CONSIDERING THE EVIDENCE / DOCUMENTS: POLITICAL AUTHORITY IN CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS

175

The Writings of Master Han Fei Third Century B.C.E.

Noo country is permanently strong. Nor is any

permanently weak. If conformers to law are strong, the country is strong; if conformers to law are weak, the country is weak....

Any ruler able to expel private crookedness and uphold public law, finds the people safe and the state in order; and any ruler able to expunge private action and act on public law, finds his army strong and his enemy weak. So, find out men following the disci-pline of laws and regulations, and place them above the body of officials. Then the sovereign cannot be deceived by anybody with fraud and falsehood....

Therefore, the intelligent sovereign makes the law select men and makes no arbitrary promotion himself. He makes the law measure merits and makes no arbitrary regulation himself. In consequence, able men cannot be obscured, bad characters cannot be disguised; falsely praised fellows cannot be advanced, wrongly defamed people cannot be degraded. To govern the state by law is to praise the right and blame the wrong.

The law does not fawn on the noble....Whatever the law applies to, the wise cannot reject nor can the brave defy. Punishment for fault never skips minis-ters, reward for good never misses commoners. Therefore, to correct the faults of the high, to rebuke the vices of the low, to suppress disorders, to decide against mistakes, to subdue the arrogant, to straighten the crooked, and to unify the folk-ways of the masses, nothing could match the law. To warn the officials and overawe the people, to rebuke obscenity and danger, and to forbid false-

Source: The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu, vol. 1, translated by W. L. Liano (London: Arthur Probsthain, 1939), 40, 45-47.

hood and deceit, nothing could match penalty. If penalty is severe, the noble cannot discriminate against the humble. If law is definite, the superiors are esteemed and not violated. If the superiors are not violated, the sovereign will become strong and able to maintain the proper course of government. Such was the reason why the early kings esteemed Legalism and handed it down to posterity. Should the lord of men discard law and practice selfishness, high and low would have no distinction.

The means whereby the intelligent ruler con-trols his ministers are two handles only. The two handles are chastisement and commendation. What are meant by chastisement and commendation? To inflict death or torture upon culprits is called chas-tisement; to bestow encouragements or rewards on men of merit is called commendation.

Ministers are afraid of censure and punishment but fond of encouragement and reward. Therefore, if the lord of men uses the handles of chastisement and commendation, all ministers will dread his sever-ity and turn to his liberality. The villainous minis-ters of the age are different. To men they hate they would, by securing the handle of chastisement from the sovereign, ascribe crimes; on men they love they would, by securing the handle of commendation from the sovereign, bestow rewards. Now supposing the lord of men placed the authority of punish-ment and the profit of reward not in his hands but let the ministers administer the affairs of reward and punishment instead; then everybody in the country would fear the ministers and slight the ruler, and turn to the ministers and away from the ruler. This is the calamity of the ruler's loss of the handles of chastisement and commendation.

176 CHAPTER 4 / EURASIAN EMPIRES, 500 B.C.E.-500 C.F.

Document 4.4

Governing an Indian Empire

Among the rulers of the classical era, Ashoka, of India's Mauryan dynasty (reigned 268-232 B.C.E.), surely stands out, both for the personal transforma-tion he experienced and for the benevolent philosophy of government that he subsequently articulated (see pp. 165-67). Ashoka's career as emperor began in a familiar fashion—ruthless consolidation of his own power and vigorous expansion of the state's frontiers. A particularly bloody battle against the state of Kalinga marked a turning point in his reign. Apparently repulsed by the destruction, Ashoka converted to Buddhism and turned his attention to more peaceful and tolerant ways of governing his huge empire. His edicts and advice, inscribed on rocks and pillars throughout his realm, outlined this distinctive approach to imperial governance.

The following document provides samples of instructions from Ashoka, who is referred to as King Piyadasi, or the Beloved of the Gods. The term dhamma, used frequently in edicts of Ashoka, refers to the "way" or the "truth" that is embodied in religious teachings.

■ How would you describe Ashoka's philosophy of state?

■ How might Han Fei have responded to Ashoka's ideas?

■ What specific changes did Ashoka make in state policies and practices?

■ Can you think of practical reasons why he might have adopted these policies? Did he entirely abandon the use of harsher measures?

Although Ashoka's reputation as an enlightened ruler has persisted to this day, his policies ultimately were not very successful. Shortly after Ashoka's death, the Mauryan Empire broke apart into a more common Indian pattern of competing regional states that rose and fell with some regularity. Of course Shihuangdi's much harsher Legalist policies were also unsuccessful, at least in maintaining his dynasty, which lasted a mere fifteen years.

■ How might this outcome affect your assessment of Ashoka?

