 "Borda" W$-,-3 11#1500

Village ~

4 ~ ~

Village ~)lI1h 5 900 Qtf()~ .". 6 q/

"Pardina" !'Id 600,''!....,",.

B •....(J'lll

V' '\ñl' vEbro Ebro

, The easternAl to Arag6n

6

8

60

times potatoes and lucerne have become moreconvenienl for lhis purpose; lhe presenl-day areaof grassland on these mountains is a consequenceof the abandonmenl of cereals.

Wintering problems. Complemenlarity of the highmounlains and the sleppe grassland in lhe EbroVaJley. The high mounlain grassland modalilies.The very big possibilities of summer grazing onmounlains Iike lhe Pyrenees are always limiled bywintering needs. Every mountain county has itscorresponding lowland for winlering. The prehis­loric shepherds imitaled the behaviour of wildlarge herbivores, descending from the Pyrenees tolhe Ebro Valley. Nowadays lhe lrails for f10cks(cañadas) persisl and are protected by specificregulations.

From early ages we have evidence of lhese f10ckmovemenls, nol only for sheep but also fordonkeys, horses and cows. The grazing value ofsteppe bushes (Atrip/ex halimus, Artemisia haba­alba, Salsola vermiculata, Suaeda fruticosa) andgrasses (Brachypodium, Koe/eria l'al/esiana, Ly­geum spartum, Stipa lagascae, S. parviflora, etc.) ismaximal in autumn when pregnant sheep comedown from the mountains. Until lhe 201h centuryploughing and irrigation were not very important,and flock movements were easier than now.Figure 3.14 represents this syslem. Figure 3. 14Ashows [our areas of pastures: summer pastures incornmunal properties, spring and autumn pasturesin private plols near the village, winler pastures ofcattle in renled land in the pardinas .one andwinter pastures of sheep in rented land in theregion of La Ribera. Figure 3.14B explains themovements between these areas and the times ofresidence; the arrows indicate the direction ofU·ave!.

Figure 3.14D shows the pardina sile in westernAlto Aragón. The pardina is lhe residue of lheReconquista big properties, scattered on tlle pOOl"

Pyrenean dry slopes, not very cold in winter. Thispaslure zone has been managed by shepherds ofthe high vaIleys since 1950-1955, when lhe fonnerowners emigrated to Zaragoza 01" Barcelona andrented lheir properties. These grasslands are verypoor (7-10 ha per cow) as a result of theabandonment of ancienl cereal fields without anyimprovement.

Obviously, mountain grasslands are closelyrelaled to geophysical conditions, mainly lo soil

PEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FtLLAT

deplh. For climbing to dry limestone crests andslopes, sheep are preferred; lhe "Mancomunidadde Ansó-Fago" in westem Aragón supported morethan 60 000 animals in 1940. On lhe other hand,the Permo-Tríassic sandy soils and siliceous rockswith lall grasses are better for grazing cows andhorses.

Figure 3.13A summarizes the activity of grazingcows in summer on mountain pastures. Arriving tonulritive young grass afler snow-melt (May-June),the animals graze all summer; when the autumncomes only thistles and poisonous plants remain,logelher with dung and dead carcasses.

Figure 3.13B and Table 3.3 show the composi­tion of grass before grazing on a norlh-facing slopeal Plandániz (Hecho Valley), from the crest to thebottom of the valley. On site I legumes areimportanl (Trifoliulll a/pinulll), and on site 2 LOfusa/pinlls abounds; siles 5 and 8 have Trifolilllllrepens and T. pratense over ground disturbed bywild boar or by the presence of a huI respectively.Of course, grasses are dominant everywhere(Agrostis, Festllca, Nardlls, Poa, elc.) bul inf100ded soil (site 6) lhe genus Carex is dominanl.Other genera such as Phleul1I and particularIyDactylis are only found on disturbed soils (sites 5and 8) where lhe wild boar dig. for litUe tubers(Conopodillm majus principaIly).

The quality of lhis grassland is very high, bul lheplant biomass is smaIl and develops late. Thesoulhern slopes provide an earller paslure. AI­together, lhe area was pul lo use by skilfulshepherds until recent times. Moreover, lhechamois (sarrio or rebeco) - a wild ruminanl oflhe Pyrenees - is also grazing here.

