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Table&Of&Contents&
ASSESSMENT&OF&THE&ENTREPRENEURSHIP&LEVEL&OF&THE&UNIVERSITY&STUDENTS&AT&THE&SPORTS&MANAGEMENT&DEPARTMENTS 1&
İlker'Özmutlu,'Fatih'Yıldırım,'Serkan'Naktiyok &
ASSERTIVENESS&LEVEL&OF&&STUDENTS&STUDYING&AT&SCHOOL&OF&PHYSICAL&EDUCATION&AND&SPORTS 8&�
KƐŵĂŶ�'mDmb'm>͕�DĞŚŵĞƌ�'PZ�>͕�DĞŚŵĞƚ���D7Z�> &
DETERMINATION&OF&EXPECTATION&AND&SATISFACTION&LEVELS&OF&ATHLETES&WHO&PLAYED&VOLLEYBALL&ON&SECONDARY&INSTITUTIONS 14&
Fethi'Yıldırım,'Hüseyin'Ç.'Batmaz,'Yonca'S.'Biçer,'Mustafa'Karadağ,'Yüksel'Savucu &
EXAMINING&THE&RELATIONSHIP&BETWEEN&LIFE&SATISFACTION&AND&TENNIS&AS&A&SERIUOS&LEISURE&ACTIVITY 24&
Hakan'Eravşar,'Gökhan'Acar,'Barbaros'Serdar'Erdoğan,'Ahmet'Şahin &
COMMUNITY?BASED&SPORT&PROGRAM—VEHICLE&TO&PYD 29
Corliss'Bean
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Assessment of the Entrepreneurship Level of the University Students at the Sports Management Departments İlker Özmutlu [1] Fatih Yildirim [2] Serkan Naktiyok [2]
[1] Kafkas University, Sarıkamış School of Physical Education and Sports
[2] Kafkas University, Sarıkamış Vocational School ABSTRACT
The aim of this study is to analyse in terms of several varieties the level of entrepreneurship of the students studying Sport Management at Physical Education and Sport Collage. The research group of the study done by the relational screening model constitutes a total of 266 students including 142 men and 124 women from Kafkas University Department of Physical Education in Sarıkamış and from the Sport Management Department of the Sport Collage in the 2012/2013 academic year. The “Scale of Entrepreneurship of the University Students “ was applied as the data collection tool. It was developed by Yilmaz and Sümbül (2009) with the Personal Information Form. In the analysis of the data the SPSS 14 package was used and the data was interpreted by using T Test, One Way ANOVA according to the structure of the study and Tukey Test in order to determine the differences between the groups.
As the result of the study shows that there are significant differences between the findings related to the level of entrepreneurship of the students in the Department of Sport Management on the gender variable and the level of entrepreneurship on variable of high school types from which the students graduated, there were not found significant differences in the relation between the level of entrepreneurship of the class variable, living variable and the educational variable.
Keywords:0Sport!Management,!Student,!Entrepreneurship.
!
INTRODUCTION0
The!constant!renewal!of!communication!in!today’s!world,!the!occurring!developments!in!communication!and!
technology,!globalization!and!all!that!they!bring!along!cannot!make!the!changes!suppressed.!This!change!is!the!cause!
of!differentiating!the!living!conditions,!changing!!the!habits!of!the!society,!shortly!!feeling!the!change!in!all!the!cells.!
Therefore,!now!the!basic!condition!of!success!the!exchange!of!people!should!reflect!through!all!their!lives.As!the!time!
forces!to!take!the!necessary!precautions!by!feeling!the!change!in!society,!to!dominate!the!change!and!to!adopt!the!
differentiations!of!the!surrounding!area!actively.!The!road!to!success!could!be!reached!by!being!creative,!thinking!
opportunity!orientated,!dynamism!briefly!through!being!entrepreneurial.!
Entrepreneurship!is!a!term!that!is!often!used!whether!in!daily!life,!in!economic!or!in!administrative!areas.!
Indeed,!the!literature!of!entrepreneurship!occurred!from!many!disciplines!(economics,!sociology,!management!and!
organizations,!psychology,!anthropology!etc.).!This!shows!that!there!is!not!a!single!definition!about!entrepreneurship!
and!that!entrepreneurship!is!a!constantly!changing!phenomenon.!
!If!we!were!to!look!at!a!few!definitions!of!entrepreneurship;!“!it!is!a!process!of!setting!up!a!new!business!or!
enlargement!and!of!creating!goods!or!services!in!order!to!create!value!or!profit”!(Bird,!1989).!Entrepreneurship,!“!is!a!
value!creation!process!for!finding!new!products,!services,!resource!technology!and!market!by!using!creative!skills!and!
making!innovation”!(Coulter,!2001).!According!to!the!definition!of!Mueller!and!Thomas!entrepreneurship!“!!is!an!
activity!to!create!an!organization!in!order!to!perceive!an!opportunity!and!to!seize!that!opportunity”!(Mueller!and!
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Thomas,!2001).!In!other!definition!entrepreneurship!“!is!a!process!of!the!discovery!of!new!things!and!an!estimate!of!risk!and!gain”!(Kinicki,!2003).!According!to!the!recognition!made!by!Loundbury!“entrepreneurship!is!the!art!of!providing!optimization!by!examining!alternative!production!processes!and!to!highlight!the!inequalities!in!order!to!obtain!the!opportunity!(Naktiyok,!2004).!!
The!factors!that!are!especially!noticeable!and!generally!accepted!in!entrepreneurship!among!the!varieties!of!these!definitions!are!to!innovate,!to!be!unique,!to!create!value!on!society,!to!set!up!a!new!business!or!to!develop!it,!to!be!focused!on!opportunity!and!to!behave!flexible!and!dynamic.!
As!for!the!definition!of!entrepreneur;!he/she!is!the!person!who!produces!goods,!services!and!ideas!needed!by!the!society!and!offers!them,!aims!to!profit!in!this!direction,!sets!up!business,!makes!research,!planning,!organizing!so!on!works!in!order!to!realize!his!business!idea!and!as!a!result!of!these!he/she!brings!the!inputs!such!as!necessary!knowledge,!skills,!workplace,!personnel,!equipment!and!the!financial!resources!together!(Bozkurt,!2000).!
Besides,!entrepreneur!should!obtain!sustainable!competitive!advantage!over!the!competitors!by!focusing!on!more!rational!and!efficient!innovations!constantly!while!managing!an!economic!activity!by!performing!it.!!As!a!result!of!this!he/she!is!a!person!who!turns!to!new!markets,!develops!unique!products!and!places!them!on!the!market,!provides!rationality,!implements!new!technologies!and!undertakes!more!important!and!difficult!tasks!such!as!mobilizing!greater!capital!(Şenocak,!1992).!
The!entrepreneurs!are!those!who!take!the!power!generation!function!of!a!country’s!progress!and!development!in!!today’s!modern!world!that!we!just!call!“information!society”!where!continuous!changes!occur!with!the!impact!of!globalization!and!development!in!information!and!communication!technologies.!For!this!reason!nowadays!as!a!result!of!changes!the!importance!of!entrepreneurs!has!increased.!In!our!age’s!global!and!regional!development!undeniable!degree!of!important!duties!will!be!dropped!on!the!entrepreneurs.!
! Individuals!should!be!trained!according!to!business!life!and!the!requirements!of!the!community!on!the!basis!of!both!global!and!regional!development.!At!the!same!time!in!line!with!the!education!they!conducted!to!have!an!entrepreneurial!spirit!by!being!employed!in!their!own!professional!fields!has!a!critical!and!great!importance!economically.!In!this!respect,!one!of!the!most!important!factors!in!the!development!of!the!entrepreneurial!spirit!is!to!develop!the!entrepreneurial!characteristics!of!the!people!by!expanding!the!education!on!this!issue!(Çetinkaya,!Bozkurt!2011).!
! In!accordance!with!this!idea!today’s!universities!try!to!adapt!to!the!global!information!age!with!the!pressure!brought!by!the!complex,!multivariate!and!intense!change!and!transformation.!Therefore,!structural!changes!take!place!at!the!universities!and!it!can!be!seen!that!renovations!are!needed!for!the!universities!(Odabaşı,!2005).!The!reasons!that!put!the!universities!into!such!changes!can!be!listed!as!follows:!
_! From!global!approach!,!the!higher!educational!system!needs!to!reach!the!international!standards,!
_! From!the!national!perspective,!factors!such!as!the!universities!requesting!of!taking!an!active!role!in!regional!development,!increasing!the!willingness!to!take!education!in!every!segment!of!the!citizen!in!a!growing!percentage,!the!inadequacies!in!the!production!factors,!the!increasing!population,!efficiency!and!industrialization,!
_! When!we!approach!the!subject!from!industrial!view,!it!is!possible!to!sort!the!factors!as!the!academic!staff’s!desire!to!educate!and!work!in!better!conditions,!the!increase!of!pressure!for!universities!in!various!circles!etc.!
Such!pressures!on!the!institutes!and!organizations!of!higher!education!are!felt!in!intensities!that!increase!its!impact.!Therefore!in!our!country!the!strategic!thinking!of!the!universities!for!the!future!and!the!performing!of!transformation!are!looked!for!ways!by!going!beyond!the!daily!activities!of!the!administrators!especially!in!state!but!in!all!of!the!universities!(Odabaşı,!2005).!The!universities!moving!with!such!a!mind_set!trying!to!integrate!the!structure!of!change!and!transformation!are!aimed!to!increase!the!student’s!entrepreneurial!orientation!with!the!entrepreneurship!education!they!give.!Universities!will!guide!the!young!people!who!want!to!employ!themselves!by!developing!creative!ideas!and!finding!new!business!opportunities!with!their!entrepreneurship!education!(Yüzüak,!2010).!
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! From!this!point!the!aim!of!the!study!is!to!identify!the!trends!in!entrepreneurship!for!the!higher!education!students!who!are!potential!entrepreneurs,!to!determine!the!factors!that!affect!these!trends!and!to!investigate!whether!these!factors!show!any!differences!between!the!faculties.!In!this!way!the!investigation!of!the!aspects!of!the!students’!entrepreneurship!will!contribute!to!the!development!of!entrepreneurship.!
METHOD0
Research0model0
Relational!screening!model!was!referred!in!this!process!of!the!research.!According!to!Karasar!(2009)!“Relational!Screening!model”!is!a!type!of!model!which!aims!to!determine!the!degree!or!the!mutual!alteration!circumstance!of!two!or!more!variables.!Screening!models!were!defined!as!approaches!which!aim!to!describe!an!occasion!obviously!that!was!occurred!in!the!past!and!is!still!present.!The!person!or!the!object!that!were!subjected!to!the!research!was!described!authentically!in!their!own!conditions!and!it!was!emphasized!that!the!effort!to!change!or!influence!them!was!not! !tried.!Research!Group:!the!Research!Group!was!populated!by!266!students!of!which!142!were!boys!and!124!were!girls!who!were!studying!sport!management!at!Kafkas!University,!Department!of!Physical!Education!and!Sports!Collage.!A!number!of!eight!questionnaire!forms!were!excluded!from!the!total!number!which!of!274,!because!of!failure!or!incomplete!fulfilling.!!
Data0Collection000
In!the!process!of!collecting!data!after!having!told!the!students!about!the!questionnaire!and!its!context,!questionnaire!consisted!of!two!parts!was!delivered.!The!first!part!called!personal!information!questionnaire!was!to!determine!the!demographic!features!of!the!students!and!the!second!part!had!entrepreneurial!scale!which!was!developed!to!determine!the!entrepreneurship!level!of!the!students.!!
Data0Collection0Tool0
Entrepreneurship!scale!was!developed!by!Yılmaz!and!Sümbül!(2009)!applied!to!students.!This!scale!was!developed!by!researchers!to!determine!the!entrepreneurial!features!of!the!students.!Likert!type!was!formed!out!by!36!items!and!designed!through!5!(very!often)!to!1(never)!rate!form.!Cronbach!alfa!reliability!and!validity!analyses!were!involved!to!collected!data!after!trial!application.!It!was!found!out!that!all!the!items!were!gathered!up!one!size!as!a!result!of!the!validity!analyses!which!was!involved!with!basic!components!analysis.!Within!the!result!of!the!reliability!analysis!Crombach!alfa!reliability!coefficient!was!found!as!0.90!!(Yılmaz!and!Sümbül,!2009).!!
Data0Analysis0
In!data!analysing!and!explicating,!research!data!was!determined!whether!the!research!data!had!features!of!normal!distribution!or!not.!Before!the!entrepreneurship!level!of!the!students!of!Department!of!Sport!Management!was!tested!according!to!variables!by!using!the!one!sample!Kolmogorov_Smirnov!Test!(see!Table!1.).!As!shown!in!the!Table,!the!samples!were!drawn!from!the!same!distribution.!After!this!test!(One!sample!KS!test),!T!test,!OneWayAnova!and!Tukey!Test!were!used!in!order!to!determine!the!difference!between!the!groups.!
Table01.0One0sample0KS0Test0showing0entrepreneurship0levels0of0students0of0Sport0Management0Department0
! Entrepreneurship!level!N!!! 266!Mean! 137,3684!Std.!Deviation! 18,0339!Kolmogorov_Smirnov! 0,804!P! 0,537!
In!Table!1,!!it!is!seen!that!(p>0.05)!these!proves!that!the!data!is!suitable!to!normal!distribution.!
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Table02.0the0test0results0about0entrepreneurship0levels0of0students0of0Sport0Management0Department0according0to00gender0variable.00
! n0 Mean0 SD0 T0 p0
Male! 142! 139,5352! 16,9005! 2,111! 0,036!Female! 124! 134,8871! 19,0166!
0In!Table!2,!it!is!determined!that!the!difference!between!the!entrepreneurship!levels!of!the!students!of!Sport!Management!Department!according!to!gender!variable!is!meaningful.![!T!value!=!2.111,!p=!0.036<0.05]!The!average!values;!entrepreneurship!level!of!male!students!(x=139.5352),!entrepreneurship!level!of!female!students!(x=134.8871).!
Table03.0OneWayAnova0test0results0showing0entrepreneurship0level0of0students0of0Sport0Management0Department0according0to0class0variable.00
Source0of0varyans0 KT0 Sd0 KO0 F0 P0 Dif.00
Between!groups! 623,888! 3! 207,963! 0,637! 0,592! _!! ! ! !In_groups! 85560,007! 262! 326,565!
0
In!Table!3,!it!is!determined!that!the!difference!between!the!entrepreneurship!level!of!the!students!of!Sport!Management!Department!is!not!meaningful!according!to!class!variable.![!f!value!=!0.6371!p=!0.592>!0.05]!
Table04.0OneWay0Anova0results0showing0entrepreneurship0levels0of0student0of0Sport0Management0Department0according0to0their0residence0variable0
Source! of!varyans!
KT0 Sd0 KO0 F0 P0 Dif.00
Between!groups!
1524,560!
6! 254,093!
0,777!
0,588!
_!
! ! ! !
In_groups! 84659,335!
259!
326,870!
!
In!Table!4,!it!is!determined!that!the!difference!between!the!entrepreneurship!levels!of!the!students!of!Sport!Management!Department!is!not!meaningful!according!to!their!residence![f!value!=!0.777!p=!0.588>!0.05]!
Table05.0T0Test0results0showing0entrepreneurship0levels0of0student0of0Sport0Management0Department0according0to0their0education0type0variable0
! n0 Mean0 Std.0Deviation0 T0 p0
I.Education! 146! 138,4795! 18,0846! 1,109! 0,269!II.!Education! 120! 136,0167! 17,9547!
0In!Table!5,!it!is!determined!that!the!difference!between!the!entrepreneurship!levels!of!the!students!of!Sport!Management!Department!is!not!meaningful!according!to!their!education!type!variable![t!value!=!1,109!p=!0.269!>0.05]!
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Table06.0OneWayAnnova0results0showing0entrepreneurship0levels0of0student0of0Sport0Management0Department0
according0to0their0high0school0type0variable0from0which0they0graduated0
Source!of!varyans! KT0 Sd0 KO0 F0 P0 Dif.000
Between!groups! 4502,981! 6! 750,497! 2,380! 0,030! 4_7!
! ! ! !
In_groups! 81680,913! 259! 315,370!
0
In!Table!6.,!it!is!determined!!that!the!difference!between!the!entrepreneurship!levels!of!the!students!of!Sport!Management!Department!is!meaningful!according!to!their!graduated!high!school!variable
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entrepreneurship!lessons!and!other!parallel!lessons!to!entrepreneurship!lessons!such!that!lack!of!these!lessons!makes!students!unaware!of!their!entrepreneurship!which!they!own!potentially.!When!similar!studies!are!examined!it!is!seen!that!our!study!result!is!similar!to!those!of!Kılıç’s!(2012)!and!Abdullaeva’s(2007).!Yet!it!is!different!from!Kormaz’s!(2012)!study!results.!This!study!states!that!the!entrepreneurship!levels!of!4th!grade!students!are!higher!than!of!1st!grade!students.!As!for!the!cause!of!this!difference!it!could!be!told!that!both!two!sample!groups!have!different!content!of!licence!program.!!
According!to!residence!unit!(place)!it!is!determined!that!the!difference!between!entrepreneurship!levels!of!students!of!Sport!Management!Department!is!meaningful.!According!to!this!result!it!is!found!out!that!the!residence!unit!where!the!students!live!do!not!have!effect!on!their!entrepreneurship!levels.!It!is!because!that!the!majority!of!these!students!are!those!who!live!in!Eastern_Anatolian!Region,!South_eastern!Anatolian!Region.!It!could!be!thought!that!these!regions!do!not!provide!enough!opportunities!to!students!in!means!of!entrepreneurship.!Özman!(2013)!made!a!similar!research!whose!result!supports!our!study!results.!!
According!to!the!education!type!variable!it!is!determined!that!the!difference!between!entrepreneurship!levels!of!students!of!Sport!Management!Department!is!not!meaningful.!This!result!states!that!the!education!type!variable!of!students!do!not!have!relation!with!the!entrepreneurship!levels.!This!could!be!caused!by!the!insufficient!employment!provided!by!the!region!where!the!students!study!and!the!majority!of!them!are!from!the!same!region!and!the!same!content!of!education.!When!the!similar!studies!are!examined!these!result!is!different!from!the!result!of!Kormaz’s!study!(2012).!According!to!the!result!of!!Korkmaz’s!study!the!entrepreneurship!of!evening!class!students!are!higher.!The!cause!of!the!difference!between!these!two!studies!could!be!told!that!evening!class!students!have!more!free!time!and!also!they!are!stimulated!by!the!willingness!to!earn!their!education!costs!so!this!willingness!motivates!them!in!means!of!entrepreneurship.!