■ What does this suggest about the relationship between political philoso-phies and the success or longevity of political systems?

CONSIDERING THE EVIDENCE / DOCUMENTS: POLITICAL AUTHORITY IN CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS 177

ASHOKA

The Rock Edicts ca. 268-232 B.C.E.

B eloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation.

One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed, and many more died [from other causes]. After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dhamma, a love for the Dhamma and for instruction in Dhamma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for hav-ing conquered the Kalingas....

Now Beloved-of-the-Gods thinks that even those who do wrong should be forgiven where forgiveness is possible.

Even the forest people, who live in Beloved-of-the-Gods' domain, are entreated and reasoned with to act properly. They are told that despite his remorse Beloved-of-the-Gods has the power to punish them if necessary, so that they should be ashamed of their wrong and not be killed. Truly, Beloved-of-the-Gods desires non-injury, restraint, and impartiality to all beings, even where wrong has been done.

Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest....

I have had this Dhamma edict written so that my sons and great-grandsons may not consider mak-ing new conquests, or that if military conquests are made, that they be done with forbearance and light punishment, or better still, that they consider mak-ing conquest by Dhamma only, for that bears fruit in this world and the next. May all their intense devotion be given to this which has a result in this world and the next.

1. Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice.... Formerly,

Source: The Edicts of King Ashoka, translated by Ven S. Dhammika (Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society 1993).

in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in time, not even these three crea-tures will be killed.

2.... [E]verywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods... made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treat-ment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown.... Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals.

3. Everywhere in my domain the [royal officers] shall go on inspection tours every five years for the purpose of Dhamma instruction and also to conduct other business. Respect for mother and father is good, generosity to friends, acquaintances, relatives, Brahmans and ascetics is good, not killing living beings is good, moderation in spending and mod-eration in saving is good.

4. In the past, for many hundreds of years, kill-ing or harming living beings and improper behavior toward relatives, and improper behavior toward Brahmans and ascetics has increased. But now due to Beloved-of-the-Gods' Dhamma prac-tice, the sound of the drum [for announcing the punishment of criminals] has been replaced by the sound of the Dhamma. The sighting of heav-enly cars, auspicious elephants, bodies of fire, and other divine sightings has not happened for many hundreds of years. But now because Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, promotes restraint in the killing and harming of living beings, proper behavior towards relatives, Brahmans and ascetics, and respect for mother, father and elders, such sightings have increased.

5. In the past there were no [officers of the Dhamma] but such officers were appointed by me

178 CHAPTER 1 / EURASIAN EMPIRES, 500 B.C.E.-500 C.E.

thirteen years after my coronation. Now they work among all religions for the establishment of Dhamma....They work among soldiers, chiefs, Brahmans, householders, the poor, the aged and those devoted to Dhamma—for their welfare and happiness—so that they may be free from harass-ment. They... work for the proper treatment of prisoners, towards their unfettering.... They are occupied everywhere....

7. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart.

8. In the past kings used to go out on pleasure tours during which there was hunting and other entertainment. But ten years after Beloved-of-the-Gods had been coronated, he went on a tour to

Sambodhi° and thus instituted Dhamma tours. Dur-ing these tours, the following things took place: visits and gifts to Brahmans and ascetics, visits and gifts of gold to the aged, visits to people in the coun-tryside, instructing them in Dhamma....

12. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, honors both ascetics and the householders of all religions, and he honors them with gifts and honors of var-ious kinds....Whoever praises his own religion, due to excessive devotion, and condemns others with the thought "Let me glorify my own religion," only harms his own religion. Therefore contact [between religions] is good. One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by others.

°Sambodhi: the site of the Buddha's enlightenment.

Using the Evidence:

Political Authority in Classical Civilizations

1. Making comparisons: How would you describe the range of political thinking and practice expressed in these documents? What, if any, com-mon elements do these writings share? Another approach to such a compar-ison is to take the ideas of one writer and ask how they might be viewed by several of the others. For example, how might Pericles, Aristides, and Han Fei have responded to Ashoka?

2. Considering variation within civilizations: You will notice that none of these civilizations practiced a single philosophy of government. Athens was governed very differently from Sparta, the practices of the Roman Empire differed substantially from those of the Republic, Legalism and Confucianism represented alternative approaches to Chinese political life, and Ashoka's ideas broke sharply with prevailing practice of Indian rulers. How can you account for these internal differences? How might you imag-ine an internal dialogue between each of these writers and their likely domestic critics?

3. Comparing ancient and modern politics: What enduring issues of political life do these documents raise? What elements of political think-ing and practice during the classical era differ most sharply from those of the modern world of the last century or two? What are the points of similarity?