The future of saline soils. ThroughoUl thegeological ages, low rainfaIl and heavy evaporationdue lo strong winds (Cierzo, from lhe west­northwesl, but dry because it loses humidity in lhemounlains before reaching the Ebro Valley) causedaccumulation of sall in lhe central Ebro Valley.This endorheism persists constantly in some sec­tors such as Bardenas (Navarra), Cinco Villas(Zaragoza) and Monegros (Huesca-Zaragoza), onthe north of the Ebro River.

These soils wilh gypsum and soluble salts havebeen irrigated on a large scale, and lhe processresults in a brackish contamination ofnormal soils.Withoul doubt, it is a very big problem lhal isovercome by establishing new meadows well

THE SYSTEMS üF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN 61

TABLE3.3

Some characterislics of Pyrenean paslures

Sites Height of Fresh weight Composilioll (% of DM) DM(%)plants (cm) g m- 2

grasses legumes Carex spp. others

panicles foliage1 25 5 100 45 J9 7 9 362 35 5 240 84 15 O I 403 50 12 530 81 8 7 4 294 60 15 780 72 5 O 23 315 50 12 400 81 19 O O 386 30 5 120 2 3 95 O 377 50 10 400 53 4 34 9 368 55 15 1020 60 19 O 21 JI

Date of sampling: 5 AlIgusl 1974.

adapted to the brackish wa ter and soil. Among theChenopodiaceae there are sorne genera pre­adapted to these soi! and climate conditions,mainly species of Atriplex and Salsola; Salsolal'ermiculata (sisallo) produces its fruit in autumn,and the sheep enjoy it. The C. plants (especíallythose with grey and glaucous colouring) areresistant to losses by photorespiration, and arevery promising for this environment. The produc­tioo af C/1enopodium and Amaranthus seeds rorirrigated brackish soils should also be invesligated.

The northeastern sector of Cataluña (2c inFig.3.1O). The humid Mediterranean climate ofthis part of Spain favours a farming dispersed overhills and valleys. Such a dispersion is typical ofoceanic clima tes and regions under a long polilicalstability from the Middle Ages till recent times.Effectively, this sector fonned the boundary of theempire of Charlemagne ("Marca Hispanica").

The Roman institulion of inheritance linked tothe farmhouse (family unit) was also a new factorfor stability. So, diversity of geophysical condi­tions and continuity in management allowed a verygood protection against historical changes, pre­serving the more essential structures. In every farroone can find the following elements: forested part,permanent grassland, Mediterranean cultivation ofwinter cereals, maize, pota toes and typical forageefops like Tl'ifolium incarnatum, T. pratense, tur,..nips, cabbages, Italian ryegrass, lucerne, manyhorticultural plants and the poplar (Populus spp.)or plane tree (Platanus hybrida) on fluvial terraces.

Nowadays, intensified exploilation is being di­rected to the famous calves, milk, al' selected fmitproduction.

Near the Gulf of Rosas, on fluvial recent soils,one finds the c/oses, fields fenced by stone walIs 01'

hedges. On these fields, bordering the wellermeadows, is also found the Emporda type oflucerne. Transhumancc from the eastern Pyteneesto this sector (see Fig. 3.10) was very important,and explains the devclopment oC lucerne andsainfoin forage.

There are books on Pyrenees like Sorre (1943),Solé Sabaris (1951), Viers (1973) and Taillefer(1974), wilh good descriptions ofPyrenean life andalso those of Violant (1949), Montserrat (1966,1978) and BaleeIls (1971). A very good picture ofthe Atlantic part was given by Lefevre (1933); andthe eastern part ofNavarra, Roncal, was describedby Puigdefábregas and Baleells (1970). The centralpart of the Pyrenees, the Aragón sector, wasstudicd by Oaumas (1967 and 1976), Ocaña (1978)and Fillat (1980) and Cataluña by Vilá Valenti(1950, 1963) and Generalitat de Catalunya (1981).