According!to!the!graduated!high!school!type!variable!the!entrepreneurship!levels!of!the!students!who!are!graduated!from!Anatolian!High!School!are!higher!than!of!the!students!who!are!graduated!from!Foreign!Language!Intensified!High!School.!By!looking!at!this!result!it!could!be!told!that!the!students!who!are!graduated!from!Anatolian!High!School!are!more!entrepreneurial!in!means!of!producing!and!improving!new!thoughts!and!projects,!when!compared!with!the!students!who!are!graduated!from!Foreign!Language!Intensified!High!School.!This!is!because!that!Foreign!Language!Intensified!Schools!leads!students!to!specific!professions!yet!Anatolian!High!Schools!lead!students!to!professions!which!require!more!technique!and!capability.!
As!a!result!of!the!study!which!was!carried!out!about!the!entrepreneurship!levels!of!students!of!Sport!Management!Department,!various!findings!are!gained!about!the!entrepreneurship!levels!of!the!students.!According!to!these!findings!it!is!pointed!out!that!the!gender!of!the!students!are!directly!related!to!entrepreneurship!levels!and!boys!are!more!entrepreneurial!than!the!girls.!Besides,!meaningful!differences!are!found!about!the!graduated!high!school!type!variable.!The!entrepreneurship!level!of!students!who!graduated!from!Anatolian!High!School!are!higher!than!of!the!Foreign!Language!Intensified!High!School!students.!The!other!findings!show!that!education!type!variable,!class!variable!and!residence!variable!where!the!students!live!do!not!have!relation!with!the!entrepreneurship!levels!of!the!students.!
REFERENCES0
Abdullaeva,!F!(2007).!Entrepreneurship!Characteristics!and!Work!Values!of!Students:!A!Comparison!of!Kyrgyzstan,!Uzbekistan,!Azerbaijan!and!Turkey.!Master!Thesis.!Sakarya!University,!Institute!of!Social!Sciences.!Sakarya.!
Aktürk,!E!(2012).!Trends!of!Personality!Characteristics!of!University!Students!on!the!Effect!of!Entrepreneurship:!A!Research!at!Düzce!University.!Master!Thesis,!Düzce!University,!Institute!of!Social!Sciences.!Düzce.!
Arslan,!K!(2002).!The!Tendencies!of!Professional!Preferences!and!Entrepreneurship!Among!Undergraduate!Students.!Doğuş!University!Journal.!3(2),!1_11.!
Avşar,!M!(2007).!To!Determine!Entrepreneurs!Intentions!of!University!Students,!Study!on!Çukurova!University!Students.!Master!Thesis.!Çukurova!University,!Department!of!Business!Administrations.!Adana.!
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Barbara,!J.B!(1989).!Entrepreneurial!Behavior.!Foresman!and!Company,!Illinois.!
Bozkurt,!Ö!(2011).!!Dünyada!ve!Türkiye’de!Girişimcilik!Eğitimi:!Başarılı!Girişimciler!ve!Öğretim!Üyelerinden!
Öneriler.!Ankara,!Detay!Yay.!!
Bozkurt,!R!(2000).!Girişimci!ve!Rol!Bilinci.!İş!Fikirleri!Dergisi,!Aralık,!!2000/12.!
Coulter,!M!(2001).!Entrepreneurship!in!Action,!Prentice!Hall!Inc.!New!Jersey.!
Crant,!J.M!(1996).!The!Proactive!Personality!Scale!as!a!Predictor!of!Entrepreneurial!Intentions.!Journal!of!Small!
Business!Management,!July,!s.42_49.!
İbicioğlu!H,!Özdaşlı!K,!Alparslan!A.M!(2009).!Girişimci!Özellikler!ve!Girişimcilik!Türü!Tercihi!Üzerinde!Ebeveyn!
Etkisi:!Mehmet!Akif!Ersoy!Üniversitesi!Araştırması.!Selçuk!Üniversitesi,!Sosyal!Bilimler!Meslek!Yüksek!Okulu!
Dergisi.!12(1_2),!521_538.!
Karasar,!N!(2009).!Bilimsel!Araştırma!Yöntemi.!Ankara:!Nobel!Yayınevi.!
Kılıç!R,!Keklik!B,!Çalış!N!(2012).!A!Study!On!Entrepreneurshıp!Tendency!Of!Unıversıty!Students!:!Example!Of!
Bandırma!Department!Of!Busıness!Admınıstratıon!!Suleyman!Demirel!University!The!Journal!of!Faculty!of!
Economics!!and!Administrative!Sciences.!!17(2),!423_435.!!
Kınıckı,!A,!Williams,!B.K.!(2003).!Management,!A!Practical!Introduction,!New!York:!McGraw_Hill/Irwin.!
Korkmaz,!O!(2012).!A!research!on!Determining!the!Entrepreneurialism!Inclination!of!University!Students:!Bülent!
Ecevit!University!Example.!!Afyon!Kocatepe!University!Journal!Of!Economics!And!Administrative!Sciences.!14!(2),!
209_226.!
Mueller,!S,!Thomas,!A.S!(2001).!Culture!and!Entrepreneurial!Potential:!A!Nine!Country!Study!of!Locus!of!Control!
and!Innovativeness.!Florida!International!University,!Miami,!National!Academy!of!Management,!Journal!of!
Business!Venturing,!16!(1),!51_75.!
Naktiyok,!A!(2004).!İç!Girişimcilik.!İstanbul,!Beta!Yayınevi.!
Odabaşi,!Y!(2006).!Entrepreneurial!University!as!a!Tool!of!Change!and!Transformation.!Canakkale!Onsekiz!Mart!
University!Journal!of!Entrepreneurship!and!Development!1!(1),!87_104.!
Örücü,!E,!Kılıç,!R,!Özer!Y!(2007).!Familial!Factors!in!Entrepreneurial!Impact!of!Trends!of!University!
Students'.Canakkale!Onsekiz!Mart!University!Journal!of!Entrepreneurship!and!Development.!2!(2),!27_47.!
Özman,!C!(2013).!!Assessment!of!the!Entrepreneurship!level!of!the!University!Students!at!the!Sports!Management!
Departments.!Master!Thesis.!Marmara!University,!Institute!of!Health!Sciences.!İstanbul.!
Şenocak,!B!(1992).!2000’li!Yılların!Girişimcilik!Modeli.,!3.!İzmir!İktisat!Kongresi,!İzmir.!181_186.!
Yılmaz!E,!Sünbül!M.Y!(2009).!Developing!Scale!Of!University!Students!Entrepreneurship.!Selçuk!University!the!
Journal!of!Institute!of!Social!Sciences.!21,!195_203.!!
Yüzüak,!E!(2010).!The!Factors!Effect!on!Entrepreneurial!İntentions!of!Female!Students!in!the!Universities:!
Çanakkale!Onsekiz!Mart!University!Biga!I.I.B.F.!Sample.!Master!Thesis.!18!Mart!University,!Institute!of!Social!
Sciences,!Çanakkale.!
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Assertiveness Level of Students Studying at
School of Physical Education and Sports 2VPDQ�*h0hā*h/��0HKPHU�*g5$/��0HKPHW�'(0Ā5(/
Kutahya Dumlupinar University, School Of Physical Education and Sports, Recreation Department
Turkey ABSTRACT
The aim of the study is to evaluate assertiveness level of students studying at School of Physical Education and Sports. Totally, 230 students (145 male, 85 female) have taken part in this research. Data is gathered through Rathus Assertiveness Inventory (RAI). Rathus Assertiveness Inventory has been translated to Turkish Language by Voltan Acar (1980). In evaluation part for questionaires answered by participants, frequency analysis, percentage analysis, Independent Sample T-test, One Way ANOVA analysises are used.
According to the results, it has been statistically determined that there are not significant differences on genders and ages (p>0,05); but there are significant differences on analysises done for the places, particapants have lived for the longest time (p<0,05).
Keywords:0Assertiveness,!The!School!Of!Physical!Education!and!Sports,!student
!
INTRODUCTION0
An! individual! should! be! thought! as! integrated!with,! his! physical! and! emotional! specialities,! the! society! he!
lives!with.!The!individual!needs!some!preconditions!on!interpersonal!interactions!and!communications,!to!be!able!to!
display! healthy! social! and! psychological! features.! It! can! be! said! that! there! are! tree!main! behaviours!while! people!
express!themselves.These!behaviour!types!may!be!shown!on!a!scale,!placing!shyness!on!one!edge,!aggresiveness!on!
the!other!and!assertiveness!in!the!middle!(Bal,!2006).!
When!speaking!about! the! relations,! it! can!be!said! that! the! individual! reacts!choosing!one!of! the! four!main!
behaviours;! submissive! (passiveness),offensive! (aggresiveness),! router! (manipulativeness)! or! assertiveness! (Oksuz,!
2004).!
The!word!“assertiveness”!in!English!literature,!(translated!as!“atılganlık”!to!Turkish!language),!is!defined!as!a!
behaviour!type!which!enables!the!human!relations!and!interactions!to!be!healthy,!including!showing!respect!to!others!
thoughts!and!expressing!own! feelings,!beliefs!and! thoughts! to!others!directly,truly!and!clearly! to!others! (Bayraktar,!
2007).!
The!term!assertiveness!which!takes!place!in!the!middle!of!the!scale,!came!up!in!the!second!half!of!the!20th!
century!in!USA!,!defining!!a!personal!characteristic,!a!behaviour!type!and!has!been!well!researched.!In!the!late!1970’s,!
being! considered! as! an! appropriate! word,! the! translation! of! “assertiveness”! has! been! accepted! as! “atılganlık”! in!
Turkish!language.!However,!through!the!late!1980’s!it!has!been!decided!that!!the!translation!of!assertiveness!can!be!
“güvengen”,!derived! from! the!word!“güven”(trust,confidence)! just!as! the!other!words! in!Turkish!which!are!derived!
with!the!appendixes!–gen,!_!gan,!_ken,!_kan!(Acar,!2008).!
Alberti!and!Emmons!described!the!assertive!individual!as!a!person!who!is!really!interested!in!other!people,!moreover!
who!knows!his!rights!well!(Bicer,!2009,!Cam!2010,!Efe,!2007,!Efe!2008,!Kutlu!2009,!Ozsaker!2010).!
Assertiveness!is!used!in!the!meanings,!“displaying!yourself!effectively”,!“behaving!effectively”,!“confident!behaviour”,!
“being!self_starter”!(Dincyurek,!2010,!Karatas!2009).!
According! to! İnceoğlu! and!Aytar,! assertiveness! is! a!healthy!way!of!behaviour!on! interpersonal! interactions!
and!communications!also!described!as!the!individual!expressing!his!feelings!,!needs,!thoughts!and!protecting!his!own!
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rights,!considering!the!other!people!too.!
Wolpe!describes!assertive!behaviour!as,!a!feeling!being!expressed!to!the!others!in!a!proper!way!(Ozcivanoglu,!
2010).!
Assertiveness! is! a!main! behavioral! feature,!which!might! regarded! as! one! of! the!most! important! behaving!
types!and! forming! the!basis!of! social!development.!Assertive! individuals! know! their!own! rights,! as!well! as! showing!
respect! to! others’! rights! and!express! their! own!possitive! and!negative! thoughts! clearly! and!honestly! in! addition! to!
taking!responsibility!on!their!behaviours,!feelings!and!thoughts!(Kutlu,!2009).!
The! feature! of! assertiveness! aims! to! smooth! the! way! to! success! and! remove! the! threatening! powers.!
Moreover,! it! removes! the! obstacles! which! cause! increases! or! decreases! on! self_achivement! and! realization! of! the!
thoughts(6).!
Lazarus! described! four! items! of! assertive! behaviour.These! are;! Being! able! to! say! no,! being! able! to! make!
demands,!being!able! to!express!possitive!and!negative! thoughts,!being!able! to! start!a! communication,! sustaining! it!
and!ending!it!(12).!
Assertive!individual,!expresses!what!he!wants!to!express!in!a!direct!way,is!a!listener!who!gives!the!impression!
that!he!cares,!can!look!into!others’!eyes,!uses!proper!gestures!with!a!natural!way!of!talking!and!the!toning!of!a!mature!
as!well!as!using!the!appropiate!face!expressions,!is!self_confident,!doesn’t!let!others!to!threat!or!scare!him!with!their!
behaviours,!doesn’t!underestimate!others!or!try!to!take!them!under!his!influence!and!doesn’t!threat!them,!when!feels!
there’s! something! wrong! asks! questions! and! asks! for! explanations,! doesn’t! let! others! use! him,! can! overcome! the!
stressors,! can! express! his! feelings! and! thoughts! without! anxiety,! accepts! he! may! not! have! the! same! ideas! with!
everyone,!can!express!his!opinions!possitively!leaving!space!to!arguement,!while!making!a!decision!can!properly!say!
“yes”! or! “no”,! is! polite! but! when! needed! is! definite! and! can! argue! useful! results,! sets! up! close! relationships,!
determines! the! needs! between!people! and! covers! them,! takes! his! own!decisions! on! life! and! realizes! his! aims,! can!
express! his! possitive! and! negative! feelings! honestly! and! properly,! developes! him_self! constantly,! his! performance!
satisfaction!and!work!satisfaction!are!high!(Efe,!2007).!
Considering!these!explanations!it!is!possible!to!define!assertiveness!as!the!ability!of!the!individual!to!express!
his! feelings,! thoughts,!demands!and!complaints! in!a!democratic!way,as!well! as!having! the!ability! to! say! “no”!when!
needed!(Tekin,!2010).!
In!this!research!the!assertiveness!level!of!the!students!who!are!studying!at!School!of!Physical!Education!and!
Sports!has!been!searched!related!on!their!gender,!age,!the!places!they!have!lived!for!the!longest!period!of!time.!
MATERIAL0AND0METHOD0
Sample0Group0
The! sample! of! the! research! is! described! as! “230! students! (145!male,! 85! female)! studying! Department! of! Physical!
Education! and! Sports! Teaching,! Department! of! Sports! Management,! Department! of! Coach! Training! in! Sports! and!
Department!of!Recreation!at!School!of!Physical!Education!and!Sports!in!Dumlupınar!University”!
Data0Gathering0Means0
To!gather!the!data!for!the!research,!the!demographic!information!forms!and!‘‘Rathus!Assertiveness!Schedule!(RAS)”!
have!been!used.!It!is!an!easy!to!implement!scale!which!the!individuals!can!answer!by!themselves.!The!scale!has!been!
thought! to! the! sampling! group! and! it! has! been! filled! by! the! group! in! accordance! with! the! principle! of! voluntary!
participation.!
At! what! degree,! the! thoughts! and! behaviours! written! in! the! scale! match! with! theirs,! has! been! ! asked! to! the!
participants.!The!options!have!been!selected!as;!very!much!like!me,!rather!like!me,!slightly!like!me,!slightly!unlike!me,!
rather!unlike!me,!very!much!unlike!me!(Voltan,!1980).!
Statistical0Analysis0
The!datas!gathered!from!the!participants!have!been!evaluated!with!the!statistics!package!program!SPSS!17.0.!To!be!
able! to! determine! if! the! avarage! points! of! assertiveness! shows! any! statistical! difference! related! to! the! demografic!
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variables,t_test!and!one_way!analysis!of!variance!(ANOVA)!has!been!applied.And!in!the!case!of!important!differences!of!avarage!points!assertiveness!is!found,Tukey!HSD!multiple!comparison!test!is!used!!to!be!able!to!find!the!source!of!the!difference.The!tolerance!of!error!has!been!accepted!as!.05!in!the!research.!
FINDINGS0
TableU1.!Distributions!of!The!Personal!Informations!of!the!research!group!
FACTOR VARIABLE f %
Gender
Female 85 37
Male 145 63
Total 230 100
Age
17-20 47 20,4
21-23 146 63,5
24-27 32 13,9
28 and over 5 2,2
Total 230 100
Studies
Physical Education Teaching
67 29,1
Sports Management 69 30,0
Coaching 64 27,8
Recreation 30 13,0
Total 230 100
Year of Study
1.00 57 24,8
2.00 55 23,9
3.00 79 34,3
4.00 39 17,0
Total 230 100
Type of the places that the participants have lived for the longest period of time
Village 2 ,9
County borough 52 22,6
Province 65 28,3
Metropole 111 48,3
Total 230 100
!
In!Table!1!the!distribution!of!the!personal!information!on!the!participants!have!been!given.!According!to!the!datas!it!can!be!seen!that!63%!of!the!students!who!have!participated!in!the!research!are!“male”!and!37%!are!“female”!(M=85).!
Four!different!age!intervals!are!used.When!evaluated!it!can!be!seen!that!as!a!big!mass,!63.5%!of!!the!students!are!at! the!age!between!“21_23”!have!participated! in! the! research!and!“28!and!over”!aged! students!have!been! the!
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lowest!number!of!students!who!took!place!in!the!research!with!a!rate!of!%2.2.!
It!has!been!determined!that!34.3%!of!the!students!who!participated!in!the!research!on!3rd!year!of!their!study!and!with!a!rate!of!24.8%!of!the!students!participated!in!the!research!on!1st!year!of!their!study”.!!
It! can! be! seen! that! the! 48.3%!of! the! sample! group! have! lived! in! a!metropole!while! 28.3%!have! lived! in! a!province!for!the!longest!period!of!their!life.!
TableU2.!Analysis!of!T_Test!to!determine!the!assertiveness!levels!related!to!the!variable!of!“gender”!of!the!participants.!
!Variable N Χ s.s T P
Female 145 121,4828 13,16567
Male 85 121,2235 14,19035 ,140 ,26
P=0.05!
An! meaningful! statistical! difference! of! assertiveness! points! related! to! genders! hasn’t! been! determined! in! Table_2!(p>0.05).!
TableU3.!ANOVA!Analysis!to!perform!comparison!of!assertiveness!points!related!to!ages!of!the!participants.!Variable N Χ s.s F P
17-20 47 117,8298 13,08554
2,57
0,55
21-23 146 121,9589 13,26592
24-27 32 122,1250 14,00403
28 and over 5 133,4000 15,99375
Total 230 121,3870 13,52316
P=0,05!