CONSIDERING THE EVIDENCE / DOCUMENTS: POLITICAL AUTHORITY IN CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS

179

4. Distinguishing "power" and "authority": Some scholars have made a distinction between "power," the ability of rulers to coerce their subjects into some required behavior, and "authority," the ability of those rulers to persuade their subjects to obey voluntarily by convincing them that it is proper, right, or natural to do so.What appeals to "power" and "authority" can you find in these documents? How does the balance between them differ among these documents?

5. Noticing point of view: From what position and with what motiva-tion did these writers compose their documents? How did this affect what they had to say?

Visual Sources

Considering the Evidence: Qin Shihuangdi and China's Eternal Empire

Tn the vast saga of empire building in world history, few rulers have surpassed

i China's so-called First Emperor, Qin Shihuangdi (reigned 221-210 B.C.E.),

in terms of imperial ambition. During his life, Shihuangdi forcefully and vio-

lently brought unity to the warring states of China with policies that were as

brutal as they were effective (see pp. is8-6o).That achievement gained him the

respect of many Chinese in the centuries that followed. No less a figure than

Mao Zedong, the twentieth-century communist revolutionary, proudly com-

pared himself to the First Emperor. But Shihuangdi was widely hated in his

own time and subject to numerous attempts at assassination, while Confucian

scholars in the centuries that followed his death were also highly critical of his

brutal methods of governing China.

No artistic images of Shihuangdi survive from the time of his reign, but he

was the subject of many paintings in later centuries.Visual Source 4.1, dating

from the eighteenth century, depicts a famous scene from his reign, when he

allegedly ordered the burning of books critical of his policies and the execution

of respected Confucian scholars by burying hundreds of them alive.

■ What signs of imperial authority are apparent in the painting?

■ What impression of the First Emperor does this painting convey? Do

you think the artist sought to celebrate or criticize Shihuangdi?

■ What accusations against Shihuangdi might arise from the action

depicted at the bottom of Visual Source 4.1?

However his reign may have been evaluated, Shihuangdi's conception of

the empire he created was grand indeed. It was to be a universal or cosmic

empire. In tours throughout his vast realm, he offered sacrifices to the various

spirits, bringing them, as well as the rival kingdoms of China, into a state of

unity and harmony. One of the inscriptions he left behind suggested the scope

of his reign: "He universally promulgated the shining laws, gave warp and

woof to all under heaven."6 Shihuangdi saw himself in the line of ancient sage

kings, who had originally given order to the world.

In Shihuangdi's thinking, that empire was not only universal, encom-

passing the entire world known to him, but also eternal. The emperor vig-180 orously pursued personal immortality, seeking out pills, herbs, and potions

Cita° 47.60iiMiletel0 00:12.1nVonce

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Visual Source 41 An Eighteenth-Century Representation of Qin Shihuangdi (Bibiiotheque nationale de France/The Art Archive) 181

182 CHAPTER 4 / EURASIAN EMPIRES, 500 B.C.E.-500 C.E.

believed to convey eternal life and sending expeditions to the mythical Isles of the Immortals, thought to lie off the east coast of China. But the most spectacular expression of the eternal character of his empire lay in a vast tomb complex constructed during his lifetime near the modern city of Xian (see Map 4.5, p. 159).

In early 1974, some Chinese peasants digging a well stumbled across a small corner of that complex, leading to what has become perhaps the most cele-brated archeological discovery of the twentieth century. In subsequent and con-tinuing excavations, archeologists have uncovered thousands of life-size ceramic statues of soldiers of various ranks, arrayed for battle and equipped with real weapons. Other statues portrayed officials, acrobats, musicians, wrestlers, horses, bronze chariots, birds, and more—all designed to accompany Shihuangdi into the afterlife.

This amazing discovery, however, was only a very small part of an immense tomb complex covering some fifty-six square kilometers and centered on the still-unexcavated burial mound of Shihuangdi. Begun in 246 B.C.E. and still incomplete when Shihuangdi died in 210 B.C.E., the construction of this gigan-tic complex was described by the great Chinese historian Sima Qian about a century later:

As soon as the First Emperor became king of Qin, excavations and building had been started at Mount Li, while after he won the empire, more than 700,000 conscripts from all parts of the country worked there. They dug through three subterranean streams and poured molten copper for the outer coffin, and the tomb was filled with ...palaces, pavilions, and offices as well as fine vessels, precious stones, and rarities. Artisans were ordered to fix up crossbows so that any thief breaking in would be shot. All the country's streams, the Yellow River and the Yangtze were reproduced in quicksilver [mercury] and by some mechan-ical means made to flow into a miniature ocean. The heavenly con-stellations were above and the regions of the earth below. The candles were made of whale oil to insure the burning for the longest possible time. I

Buried with Shihuangdi were many of the workers who had died or were killed during construction as well as sacrificed aristocrats and concubines.