The central mounlains of SpainThe Calltabrian foothills facing into thc Castil­

lian Meseta sometimes fonn a vast glacis wilh wcll­washed soil. Here one is dealing with aucientmarojales (forest of Que/TUS pyrenaica) and quejig­ales (Q.faginea), reduced to the present state byfires which have got out of control. The vegetationof Ihe dry grassland and heathland (páramos) is

62

made up of hard-leaved grasses (Avenulamirandana, Festuca hystl'ix, F. indigesta, Koeleriavallesiana, ele.) together wilh Cistaeeae and Faba­ccae (Cislus, Halimiunl, Helianlhemwn, Tuberaria,As/raga/us, Genista occidellfalis, G. pwnila, Medi­cago, Trifoliwn, etc.). Dry air and contrastingtemperatures are characteristic of this environmentwhieh is epitomized by the juniper tree (Juniperus/hur!!era) so lypieal of lhis region, as are J. nauaand J. sabina.

Although the above vegelation is lypieal of theCordillera Ibérica, Montañas de León, Sanabriaand lhe Carpelana between Somosierra andGredos, oak woods are also widespread, and lo alesser degree pine forests (Sierra de Guadarrama,Pinar de Lillo of León provinee, Sierra de laDemanda, Cameros, Sierra del Moncayo andMonles Universales): there are a few beeeh woodson slopes faeing north-wesl wilh lheir eharaeter­istie frequent mists eaused by lhe eooling of lheascending air currents. There are also extensivemoorlands, where lhe dominanl planl is Callunavulgaris associatcd with El'ica australis and at timesVaccinunl myrtilfus and V. uliginoswn. The pres­cnce of Erica arborea and Genista florida areindieative of a habilat where there is deep soil andunderground water.

The Cameros (3a in Fig. 3.10). The environmentof lhe Cameros belween Logroño and Soria(Calvo, 1977) can be taken as generally representa­tive for lhe eenlral mountains of Spain. When lhecows lcave their winter stable, pregnant, they reachCameros rough pastures where they give birth, andlhey deseend lo lhe village when they sense theapproaeh of lhe lirsl heavy snowfall. The Camer­ana eow or Pinariega, was perfeetly adapted lo lhepoor qualily of lhe grazings, seattered belweensmall woods and healhland, where eaeh eow has itshaunt, gives birth and retums home with ils ealf.Sheep graze on the drier slopes, and transhumantsare frequent in this part of Cameros.

The phytosoeiology of lhe Cameros Mountainswilh grasslands has been deseribed by Mendiola(1983).

Those meadows whieh need eutting only once ayear are loeated near centres ofhabilation; here lhepasiego and lhe borda of the Pyrenees and theCantabrian Mountains are virtualIy nOll-existent.Inslead lhere are meadows of Arrhenatheretalia

PEDRO MONTSERRAT ,ud FEDERICO FILLAT

eharaeterized by an abundanee of Malva moscha/a.Near the páramo, where lhe heathland is driest,

are found oak woods of Quercus pyrellaicG, anexeellent oak for forage. It provides serub forgrazing, with shoots c. 10 lo 25 cm in length, andabounds in Zamora, Avila-Segovia, Sierra deGuadalupe, etc.

Meadows in lhe high mounlains of Teme) (3b inFig. 3.10). In the high mountains of Teruel(1500-2000 m) pine forests predominate (Pinuss)'/l'eSfris) interealated wilh small woods of Quer­cus p)'renaiea and hazel (Cor)'/us al'el/ana) in theSierra de Gúdar-Valdelinares, where the soil iseooler and rieher. The meadow-Iands of thiseastern zone have been famous since ancient times(Asso, 1779) with pastures where Fabaeeae aredominanl (As/ragalus danieus, Medieago sufjruti­cosa, Onobrychis hispanica, .Ononis cris/ata, etc.).The paslures of the Monles Universales areseattered belween abundant pine forests and are ofa poorer qualily than those mentioned above.Methods used for ealtle farming were once verysimilar lo those found in the Cameros, bulnowadays exploitation for timber takes preee­denee. Sorne of lhe villages in lhe Sierra deAlbarracín keep f10eks of transhumanl merinosheep whieh winler in La Mancha (Mesta deAlbarracín). In the mountains where soil is gravellyor sandy, Cal/una vulgaris, Cisfus laurifolius andHalimium viscosum have invaded those pastureswhieh have been bumt olf. In these zones goats arethe ehief grazing animal. A monograph on thesegrasslands has been published by Gómez (1982).