When!the!assertiveness!points!are!compared!considering!the!ages!of!the!participants!it!has!been!seen!that!there’s!no!meaningful!difference!between!the!age!groups.!
!
Table_4.! ANOVA! Analysis! to! perform! comparison! of! assertiveness! points! related! to! the! type! of! places! that! the!participants!have!lived!in!for!the!longest!period!of!their!life.!Variable N Χ s.s F p Tukey
Village 2 110,0000 ,00000
8,74
.000
2-4*
3-4* County borough
52 116,9423 12,05773
Province 65 117,7077 13,30733
Metropole 111 125,8288 13,06409
Total 230 121,3870 13,52316
P=0,05!
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As! a! result! of! the! variance! analysis!which!has!been!performed! to! find! the!differences!of! the! assertiveness!points! related! to! the! type! of! the! places! that! the! participants! have! lived! for! the! longest! period! of! their! life,! an!meaningful!difference!has!been!found!(p>0,05).!
To!find!the!groups!which!cause!the!difference!Tukey!test!has!been!performed.According!to!this,!meaningful!differences!between!the!students!who!have!lived!in!a!county!borough!and!the!students!who!have!lived!in!metropole!for! the! longest!period!of! their! life! ,between!the!students! !who!have! lived! in!a!province!and!the!students!who!have!lived!in!a!metropole!for!the!longest!period!of!their!life,!have!been!determined!(p<0,05).!
DISCUSSION0AND0CONCLUSION0
In! this! research!which! is! thought! to! be! an! example! for! the! researches! on! assertiveness,! the! assertiveness!levels! of! the! students! who! are! studying! at! The! School! of! Physical! Education! in! Dumlupınar! University! have! been!evaluated.!
In! Table_1! it! is! seen! that! 63%! of! the! participants! are! “male”,! 37%! are! “female”! ;! the! biggest!mass! of! the!participants!with!a!rate!of!63.5%!are!at!an!age!between!“21!and!23”!and!the!lowest!number!of!participants!are!“28!and!over”!with!a!rate!of!2.2%.What! is!more,!48.3%!of!the!participants!are!studying!in!the!3rd!class!while!28.3%!are!studying!in!the!1st!class!and!48.3%!of!the!participants!have!lived!in!a!“metropole”!while!28.3%!of!them!have!lived!in!a!“Province”!for!the!longest!period!of!their!life.!
When!analysed,! in! Table_2! it! is! seen! that! there’s!no!meaningful! statistical!differences!on! the!assertiveness!level! related! to! the! genders! of! the! school! of! physical! education! and! sports! students! and! that! both! of! the! gender!groups!gathered!avarage!points.!
According! to!Table_3!although! the! students!at! the!age!of! “28!and!over”!are!determined!as!more!assertive!than!the!students!in!other!age!groups,!there’s!no!meaningful!statical!difference!between!the!age!groups(p>!0,05).!!In!researches! like!this!one,!Erşan!and!his!friends!have!found!the!assertiveness! levels!of!students!at!the!age!of!“21!and!over”,! higher! than! the! assertiveness! levels! of! students! younger! than! 21;! Çam! and! his! friends! have! found! the!assertiveness! levels!of!students!at!the!age!of!“24!and!over”,!higher!than!the!students!younger!than!24.Çam!and!his!friends!think!that!the!reason!that!difference!couldn’t!be!found!!because!all!of!the!students!do!sports!and!the!ages!are!close!to!each!other!(Ersan,!2009,!Cam,!2010)!
Taking!a!look!on!the!Table_4,!it’s!determined!that!there!is!a!meaningful!difference!between!the!students!who!have!lived!in!a!county!borough!and!the!students!who!have!lived!in!a!metropole!for!the!longest!period!of!their!life!in!addition!to!the!meaningful!difference!between!the!students!who!have!lived!in!a!province!and!the!students!who!have!lived!in!a!metropole!for!the!longest!period!of!their!life.(p<0.01)!There’s!no!data!why!this!difference!accrued.For!sure!the! type! of! the! place! that! the! individual! has! lived! for! the! longest! period! of! his! life! would! effect! the! level! of! his!assertiveness.!However,!to!determine!why!this!difference!accrued,!a!new!research!is!needed.!
The!average!of! assertiveness!points!of! the! students! studying!at! School!of!Physical! Education!and!Sports! in!Dumlupınar!University!is!determined!as!121.4!meaning!an!avarage!level!of!assertiveness.!As!well!as!the!educations!on!assertiveness,!it!is!thought!that!habit!of!doing!sports!would!increase!the!level!of!assertiveness.!
By!all!means,!sports!cause!the! individual!to!become!more!social,!help!him!adapt!himself!to!the!society!and!improve! him! psychologically! as! well! as! physically.The! individual! can! get! rid! of! the! negative! effects! caused! by! the!monotonous!conditions!seen!at!the!school!or!at!work,!by!doing!sports.!
By!the!researches!done!with!the!people!doing!sports!and!the!people!not!doing!sports,!it!has!been!determined!that!the!ones!who!do!sports!are!more!active,!more!extrovert,!more!hardworking,!more!patient,!more!ready!to!set!up!social! relations! and! it! is! easier! for! them! to! adapt! themselves! to! a! new! situation,! and! they! are! more! balanced! in!emotional!!orientation.In!one!of!the!researches!it!has!been!determined!that!the!level!of!assertiveness!of!the!students!studying! at! the! School! of! Physical! Education! and! Sports! are! higher! than! the! level! of! assertiveness! of! the! students!studying!in!other!departments(!Arslan,!2010,!Camliyer,!2002,!Ersan,!2009).!
REFERENCES0
Acar!V.N,!Aricioglu,!A,!Gultekin,!F,!Genctarim!D.!(2008).! Investigation!Of!Reliability!Level!Of!University!Students.!
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Journal!of!Education!Faculty,!Hacettepe!University.:!342_350.!
Arslan,! C,! Güllü,! M,! Tutal,! V.! (2010)! Self_Esteem! and! Assertiveness! Levels! of! Physical! Education! Teachers! and!Other!Teachers.!11.!International!Sport!Science!Congress.!Antalya!–!Türkiye.!
Bal,! E! (2006).! Examination!of! the!Relationship!Between! Levels! of! Elementary! School! Students'! Self_perceptions!and!Assertiveness.!Master’s!Thesis.!İstanbul:!Marmara!University.!
Bayraktar,! G.! (2007).! Effects! of! Wrestlers'! Psychological! Needs! and! Assertiveness! Levels! to! Individual!Achievement.!PhD!Thesis.!Ankara:!Gazi!University.!
Biçer,! E.! (2009)! Investıgatıon! Of! Assertiveness! And! Social! Self_Efficacy! Expectation! Levels! Of! Adolescents!Who!Have! Single! Parents! And! Parents! In! Terms!Of! Some!Demographıc! Variables.!Master’s! Thesis.! Adana:! Çukurova!University.!
Cengiz,! R,! Pulur,! A,! Cengiz,! Ş.! (2010).! Investigatıon! Of! Football! Referees’! Agressıon! Types! Accordıng! To! Theır!Classıfıcatıon!Levels.!Gazi!University,!School!of!Physical!Education!and!Sports.!Ankara.!
Cam,!İ,!Özçelik!Y.İ,!Çetin!B,!Salman,!M,!Çekin!R.!(2010).!Investigation!of!Assertiveness!Level!of!Students!Attending!Celal! Bayar! University! College! of! Physical! Education! and! Sports! with! Regard! of! Their! Demographic! Feautures.!Journal!of!Physical!Education!and!Sport!Sciences:!46_51.!
Camlıyer,! H,! Büyükyazı,! G,! Karadeniz! G,! Saracaloğlu,! S,! Çamlıyer,! H.! (2002)! Veteran! Athletes,! Sedanters! and!Assertiveness!Levels!Based!on!Various!Variables.!VII.!International!Sport!Science!Congress.!Antalya.!
Dincyürek,!S,!Çağlar,!B,!Birol,!C.! (2010)!Assertiveness!and! locus!of!control:! Its!effects!on!the!future!generations.!Hacettepe!University.!Journal!of!Education!Faculty!39:!142_150.!
Efe,!M,!Öztürk,!F,!Koparan,!Ş,!Şenışık,!Y.!(2008).!The!Effect!of!Volleyball!Training!on!Social!Efficacy!Expectation!and!Assertiveness!at!14_16!Age!Group!Individuals.!!Uludag!University.!Journal!of!Education!Sciences:!69_77.!
Efe,!M,! Öztürk,! F,! Koparan,! Ş.! (2008).! ! Determination! of! The! Problem! Solving! And! The! Assertiveness! Level! Of!Soccer!Referees!in!Bursa.!Spormetre!School!of!Physical!Education!and!Sports!Sciences.!!
Efe,!Y.!S.!(2007).!Assertiveness!on!Nurses.!Atatürk!University,!Journal!of!School!of!Nursing:!10_3.!
Erşan!E.E,!Doğan!O,!Doğan!S.(2009)!The!Evaluation!from!point!of!view!sociodemographic!variables!of!the!levels!of!aggression!in!the!students!of!College!of!Physical!Education!and!Sports.!Journal!of!Republic!Sciences:!231–238.!!
Kahriman,!I.!(2005).!Examination!of!The!Self_Esteem!and!The!Assertiveness!of!The!Students!at!School!of!Health!!in!Karadeniz!Technical!University!!in!Terms!of!Some!Variables.!Celal!Bayar!University.!Journal!of!School!of!Nursing.!!
Karatas,!S,!Tabak,!N.!(2009).!An!Investigation!of!Assertiveness!Levels!of!Pre_service!Preschool!Teachers!In!Point!of!Some!Socio_demographic!Characteristics!Usak!University.!Journal!of!Social!Sciences:!143_159.!
Kutlu,!Y.!(2009).!The!efficiency!of!the!assertivite!training!for!a!group!of!student!nurses.!Maltepe!University!Journal!of!Nursing!Science!and!Arts:!2_3.!
Oksüz,! Y.! (2004).! The! Impact! Of! Exploring! Feelings! Training! on! The! Assertiveness! of! University! Students.! Gazi!University!Kırsehir!Education!Faculty:!147_156.!
Ozcivanoğlu,!E.!(2010).!Structured!Group!Counseling!Program:!Assertiveness!Skills! ! Journal!of!Abant!Izzet!Baysal!University:!10_1.!
Ozsaker,! M.! (2010)! Comparing! The! Assertiveness! Levels! of! Elite! Adolescent! Sportsmen! and! women! in!Development!Stage.!11th!International!Sport!Sciences!Congress,!Antalya!_!Türkiye.!
Tekin,! S,! Kapanci! I.! (2010).! Effects! of! Socio! Economic! Status! on! Assertiveness! Attitudes! of! Students! in! Social!Science!Education!at!University.!Celal!Bayar!University:!51_66.!
Voltan,!N.!(1980).!Rathus!Assertiveness!Scale,!The!Study!of!Validity!and!Reliability!.!Journal!of!Psychology,!23_25.!! !
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Determination of Expectation and Satisfaction Levels of Athletes Who Played Volleyball on Secondary Institutions Fethi Yıldırım[1] Hüseyin Ç. Batmaz[1] Yonca S. Biçer[2]
Mustafa Karadağ[2] Yüksel Savucu[2]
[1] Ministry of National Education
[2] Firat University, Turkey
ABSTRACT
In this study, it was aimed to analyze of volleyball competitions which organized among secondary school institutions and determine the level of expectation and satisfaction of athletes who participated to the competitions.
The population of the study consisted of the cities (Bingöl, İstanbul, Kıbrıs, Batman, Tunceli, Diyarbakır, Van, Muş, Mardin, Siirt, Şırnak, Elazığ) in volleyball Championship. The sample of the study also consisted of 140 students (71 boys, 69 girls) who participated to volleyball semi-final and group competitions.
In the end of data analysis, it was accepted as 0,05 significant level. According to the research results, it has been seen that the students’ own desire and their physical education teacher have a great influence to beginning to volleyball; friends and the family have been seen as a small contribution.
In conclusion, MEB and GSGM who have an efficient role in volleyball competitions between schools should have an encouragement and endear to sport. Physical conditions should be improved and it was provided that athletes should serves as a healthy, conscious and renewable person to Turkish Education System. In addition, students who represent the school both intramural and interscholastic competitions should be provided the awards by the Ministry of Education and the General Directorate of Youth.
Keywords:0Sports,!Student,!Volleyball,!Expectation,!Satisfaction
!
INTRODUCTION0
! The!Physical! Education! is! a!broad_based!activity,! intended! for!protecting! ! covering! the! individual's!physical!and! mental! health,! a! game,! gymnastics! and! sports_oriented! research! which! can! be! changed! according! to! the!characteristics!of!the!environmental!conditions!and!the!participants!and!which!covers!all!the!of!studies!(İnal,!1998).!In!other!word,!it!is!a!science!which!evaluates!the!leisure!time!of!individuals!and!which!keeps!the!individuals!away!from!daily!problems.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!In! the! recent! years,! the! importance! of! the! development! of! the! psychological! characteristics! along! with! the!conditional! properties! in! the! interaction! of! sport! and! sport! sciences! and! increasing! the! sprots! performance! was!understood.! The!main! of! the! psychological! factors!which! has! a! significant! impact! in! raising! the! performance! is! the!motivation!of! the!players.! It! is! obvious! that! the! relationship!between! the!degree!of! the!motivation!and! its! success!especially! in! sports! is! very! important.! A! situation! with! a! low!motivating! effect,! certainly! results! in! a! little! success!(Arslan!and!Kuru,!1990).!
The!situation!which!is!aimed!to!be!specified!by!the!concept!of!efficiency!in!sport!is!to!have!the!players!take!a!pleasure!which! can!be!describe!as! the!maximum! level! attained! from! the! sports! activities! that! the!players!perform.!!However,! in! what! degree! the! both! the! team! and! himself! served! or! reached! the! targets! set,! is! related! to! the! the!
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current!situation.! !Having!secured!an!efficient!environment! in!the!sports!depends!on!the!interest,!demands!and!the!expectations!of!the!players.!
Before! explaining! the! concept! of! effectiveness! in! the! sports,! a! conclusion! can! be! reached! based! on! the!activity’s!definition! in! the!science!of!business.!The!effectiveness! is!directed! towards! the!most!effectively!use!of! the!scarce!resources!in!the!hands!of!the!enterprises!(Can!et!al.,!2000).!The!concept!of!effectiveness!in!sport!is!the!use!of!all!the!elements!that!could!be!effective!in!parallel!with!the!players’!demands,!and!be!activated!in!this!direction.!The!opportunities!may!be!scarce,!the!conditions!may!be!difficult!in!favor!of!the!players,!and!however,!what!is!important,!should!be!to!create!a!working!environment!that!increases!their!motivation!in!parallel!with!their!demands.!
The!motivation!shall!create!a!work!environment!that!will!result!in!satisfying!the!needs!of!organization!and!the!people,!and!it! is!an!effecting!and!incentivating!activity!that!allows!activating!people.!Being!motivated!is!consisted!of!the!following!stages:!having!needs,! looking!for!appropriate!environment!for!satisfying!the!needs,!be!eager!to!satisfy!the!needs,! looking! for!convenient!options! for!meeting! the!wishes,! testing! the!mode!of!action! in!order! to!meet! any!wish!and!the!last!stage!is!the!satisfaction!!(Güney,!2000).!
The!performance!is!a!process!of!conducting,!evaluating,!pricing!or!awarding!and!developing,!which!increases!the! contribution!degree! to! the! efforts! and! studies! to!be!made,! shown! to! achieve! these!purposes!of! the!personnel!regarding!placing!a!common!understanding!with!regard!to!the!organizational!objectives!required!to!be!achieved!and!in!this!context,!regarding!the!performance!needed!to!demonstrate!by!the!personnel!(Canman,!1995).!
Dicle!(2001),!the!information!collected!in!relation!to!performance,!should!be!conveyed!to!the!relevant!people!and! departments! in! form! of! a! feedback.! If! the! factors! such! as! players’! goals,! physical! environment,! nutrition,!equipment!needs!and!nutiriton!which!will!positively!affect!the!performance!of!the!players!are!being!greatly!improved!and!the!conditions!are!being!made!convenient,!thus!the!performance!of!the!players!shall!increase!to!a!top!level.!And!the!trainers!are!the!most!important!factors!that!will!lead!to!the!formation!of!these!conditions!as!well.!In!addition,!the!trainers! observe! the! players! from! the! outside! and!detecting! their! shortcomings! and!weaknesses,! they! orient! them!(Genç,!1998).!The!players!and!the!trainers!are!the!cornerstones!of! the!training!system!and!have!active!roles.! In!the!mean!time!they!appear!as!decisive!elements!within!the!factors! included!in!all! the!training!resources.!The!success! in!sports!varies!depending!on!the!relationship!between!the!trainer!and!the!players!and!the!quality!of!training!(Konter,!1996).!
The!players’!performance!depends!on!the!capabilities!and!the!qualifications.!When!the!achieved!performance!later!on!is!rewarded,!it!then!turns!to!be!a!job!satisfaction.!The!job!satisfaction!which!means!to!be!happy,!peaceful,!and!safe! at! your! work,! determines! the! nature! and! level! of! effort! to! be! shown! at! the! next! phase! (Barutçugil,! 2004).!Therefore,!the!necessary!! !awarding!should!be!made!in!order!to!increase!the!success! in!the!Volleyball!sports!and!to!have!the!expected!performance!from!the!players!be!increased!to!a!top!level.!
Integrity!is!a!process!remaining!combined!towards!the!tendency!to!be!bound!to!each!others,!the!satisfaction!of!the!desires!and!the!needs!of!the!group!members.!There!is!a!social!factor!effecting!the!formation!of!the!integrity,!which!occurs!due!to!the!social!interaction!of!the!groups!(Carron!et!al.,!1998).!In!addition!to!good!individual!features!in!the!Volleyball!sport,!being!a!team!game!as!well!and!!the!unity!and!togetherness!in!the!team,!are!among!the!important!factors! in! success! of! the! team! sporters! feeling! respect! to! each! others’! rights! and! avoiding! behaviours! that! may!negatively!effect!each!others’!feelings.!