This massive project was no mere monument to a deceased ruler. In a culture that believed the living and the dead formed a single community, Shihuangdi's tomb complex was a parallel society, complete with walls, palaces, cemeteries, demons, spirits, soldiers, administrators, entertainers, calendars, texts, divination records, and the luxurious objects appropriate to royalty.The tomb mound itself was like a mountain, a geographic feature that in Chinese think-ing was home to gods, spirits, and immortals. From this mound, Shihuangdi would rule forever over his vast domain, although invisible to the living.

CONSIDERING THE EVIDENCE / VISUAL SOURCES: QIN SHIHUANGDI AND CHINA'S ETERNAL EMPIRE 183

The visual sources that follow provide a small sample of the terra-cotta army that protected that underground world, as it has emerged from the exca-vations of the past several decades. The largest pit (Visual Source 4.2) is now covered with a canopy and conveys something of the massive size of this undertaking. Located about a mile east of Shihuangdi's burial mound, this ceramic army, replete with horses and chariots, faced the pass in the mountains from which enemies might be expected. Some six thousand terra-cotta fig-ures have been uncovered and painstakingly pieced together in this pit alone.

■ How do you suppose Shihuangdi thought about the function of this "army" in the larger context of his tomb complex?

■ What kind of organizational effort would be required to produce such a ceramic army?

Visual Source 4.2 The Terra-Cotta Army of Shihuangdi (Dennis Cox/China Stock)

184 CHAPTER 4 / EURASIAN EMPIRES, 500 B.C.E.-500 C.E.

Visual Source 4.3 Terra-Cotta Infantry (Keren Su/China Span/Alamy)

Scholars have long been impressed with the apparent individuality of these terra-cotta figures, and some have argued that they were actually modeled on particular living soldiers. More recent research suggests, however, that they were "an early feat of mass production?'" Well-organized workshops produced a limited variety of face shapes, body parts, hairstyles, and uniforms, which were then assembled in various combinations and slightly reworked to convey an impression of individuality. Visual Source 4.3 shows a group of infantry-men, located at the front of the formation, while Visual Source 4.4 represents a kneeling archer.

■ What similarities and differences can you identify between the infantry-men and the archer? Which of them do you imagine had a higher status?

■ What impressions do their postures and facial expressions convey?

■ What details help to convey a highly realistic image of these figures?

Visual Source 4.4 Terra-Cotta Archer (Museum of the Terra Cotta Army, Xian/Visual Connection Archive)

185

186 CHAPTER 4 / EURASIAN EMPIRES, 500 B.C.E.-500 C.E.

Visual Source 4.5 A Bronze Horse-Drawn Chariot (Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library)

Among the most delightful finds in Shihuangdi's funerary complex were two exquisitely detailed bronze carriages, each portrayed as half-sized models and pulled by four horses. Coachmen with swords provided protection on both sides. Some seven kilograms of gold and silver served to decorate the carriage and horses, which consisted of more than 3,000 separate pieces. These finds, however, were not part of the terra-cotta army and its military machine. Rather, they were found some distance away, quite close to the actual burial place of the emperor.Visual Source 4.5 shows the larger of the two carriages and features a team of horses, a driver, three windows, and a rear door. The compartment is decorated inside and out with geometric and cloud patterns, while the round roof, perhaps, represents the sun, the sky, or the heavens above.

■ Scholars differ as to the precise purpose of this carriage. Perhaps it was intended to allow the emperor to tour his realm in the afterlife much as he had done while alive. Or did it serve a one-time purpose to transport the emperor's soul into the afterlife? What line of reasoning might support either of these interpretations?

■ The carriages were found deliberately buried in a wooden coffin and facing west. What significance might you attach to these facts?

CONSIDERING THE EVIDENCE I VISUAL SOURCES: QIN SHIHUANGDI AND CHINA'S ETERNAL EMPIRE 187

Using the Evidence:

Qin Shihuangdi and China's Eternal Empire

1. Describing Shihuangdi: Based on these visual sources and what you have learned about Shihuangdi's tomb complex, how would you charac-terize him as a ruler and as a man? In what ways did his reign reflect the views of Han Fei in Document 4.3?

2. Evaluating Shihuangdi: What aspects of Shihuangdi's reign might have provoked praise or criticism both during his life and later?

3. Making comparisons: In what ways were Shihuangdi's reign and his funerary arrangements unique, and in what respects did they fit into a larger pattern of other early rulers? Consider him in relationship to Egyptian pharaohs, Persian rulers, Alexander the Great, Augustus, or Ashoka.