Meadows and grassland in the Carpetana Mountainsof Ceulral Spain (3e in Fig. 3.10). The Carpetanamountain ehain (Sierra Ministra, 1200 m; Somo­sierra, 2000 m; Guadarrama, 2400 m) presents apieture of various extensive glacis sloping gentlydown towards the Castillian Meseta. The relativelyfertile deep soils (bardal soils) are most suilable forestablishmenl of meadows and green paslure-landduring thc summer. Where it is drier, as in Segovia,there are woods of evergreen oak (Quereus ro/undi­folia) and pastures dotted with Juniperus /"urifera.Towards Somosierra there are grazings on deep soilwhieh are now overgrown wilh lhe braeken fem, anindex of both their abandonment and the deereasein livestoek aetivity.

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN

In lhe Escorial and Guadarrama the meadowson dccp soil [ICC cut in spring and intensivelygrazed; lhe ash (Fl"axilluS allguslifolia) bordersthese meadows. Where QuerClls pyrellalca grows itis an indication of permeable soil, while evergreenoak and JUllipel'us oxycedrus grow in the drierenclaves al higher altiludes close to 800-1000 m(Rivas Martínez, 1982).

The Avileña cattle are characterislic of thesemountains, and are well represented in the Sierrade Gredos and its foothills. Fesluca elegallsgrowing on the convexities is the dominantsummer plant of lhe upland paslures, whileCampanulo-Nardion communities grow in thedamper hollows (Rivas Martinez, 1963). Movingsoulhwards the change of level is extremely abrupt,and this contrasled landscape was advanlageous tothe Avileña breed, which make a short lranshu­mance lo the Mediterranean type of pastures ofArenas de San Pedro and lhe Tiétar Valley; inthese wintering zones, Poa bulbosa and Trifoliumsubterraneum are abundant.

The Mesla lype of animal husbandry in León andCastillaThis is a sheep system which has been infiuential

from mediaeval times to lhe present day, and it ischaracteristic of lhe northem Meseta. This zonewas uninhabited for several centuries during theReconquista (Fig. 3.5E), thus favouring the move­ment of enormous flocks.

In the par! which was reconquered before the10th century and colonized by freemen, thedominant breed of sheep is lhe Churra, useful farmilk and with rough wool. The landscape is one ofheathlands and criss-crossed by wide valleys ofdeep soil favouring the establishmenl of meadows.Flocks of 100 to 140 sheep also graze on thestubble of the crops sown in the area, and on otherforage crops sown lraditionalIy for work animals.The resident fiocks of milk sheep have originatedhere.

The dominanl breed of sheep on lhe resl of theMeseta is the Entrefina Castellana, used for bothlheir meat and milk. Floeks of about 200 sheepgraze in the area all the year round. Here one mustdistinguish between lwo principal pattems: that inthe west assoeiated with extensive wooded pasture­land, and the eastern pattern, where moorland onlimy soil is suilable for lhe cultivation of sainfoin.

63

The winlers are long, and, while grazing stillcontinues in same of the meadows borderingwatereourses, feeding is supplemenled by haymade from sainfoin and luceme. The moorlandsheep graze also on the stubble which remains afterharvesting sainfoin and lucerne, and this ensuresthal the meadows lying along lhe watercoursecontinue lo be productive.

When the severe winter conditions of the páramoprcvail, orre finds in this zone (Sierra Ministra,Molina de Aragón, etc.) the hardy Ojalada Sorianabreed of sheep, a brancl! of the Ibérico stock. Tothe southwest, in La Alcarria, yel another hardierbreed of sheep is found, lhe Alcarreña, a branch ofthe Enlrefina especially adapted to mountain areas(see Fig. 3.6A).