In!this!study!it!was!aimed!to!analyze!the!volleyball!competitions!among!the!secondary!schools!organized!by!the!Ministry!of!National!Education!(MNE)!and!the!General!Directorate!of!Youth!and!Sports!(GDYS)!to!determine!the!expectations!and!satisfaction!levels!of!the!players!participating!in!the!competitions.!
MATERIAL0AND0METHOD0
In! this! study,! a! surver! questions! have! been! prepared,! determining! the! developmental! characteristics,!interests,!and!needs!of!the!players!between!the!ages!group!of!14_17.!In!addition,!a!table!was!presented!utilizing!from!a! variety! of! scientific! techniques.! The! survey! was! applied! in! order! to! determine! the! expectations! and! satisfaction!
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levels! from! the! Volleyball! sport! of! the! youth! who! were! between! 9! and! 12! grade_level,! who! participated! to! the!Volleyball!competitions!in!schools!of!the!MNE.!
Population0 and0 Sample:! The! population! of! the! study! is! consisted! of! students! of! the! Secondary! education!bound!to!the!MNE!in!Turkey!and!who!participated!to!the!Volleyball!competitions!of!the!cities!(Bingöl,!Istanbul,!Cyprus,!Batman,! Tunceli,! Diyarbakır,! Van,! Mus,! Mardin,! Siirt,! Sirnak,! Elazig)! who! participated! to! the! Diyarbakir! Group!Championship!and!Malatya!Semi_Final!Championship.!The!sample!of!the!study!is!consisted!of!140!players!(71!boys,!69!girls)!who!participated!to!the!Volleyball!Group!and!the!Semi_Finals!organized!by!the!MNE!and!the!GDYS.!
Questionnaire:!Our!survey!work!was!consisted!of!3!parts.!The!survey!questions!were!included!as!follows:!in!the! first!chapter! there!are!20! items!of!personal!data!of! the!players!continuing!their!education! in!secondary!schools!bound!to!the!MNE!are!represent!their!schools!in!the!volleyball!competitions,!in!the!second!chapter!there!are!11!items!directod!towards!the!expectation!levels!of!the!players,!and!in!the!third!chapter!there!are!14!items!which!identify!the!levels!of!influence!of!the!environmental!factors!upon!the!players.!!
A! five_point! Likert_type! scale! was! used! as! I! totally! agree,! I! agree,! I! partially! agree,! I! disagree! and! I! never!disagree,!and!the!participation!limits!in!general!and!data!collection!tool!were!developed!based!on!a!five_point!Likert_type!scale!used.!!Value!ranges!are!graded!as!follows;!5:00!to!4:21!ranges!as!I!totally!agree,!4:20!to!3:41!ranges!I!agree,!3.40! _! 2.61! ranges! I! partially! agree,! 2.60! _! 1.81! ranges!as! I! disagree,! 1.80! _! 1.00! ranges!as! I! totally!disagree.!As! the!survey!questions!were!important!for!the!researcher,!a!factor!analysis!was!not!been!made.!
Data0Analysis:!The!expectations!and!satisfaction!levels!of!the!players!who!study!at!the!Secondary!Schools!of!!the!MNE!and!who!participated!to!the!volleyball!competitions!among!the!secondary!schools,!were!!explained!!through!percent,! frequency,! arithmetic! mean,! standard! deviation! without! taking! into! consideration! the! variables! and!discussion! and! inference! was!made! in! that! direction.! At! the! end! of! the! research,! the! data! were! analyzed! using! a!statistical!program!and!the!significance!level!of!0.05!was!accepted!for!the!validity.!
FINDINGS0
In! this! study,! it!was! intended! to! determine!whether! the! personal! and! family! information! of! the! volleyball!players'!in!table!1!and!2,!the!expectation!levels!of!the!players!from!the!volleyball!sports!in!table!3,!the!influence!levels!of! environmental! factors! upon! the! players! during! their! playing! volleyball! ! in! table! 4! had! a! significant! difference!according!to!the!variables.!
Tablo01:!Personal!Information!
VARIABLES0 f0 %!
00 Men! 71! 50,7!
Gender0 Women! 69! 49,3!
00 Fourteen! 10! 7,1!
Age0 Fifteen! 37! 26,4!
!! Sixteen! 44! 31,4!!! Seventeen! 49! 35!
00 Less!than!160!cm!! 30! 21,4!
Height0 Between!161!_170cm!! 50! 35,7!
!! 171!cm!and!over! 60! 42,9!
00 General!High!School! 46! 32,9!
Type0of0the0High0School0Attended0 Anadolu!High!School! 55! 39,3!
!! Vocational!High!School! 39! 27,9!
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00 Nine! 46! 32,9!
Grade0Level0 Ten! 50! 35,7!!! Eleven! 41! 29,3!!! Twelve! 3! 2,1!
00 Bad!grades! 29! 20,7!
00 Passed! 51! 36,4!
Achievement0in0School0Subjects0 Certificate!of!Achievement! 26! 18,6!
!! Certificate!of!Excellence! 34! 24,3!
00 New! 30! 21,4!
Years0of0Playing0Volleyball0 One!year! 12! 8,6!
!! Two!years! 14! 10!!! Three!years! 29! 20,7!!! Four!and!over! 55! 39,3!
00 Family! 3! 2,1!
Environmental0Factors0Affecting0the0Initiation0of0volleyball00 Teacher!of!Physical!Education! 64! 45,7!
!! Friends!Circles! 12! 8,6!!! Myself! 61! 43,6!
00 Interscholastic!group! 84! 60!
The0Highest0Level0of0Volleyball0Compatition0Participated0in0 Interscholastic!semi_final! 37! 26,4!
!! Interscholastic!Turkey!championship! 18! 12,9!!! High!Schools!World!championship! 1! 7!
00 One! 23! 16,4!
Number0of0Weekly0Training0 Two! 15! 10,7!
!! Three! 23! 16,4!
!! Four! 25! 17,9!!! Five!and!over! 54! 38,6!
Sports0Hall0Availability0at0School00Yes! 67! 47,9!
No! 73! 52,1!
Volleyball0Club0Played0In00Yes! 78! 55,7!
No! 62! 44,3!
Status0of0Smoking0and0Use0of0Addictive0Substances00
Yes! 9! 6,4!
No! 131! 93,6!
Scholarship0Availability0Yes! 8! 5,7!
No! 132! 94,3!
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f:!Frequence,!%:!Percent,!
!
Tablo02:!Family!Information!
00
Father’s0Educational0Status0
Illiterate! 11! 7,9!Litarate! 14! 10,0!Primary!School! 59! 42,1!High!School! 34! 24,3!University! 15! 10,7!Post_Graduate!studies! 4! 2,9!Doctor!of!Philosophy!! 3! 2,1!
0Father’s0Professional0
Knowledge0
Civil!Servant! 25! 17,9!Labour! 28! 20,0!Self_employed! 63! 45,0!Retired! 13! 9,3!Unemployed! 11! 7,9!
00
Mother’s0Educational0Status0
Illiterate! 42! 30,0!Literate! 19! 13,6!Primary!School! 48! 34,3!High!School! 20! 14,3!University! 9! 6,4!Post_Graduate/!Ph.D.! 2! 1,4!
0Mother’s0Professional0
Knowledge00
Civil!Servant! 7! 5,0!Labour! 3! 2,1!Self_employed! 7! 5,0!Retired! 1! ,7!Housewife! 122! 87,1!
0Family0Income0Level0
Less!than!750!TL! 63! 45,0!751!TL!_1500!TL! 33! 23,6!1501!TL!and!up! 44! 31,4!
!
Tablo03:0The!Distribution!of!Assessments!of!the!Expectation!Level!of!the!volleyball!players.0
Item0no0
00
OPINIONS0
Level00000%0f0
I0Stron
gly0
Disagree0
I0Disagree0
I0Partly
0Agree
0
I0Agree
0
I0Com
pletely0
Agree0
TOTA
L0
0U0X000
00S0
20 I!play!this!sport!because!I!love!it0 %0 2,9! ,7! 3,6! 12,9! 80,0! 100!4,660 ,8280f0 4! 1! 5! 18! 112! 140!
7! It!is!important!for!me!that!my!team!does!not!lose!the!volleyball!game0
%0 1,4! ,7! 6,4! 16,4! 75,0! 100!4,630 ,7620f0 2! 1! 9! 23! 105! 140!
4! The!school!management!supports!my!playing!sports0
%0 2,1! 2,1! 7,9! 24,3! 63,6! 100!4,450 ,8920
f0 3! 3! 11! 34! 89! 140!5! My!teachers!support!my!playing!
sports0%0 4,3! 3,6! 6,4! 23,6! 62,1! 100! 4,360 1,0460F0 6! 5! 9! 33! 87! 140!
8! !The!trainings!are!efficient0 %0 4,30 5,7! 10,7! 17,1! 62,1! 100! 4,270 1,1310F0 6! 8! 15! 24! 87! 140!
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9! My!family!supports!my!playing!sports0
%0 6,4! 2,9! 12,9! 17,9! 60,0! 100!4,220 1,1760
F0 9! 4! 18! 25! 84! 140!
3! I!play!this!sport!to!become!a!top_level!sporter0
%0 3,6! 5,0! 18,6! 15,0! 57,9! 100!4,190 1,1230
F0 5! 7! 26! 21! 81! 140!
11! I!believe!that!I’ve!got!a!status!in!the!society!due!to!my!being!a!sporter0
%0 3,60 4,30 20,70 27,10 44,30 100!4,040 1,0720
F0 50 6! 29! 38! 62! 140!
10! A!sufficient!amount!of!volleyball!equipment!is!available!at!school!!
%0 22,9! 10,7! 18,6! 15,7! 32,1! 100!3,240 1,5580
F0 32! 15! 26! 22! 45! 140!
6! I’m!!doing!this!sport!just!for!a!healthy!life0
%0 22,1! 15,0! 20,7! 20,7! 21,4! 100!3,040 1,4540
F0 31! 21! 29! 29! 30! 140!
1! I!play!the!Volleyball!sport!for!material!awards!(fees,!trophies,!medals,!etc.)!0
%0 60,0! 12,9! 10,0! 5,7! 11,4! 100!1,960 1,4030F0 84! 18! 14! 8! 16! 140!
f:!Frequency,%:!Percentage,!X:!Arithmetic!Mean,!S:!Standard!Deviation!
Table04:!The!Distribution!of!the!Influence!Level!Assessments!of!the!Environmental!Factors.!
Item0no0
00
OPINIONS0
Level0000
00
%0F0
strong
ly0disagree0
0disagree0
uncertain0
agree0
0totally0agree
0
TOTA
L0
0U0X000
00S0
140 Dealing!with!!the!sport!of!volleyball!provides!positive!contributions!to!my!daily!life0
%0 1,4! 1,4! 5,7! 21,4!
70,0! 100!4,570 ,7880
F0 2! 2! 8! 30! 98! 140!
13! I!believe!that!the!sport!of!volleyball!definitely!developes!a!sense!of!a!!team!spirit0
%0 2,9! 2,1! 7,9! 18,6!
68,6! 100!4,480 ,9400
F0 4! 3! 11! 26! 96! 140!
7! The!motivation!increasing!speech!of!my!Physical!Education!Teacher!before!the!match!in!the!locker!room!is!enhancing!positive!effects!on!my!game!motivation.!!!
%0 3,6! 2,9! 5,0! 24,3!
64,3! 100!
4,430 ,9760F0 5! 4! 7! 34! 90! 140!
11! As!a!sporter,!I!have!a!sport_oriented!goal.!!
%0 2,1! 3,6! 15,7!
14,3!
64,3! 100!4,350 1,0100
F0 3! 5! 22! 20! 90! 140!
12! When!playing!volleyball,!I!definitely!would!do!not!act!in!a!manner!contrary!to!a!gentlemanly!behaviours0
%0 5,0! 6,4! 9,3! 15,0!
64,3! 100!
4,270 1,1740F0 7! 9! 13! 21! 90! 140!
4! Having!good!course!success!at!school,!positively!effects!my!game!motivation!0
%0 5,0! 3,6! 14,3!
21,4!
55,7! 100!4,190 1,1250
F0 7! 5! 20! 30! 78! 140!
8! Lack!of!appropriate!circumstances!in!the!environment!(heat,!light,!and!hygiene!aspects)!during!the!training!negatively!affects!my!game!motivation.0
%0 10,0!
5,0! 15,7!
27,9!
41,4! 100!
3,860 1,2900F0 14! 7! 22! 39! 58! 140!
6! Insufficient!and!imbalanced!nutrition!negatively!effects!my!game!motivation0
%0 12,1!
7,9! 12,1!
24,3!
43,6! 100!3,790 1,3910
F0 17! 11! 17! 34! 61! 140!
1! The!abusive!cheer!of!the!audience!negatively!effects!my!game!motivation!0
%0 20,0!
7,1! 12,1!
15,0!
45,7! 100!3,590 1,5860
F0 28! 10! 17! 21! 64! 140!
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5! Having!poor!course!success!at!school,!negatively!effects!my!game!motivation0
%0 16,4!
10,7!
15,7!
14,3!
42,9! 100!3,560 1,5230
F0 23! 15! 22! 20! 60! 140!
10! Sufficiently!take!the!advantages!of!the!sports!facilities!of!the!Educational!Institutions!in!our!city!0
%0 10,70
18,6!
18,6!
22,1!
30,0! 100!3,420 1,3680
F0 15! 26! 26! 31! 42! 140!
9! We!can!sufficiently!take!the!advantages!of!the!sports!facilities!of!the!Youth!Services!and!Sports!Directorate!in!our!city0
%0 22,9!
12,9!
16,4!
16,4!
31,4! 100!
3,210 1,5620F0 32! 18! 23! 23! 44! 140!
3! The!yelling!of!my!Physical!Education!Teacher!during!the!match!negatively!effects!my!and!my!friends’!game!motivation.0
%0 24,3!
17,9!
10,7!
11,4!
35,7! 100!
3,160 1,6390F0 34! 25! 15! 16! 50! 140!
2! Any!warning!by!my!teammates!negatively!effects!my!game!motivation0
%0 29,3!
17,9!
12,1!
17,9!
22,9! 100!2,870 1,5630
F0 41! 25! 17! 25! 32! 140!
f:!Frequence,!%:!Percent,!X:!Arithmetic!Average;!S:!Standard!Deviation!
DISCUSSION0AND0CONCLUSION0
•! The! volleyball! players! participating! to! the! survey! reported! a! positive! opinion! at! a! highest! proportion! to! the!
statement!“My!reason! for!starting! the!volleyball! sport:! I!participated!upon!the!suggestion!of!my!Physical!Education!
Teacher! /!myself! /!my! family”.! It! shows! the!positive!effect!of! the!Physical!Education!Teachers!at! the!schools! in! the!
orientation!to!the!sports.!
When0the0the0level0of0expectations0of0the0players0is0being0examined;0
•!The!players!reported!a!positive!opinion!as!“I'm!doing!this!sport!because!I!love!it!(X!=!4.66).!And!this!shows!that!the!
players! in! secondary!education!enjoy!playing! the! sport!of! volleyball! and! that! it! is! a!necessity! to!organize! volleyball!
tournaments!among!the!classes!within!the!school!in!order!to!popularize!this!sport.!
•!The!players!reported!a!positive!opinion!as!“It!is!important!for!me!that!my!team!does!not!lose!the!volleyball!game”!(X!
=!4.63).!This!is!an!indication!that!the!team!spirit!in!the!players!developes!and!that!they!attach!an!importance!to!their!
teams.!
•! The!players! reported! a!positive!opinion! as! “The! school!management! supports!my!playing! sports”! (X! =! 4.45).! The!
support!given!to!the!school!sporters!by!the!school!managements!will!definitely!and!significantly!affect!the!interest!and!
the!relevance!of!the!students!to!the!sports.!And!thus,!the!number!of!the!players!representing!their!schools!in!different!
disciplines!during!this!progressive!process!will!substantially!increase.!
•!The!players!reported!a!positive!opinion!as!“My!teachers!support!my!playing!sports.”!!(X!=!4.36).!Having!the!teachers!
give! their! support! to! the!young!people!engaged! in! sports,! shall!ensure! these!young!people!withdraw! from!harmful!
habits! and! at! the! same! time! shall! make! these! young! people! to! take! more! useful! and! positive! feedbacks! in! the!
education!and!the!training!environment.!
•! The!players! reported! a!positive!opinion! as! “My! family! supports!my!playing! sports.”! ! (X! =! 4.22).! It! should! also!be!
noted! that! the! young! volleyball! players! who! get! their! family! support! shall! definitely! use! their! performance! more!
effectively!relying!on!this!support!and!that!this!support!shall!be!an!important!factor!in!the!success.!
•!The!number!of!the!players!in!secondary!education!who!agreed!with!the!opinion!“I!play!this!sport!to!become!a!top_
level! sporter.”! (X! =! 4.19)! has! an! important! role.! For! this! purpose! they! need! to! be! provided! with! the! necessary!
circumstances!that!they!may!become!better!and!elite!sporters!and!especially!the!MNE,!the!GDYS!also!should!provide!
these!young!people!with!the!necessary!opportunities.!
•!The!players!reported!a!positive!opinion!as!“I!believe!that!I’ve!got!a!status!in!the!society!due!to!my!being!a!sporter.”!
(X!=!4.04).!Having!the!self_confidence!of!individuals!who!are!dealing!with!sports!increased,!they!need!to!be!definitely!
given!the!necessary!rewards!within!the!society!in!the!areas!where!these!persons!are!successful.!
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•!For! increasing!the!proportion!of! the!players!who!reported!a!positive!opinion!as!“A!sufficient!amount!of!volleyball!equipment!is!available!at!school.”!(X!=!3.24),!it!is!observed!that!there!is!a!need!to!increase!the!applied!courses!in!the!curriculum,!and!beside!having!the!sports!facilities!for!meeting!the!sports!needs!of!the!students!for!having!the!physical!education!classes!be!made!more!efficient,!!the!availability!of!the!!sports!equipment!!is!also!a!need.!! !Not!having!the!!!courses! taught! at! a! classroom! circumstances! and! the! school! being! in! lack! of! facilities! and! equipment,! causes! the!courses!and!the!training!be!not!applied!as!required.!!This!situation!constitutes!an!obstacle!in!front!of!the!teacher!to!teach!the!courses!and!to!make!trainings!in!accordance!with!the!requirements!of!the!education!and!the!purpose!and!adversely!affects!the!trainings!and!the!course!efficiency.!!