1 WOMEN IN CLASSICAL CHINA: BAN ZHAO

Ban Zhao (ca. 45-120 c.E.), China's "foremost woman scholar," served unofficially as

imperial historian to Emperor He (89-105 c.E.) while acting as an instructor in history,

classical writing, astronomy, and mathematics to the Empress Deng and her ladies-

in-waiting. Summoned to complete the historical books (Han Shu) of her deceased

brother, Gu, the scholarly and talented widow is the only woman in China to have served

in that capacity. Her success in overcoming contemporary restraints on women was due

to an exceptional education, which she attributed to her scholarly parents. As a historian,

moralist, and royal servant, Ban Zhao wrote numerous literary works, including narrative

poems, commemorative verses, eulogies, and her famous Lessons for Women. This brief

educational treatise, written expressly for women and the first of its kind in world history,

offers interesting insights into the Chinese perceptions of the ideal woman as well as

1 st-century Chinese customs. It contains advice in matters of customs and manners for

girls in her family so that they might not "humiliate both your ancestors and your clan."

Ban Zhao's manual was the most successful and durable advice book for women

in Chinese history, helping to support a firmly patriarchal gender system. The book was

reprinted and widely used through the 19th century.

How does Ban Zhao define womanhood and women's roles? How do these defini-

tions relate to other aspects of Chinese society, such as Confucianism?

LESSONS FOR WOMEN

Introduction

I, the unworthy writer, am unsophisticated, unenlightened, and by nature unintelli-

gent, but I am fortunate both to have received not a little favor from my scholarly father, and to have had a (cultured) mother and instructresses upon whom to rely for a literary education as well as for training in good manners. More than forty

years have passed since at the age of fourteen I took up the dustpan and the broom

in the Cao family. During this time with trembling heart I feared constantly that I

might disgrace my parents, and that I might multiply difficulties for both the

women and the men (of my husband's family). Day and night I was distressed in

From Nancy Lee Swann, Ban Zhao, "Lessons for Women," in Pan Chao: Foremost Woman Scholar of China pp 82-87. Copyright © 1966 by the East Asian Library and the Gest Collection, Princeton Univer-sity. Reprinted by permission.

59

60 Section 1Wo / The Classical Perioid, 1000 B.C.E. to 500 C.E.

heart, (but) I labored witho know how to escape (from S i

Being careless, and by out system. Consequently I Imperial Dynasty by whose

t confessing weariness. Now and hereafter, however, I ch fears). ature stupid, I taught and trained (my children) with- fear that my son Gu may bring disgrace upon the oly Grace he has unprecedentedly received the extra-

ordinary privilege of wearing the Gold and the Purple, a privilege for the attain-ment of which (by my son, I) a humble subject never even hoped. Nevertheless, now that he is a man and able to plan his own life, I need not again have concern for him. But I do grieve that you, my daughters, just now at the age for marriage, have not at this time had gradual training and advice; that you still have not learned the proper customs ners in other families you now seriously ill, life is unc state, I have been uneasy ma in seven chapters these instr i

that you may have somethin

or married women. I fear that by failure in good man-11 humiliate both your ancestors and your clan. I am rtain. As I have thought of you all in so untrained a y a time for you. At hours of leisure I have composed

fictions under the title, "Lessons for Women." In order wherewith to benefit your persons, I wish every one

of you, my daughters, each tC ■ write out a copy for yourself. From this time on every one of you strive to practise these (lessons).

' Chapter I: Humility On the third day after the birth of a girl the ancients observed three customs: (first) to place the baby below the bed; (second) to give her a potsherd with which to play; and (third) to anno nce her birth to her ancestors by an offering. Now to lay the baby below the bed p ainly indicated that she is lowly and weak, and should regard it as her primary d ty to humble herself before others. To give her pot-sherds with which to play in ubitably signified that she should practise labor and consider it her primary du to be industrious. To announce her birth before her ancestors clearly meant that she ought to esteem as her primary duty the continua-tion of the observance of worship in the home.

These three ancient customs epitomize a woman's ordinary way of life and the teachings of the traditional ceremonial rites and regulations. Let a woman modestly yield to others; let her respect others; let her put others first, herself last. Should she do something good, let her pot mention it; should she do something bad, let her not deny it. Let her bear dis to her. Always let her seem maxims as these,) then she

ace; let her even endure when others speak or do evil o tremble and to fear. (When a woman follows such ay be said to humble herself before others.

Let a woman retire late to bed, but rise early to duties; let her not dread tasks by day or by night. Let her not refuse to perform domestic duties whether easy or difficult. That which must be done, let her finish completely, tidily, and systematically. (When a wo an follows such rules as these,) then she may be said to be industrious.