The lack of emphasis on wool production insheop farming is due lo lhe running down of lhewool induslry and the collapse of the Mestaorganization. The BHonrado Concejo de la Mesta"was ariginally created and supported by the King in1273 (Klein, 1964) in order lo lake advantage oflheproduction of enormous quantities of wool ob­tained [rom the merino. This association concernedwilh sheep farming crealed wealth for lhe RoyalTreasury, and was lhus encouraged lo lhe detrimentof a more general agricultural policy (cultivation ofarable land). However, lhe increase in populalionduring the 18lh century and the collapse of theforeign markel caused lhe loss of these privilegesand lheir legal abolition in 1836 (Garda, 1978).

Figure 3.10 shows lhe great sheep lrails of thecenlral-westem area where the Castillan Mesta wasimportan!. To the east lhere were lhe Mesla deAlbarradn and the Casa de Ganaderos de Zara­goza organizing the Montes Ibéricos and EbroValley transhumances. The shorl grazing providedby Poa bulbosa and Trifolillln sublerralleum (RivasGoday and Rivas Martínez, 1963) is good for lhemerino sheep. This type of paslure-land is princi­pally confined lo lhe west (end of lhe arrows inFig.3.l0) and has a high winler production asindicaled by the rainfall maps (Fig. 3.3). The longjoumey involved in lranshumance enables thesheep lo lake advanlage of the shart loughpastures of the páramos and of the limestonesubcanlabrian mountains of León, Palencia andSoria. This is why the wide sheep trails, with areasset aside for resting, have persisled in all theircomplexity until the present day.

64

As wooI has become a less important cornmod­ity and the importance of producing prime lamband cheese has taken over, the need for tmnshu­mance is no longer pammount, lhe result beinglhal more and more flocks of merino slay all lheyear in their original provinee. From lhe aboyebreeds and crossbreeds enough lamb is producedto be industrially exploited. Merino is now exploit­ed for its wool in Auslralia, where populationdensity is low and there are similar Mediterraneanconditions to those found in the west of the IberianPeninsula.

The Manchego syslem of husbandry (5 inFig. 3.10)To the south ofMadrid, the Meseta is al a lower

altitude than to the north (average altilude 600 mas opposed to 800 m), the summer is hotter anddrier, and thus lhe gmzings are rougher and poorin quality. Less arable land is dedicated to pastureor scrub, most of it being under cultivation, withgrapes as lhe main crop. Frequently olive grovesalternate lVith the vineyards, and occasionallyolives, vines and almond trees all grow in the samefield.

The eombination of a lemperale winter, deepsoil and the diversity of crops, (including fodderbarley, oats and legumes grazed in lhe field), opensout lhe possibilities of a much greater variety indiel for the sheep during lhe lactation periodo Themilking of sheep for the manufacture of cheese is avery old industry. Vines and trees supply a soureeof [oad in auturnl1, and modern irrigation hasmeant that the small flocks of 40 to 60 sheep can bekept near the centres of habitation in La Mancha.However, the larger flocks (200-250 sheep) needmore extensive areas of uncultivated land wherethere are wide sheep tmils. Usually they are kepton large provincial eslates which were previouslyassociated lVith lhe mediaeval Ordenes Militares(Calatmva, Alcántara) on the southern frontiers ofthe Christian Kingdoms.

As wilh olher breeds of sheep, the Manchegagraze on the stubble in summer and on theuncultivated land around in winter. The number offomge crops grolVn (such as cereal-legume mix­tures for grazing by sheep) have increased but ther.eis not sufficient humidity lo produce summerforage, like some of lhe ¡egumes sown in thenorthern part of the Caslillian Meseta. The deep

PEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FtLLAT

soil pennits the dry farming of lucerne and also,where thcre is irrigation, a variety of forage eropsplus lucerne. Pastures are domina ted by roughgrasses as Aegylops, Bro11lus and Taenialherum,logelher lVith Medicaga and other annuallegumes.

To sum up, we find a great diversity lVilhin thisenvironment, a variety of different products evenin autumn lacking pasture in Meditcrraneanclimate and a breed of sheep resislanl to both heatand drought. Given lhe possibilities for the furtherexpansion of foragc crops, using undergroundwater for irrigation, the Manchega sheep couldhave a promising futufe.