•!It!was!observed!that!the!players!who!reported!a!positive!opinion!as!“I”m!doing!this!sport!just!for!a!healthy!life.”!(X!=!3.04),!do!not!see!this!sport!as!a!profession,!but!carried!it!on!only!as!a!requirement!of!a!healthy!life.!!In!this!case,!the!secondary! school! students,!who! think! and! !who! are! prone! to! think,! ! should! be! encouraged! for! playing! sports! as! a!requirement!of!a!healthy!life!and!the!number!of!the!students!in!the!secondary!education!involved!in!sports!should!be!increased.!
•! It! is!observed! that! the!opinion!“I!play! the!Volleyball! sport! for!material! awards! (fees,! trophies,!medals,!etc.)”! (X!=!1.96)!!shows!that!this!sport!was!not!being!played!hoping!any!material!award,!in!that!case!the!material!awards!in!the!sports!was!in!the!second!plan!almost,!almost!not!taken!into!consideration!by!the!secondary!school!students.!
When0the0influence0level0of0the0environmental0factors0upon0the0sporters0is0being0examined;0
•!It!was!observed!that!the!players!reported!a!positive!opinion!as!“Dealing!with!the!sport!of!volleyball!provides!positive!contributions!to!my!daily!life.”!(X!=!4.57),!which!shows!that!the!sports!is!not!only!beneficial!for!one's!health,!but!it!has!an!effects!that!makes!the!life!easier!in!everyday!life!as!well.!!
•! ! ! It!was!observed! that! the!players! reported! a! positive!opinion! as! “I! believe! that! the! sport! of! volleyball! definitely!developes!a!sense!of!a!team!spirit.”!(X!=!4.48),!shows!that!!the!person!can!not!do!all!the!things!alone,!!but!!sometimes,!especially!in!the!team!sports,!beside!individual!skills,!it!is!an!important!factor!to!necessarily!struggle!as!a!team!as!well.!!
•! It!was!observed! that! the!players! reported!a!positive!opinion!as!“The!motivation! increasing!speech!of!my!Physical!Education!Teacher!before!the!match!in!the!locker!room,!is!enhancing!positive!effects!on!my!game!motivation.”!(X!=!4.43),! shows! that! ! the! ! leadership!qualification!of! the! team!trainer! !or! the!physical!education! teacher!directing! the!team,!!is!significant!!a!factor!on!their!expectations!and!the!!positive!and!the!team!rallying!speaches!in!the!locker!room,!have!major!effects!on!the!emotional!motivation!of!the!players.!
•!The!volleyball!players!who! reported!a!positive!opinion!“As!a! sporter,! I!have!a! sport_oriented!goals.”! (X!=!4.35)! in!terms!of!doing!this!work!in!the!professional!sense!in!the!future!as!well,!and!probably!in!professionally!promoting!this!work,!have! ! important! tasks!of!GSGM! in!promoting! it! as!a!professional! step! in! their! career!and! take! the!necessary!training.!In!this!process,!it!would!be!an!important!step!towards!choosing!the!sport!as!their!vocational!field!by!giving!them! training! in! accordance! with! the! opinions! and! seminars! of! the! people! who! do! this! work! in_service! and! in! a!professional!manner.!!
•!The!volleyball!players!who!reported!a!positive!opinion!“When!playing!volleyball,! I!definitely!would!do!not!act! in!a!manner!contrary!to!a!gentlemanly!behaviours”!(X!=!4.27),!although!is!the!indication!that!they!have!gained!a!sense!of!fair!play! in!the!sports,!seminars!should!be!held!for!the!volleyball!players!who!do!not!have!such!an!opinion!to!make!them! develop! the! fair! play! sense! in! the! sports.! These! seminars! should! be! given! by! the! experts! in! this! field! in! the!university!by!sending!them!to!the!schools! in!collaboration!with!the!the!Higher!Education!Council!under!MNE!and! it!was!observed!that!the!necessary!statements!regarding!the!importance!of!fair!play!in!sport!should!be!made!beginning!from!the!schools,!which!in!turn!would!be!extremely!effective!in!reducing!the!severity!in!the!sports.!
•!The!volleyball!players!!reported!a!positive!opinion!“Having!good!course!success!at!school,!positively!effects!my!game!motivation”!(X!=!4.19);!in!the!relevant!sub_paragraph!of!the!item!regarding!the!development!of!the!sports,!the!item!59!of! the! Constitution! of! the! Republic! of! Turkey,! ! entered! into! force! in! 1982,! it! is! stated! that! the! State! protects! the!successful!sporters.!Pursuant!to!item!(TR!constitution,!1982),!it!is!seen!that!having!the!teachers!upgrade!the!sporters’!verbal!mark!at!least!1!point!by!taking!into!consideration!the!minimum!positive!effects!of!their!course!status!at!school,!would!remove!some!of!the!barriers!in!front!of!the!sports.!
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•! “Lack! of! appropriate! circumstances! in! the! environment! (heat,! light,! and! hygiene! aspects)! during! the! training!
negatively! affects!my!game!motivation.”! (X!=!3.86);! the!GDYS! should!do! the!necessary!work! in! this! regard!and! the!
sports!fields!must!be!checked!for!cleanliness!and!order.!The!situations!that!would!disturb!the!game!motivation!of!the!
sporters!must!be!definitely!eliminated,!and!the!cleaning!and!maintenance!of!the!field!should!be!done!by!both!of!the!
cleaning!staff!employed!by!the!GDYS!and!the!employees!of!the!private!sector!with!respect!to!the!temperature,! the!
light!and!the!hygiene!of!the!field,!which!is!seen!as!an!important!in!bringin!the!sports!and!the!sporters!to!better!places.!
•! The! statement! of! the! volleyball! players! who! reported! a! positive! opinion! “Insufficient! and! imbalanced! nutrition!
negatively!effects!my!game!motivation”!(X!=!3.59),!indicates!the!importance!of!nutrition!in!the!volleyball!or!the!other!
sports!and!while!the!nutrition!of!the!sportes!is!being!planned,!the!players’!height!and!weight,!body!fat!percentage,!the!
level!of!nutrition!knowledge,!eating!habits,!health! status,! social! status,! and! the! social! and! the!economic! conditions!
should!also!be!considered!(Güneş,!2005).!
•! The! statement! of! the! volleyball! players!who! reported! a! positive! opinion! “Having! poor! course! success! at! school,!
negatively!effects!my!game!motivation”! (X!=!3.56);! indicates! that! the! sports!performance!and!having!good!or!poor!
course! status! which! is! another! factor! in! the! success,! and! the! other! factor,! the! psychological! effect! also! has! an!
important!role!in!the!success!of!the!sporter.!!
•! In! order! to! increase! the!proportion!of! the! sporters!who! reported! their! opinion! as! “We! can! sufficiently! ! take! the!
advantages! of! the! sports! facilities! of! the! Educational! Institutions! in! our! city”! (X! =! 3.42),! which! ! in! this! sense! this!
statement! is!seen! important!with!respect! to!the!development!and!the!progress!of! the!sports,! ! that! the!educational!
institutions!should!definitely!help!that!the!other!schools!may!use!the!sports!areas!as!well!and!do!not!use!the!facilities!
just!for!their!own!interests!and!the!sports!halls!should!be!necessarly!constructed!!that!the!sporters!in!the!educational!
institutions!or! in! the!Physical!Education!Classes!could! !more!comfortably!and! in!a!convenient!environment!play!the!
sports!and!this!situation,!!which!is!an!obstacle!in!front!of!the!sports,!should!be!minimized.!
•!The!sporters!reported!their!opinion!as!“We!can!sufficiently!take!the!advantages!of!the!sports!facilities!of!the!Youth!
Services!and!Sports!Directorate!in!our!city.”!(X!=!3.21);!!the!!Constitution!of!the!Republic!of!Turkey,!!entered!into!force!
in! 1982,! states! that! the! State! takes!measures! that!will! develop! the! physical! and! the!mental! health! of! the! Turkish!
citizens! of! all! ages! and! promotes! the! popularization! of! the! sports! among! the! masses.! Pursuant! to! item! (TR!
constitution,!1982),!developing!measures! should!be!definitely! taken! for! the!usage!of! the! facilities!of! the! !provincial!
directorates!of!youth!and!sports,!available!in!the!cities,!and!it!wa!s!suggested!that!these!facilities!should!not!only!be!
used! during! ! the! competitions! and! left! them! just! for! the!monopoly! of! the! clubs’! teams,! either,! but! the! necessary!
arrangements!should!be!made!that!the!schools!of!National!Education!may!!take!their!advantage!as!well!and!thus,! it!
would!be!appropriate!in!terms!of!playing!sports!at!a!more!convenient!environment!in!the!schools!where!any!sports!
halls!are!not!available.!
•!The!sporters!reported!their!opinion!as!“The!yelling!of!my!Physical!Education!Teacher!during!the!match!negatively!
effects!my!and!my!friends’!game!motivation.”!!(X!=!3.16);!this!kind!of!a!situation!during!the!game!which!applies!to!the!
players! in! general,! is! seen! as! a! situation!which! do! not! please! any! sporters! and! this! situation!would! be! negatively!
reflected!on!the!match!and!would!cause!the!players!stay!away!from!the!game!during!the!match.!
•! The! trainer,! who! is! one! of! the! significant! factors! in! the! sporter’s! performance,! has! a! a! direct! effect! on! the!
performance.!The!task!of!a!trainer!is!not!only!consisted!of!training!or!showing!how!any!sport!is!being!performed.!He!
interprets! the! information! he! receives! from! the! sports! scientists,! sports! physicians! and! sports! psychologists! and!
conveys! it! to! the! sporters! after! compared! this! information!with! his! own! experience! (Sevim,! 2007).! In! that! case! it!
seems!that!the!Physical!Education!Teachers!should!not!act!in!this!way!during!a!competition.!
•! The! sporters! reported! their! positive! opinion! as! “Any! warning! by! my! teammates! negatively! effects! my! game!
motivation.”! (X! =! 2.87);! and! reported! that! the! shouting! of! sporters! in! the! team! to! each! others! who! haven’t! a!
qualification!of!a!leader,!would!negatively!effect!the!success!of!the!team!during!the!competition.!!
! The!situation!intended!to!be!shown!up!in!this!item,!is!identifying!how!much!do!our!sporters!take!benefit!from!
the!sports! facilities,! to!specify!what! financial!contributions!are!needed!to!be!provided!to! the!sporters!by! the!public!
and!the!other!legal!entities!and!the!natural!persons,!and!before!all,!to!get!to!know!the!sporters!with!all!their!aspects!
and!to!suggest!solutions!to!their!expectations.!
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REFERENCES0
Arslan!A,!Kuru!E!(1990).!Success!motivation!of!the!professional!and!amateur!footballers!and!its!relation!with!the!sports! experience.! Gazi! University,! Physical! Education! and! Sports! Science! Journal,! I.! National! Symposium!Proclamation,!p.!64_65,!Ankara.!
Barutçugil!İ!(2004).!Strategic!Human!Resource!Management.!Kariyer!Publishing!p.!390,!Istanbul.!
Can!Y,!Soyer!F,!Güven!H!(2000).!Assessment!of!Factors!Affecting!the!Productivity!in!the!Sports!Services.!Physical!Education!and!Sport!Sciences!Congress,!Proclamation!Book!of!Gazi,!Ankara.!
Canman!D!(1995).!Contemporary!Personnel!Management.!Ankara,!TODAIE.!
Carron!AV,!Brawley!LR,!Widemeyer!WN!(1998).!The!Measurement!of!Cohensiveness!Groups!in!Sport!Groups.!In.!J.L.!Duda!(EDS),!Advancement!in!Sport!and!and!Exercise!Psychology!Measurement,!pp.!213_226.!
Dicle!Ü!(2001).!Performance!management!in!the!public!sector.!2nd!Public!Quality!Symposium,!Ankara:!Kal!Der!_!Middle!East!Technical!University,!9_10!May.!
Genç!DA!(1998).!Sporting!Law.!Alfa!Publications,!p.41,!Istanbul.!
Güneş!Z!(2005).!!Sports!and!Nutrition.!Nobel!publishing!distribution.!Publication!no:!175.!!
Güney!S!(2000).!Management!and!Organization!Manual.!Nobel!Publishing!Distribution,!Ankara.!
Inal!AN!(1998).!Introduction!to!Physical!Education!and!Sports,!Selcuk!University!Publications,!Konya.!
Konter!E!(1996).!A!trainer!as!a!leader.!1st!Edition,!p.!26_36,!Alpha!publication,!Istanbul.!
Sevim!Y!(2007).!Training!Theory.!Nobel!publishing!distribution.!7th!edition,!Ankara.!!
TR!Constitution!(1982).!Official!Gazette.!09/11/1982,!Issue!17863!Law!no:!2709!Acceptance!Date:!November!7.!
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Examining the Relationship Between Life Satisfaction and Tennis As a Seriuos Leisure Activity Hakan Eravsar [1] Gökhan Acar [2] Barbaros Serdar Erdogan [3] Ahmet Sahin [4]
[1] Akdeniz University, School of Physical Education and Sports
[2] Kastamonu University, School of Physical Education and Sports
[3]Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, School of Physical Education and Sports
[4]Mehmet Akif Ersoy University School of Physical Education and Sports
ABSTRACT
The objective of this study is to examine the relationship between life satisfaction and tennis as a serious leisure activity.
Research sample consists of 150 club athletes who are actively interested in tennis, 87 of whom are male athletes while 63 of whom are female athletes (age=20,512 + 1,721).
In order to achieve the objective of the research, “Serious Leisure Time Scale” developed by Gould et al. (2008) and “Life Satisfaction Scale” developed by Diener et al. (1985) and adapted into Turkish by Köker and Yetim (1991) were employed in the study.
In the analysis and interpretation of the data, Kolmogolov-Smirnov test, t-test and Pearson Correlation were used. Significance was taken as P<0.05 and P<0.05. SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) package program was used in assessing the data and finding the calculated values.
At the end of this study, a positive linear relationship was detected between the level of serious leisure time and the level of life satisfaction. In other words, the higher the level of serious leisure time is, the higher the level of life satisfaction will become among students.
Keywords:0Leisure!time,!tennis,!life!satisfaction
!
INTRODUCTION0
When!the!relevant!literature!is!examined,!it!stands!out!that!serious!leisure!activity!is!a!concept!which!is!referred!to!with!different!names!and!includes!different!concepts!(Gould,!2005).!
The!Serious!Leisure!theory!defines!voluntariness!in!the!leisure!activities!and!brings!an!initiative.!Those!taking!part!in!the!voluntary!activities!to!spend!their!leisure!time!play!a!role!in!constituting!the!community!involvement,!civilian!labour!force!and!social!capital!(Stebbins,!2009).!At!this!point,!it!is!stated!that!the!volunteers!who!sacrifice!their!leisure!time!in!such!issues!as!career,!personal!development!and!social!integration!have!made!significant!contributions!to!the!development!of!Western!community!in!social!and!economic!aspects!(Stebbins,!2009).!Making!a!general!classification!for!the!leisure!activities,!Stebbins!divided!leisure!activities!into!“serious!leisure”!and!“casual!leisure”.!In!the!studies!that!he!conducted!in!1977,!1980,!1982,!1992!and!1996,!he!examined!the!nature!of!the!serious!leisure!activities!psychologically,!socio_psychologically!and!sociologically.!The!first!distinguishing!feature!is!the!perseverance!in!relation!to!the!activity!carried!out!in!the!leisure.!
Although!the!participants!of!the!leisure!activities!generally!leave!with!pleasing!memories,!they!may!subject!to!such!stresses!as!stage!fright,!embarrassment,!freezing!cold!weather!conditions,!anxiety!and!fear,!fatigue,!injury!etc.!Thus,!sticking!to!an!activity!necessitates!coping!with!the!challenges!of!that!activity!and!perseverance!along!with!the!positive!emotions!that!it!evoked.!Advancing!towards!the!hazard,!supporting!a!losing!team!and!showing!perseverance!in!order!to!tackle!the!challenges!of!an!activity!or!a!problem!encountered!are!essential!features!distinguishing!the!serious!leisure!from!casual!leisure!(Akyıldız,!2013).!
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In!this!respect,!it!is!thought!that!serious!leisure!level!may!have!a!significant!impact!on!feeling!satisfied!with!the!life.!
METHODOLOGY0
Research0Sample0
Research!sample!consists!of!150!club!athletes!who!are!actively!interested!in!tennis,!87!of!whom!are!male!athletes!while!63!of!whom!are!female!athletes!(!age=20,512!+!1,721).!
Data0Collection0
“Serious!Leisure!Scale”!developed!by!Gould!et!al.!(2008)!and!“Life!Satisfaction!Scale”!developed!by!Diener!et!al.!(1985)!and!adapted!into!Turkish!by!Köker!(1991)!and!Yetim!(1991)!were!used!in!order!to!achieve!the!objective!of!this!study.!!!
Statistical0Analysis0
Kolmogorov_Smirnov!test,!t_test!and!Pearson!correlation!test!were!used!in!the!analysis!and!interpretation!of!the!data!and!significance!was!accepted!as!P<0.05.!SPSS!(statistical!package!for!social!sciences)!package!program!was!used!in!assessing!the!data!and!finding!the!calculated!values.!!
FINDINGS0
Table01.0t0test0results0of0the0tennis0players0in0relation0to0their0serious0leisure0and0life0satisfaction0levels0by0the0variable0of0sex0
! Sex! N! Mean! Standard!
Deviation!
T!
Serious!Leisure!Level!
Male!
!
87! 6,7470! 1,5872!
_1,751!
Female!
63! 7,1332! 1,1145!
Life!Satisfaction!Level!
Male! 87! 5,4212! 1,3130!
_1,397!
Female!
63! 5,7103! 1,1593!
*P<0.05!
When!the!Table!1!is!examined,!it!is!seen!that!the!difference!between!the!serious!leisure!score!averages!of!male!and!female!tennis!players![t!value!=!_1,751!P>0.05]!is!not!significant.!!Considering!the!score!averages,!serious!leisure!score!average!of!male!players!is!=!6.7470!while!that!of!female!players!is!=7.1332.!
It!is!also!clear!that!the!difference!between!the!life!satisfaction!level!score!averages!of!male!and!female!tennis!players!is!not!significant![t!value!=!_1,397!P>0.05].!While!the!life!satisfaction!score!average!of!male!players!is!=!5.4212,!that!of!female!players!is!=5.7103.!