Let a woman be correc in manner and upright in character in order to serve her husband. Let her live inpurity and quietness (of spirit), and attend to her own affairs. Let her love not gos ip and silly laughter. Let her cleanse and purify and arrange in order the wine a d the food for the offerings to the ancestors. (When a woman observes such princi les as these,) then she may be said to continue ances-tral worship.

Chapter 10 / Women in Classical China: Ban Zhao 61

No woman who observes these three (fundamentals of life) has ever had a bad reputation or has fallen into disgrace. If a woman fail to observe them, how can her name be honored; how can she but bring disgrace upon herself?

Chapter II: Husband and Wife

The Way of husband and wife is intimately connected with Yin and Yang, and relates the individual to gods and ancestors. Truly it is the great principle of Heaven and Earth, and the great basis of human relationships. Therefore the "Rites" honor union of man and woman; and in the "Book of Poetry" the "First Ode" manifests the principle of marriage. For these reasons the relationship can-not but be an important one.

If a husband be unworthy then he possesses nothing by which to control his wife. If a wife be unworthy, then she possesses nothing with which to serve her hus-band. If a husband does not control his wife, then the rules of conduct manifesting his authority are abandoned and broken. If a wife does not serve her husband, then the proper relationship (between men and women) and the natural order of things are neglected and destroyed. As a matter of fact the purpose of these two (the controlling of women by men, and the serving of men by women) is the same.

Now examine the gentlemen of the present age. They only know that wives must be controlled, and that the husband's rules of conduct manifesting his author-ity must be established. They therefore teach their boys to read books and (study) his-tories. But they do not in the least understand that husbands and masters must (also) be served, and that the proper relationship and the rites should be maintained.

Yet only to teach men and not to teach women,—is that not ignoring the essential relation between them? According to the "Rites," it is the rule to begin to teach children to read at the age of eight years, and by the age of fifteen years they ought then to be ready for cultural training. Only why should it not be (that girls' education as well as boys' be) according to this principle?

Chapter III: Respect and Caution

As Yin and Yang are not of the same nature, so man and woman have different char-acteristics. The distinctive quality of the Yang is rigidity; the function of the Yin is yielding. Man is honored for strength; a woman is beautiful on account of her gen-tleness. Hence there arose the common saying: "A man though born like a wolf may, it is feared, become a weak monstrosity; a woman though born like a mouse may, it is feared, become a tiger."

Now for self-culture nothing equals respect for others. To counteract firmness nothing equals compliance. Consequently it can be said that the Way of respect and acquiescence is woman's most important principle of conduct. So respect may be defined as nothing other than holding on to that which is permanent; and acquiescence nothing other than being liberal and generous. Those who are stead-fast in devotion know that they should stay in their proper places; those who are liberal and generous esteem others, and honor and serve (them).

If husband and wife have the habit of staying together, never leaving one another, and following each other around within the limited space of their own rooms, then they will lust after and take liberties with one another. From such action improper language will arise between the two. This kind of discussion may

62 Section lbw / The Classical Period, 1000 B.C.E. to 500 C.E.

lead to licentiousness. Out of licentiousness will be born a heart of disrespect to the husband. Such a result c mes from not knowing that one should stay in one's proper place.

Furthermore, affairs may be either crooked or straight; words may be either right or wrong. Straightforwardness cannot but lead to quarreling; crookedness cannot but lead to accusation. If there are really accusations and quarrels, then undoubtedly there will be angry affairs. Such a result comes from not esteeming others, and not honoring d serving (them).

(If wives) suppress no contempt for husbands, then it follows (that such wives) rebuke and scold (their husbands). (If husbands) stop not short of anger, then they are certain to beat (their wives). The correct relationship between husband and wife is based upon harmony d intimacy, and (conjugal) love is grounded in proper union. Should actual blo be dealt, how could matrimonial relationship be pre-served? Should sharp word be spoken, how could (conjugal) love exist? If love and proper relationship both b destroyed, then husband and wife are divided.

Chapter IV: Womanly Qualifications

A woman (ought to) have four qualifications: (1) womanly virtue; (2) womanly words; (3) womanly bearing; and (4) womanly work. Now what is called womanly virtue need not be brilliant ability, exceptionally different from others. Womanly words need be neither clever in debate noir keen in conversation. Womanly appearance requires

nor a perfe t face an ; neither a pretty and form. Womanly work need not be work done more skillfully than that of thers.

To guard carefully her chastity; to control circumspectly her behavior; in every motion to exhibit modesty; and to model each act on the best usage, this is womanly virtue.

To choose her words ,ivith care; to avoid vulgar language; to speak at appro-priate times; and not to weary others (with much conversation), may be called the characteristics of womanly words.