A greater diversily in diel can be provided by useof vine shoots and the leaves of trees in autumn,thereby avoiding the destruction of annuals in aseason which is critical for their establishment. Asmenlioned aboye, the sheep of this region stand upwell to the extreme summer heat and continue toproduce milk, which is IVhy they have been selectedto populate this Mediterranean type habitat.

Thc Segureña type of grassland syslem (6 III

Fig.3.10)To the soulheasl of the Peninsula the clima te

becomes drier and lhe vegetation woodier. Becauseof these conditions there are more goats and fewersheep. As well as the sheep indigenous to thecoastal regions (GII!rra in Valencia and Alicante), ahardy animal which resists heat and drought, thereis a second breed of sheep, the Segureña, scalteredthroughout the region. The lalter is similar lo lheManchega sheep but produces less milk and is af ahardier slock.

The vegetalion covering the area inhabited bythe Segureña sheep is mainly rosemary (Rosmari­nlls ojJicinalis) and rush (Lygell/1/ spar/llm) lVithtough grasses (AgJ'0pYI'OJl, Bl'achypodium, Helicto­trichon filifalill/1/, S/ipa, etc.) and scrubby pastures,thus producing conditions for grazing which wouldnot be tolemled by lhe more productive breeds ofsheep. Traditionally, the land is used for lheproduction of rushes and in lhe valleys, inter­spersed between the .arid mountains, some cerealsare cultivated. Given these circumstances it wouldseem sensible to encourage the expansion of theSegureña breed, thus increasing the production oflambs which are much in demando

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAlN

The Dehesa lype of grassland in lhe wesl of lheIherian Peninsula (7 in Fig. 3.10)In the wesl, due lo the extreme summer drought

and the poomess of the soil, lhe cultivation ofcereals is not profilable, and instead there are largeareas of wooded pasture-Iand supporting a largerange of livestock, such as swine, sheep, cattle,horses and donkeys. In some areas there are alsoJIocks of domes tic fowl of various types. Thedensity of trces ¡ocreases as Qfie gocs further 80uth,thus protecting the land surface from the intenseheat and insola tion. There is also an increase in thenumber of swine.

The tradition of use of forest c1earings for thegrazing of animals is left over from earJier epochs.Al arre time, when demographic pressure was notso great, other mountain areas were grazed in thesame way; but nowadays it is a custom whichpersists mainly in the wes!. Here the originalevergreen oak has been preserved; and, where thisis not so, a more productive oak with a large sweetacom has been planted in woodland pastures.

Historically speaking (Balcells, 1978-1982),from the time of the Reconquista lhe land wasdivided into large estates (100-500 ha). There hasbeen little change in this respect due to the lowfertility of the soil, a fact which has prec1udedintensive cultivation in the area. Only in Tierra deBarros (Extremadura Region), and along narrowriver valleys, properties are smaller and intensivecultivation takes place.

If one considers a typical or average dehesa, 10to 30% of the land may be under cultivation whilethe rest is employed in different ways which varyfrom Salamanca to Huelva. In the westem sectorof Salamanca there are lwo main methods of usingthe land, one so-called al tercio and a secondnamed a cuatro hojas. Al tercio means that 2/3 ofthe land is used for cultivation of cereals while athird lies fallow. In the second, 30% of the land isdedicated to growing cereal which then providesslubble for grazing (Gómez Gutiérrez, 1982 inBaleells, 1978-1982). Where there is a greaterdensity of trees, grazing continues until it isinvaded by scrub or toxic plants and a system ofrotation musl be applied in order to c1ean the area.The dense evergreen oaks are intensively pruned,before ploughing lhe soil, and cereal is sown theyear after. This process conlinues until lhe soilbecomes impoverished and has to be abandoned.

65

The abandoned fields of stubble are given over tograzing, and vegetation becomes progressivelydenser.

The watercourses and hollows found betweenareas of cultivation provide productive pastureswhich are cut sometimes, especially where fertilizerhas been applied; it helps lo keep the pasture elearof undergrowth. The principal plants fOllnd hereare Trifolillll1 striafllm with T. slIbterraneunJ andAgrostis castellana.