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Table02.0t0test0results0of0the0tennis0players0in0relation0to0their0serious0leisure0and0life0satisfaction0levels0by0the0variable0of0marital0status0
! Marital!
Status0N! Mean! Standard!Deviation! T!
Serious!
Leisure!Level!!
Married!!
!
44! 5,8640! 1,5561! _5,783*!
Single! 106! 7,4331! 1,0997!
Life!
Satisfaction!
Level!
Married! 44! 4,9443! 1,2814! _3,942*!
Single! 106! 5,7910! 1,1619!
*P<0.050
When!the!Table!2!is!examined,!it!is!seen!that!the!difference!between!serious!leisure!level!score!averages!of!
married!and!single!tennis!players!is!significant![t!value!=!_5,783!P<0.05].!Considering!the!score!averages,!serious!
leisure!score!average!of!married!players!is!=!5.8640!while!that!of!single!players!is!=7.4331.!
It!is!also!seen!that!difference!between!the!life!satisfaction!score!averages!of!married!and!single!players!is!not!
significant![t!value!=!_3,942!P>0.05].!Considering!the!score!averages,!while!the!life!satisfaction!score!average!of!
married!players!is!=4.9443,!that!of!single!players!is!=5.7910.!!!
Table03.0t0test0results0of0serious0leisure0and0life0satisfaction0levels0of0tennis0players0by0the0variable0of0age0
!Age!
N! Mean! Standard!Deviation! T!
Serious!
Leisure!Level!
Under! the! age!
of!18!
63! 7,6040! 0,9121! 6,043*!
At!the!age!of!18!
and!above!
87! 6,4061! 1,5062!
Life!
Satisfaction!
Level!
Under! the! age!
of!18!
!
63! 6,0230! 1,0897! 4,207*!
At!the!age!of!18!
and!above!
87! 5,1948! 1,2573!
*P<0.050
When!the!Table!3!is!examined,!it!is!seen!that!the!difference!between!the!serious!leisure!score!averages!of!
both!groups!is!significant![t!value!=!_5,783!P<0.05].!Considering!the!average!values,!the!serious!leisure!score!average!
of!tennis!players!aged!under!18!is!=7.6040!while!that!of!tennis!players!aged!18!and!above!is!=6.4061.!!
The!table!also!shows!that!the!difference!between!life!satisfaction!score!averages!of!both!groups!is!not!
significant![t!value!=!_3,942!P>0.05].!Considering!the!average!values,!while!the!life!satisfaction!score!average!of!tennis!
players!aged!under!18!is!=6.0230,!that!of!tennis!players!aged!18!and!above!is!=5.1948.!!
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Table04.0Pearson0Correlation0test0results0in0relation0to0the0serious0leisure0level0and0life0satisfaction0level0of0tennis0players0
! ! Life!Satisfaction!
Serious!Leisure!Level! Pearson!Correlation!
0,474**!
!
150!
0,000!
N
P
**P<0.010
Table!4!indicates!that!there!is!a!positive!linear!relationship!between!the!serious!leisure!level!and!life!satisfaction!level.!
In!other!words,!it!can!be!said!that!life!satisfaction!levels!will!rise!in!tennis!players!in!parallel!to!their!increasing!serious!leisure!levels.!
DISCUSSIOUN0AND0CONCLUSION0
When!the!results!obtained!in!the!present!study!were!considered,!it!was!seen!that!the!variable!of!sex!did!not!have!a!statistical!difference.!It!could!be!stated!that!the!variables!of!marital!status!and!age!showed!statistical!differences.!In!terms!of!relationality,!a!positive!linear!relationship!was!detected!between!serious!leisure!level!and!life!satisfaction!level!and!statistically!significant!findings!were!obtained.!
!! In!the!light!of!these!findings,!as!it!was!stated!by!Neugarten!(1961),!levels!of!participation!in!physical!activities!and!leisure!activities!also!influence!the!life!satisfaction!as!well!as!the!socio_demographic!factors!such!as!age,!health,!sex!and!marital!status!(Karataş,!1988;!Karataş!et!al.,!1989).!
A!positive!linear!relationship!was!detected!between!the!serious!leisure!level!and!life!satisfaction!level.!In!other!words,!it!can!be!said!that!the!life!satisfaction!levels!of!tennis!players!will!rise!in!parallel!to!their!increasing!serious!leisure!levels.!In!terms!of!rationality,!a!study!carried!out!on!the!elderly!provided!evidence!showing!that!old!people!who!are!really!active!(hobbies,!social!relations!and!exercises!etc.)!are!happier!than!the!others!(Kelly!et!al.,!1987).!According!to!this!approach,!if!the!individual!focuses!on!important!activities,!happiness!comes!out!by!itself!(Diener,!1984).!!
Accordingly,!it!is!thought!that!tennis!is!associated!with!life!satisfaction!as!a!serious!leisure!activity.!!
REFERENCES0
Akyıldız,!M.!(2013).!A!“Serious”!Perspective!towards!Leisure:!Serious!Leisure!Theory!in!the!Leisure!Research,!Pamukkale!Journal!of!Sport!Sciences,!Vol.4,!No.2,!Pg:46_59!Gould,!J.M.!(2005),!The!development!of!a!serious!leisure!inventory!and!measure,!Doctoral!Thesis,!Clemson!University,!Park,!Recreation!and!Tourism!Management,!the!USA.!
Köker,!S.!(1991).!Comparison!of!Normal!and!Problem!Adolescents,!Ankara!University!Institute!of!Social!Sciences,!Master's!Thesis,!Ankara.!
Neugarten,!B.L.!Et!al.!(1961).!“The!Measurement!of!the!Life!Satisfaction”,!Journal!of!Gerontology,!16,134_143.!
Diener,!E.!(1984).!“Subjective!Well_being”!Psychological!Bulletin,!95!(3)!542_575.!
Kelly,!J.!R.!et!al.!(1987).!“Later_Life!Satisfaction:!Does!Leisure!Contribute?”!Leisure!Sciences,!9,!189_200.!
Karataş,!S.!(1988).!Factors!Affecting!Life!Satisfaction!in!the!Elderly,!Hacettepe!University,!Institute!of!Social!Sciences,!Master's!Thesis,!Ankara.!
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Karataş!S.,!et!al.!(1989).!“Relationship!between!Life!Satisfaction!Levels!and!Death!Anxiety!Levels!of!the!Elderly!
Living!in!the!Nursing!Home”,!XXV!National!Congress!of!Psychiatry!and!Neurological!Sciences,!Mersin,!675_677.!
Stebbins!R.!A.!(2009).!Would!You!Volunteer?!Social!Science!and!Public!Policy,!46:155–159!DOI!10.1007/s12115_
008_9186_1!
Stebbins,!R.A.!(1977).!The!amateur:!Two!sociological!definitions,!The!Pacific!Sociological!Review,!20(4),!582_606.!
Stebbins,!R.A.!(1980).!Amateur!and!hobbyist!as!concepts!for!the!study!of!leisure!problems,!Social!Problems,!27(4),!
413_417.!
Stebbins,!R.A.!(1982).!Serious!leisure:!A!conceptual!statement,!The!Pacific!Sociological!Review,!25(2),!251_272,!
April.!
Stebbins,!R.A.!(1992).!Amateurs,!professionals,!and!serious!leisure,!Montreal:!McGill_Queen’s!University!Press,!
Canada.!
Stebbins,!R.A.!(1996).!Volunteering:!A!serious!leisure!perspective,!Non_profit!and!Voluntary!Sector!Quarterly,!24,!
99_101.!
Stebbins,!R.A.!(1997).!Casual!leisure:!A!conceptual!statement,!Leisure!Studies,!16,!17_25.!
Gould!J.!,!Moore!De.W.,!McGuire!F.,!Stebbins!R.!(2008).!Development!of!the!Serious!Leisure!Inventory!and!
Measure!,!Journal!of!Leisure!Research,!Vol.40!No:1:!47_68!
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Community-Based Sport Program—Vehicle to Pyd
Corliss Bean
PhD Student (Sport Psychology)
Research Coordinator, Indigenous Health Research Group
University of Ottawa
Ontario, Canada
ABSTRACT
Researchers assert that sport can be a context that enhances youth development. As a result, an increasing number of community sport programs have begun to incorporate life skills (Wenger & Foutz, 2010). However, formal evaluations of such programs are sparse and therefore little is known regarding their effectiveness. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceived impact of a barrier-free youth sport program. Results indicated that youth perceived PAL as a program where they develop athletic skills (M=3.51), put forth effort (M=3.32), develop a sense of belonging in their community (M=3.12), establish diverse peer relationships (M=3.11), and learn how to take initiative (M=3.10). Results from interviews supported these findings as the themes that emerged detailed PAL as a fun, safe, and accessible environment that enables friendships to emerge, acts as a catalyst for the development of life skills, and facilitates the transference of skills to outside domains.
Keywords:0 Boys! and! Girls! Club,! positive! youth! development,! sport,! mix_methods,!community!program!
0
INTRODUCTION0
Positive!youth!development!(PYD)!has!emerged!as!an!alternative!approach!to!the!reactive!and!reductionist!methods! that! have! historically! been! used! when! working! with! youth! (Botvin,! 2004;! Catalano,! Hawkins,! Berglund,!Pollard,! &! Arthur,! 2002;! Damon,! 2004).! More! specifically,! PYD! is! a! proactive! approach! that! works! to! provide! an!environment! conducive! to! healthy! development! rather! than! fixing! problems! youth! often! encounter! throughout!adolescence! (e.g.! drinking,! drug!use,! drop!out,! teen!pregnancy;!Botvin,! 2004;!Damon,! 2004;! Edwards,!Mumford,!&!Serra_Roldan,!2007).!Consequently,!the!ultimate!goal!of!PYD!is!to!prepare!and!engage!youth!in!opportunities!that!will!benefit! them! in! the! future.! Both! researchers! and! practitioners! assert! that! when! youth! are! not! provided! with!opportunities! to!achieve!optimal!health! they!may! fail! to! reach!adulthood!as!healthy,! resilient,!and!engaged!citizens!(Bloom,!2000;!Public!Health!Agency!of!Canada,!2007;!Theokas!et!al.,!2005).!
At_risk!youth!are!particularly!vulnerable!of!not!achieving!optimal!development.!Specifically,!at_risk!youth!have!been!identified!as!children!and!adolescents!(approximately!ages!6_18)!who!are!at!a!higher!risk!of!unhealthy,!antisocial,!and! risky! behaviours! due! to! poverty! (low! socioeconomic! status),! risky! peers,! and/or! lack! of! access! to! resources!(Dryfoos,!1991;!Furstenberg!&!Hughes,!1995;!Pickett,!Garner,!Boyce,!&!King,!2002;!World!Health!Organization,!2006).!It!has!not!been!until!recently!that!proactive!measures!have!been!purposefully!incorporated!in!program!models!with!goals!of!yielding!positive!psychosocial!outcomes!for!at_risk!youth!(Holt!&!Jones,!2008;!Petitpas,!Cornelius,!Van!Raalte,!&!Jones,!2005).!
Sport! has! been! used! as! a! specific! context! and! environment! that! can! help! facilitate! these! psychosocial!outcomes!for!youth!in!general!(Martinek!&!Lee,!2012;!Papcharisis,!Goudas,!Danish,!&!Theodorakis,!2005;!Petitpas!et!al.,!2005),!and!more!specifically,!at_risk!youth!(Danish,!1996;!Edwards!et!al.,!2007;!Hellison,!2000).!Moreover,!sport!is!one! of! the! predominant! contexts! that! have! integrated! a! PYD! approach! (e.g.,! teaching! life! skills)! and! research! has!shown! that! sport_based! life! skills! programs! can! yield! both! physical! and! psychosocial! benefits! (Holt! &! Jones,! 2008;!Perkins,! 1997).! Not! only! do! such! programs! provide! a! positive! alternative! environment! for! at_risk! youth,! but! these!programs!also!help!to!develop!values!and!other!positive!assets!(Pitman!&!Cahill,!1991).!However,!very!few!programs!
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have!been!evaluated! in! terms!of! their!effectiveness!and! impact!on!youth!participants! (Salmon,!Booth,!Phongsavan,!Murphy,!&!Timperio,!2007).!
The!Boys!and!Girls!Club!is!a!youth!service!organization!that!uses!a!proactive!approach!in!working!with!youth.!The!Boys!and!Girls!Club!has!been!in!operation!since!the!late!19th!century!(Boys!and!Girls!Clubs!of!Canada,!2012a).!This!organization! is! designed! to! provide! community! programming! to! youth!between! the! ages! of! 6_18! from! low! income!families!or!disadvantaged!communities!and! to!establish!positive! relationships!with!adults!and!peers! (Boys!and!Girls!Clubs!of!Canada,!2012a;!Perkins!&!Noam,!2007).!The!organization!offers!after_school,!evening,!weekend,!and!summer!programming,!including!but!not!limited!to!sport.!
More! specifically,!programs!developed!within! this!organization!aim! to!create!opportunities!and!help!youth!develop!life!skills,!contribute!to!their!communities,!and!increase!their!ability!to!live!a!productive!adult!life!(Boys!and!Girls!Clubs!of!Canada,!2012b;!Perkins!&!Borden,!2003).!Life!skills!can!be!defined!as!skills!that!enable!people!to!deal!effectively!with!challenges!in!their!life!and!succeed!in!various!life!domains!such!as!school,!work,!and!their!community!(Danish,!1997;!World!Health!Organization,!2006).!One!particular!program,!the!Police!Athletic!League!(PAL),!is!a!social!recreation! sport! program! that! provides! youth! an! opportunity! to! compete! in! a! variety! of! different! sports.! More!specifically,! PAL! is! a! barrier_free! sport! program! as! there! is! no! registration! fee! and! has! its! own! bus! to! transport!participants!to!and!from!the!games.!In!addition,!the!league!supplies!all!of!the!sport!equipment;!all!that!is!required!of!the!youth! is!gym!clothes!and!running!shoes.!Therefore,!this!program!helps!to!eliminate!potential!barriers!for!at_risk!youth.!Eliminating!such!barriers! is!particularly! important!when!working!with!at_risk!youth,!as!according!to!Johnston,!Delva,! and!O’Malley! (2007)! participation! in! sport! and! physical! activity! is! negatively! correlated!with! socioeconomic!status;!many!families!cannot!afford!to!pay!registration!fees!of!recreation!programs!and/or!do!not!have!access!to!these!facilities.!
As!for!the!format,!PAL!is!much!the!same!as!a!typical!competitive!sport!program!where!regular!practice!time!is!established!and!the!season!is!divided!into!league!play,!tournaments,!and!play_offs.!In!addition,!rules!and!regulations!are!set!out!by!the!league.!However,!unlike!a!typical!competitive!sport!program!the!youth!can!enter!the!league!at!any!skill! level!because!the!primary! focus!of!PAL! is!on!promoting!physical!activity,!personal!and!social!development,!and!leadership! (Boys! and! Girls! Clubs! of! Canada,! 2012c).! While! competition! is! a! part! of! the! PAL! program,! the! overall!emphasis! is! on! social! recreation.! As! the! program! director! for! the! Boys! and! Girls! Club! stated:! “the! emphasis! still!remains!on!giving!the!kids!social!skills!and!community!skills”!(J.!DeFazio,!personal!communication!October!8,!2010).!In!addition,! the! coaches! are! carefully! selected! and! these! coaches,! along!with! the! referees,! are! trained! to! emphasize!respect,! responsibility,!effort,!and!personal! improvement.! In!other!words,! the!coaches!and!referees!aim!to!create!a!mastery! learning! climate! which! self_improvement! and! effort! are! encouraged! (Eccles,! Wigfield,! &! Schiefele,! 1998;!Petitpas!et!al.,!2005).!This!philosophy!is!consistent!with!a!proactive!PYD!approach!(Fry!&!Newton,!2003;!Larson,!2000;!Petitpas!et!al.,!2005).!
Based!on!past!reviews,!the!Boys!and!Girls!Club!as!a!whole,!provides!a!nurturing!environment!and!allows!for!the! acquisition! of! positive! behaviours! and! the! development! of! competence! and! self_esteem! (Carruthers! &! Busser,!2000;!Davison,!2000).!However,!as!mentioned!above,!there!is!a!lack!of!formal!research!examining!the!perceptions!of!youth! participation! in! community_based! programs! such! as! PAL! and! many! studies! within! this! field! have! looked! to!understand! the! program! impact! from! the! eyes’! of! the! adult! leaders! and! coordinators! (Larson,! Eccles,!&!Gootman,!2004;!Roth,!Brooks_Gunn,!Murray,!&!Foster,!1998).!Therefore,!the!purpose!of!this!study!was!to!gain!an!understanding!of!the!experiences!in!the!PAL!program!through!the!perspectives!of!the!youth!using!a!mixed_methods!approach.!
METHODS0
Participants0
One!hundred! and! eight! youth! (84!males,! 24! females)! between! the! ages! of! 11! and! 18! (M=14.63;! SD=2.28)!participated! in! one! or! more! of! the! following! sports! within! the! PAL:! soccer,! ball! hockey,! and! basketball.! Each!participant!was!a!member!of!one!of!the!six!Boys!and!Girls!clubhouses!located!in!a!city!in!Eastern!Ontario,!Canada.!The!length!of!involvement!in!the!Boys!and!Girls!Club!and!PAL!ranged!from!1_11!years!and!the!youth!reported!participating!
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in!at!least!one,!but!up!to!three!sport!leagues!any!given!year.!The!Boys!and!Girls!Club!held!these!different!leagues!of!PAL! over! the! course! of! each! year,! where! participants! played! soccer! in! the! fall,! ball! hockey! in! the! winter,! and/or!basketball! in!the!spring.!Participants!took!part! in!PAL!twice!a!week:!once!for!a!practice!at!his/her! ‘home’!clubhouse!and!once!at!a! central! clubhouse!where! teams!competed! in! league!and!playoff! games!against!one!of! the!other! five!clubhouse!teams.!Each!PAL!sport!season!lasted!10!weeks,!where!eight!weeks!were!dedicated!to!regular!season!play!and!two!weeks!were!for!play_off!games.!On!average,!each!game!and!practice! lasted!50!minutes,!with!a!five!minute!warm_up.!!