To wash and scrub filth away; to keep clothes and ornaments fresh and clean; to wash the head and bathe the body regularly, and to keep the person free from disgraceful filth, may be called the characteristics of womanly bearing.

With whole-hearted devotion to sew and to weave; to love not gossip and silly laughter; in cleanliness an order (to prepare) the wine and food for serving i..a guests, may be called the ch cteristics of womanly work.

These four qualifications characterize the greatest virtue of a woman. No woman can afford to be without them. In fact they are very easy to possess if a woman only treasure them in her heart. The ancients had a saying: "Is Love afar off? If I desire love, then love is at hand!" So can it be said of these qualifications.

Chapter V: Whole -Hearted Devotion

Now in the "Rites" is written the principle that a husband may marry again, but there is no Canon that authorizes a woman to be married the second time. There-fore it is said of husbands as pf Heaven, that as certainly as people cannot run away from Heaven, so surely a wife cannot leave (a husband's home).

If people in action or character disobey the spirits of Heaven and of Earth, then Heaven punishes them. Likewise if a woman errs in the rites and in the proper

Chapter 10 / Women m Classical China: Ban Zhao 63

mode of conduct, then her husband esteems her lightly. The ancient book, "A Pat-tern for Women," . . . says: "To obtain the love of one man is the crown of a woman's life; to lose the love of one man is to miss the aim in woman's life." For these reasons a woman cannot but seek to win her husband's heart. Nevertheless, the beseeching wife need not use flattery, coaxing words, and cheap methods to gain intimacy.

Decidedly nothing is better (to gain the heart of a husband) than whole-hearted devotion and correct manners. In accordance with the rites and the proper mode of conduct, (let a woman) live a pure life. Let her have ears that hear not licentiousness; and eyes that see not depravity. When she goes outside her own home, let her not be conspicuous in dress and manners. When at home let her not neglect her dress. Women should not assemble in groups, nor gather together (for gossip and silly laughter). They should not stand watching in the gateways. (If a woman follows) these rules, she may be said to have whole-hearted devotion and correct manners.

If, in all her actions, she is frivolous, she sees and hears (only) that which pleases herself. At home her hair is dishevelled, and her dress is slovenly. Outside the home she emphasizes her femininity to attract attention; she says what ought not to be said; and she looks at what ought not to be seen. (If a woman does such as) these, (she may be) said to be without whole-hearted devotion and correct manners.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. According to Ban Zhao, what were women's roles and purposes? How did Ban Zhao's approach fit the definition of patriarchalism?

2. What was Confucian about Ban Zhao's approach? 3. How good is this source as a means of determining women's situation in classi-

cal China? What social classes would this advice best apply to and why? 4. What was the relationship between these recommendations and Ban Zhao's

own life? 5. How could women use Ban Zhao's ideas to some advantage in winning certain

protections and benefits within a patriarchal system? 6. How does Ban Zhao's version of patriarchy compare with Middle Eastern patri-

archy in the early civilization period, as suggested by the Hammurabi code and Jewish law?

ESSAY SUGGESTIONS

A. Ban Zhao's book is an example of prescriptive literature—a formal effort to define standards for a society. In your essay, discuss how different segments of classical Chinese society would have reacted to prescriptive standards of this sort—accepting, rejecting, modifying, or ignoring.

B. Using Ban Zhao's manual as evidence, discuss why women in a society like that of classical China did not openly rebel against patriarchal standards.

PORTRAIT OF BAN ZHAO

64

•••••■•■•■••••••••••••■••■...

.140011....11MNi Portrait by Jim Culiang.

.... r,

The woodcut was published around 1690, early in the Qing dynasty and hundreds of years after Ban Zhao lived. The image is obviously the artist's invention and illustrates not Ban Zhao her- self but her legacy. To what extent does it suggest continuity with Ban Zhao's own standards? (Wan-go Weng Archive)

Generic Core-Scoring Guide for AP World History

Document-Based Question

Basic Core: Competence

1. Has acceptable thesis.

Points

1

Historical Thinking Skills Assessed

• Argumentation

• Depending on the topic of the question: • Historical Causation • Comparison • Patterns of Continuity and

Change Over Time 2. Addresses all of the

documents and demonstrates understanding of all or all but one.

1 • Use of Historical Evidence

3. Supports thesis with appropriate evidence from all or all but one document.

[Supports thesis with appropriate evidence from all but two documents.]

2

(1)

• Argumentation • Depending on the topic of the

question: • Historical Causation • Comparison • Patterns of Continuity and

Change Over Time 4. Analyzes point of view in at

least two documents. 1 • Use of Historical Evidence

5. Analyzes documents by grouping them in two or three ways, depending on the question.

1 • Argumentation • Use of Historical Evidence • Depending on the topic of the

question: • Historical Causation • Comparison • Patterns of Continuity and

Change Over Time 6. Identifies and explains the need

for one type of appropriate additional document or source.