The Morucha cow is typical of dehesas ofSalamanca, and it keeps the paslure both elean andshort for subsequenl grazing by the EnlrefinnCastellana sheep. This is the limit of the zonewhere the Iberian pig occurs, the production ofacorns being scarce and variable from year to year.Even so, the herdsmen have been responsible forplanting acoms from which many of lhe evergreenSalamanca oaks grow. By rooting in lhe soil, theIberian pig causes a series of microchanges in thepaslures, thus creating a diversity used efficientlyby the ruminants. Finally, the common Spanishturkey (Pavo mexicano) feeds on acoms, and al thesame time controls the populations of sorne inscctsand molluscs.

In Extremadura, acorn production is greater andthere are many more pigs, with a consequentdecrease in cattie density. The Blanca Cacereñacow is now practically non-existent, and variousbreeds of cow can be seen locally. The environmentis optimal for merino sheep, and there are someJIocks resident all the year round while others stillpractice lranshumance to the Cantabrian Moun­tains, protected from wolves by the mastín extre­meño. This big shepherd dog carries a collar withnails and fights with wolves, bul when animalssuch as horses and Cantabrian autochthonouscows graze without shepherd or dog the wolves kilisome - between 1974 and 1979 236 animals,predominantly colls, were killed in Aslurias (Branaet al., 1982; see also López et al., 1981).

Approaching the west side of the Sierra Morena(Sierra de Tudia and Aracena) one finds anincrease in the number of herds of Retinta cows,which maintain the pastures elean without the needto resort to cultivation. In these dehesas there is agreat number of evergreen oaks, even along lheedges of walerways. The increase in tree densityprotects against insolation and feeds the greatnumber of pigs. This is the centre of lhe region of

68

There are more diffieulties in the Ebro Valley,where ploughing and recent exlension of irrigaledfields are making it more and more diffieult lowinter in the steppe area. Moreover, one cannotforget the poor possibilities of marriage for youngshepherds. In fael, this is a very big social problemwhich can ruin a traditional transhumance.

The lwo models of lranshumanee deseribedaboye, one linked to the Mesta and lhe olher to lheCasa de Ganaderos, clearly typify the situation inmany cases. Although diversily of grassIand pro­duetion is slill persisting, unforlunately lhe shep­herd's organization has disappeared wilhoul beingreplaeed by any modern equivalenl.

Faeed wilh sueh a high diversily of grassprodnelion in spaee and lime, the firsl problem willbe a¡ways lo put grazing animals on eaeh pastureal lhe best time. Tradilionally, lhe family nsed lobe divided for half oflhe year, shepherds winleringvery far from home. NevertheIess, lhere are manyunpublished possibilities for overeoming lhis prob­lem. The lypieal M ancolllunidades Ganaderasmighl be evolved and find legal solutions 10facilita te lhese lloek movemenls.

On lhe other hand, animal seleetion is mainlydireeted to indoor produetion; we lhink il wouldbe more importanl to seleet for correet behaviour,and look for a good guiding animal. As gregariousbehaviour is normal for lhese animals, it should bepossible lo exploit il.

The nexl step eould be a seleetion for makingbeller use of lhe hard grasses and sornetimes of lhebushes or shrubs dominant in every province. Forthis reasan, Qur grassland descriptions wece basedon eharaeteristie animal breeds. Among lhesetraditional speeializations it should be possible loseleet the most effieienl for every siluation, andpartieularly for mobilily.

The reeenl teehniques of animal produetioninvolve helerosis by erossing sorne breeds. In ouropinion il wouId be easier to mainlain every breedin ¡ts own environment. As we have emphasized,sueh a genetie and eeologieal bank eould be full ofpossibilities for animal husbandry and grasslandmanagement in Spain.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Mrs. Vivian Boueher was very helpful doingmosl of the English translalion work and Dr. Luis

PEDRO MONTSERRAT 'lld FEDERICO FILLAT

Villar improved lhe final version. The drawingshave been made by F. Filial.

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