Procedure0&0Measurement0
A!mixed_methods!approach!was!used!to!conduct! this! research.!First,! the!youth!participants!completed!one!questionnaire!during!the!final!game!of!each!of!the!three!sport!program!sessions!(fall,!winter,!and!spring).!In!addition,!qualitative!semi_structured! interviews!were!conducted!with!the!youth!as! they!would!allow!for! the!youth!to!share!a!more!in_depth!perception!of!their!experiences!(Fontana!&!Frey,!2000).!These!interviews!were!conducted!during!the!last!three!games!of!the!spring!session!when!all!three!of!the!PAL!sessions!were!over!and!the!program!had!concluded!until!the!following!fall.!All!participants!were!interviewed!at!the!clubhouse!in!which!the!PAL!program!was!run,!either!before!or!after!their!scheduled!game!time.!!
The0Youth0Experiences0Survey0(YES)02.0.!!
The!YES!2.0!is!a!self_report!questionnaire!that!aims!to!examine!youth!experiences!in!different!activities,!clubs,!and!organizations!as! it! relates! to!PYD!outcomes! (Hansen!&!Larson,!2005).!More!specifically,! the!YES!2.0! focuses!on!examining! various! domains! of! socio_emotional! development! that! involves! the! processes!wherein! youth! are! “active!and!conscious!agents!of!their!own!development”!(Larson,!Hansen,!&!Monet,!2006,!p.!851).!Psychometric!testing!with!1822!youth! indicated!that!the!YES!2.0! is!a!valid!and!reliable! instrument!with!Cronbach’s!alpha!ranging!from!0.75!to!0.94! for! the! different! subscales.! Although! the! YES! 2.0! has! 17! subscales! and! a! total! of! 70! items! (Hansen!&! Larson,!2005),!only!the!subscales!relevant!to!the!objectives!of!PAL!were!used!in!this!study.!Participants!responded!to!36!items!(11! subscales)! using! four! response! items! (4:! Yes,! definitely;! 3:! Quite! A! Bit;! 2:! A! little;! 1:! Not! at! all).! The! subscales!included! were:! identity! exploration,! identity! reflection,! goal! setting,! effort,! problem! solving,! time! management,!emotional! regulation,! athletic! skills,! diverse! peer! relationships,! prosocial! norms,! and! linkages! to! community.!Cronbach’s! alpha! indicated! that! all! of! the! subscales!were! reliable! ranging! from! 0.72! to! 0.81!with! the! exception! of!prosocial!norms!(0.42).!It!is!believed!the!reliability!of!this!subscale!was!low!due!to!the!fact!that!it!only!has!two!items!which! ask! about! very! different! aspects! of! prosocial! norms! (item! 1! –! I! learned! about! helping! others;! item! 2! –!We!discussed!morals!and!values).!As!a!result,!caution!should!be!taken!when!interpreting!the!results!from!this!subscale.!It!should! be! noted! that! this! method! used! did! not! test! whether! actual! learning! did! occur! during! this! activities,! but!whether! the!youth!reported!the!experiences!within!PAL!were!related! to! the!occurrence!of! the!subscales.!However,!Larson! (2000)! argues! that! youth! are! active! and! conscious! producers! of! their! development,! therefore! it! should! be!noted!that!such!surveys!are!of!value!when!understanding!the!developmental!processes!that!are!occurring.!In!addition!to!the!36!items,!three!open_ended!questions!were!asked!about!the!youth’s!experience!in!PAL—what!they!liked!about!the!program,!what!they!did!not!like!about!the!program,!and!what!they!would!want!to!change!to!make!the!program!better.!
Interviews!
The! semi_structured! interviews!were! conducted!with!10!of! the!PAL!participants.! The! average! age!of! those!interviewed!was!16.5!years.!Ninety!percent!of!the!sample!was!male!which!is!reflective!of!the!general!demographic!of!participants! in! the!PAL! leagues.!As!mentioned!above,! the!purpose!of! these! interviews!was! to!gain!a!more! in_depth!understanding! of! the! youth’s! experience! participating! in! PAL.! The! researcher! used! purposeful! sampling! as! it! was!important!to!talk!to!youth!with!a!variety!of!experience!in!PAL.!Therefore,!youth!were!sought!out!who!had!a!variety!of!different!experiences;!youth!who!were!participating!in!the!PAL!league!for!the!first!time,!youth!who!has!participated!in!the!program!for!several!years,!and!youth!who!participated!in!the!different!sport!leagues.!As!a!result!youth!from!the!three!different!PAL!leagues!(Soccer,!Floor!Hockey,!and!Basketball)!with!various!years!of!experience!were!selected.!For!example,!four!of!the!interviews!were!conducted!with!individuals!who!had!been!participating!in!PAL!for!a!number!of!
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years!and!had! recently! started! to! take!on!a! leadership! role!by!volunteering!part_time!with! the!Boys!and!Girls!Club.!
These!interviews!provided!insight!into!the!perceived!impact!of!PAL!on!participants’!growth!and!development!over!the!
course! of! time.! The! interview! questions! focused! on! what! participants! liked! and! disliked! about! the! program,! their!
overall! experience! in! the! program,!what! they! believed! they! had! learned! through! their! participation! in! PAL.! Probes!
were!also!used!to!further!explore!areas!of!the!participants’!experiences!if!needed.!All!of!the!interviews!were!recorded!
using! a! digital! audio_recorder! and! varied! in! length! from! 15_30! minutes.! All! procedures! were! approved! by! the!
University!Research!Ethics!Committee.!!
Data0Analysis0
The!quantitative!data!from!the!YES!2.0!was!analyzed!using!SPSS!17.0!for!Windows!(SPPS!Inc.!Chicago,!IL,!USA).!
In!particular!descriptive!analyses!were!performed!(means!and!standard!deviations).!The!qualitative!data!was!analyzed!
using! an! inductive! content! analysis! (Elo!&!Kyngas,! 2008).! This! type!of! analysis! allows! important! themes! to! emerge!
inductively!from!the!responses!of!the!participants!(Elo!&!Kyngas,!2008).!The!interviews!were!transcribed!verbatim!and!
analyzed!using!an!iterative!four!step!process.!First,!the!researcher!read!through!the!transcripts!to!become!familiarized!
with!the!data.!Second,!the!researcher!read!through!the!transcripts!a!second!time!and!made!notes!in!relation!to!any!
interesting!and/or!relevant!responses!made!by!the!participant.!Third,!the!researcher!re_read!the!transcripts!and!the!
side! notes! and! grouped! responses! into! broader! themes.! Fourth,! the! broad! themes! were! organized! and! relevant!
quotations!were! highlighted! that! supported! the! emergence! of! these! themes.! An! independent! auditor,! who!was! a!
graduate! student! with! experience! in! qualitative! data! analysis,! reviewed! the! transcripts! to! examine! whether! the!
identified! themes!were! consistent!with! the!data! collected.! Small! discrepancies!between! researchers! in! the!analysis!
process! were! identified.! In! these! cases! the! discrepancies! were! discussed! until! an! agreement! was! reached.!
Identification! codes!were! created! for! each!quotation! as! a!means! to! indicate! the! gender!of! the!participant! and! the!
sport(s)!the!individual!participated!in!to!ensure!anonymity!and!confidentiality!(F!=!Female;!M!=!Male;!B!=!Basketball;!
H=!Ball!Hockey;!S!=!Soccer).!Additionally,!numbers!were!assigned!to!the!participants!in!the!order!in!which!they!were!
interviewed.!For!example,!the!identification!code!MHB_10!would!indicate!that!the!interviewed!participant!was!a!male!
who!participated!in!both!ball!hockey!and!basketball!and!was!the!tenth!individual!interviewed.!!
RESULTS0
The!results!section!is!divided!into!two!sections:!the!quantitative!results!from!the!YES!2.0!and!the!qualitative!
results!from!the!semi_structured!interviews.!
Youth0Experience0Survey0(YES)02.00
The!results!from!the!YES!2.0!indicated!that!PAL!was!perceived!by!the!youth!as!a!program!that!helped!them!
develop! a! variety! of! life! skills.! In! particular,! the! subscales! ‘athletic! skills’! (M=3.51±0.86),! ‘effort’! (M=3.32±0.77),!
‘linkages!to!community’!(M=3.12±0.88),!‘diverse!peer!relationships’!(M=3.11!±!0.84),!and!‘goal!setting’!(M=3.10±0.70)!
all!had!mean!scores!above!3!indicating!that!the!youth!believed!that!the!PAL!program!helped!them!to!develop!these!
skills.! The! remaining! subscales! ‘identity! exploration’! (M=2.92±0.76),! ‘identity! reflection’! (M=2.71±0.84),! ‘problem!
solving’! (M=2.73±0.79),! ‘time! management’! (M=2.86±0.74),! ‘emotional! regulation’! (M=2.82±0.76),! and! ‘prosocial!
norms’! (M=2.87±0.80)!all!had!mean!scores!between!2.5!and!3.0! indicating! that! the!youth!perceived!PAL!as!helping!
them!develop!such!life!skills,!but!not!to!the!same!extent!as!the!subscales!outlined!above.!
In!addition!to!the!YES!2.0!results,! it!was!interesting!to!note!the!feedback!the!youth!conveyed!regarding!the!
PAL!program! from! the! three!open_ended!questions!on! the!questionnaire.!When!asked!what! the! youth!did!not! like!
about!PAL!very! few! responded!with! complaints.! In! fact,! the! typical! response!was! there! is!nothing! they!did!not! like!
about!the!program.!However,!for!the!question!“what!would!you!change!to!make!PAL!even!better?”!the!youth!made!a!
number!of!recommendations!including!a!longer!playing!season,!involving!more!regular!season!games,!and!offering!a!
wider! variety! of! sports.! Finally,! there!were! requests! to! have! the! referees! certified! due! to!what! some! participants!
perceived!to!be!‘poor!calls.’! It!was!also!noted!during!interviews!that!the!referees!were!not!always!impartial!to!both!
teams!as!“sometimes!they!had!other!people!on!the!other!team!that!they!knew!from!different![clubs],!so!they’d!be!a!
little!biased”!(FHB_7).!!
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Participants’0Perceived0Experiences0
Overall!enjoyment!of!PAL!was!noted! in!all!10! interviews.!Additionally,!100%!of!the!participants!agreed!that!“yes,!PAL!is!a!positive!program!for!youth”!and!that!the!program!should!be!continued!long!into!the!future.!Five!themes!emerged! from! the!participant’s! perspective!of! the!program:! (1)! fun,! safe! and! accessible;! (2)! enables! friendships! to!emerge;! (3)! opportunity! to! experience! success;! (4)! catalyst! for! life! skill! development;! and! (5)! facilitates! the!transference!of!life!skills!to!outside!domains.!
Fun,0 safe0 and0 accessible.! The! perception! of! the! environment! was! expressed! by! the! youth! through! pure!enjoyment.! The! pure! sense! of! fun! and! enjoyment! of! participating! in! PAL! was! acknowledged! by! all! 10! youth! that!participated! in! the! interview! process.!When! asked! what! they! liked! best! about! being! in! the! program,! eight! of! the!participants!indicated!the!sense!of!enjoyment!and!fun!they!experienced!in!PAL.!Two!participants!indicated!that!they!looked! forward! to! the! specific! day!of! the!week! they!had!PAL.!One!participant!highlighted:! “It’s! been! fantastic.! I’ve!learned!a!lot,!and!gained!a!lot!of!experience.!Overall!it’s!just!a!really!fun!time!for!me”!(FHB_6).!One!of!the!volunteers!and! current!participants!of!PAL! recounts:! “I! look! forward! to!my!Thursdays...I! like! the! fact! that! you! can! just! go!and!play…and!enjoy!yourself!and! it’s!not!“crazy!competitive”.!You! just!go!out! there!and!have! fun”! (MHB_4).! It!was!also!indicated! that! the! program! offered! a! sense! of! competitiveness! that! had! not! been! present! in! other! recreational!programs!within!the!Boys!and!Girls!Club.!As!one!participant!shared:!“PAL!was!competitive!and!very!fun!!Very!fun!at!the!same!time!‘cause!we!got!to!do!stuff!off!the!court!and!on!the!court”!(MB_2).!The!overall!consensus!of!the!youth!was!that!they!recognized!the!league!as!competitive,!but!not!as!cut_throat!competition!that!occurs!for!many!youth!that!participate!in!sport!specialization.!One!youth!explained!that!“it’s! just!a!fun!league!to!play!in—like!it’s!not!all!serious!where! like!you! lose!and! that’s! your!only! chance! in! life,! like! life!goes!on!and!you! still! get!other! chances”! (MSH_10).!Additionally,! the! above! quotations! speak! to! the! concept! that! teams!were! competitive!with! each! other! during! the!game!because!they!all!wanted!to!win,!yet!this!element!of!cut_throat!competitiveness!was!absent!from!the!league!as!they!were!able!to!be!friends!with!members!of!the!other!team!before,!during,!and!after!the!games.!
Offering! the! PAL! program! in! a! geographic! area! where! many! families! living! on! low! incomes! reside! (e.g.!community! housing),! had! a! great! impact! on! the! youth! participants! as! they! were! consciously! aware! of! what! few!positive!alternatives!were!available!to!them!in!their!community!outside!of!the!PAL!program.!Three!youth!recognized!that!PAL!provided!a!safe!and!accessible!environment!where!they!could!have!fun!and!learn!new!things.!One!participant!stated:!“This!isn’t!the!best!neighbourhood,!so!it’s!better!that![we’re]!behind!a!bench!and!not!in!the!back!seat!of!a!cop!car”! (MH_8).! A! number! of! participants! believed! that! if! they! did! not! participate! in! the! PAL! program,! they! “would!probably!be!troubled”!(MH_5).!One!participant!felt!very!fortunate,!and!somewhat!relieved!that!the!PAL!program!was!offered! to! him! because! it! “…gives! a! lot! of! people! something! to! do;! a! lot! of! kids! that! would! otherwise! be! doing!something!else…kids!that!might!not!have!a!place!to!go!to!do!things!that!are!positive!like!this”!(MH_9).!It!was!evident!that!youth!were!aware!that! few!positive!alternatives!were!available!to!them!in!their!communities.!They!recognized!that!PAL!provided!a!safe!environment!that!enabled!them!to!be!constructive!and!productive.!!
In! addition,! the! youth! also! discussed! that! the! lack! of! registration! fees! enabled! access! to! participants!who!were!not!financially!able!to!participate!in!recreational!or!competitive!sports!leagues!offered!locally!through!the!city.!Without!PAL,! there!would!be!no,!or!very! limited!options! for!extra_curricular! sport!activities.!An! individual!noted:! “I!can’t!afford!it![other!competitive!leagues]…and!the!best!part!about!that!is…I!have!PAL...some!of!these!kids!that!come!here,!they!don’t!have!the!money!for![outside]!leagues!so!PAL!is!a!very!good!place!for!kids”!(FHB_6).!!
It!was!acknowledged!that!the!structural!environment!of!PAL!benefited!the!youth!as!they!had!a!place!to!come!each!week!and!participate!on!teams!and!in!sports!that!they!might!not!have!otherwise!had!the!chance!to!participate!in,!often!due!to!financial!barriers.!!
Enables0friendships0to0emerge!!
Meeting!new!friends!on!both!their!own!team!and!opposing!teams!was!a!pertinent!theme!that!emerged!when!talking!with! the! participants.! Two! participants! commented! that! their! team!was! like! a! “family”! (FHB_6;!MHS_9).! As!earlier! stated,! the! PAL! environment! was! not! typical! of! a! hyper_competitive! sports! league,! where! teams! are! often!
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isolated!from!each!other!and!communication!and!interaction!between!teams!are!discouraged.!In!PAL,!the!youth!from!different!teams!travel!to!and!from!the!games!together.!One!participant!indicated!that!“most!club!teams!just!go!and!play!and!then!go!home.!Here!when!we!go!home,!we!go!home!altogether”!(MB_2).!Her!tone!of!voice!and!smile!that!emerged! on! her! face! highlighted! that! this! was! an! element! of! PAL! that! she! really! enjoyed.! Another! participant!commented!that!“even!though!on!the!court!you’re!competitors,!and!enemies!technically!speaking,!off!the!court!you!become!friends.!That’s!probably!the!best!part!about!it”!(FHB_6).!The!above!quotations!speak!to!the!social!support!that!was!valued!within!the!league,!as!all!members!of!the!PAL!league!travelled!to!and!from!games!together.!They!identified!this!time!frame!as!a!social!time,!where!individuals!from!other!clubs!bonded!and!became!friends.!From!the!friendships!that! developed,! a! support! network!was! created! that!was! considered! something! of! great! importance! to! the! youth:!!“…the!support!from!my!team…when!they’re!in!the!bleachers!cheering!me!on;!I’d!never!had!anyone!cheer!me!on!like!that”! (MHS_10).! This! sense! of! support! was! very! meaningful! to! the! participants! especially! when! such! friendships!extended!to!outside!the!club.!One!youth!stated:!
I!got!to!meet!a!lot!of!new!people!who!went!to!the!Boys!and!Girls!Club!around!the!city.!I’m!friends!with!them!and!I’ve!been!friends!with!them!for!about!ten!years!now.!So!my!friends!that!I!hang!out!with!now!are!all!ones!that!I!played![ball]!hockey!with!in!PAL!when!I!was!younger.!(MHB_4)!
Establishing!long_lasting!friendships!at!PAL!that!have!translated!into!other!domains!of!participants’!lives!is!an!element!that!was!pertinent!to!participants’!social!capital!during!current!and!past!seasons!of!PAL,!and!even!more!so!as!they!continue!to!grow!older.!
Opportunity0to0experience0success!