1 • Argumentation • Use of Historical Evidence

Subtotal 7 Essay as a whole: Synthesis

I

GRADES: 9=97, 8 92, 7 87, 6-82, 5-77, 4-72, 3-67, 2-62, 1-57, 0=50

84 PP World History

Points

0-2

Expanded Core:

Excellence

Expands beyond basic core of 1-7 points. A student must earn 7 points in the basic core area before earning points in the expanded core area.

Examples: • Has a clear, analytical, and

comprehensive thesis. • Shows careful and insightful

analysis of the documents. • Uses documents persuasively as

evidence. • Analyzes point of view in most or

all documents. • Analyzes the documents in

additional ways — groupings, comparisons, syntheses.

• Brings in relevant "outside" historical content.

• Explains why additional types of document(s) or sources are needed.

Historical Thinking Skills

Assessed

• Same skills as noted in basic core

• Other historical thinking skills may be demonstrated depending on the question and the documents

Subtotal 2 9 TOTAL

.PP World History 85

Generic Core-Scoring Guide for AP World History Comparative Essay

Basic Core: Competence

1. Has acceptable thesis. (Addresses comparison of the issues or themes specified.)

Points

1

Historical Thinking Skills Assessed

• Argumentation • Comparison

2. Addresses all parts of the question, though not necessarily evenly or thoroughly.

2 • Argumentation

[Addresses most parts of the question; for example, deals with differences but not similarities.]

(1)

3. Substantiates thesis with appropriate historical evidence.

2 • Argumentation

[Partially substantiates thesis with appropriate historical evidence.]

(1)

4. Makes at least one relevant, direct comparison between/ among societies.

1 • Comparison

5. Analyzes at least one reason 1 • Comparison for a similarity or difference identified in a direct comparison.

• Causation

Subtotal 7 Essay as a whole: Synthesis

GRADES: 9=97, 8=92, 7=87, 6=82, 5=77, 4=72, 3=67, 2=62,1=57, 0=50

88 PP World History

Points

0-2

Expanded Core: Excellence

Expands beyond basic core of 1-7 points. The basic score of 7 must be achieved before a student can earn expanded core points.

Examples: • Has a clear, analytical, and

comprehensive thesis. • Analyzes all parts of the

question thoroughly (as relevant): comparisons, chronology, causation, connections, themes, interactions, content.

• Provides ample historical evidence to substantiate thesis.

• Relates comparisons to larger global context.

• Makes several direct comparisons consistently between or among societies.

• Consistently analyzes the causes and effects of relevant similarities and differences.

Historical Thinking Skills

Assessed

• Same skills as noted in basic core

• Other historical thinking skills may be demonstrated depending on the question

Subtotal 2 9 TOTAL

PP World History 89

Generic Core-Scoring Guide for AP World History Continuity and Change-Over-Time Essay

Basic Core: Competence

1. Has acceptable thesis.

(Addresses the global issues

and the time period(s)

specified.)

Points

1

Historical Thinking Skills Assessed

• Argumentation

• Patterns of Continuity and Change Over Time

2. Addresses all parts of the

question, though not necessarily evenly or thoroughly.

2 • Argumentation

[Addresses most parts of

the question; for example,

addresses change but not

continuity.]

(1)

3. Substantiates thesis with

appropriate historical evidence.

2 • Argumentation

[Partially substantiates thesis

with appropriate historical

evidence.]

(1)

4. Uses relevant world historical

context effectively to explain

continuity and change over

time.

1 • Contextualization

5. Analyzes the process of 1 • Patterns of Continuity and

continuity and change over Change Over Time

time. • Causation

Subtotal 7 Essay as a whole: Synthesis

GRADES: 9=97, 8=92, 7=87, 6=82, 5=77, 4=72, 3=67, 2=62, 1=57, 0=50

86 PP World History

Points

0-2

Expanded Core: Excellence

Expands beyond basic core of 1-7 points. The basic score of 7 must be achieved before a student can earn expanded core points.

Examples: • Has a clear, analytical, and

comprehensive thesis. • Analyzes all issues of the

question (as relevant): global context, chronology, causation, change, continuity; effects, content.

• Provides ample historical evidence to substantiate thesis.

• Provides links with relevant ideas, events, trends in an innovative way.

Historical Thinking Skills Assessed

• Same skills as noted in basic core

• Other historical thinking skills may be demonstrated depending on the question

2 Subtotal

9 TOTAL

PP World History 87