The!youth!believed!that!the!PAL!program!provided!opportunities!for!success!that!went!beyond!a!competitive!sport!victory.!One!participant!enjoyed!the!feelings!associated!with!winning,!as!well!as!being!in!the!program:!“it!makes!me! feel! good! and! my! teammates! feel! good”! (MHS_1).! The! program! provided! special! events! such! as! having! the!championship!game!held!at!the!local!university!gymnasium!and!a!the!charity!game!where!the!local!police!force!plays!against!the!PAL!participants!in!front!of!a!big!crowd.!A!participant!felt!that!through!the!involvement!in!the!program!he!had!the!opportunity!to!feel!important.!This!youth!described!how!he!felt!when!playing!in!the!charity!game:!“[I]!actually!know!what!it!feels!like!to!be!famous,!like!one!of!those!big!stars”!(MHS_10).!To!him,!it!was!not!the!result!indicated!by!the!scoreboard!that!dictated!his!success;!it!was!the!opportunity!and!the!experience!that!attributed!to!these!feelings!of!success.! Additionally,! a! participant! indicated! that! having! the! PAL! championship! game! held! at! a! major! university!gymnasium!was!“every!kid’s!dream”!(MB_2)!and!that! this!opportunity!was!deemed!more! important!than!the!actual!championship! game.! Finally! a! participant! vocalized! just! how! much! influence! a! program! like! PAL! can! have! on! an!individual:!“a!program!like!this,!it!really!does!make!a!difference”!(MH_8).!!
Another!theme!that!surfaced!related!to!experiencing!success!was!the! improvement!of!physical!and!athletic!abilities.!One!youth! indicated! that!participating! in!PAL!helped!him! to!achieve!better!physical! fitness.! “Before! this,! I!wasn’t!very!active…getting!into!this,!I’ve!been!a!lot!more!active!which!helps!me!control!my!diabetes”!(MH_8).!Others!stated!the!improvement!of!their!athletic!skills!led!to!them!making!a!school!team:!“When!I!made!it!for!PAL!I!got!better!and!made! it! for! the! grade! seven! team,! and! I! felt! really! good! about!myself”! (MHS_10).!Overall! there!was! a! general!consensus!about!the!improvement!of!basic!sport!(soccer,!hockey,!basketball)!skills.!
Catalyst0for0life0skill0development!
Participants! discussed! a! number! of! skills! they! believed! they! developed! as! a! result! of! participating! in! PAL.!These! life! skills! included! teamwork,! emotional! regulation,! learning! how! to! put! forth! effort,! set! goals,! and! respect!others.!The!youth!vocalized!that!teamwork!developed!over!the!course!of!the!season.!“Before!when!I!came!here,!I!was!shy,!nervous,!and!didn’t!really!want!to!interact!with!anybody,!so!when!I!joined!PAL!I!got!a!chance!to!know!what!it![to!be!part!of!a!team]!feels!like”!(MHS_10).!Working!together!was!strongly!encouraged!by!the!coaches!and!staff!members!of!the!PAL!teams.!One!youth!reported!“I! learned!how!to!do!sportsmanship,!cooperate!with!my!teammates!and!the!opponents”! (MHS_1).! One! of! the!ways! the! staff! encouraged! teamwork!was! through! a! constant! rotation! of! players!through!the! line_up,!allowing!all!participants! to!have!equal!playing! time!and!the!opportunity! to!work! together!with!
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everyone!on!the!team.!One!participant!explained!“[understanding]!what!role!everyone!had!to!take...![it!is]!not!a!one_person!team;!we!all!have!our!small!parts”!(MH_8).!
Emotional! regulation!was!also!often!discussed!by! the!youth.!They!shared! that!PAL!has!helped! them!better!control! their! temper,! change! their!attitude!about! losing,!and!be! respectful! regarding! rules!and! toward! the!officials.!One!youth! stated!proudly! that!he!“learned!not! to! talk!back! to! the! refs;! that!was!a!big! thing! for!me”! (MB_2),!while!another! participant! said:! “I! learned! how! to! change!my! attitude!”! (MHS_10).!Within! PAL,! there! is! a! zero_tolerance!policy!regarding!profanity!and/or!disputes!with!the!officials.!This!strongly!enforced!rule!helped!to!limit!any!issues.!“If![the!refs]!make!a!bad!call!you!just!have!to!brush!it!off!and!keep!playing”!(MHB_7).!As!this!rule!was!strongly!enforced!by!the!coaching!staff!and!referees,!it!further!helped!teach!athletes!to!“…simmer!down...how!to!lose!and!still!be!happy!about!it;!how!to!not!be!a!sore!loser”!(FHB_6).!The!coaching!staff!were!also!noted!as!a!support!for!participants!when!controlling!their!emotions:!“…sometimes!I!get!stressed!or!frustrated!or!mad!or!anything—!the!staff!help!me”!(MHS_1).!!
Learning!and!continuing!to!put!forth!a!constant!effort!was!indicated!by!the!youth!who!stated!that!specifically!at! PAL,! they! gave! an! extra! push! both! physically! and!mentally.! This! indicated! a! sense! of! determination! to! achieve!success!and!personal!satisfaction!for!giving!their!best!effort.!
The!way!I!play!I!do!differently!in!PAL.!Like!if!I!am!playing!in!my!school!it!is!a!different!way!than!how!I!play!at!the!Boys!and!Girls!Club,!like!PAL!league.!Because!the!Boys!and!Girls!Club,!I!don’t!know,!there’s!just!something!about!it!that!makes!it!seem!like,!that!just!gives!you!this!extra!push.!I!don’t!know,!there’s!just!a!whole!change!of!spirit,!and!love,!and!passion!that!you!share!at!the!Boys!and!Girls!Club,!so!it!just!changes!the!way!you!play,!like!together.!(MHS_10)!
Another!participant!talked!about!how!PAL!helped!him!to!develop!goals.!“It’s!a!great!way!to!get!more!involved!and!being!outside!of!the!house!and!you!have!goals!to!work!towards,!like!do!better!than!your!team!did!last!year,!get!more!points...”(MH_8).!This!was!a!general!consensus!for!three!of!the!youth!participants!across!all!three!sport!leagues!within! PAL.! Both! team_oriented! and! individual! goals! were! identified! as! being! explicitly! set! over! the! course! of! the!seasons.!
The! concept! of! respect! was! also! very! pertinent! for! participants! when! interacting! with! referees,! coaches,!teammates,!and!opponents.!As!mentioned!above!under!emotion!regulation,! the!youth! learned!how!to!respect!“the!calls! the! refs!make”! (MHB_7).! Additionally,! the! youth! talked! about! respecting! their! peers.!One! youth! vocalized! the!importance!of!“respecting!the!other!kids”!(MHS_1)! in!the!program!regardless!of!their! individual!differences,!such!as!age!or!sex!and!“just!let!them!play”!(FHB_6).!!
Transference0of0skills!
Some!of!the!youth!participants!stated!that!the!life!skills!(e.g.,!developing!relationships,!teamwork,!respecting!others,!and!managing!emotions)!they!felt!they!developed!and/or! improved!in!PAL!were!helpful! in!other!domains!of!their!lives.!One!youth!shared!“I’ve!also!become!a!bit!more!sociable!from!it!(the!program)…it’s!helped!at!school”!(MH_8).!An!individual!who!had!a!reputation!at!his!school!for!being! involved!in!disputes!with!others! in!physical!education!class! said! “this! league!has!affected!me! in! a! good!way!because!now! that! I’m! in!other! leagues,! I! have! learned!more!about!getting!along!with!other!people!that!I!don’t!know!and!controlling!my!temper”!(MB_2).!Another!participant!also!reported!that!he!has!been!able!to!transfer!elements!of!emotional!regulation,!controlling!his!temper!and!dealing!with!frustration,!into!the!school!environment.!!
[People!at!school]!make!me!feel!bad!(about!losing)!and!it’s!not!really!a!big!deal.!I!just!ignore!them!or!be!like!‘no!we!didn’t’.!I!try!not!to!argue!with!them!and!be!like!‘actually,!yeah,!we!did!lose’...and!just!accept!it!(MHS_10).!
Further,! participants! discussed! that! they! have! learned! how! to! respect! others! and! attribute! this! growth! to!their! experiences!with! PAL.!One! youth! reported! he! “learned! how! to! respect! people,! not! just! here! but! outside! the!club”!(MHB_7).!This!speaks!to!the!element!of!respect!that!was!discussed!in!the!previous!section.!From!this!quotation!it!is!evident!that!the!concept!of!respect!has!been!transferred!into!other!domains!of!the!participants’!lives.!
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As! explained! earlier,! a! number! of! the! interviews! were! conducted! with! long_standing! participants! of! the!program!and!four!of!these!individuals!have!now!attained!a!volunteer!position!at!the!Boys!and!Girls!Club!because!of!their!personal!growth! throughout! the!program.!One! individual!noted! that! the! skills!he! learned! through!PAL!helped!him!achieve!the!volunteer!position!at!the!club.!“I!found!that!the!leadership!role![I!was!given!in!PAL]!was!like!a!middle!man!for!me!getting!my!job![volunteer!position]!here…shows!that!you’re!ready!to!move!on!and!take!other!spots!as!a!leader”!(MHB_4).!A!current!participant!and!staff!of!PAL!program!said:!“I’ve!gained!a!lot!of!leadership!skills…!just!being!able!to!pass!on![as!a!volunteer]…and!have!the!opportunity!to!teach!someone,!you!feel!so!much!better.!It’s!a!feeling!I!can’t!even!describe”!(FHB_6).!
DISCUSSION0
! The! purpose! of! this! study! was! to! understand! the! experiences! and! perceived! impact! of! the! PAL! program.!Results!of!this!study!indicated!that!the!youth!believed!the!PAL!program!provided!a!positive!environment!for!them!to!be!active! in!an!enjoyable!and!safe!environment!and! to!also!develop!and! transfer! life! skills.!The!quantitative! results!indicated!that!the!youth!perceived!the!PAL!program!as!helping!them!learn!how!to!put!forth!effort,!set!goals,!develop!relationships!with!diverse!peers,!and!develop!a! sense!of!belonging! in! their! community,! in!addition! to!being!able! to!improve!their!athletic!skills.!More!specifically,!the!quantitative!findings!were!supported!by!the!qualitative!results.! In!particular!the!youth!believe!that!PAL!provides!an!opportunity!to!develop!relationships!with!peers,!put!forth!effort!and!as! a! result! experience! success,! and! develop! in! positive! ways! such! as! enhancing! their! athletic! skills,! goal! setting!abilities,!as!well!as!how!to!work!as!a!team,!respect!others!and!manage!their!emotions.!!
! Petitpas! and! colleagues’! (2005)! framework! for! planning! youth! sport! programs! that! foster! psychosocial!development! highlights! that! positive! psychosocial! growth! is! most! likely! to! occur! when! youth! are! engaged! in! an!intrinsically!motivating!activity!that!is!voluntary,!has!clear!rules,!provides!a!welcoming!environment!where!youth!can!feel!a!sense!of!belonging,!has!supportive!coaches!that!are!willing!to!challenge!the!youth!to!reach!their!potential,!and!provides!opportunities! to!develop!and! transfer! life! skills.!Based!on! the! results!of! this! study! it! appears! that! the!PAL!program!is!one!youth!program!that!may!be!fostering!the!development!of!youth.!!PAL!is!a!program!in!which!Boys!and!Girls!Club!members!can!voluntarily!join!and!based!on!the!interviews!with!the!youth!they!appear!to!enjoy!the!program.!Such! theme! related! to! the! sense! of! enjoyment! was! unique! in! that! it! created! a! foundation! as! providing! a! safe!environment!that! is!accessible!allowed!for! the!remaining!themes!to!emerge!once!the!predominant!objective!of! the!program!was!achieved.!!
! In!addition,!although!PAL!runs!like!a!typical!community!sports!program!in!that!it!is!a!competitive!league!with!a!clear!rule!structure,!the!overall!environment!appears!to!create!a!mastery!climate,!which!research!has!shown!results!in!more! positive! outcomes! (Eccles! et! al.,! 1998;! Smith,! Smoll,! &! Cumming,! 2009;! Smoll,! Smith,! &! Cumming,! 2007).!Eccles!and!colleagues!(1998)!emphasized!the!importance!of!not!only!striving!to!create,!but!also!maintaining,!a!mastery!learning! environment! for! youth.! The! PAL! program! has! succeeded! in! creating! such! an! environment! as! the! youth!described!PAL!as!a!fun!and!supportive!atmosphere!where!they!were!more!likely!to!try!harder,!set!goals!and!persevere!than!in!other!domains!of!their!life.!Both!the!quantitative!and!qualitative!data!illustrates!that!the!participants!learned!how! to! put! forth! effort! and! to! improve! their! athletic! skills.! The! qualitative! results! also! speak! to! the! youths’!opportunities! to! experience! success! in! very! different!ways! than! simply!winning.! Particularly,! the! youth!mentioned!achieving!better!physical! fitness!and!athletic!skills!over!the!course!of!the!season,!regardless!of!the!final!outcome!at!the!end!of!each!game!and!the!season.!This!notion!is!in!line!with!the!literature!as!Roth!and!colleagues!(1998)!discussed!how!the!environment!of!a!recreation!program!is!critical!to!the!perceived!success!of!the!program!by!its!participants.!
! Furthermore,! in! line!with!Petitpas!et!al.’s! (2005)!assertion!that!youth!should!be!surrounded!by!caring!adult!mentors!within!a!program,!in!this!study!the!participants!talked!a!lot!about!the!positive!influence!of!their!coaches.!The!youth!shared!that!the!coaches!provided!everyone!with!equal!playing!time!and!emphasized!teamwork.!The!youth!also!explained!how!the!coaches!helped!them!to!learn!how!to!regulate!their!emotions!and!to!respect!the!other!players!and!the!referees.!From!this! research,! it! is!evident! that! if!community!organizations!take!the!time!to!ensure!their! leaders!and!coaches!are!aware!of!the!importance!of!the!elements!discussed!above,!such!as!fair!play!and!managing!emotions,!the!programs!can!have!a!positive!impact!on!youth!participants.!
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! Finally,!researchers!assert!that!sport_based!programs!need!to!incorporate!opportunities!for!youth!to!develop!and!transfer!life!skills!(Lee!&!Martinek,!2013;!Petitpas!et!al.,!2005).!As!discussed!above!the!youth!reported!learning!a!number! of! life! skills! due! to! their! participation! in! PAL! (e.g.,! goal! setting,! teamwork,! respect,! emotion! regulation).!However,!one!of!the!most!predominant!reported!experiences!shared!by!the!youth!was!how!they!had!transferred!such!skills!into!other!domains!of!their!life!such!as!school!and!work.!For!example,!the!youth!discussed!that!they!were!better!able!to!meet!new!friends!in!school,!manage!their!emotions!more!effectively!at!school!and!transfer!the!leadership!skills!they!had!developed!into!their!current!place!of!employment.!!
! It! is!also!critical! to!acknowledge!the! importance!of!providing!opportunities! like!PAL!for!at_risk!youth.!Youth!from! families! living! on! low! incomes! are! at! higher! risk! for! poor! developmental! outcomes! (Wilson,!Williams,! Evans,!Mixon,!&!Rheaume,!2005).!A!number!of!the!youth!recognized!that!this!program!played!a!big!role!in!providing,!not!only!an! alternative! that! kept! them! out! of! trouble,! but! a! positive! opportunity! to! develop! essential! skills! for! adulthood.!Pittman!and!Fleming!(1991)!speak!to!this! issue!by!emphasizing!that!simply!preventing!high!risk!behaviors! is!not!the!same!as!positively!preparing!youth!for!the!future.!Being!problem_free!does!not!necessarily!mean!youth!are!adequately!prepared.! “There! must! be! equal! commitment! to! helping! young! people! understand! life’s! challenges! and!responsibilities!and!to!developing!the!necessary!skills!to!succeed!as!adults”!(Pittman!&!Fleming,!1991,!21_22).!
! One! interesting! discrepancy! was! noted! between! the! quantitative! and! qualitative! results.! Within! the!interviews!the!youth!discussed!how!PAL!helped!to!manage!emotions,!particularly!anger!and!frustration,!while!on!the!YES!2.0!the!mean!score!of!emotional!regulation!was!2.82.!One!explanation!for!this!discrepancy!may!be!related!to!the!types!of!emotions!the!youth!learned!how!to!regulate.!The!emotional!regulation!subscale!on!the!YES!2.0!is!made!up!of!four!questions.!The!first!and!fourth!question!asked!about!learning!to!control!their!temper!and!learning!how!emotions!can!impact!their!performance.!For!these!two!items!70%!of!participants!scored!a!3!or!4.!On!the!other!hand,!the!second!and!third!items!asked!about!managing!anxiety!and!stress.!Less!than!55%!scored!a!3!or!4.!Therefore,!it!appears!that!the!PAL!program!is!perceived!by!the!youth!as!helping!to!regulate!their!emotions!such!as!anger!and!frustration,!emotions!often!characteristic! in!competitive!sport!compared! to!anxiety!and!stress.!Moreover,!given! that! the!youth!described!PAL!as!a!positive!and!fun!environment!it!is!likely!that!they!did!not!experience!much!stress!and!anxiety!and!therefore!did!not!have!the!opportunity!to!learn!how!to!regulate!such!emotions.!
! !Although!the!results!of!this!study!indicate!that!the!youth!involved!in!PAL!perceived!the!program!as!a!positive!experience! that! enabled! them! to! develop! a! variety! of! life! skills! it! is! important! to! recognize! the! limitations! of! this!research.!This!study!did!not!measure!changes! in! life!skill!development!over! time!and!also!relied!on!self_report.! It! is!recommended!that!future!research!employ!a!longitudinal!design!and!use!more!objective!measures!of!positive!youth!development! to! examine! the! impact! of! programs! such! as! PAL.! Furthermore,! the! majority! of! the! individuals!interviewed!were!older!youth.!Although!the!older!youth,!because!of!their!developmental!level!and!veteran_status!in!PAL,!may!have!a!greater!ability!to!reflect!on!their!experiences,!this!approach!limits!the!generalizability!of!the!results!to!younger!youth.!Additionally,!the!sample!of! interviewees!was!predominately!male.!However,! it!should!be!noted!that!the!majority!of!PAL!participants!were!also!male.!Nevertheless!it!would!be!beneficial!to!attain!feedback!from!a!greater!number! of! female! participants! in! the! future.! Lastly,! the! length! of! some!of! the! interviews! can!be! considered! short,!lasting!only!15!minutes,!yet!this!occurred!with!two!of!the!younger!PAL!participants,!yet!as!Smith!and!Osborn!(2008)!stated!considerably!long!and!intense!semi_structured!interviews!are!not!always!advisable!with!young!children.!!
As! stated!earlier,! the!overall!emphasis!of!PAL! is! social! recreation!with! the!goal!of!enhancing!development.!According!to!the!results,!PAL!is!meeting!this!objective!and!also!doing!so!by!being!barrier_free!for!youth!from!families!living!on!low!incomes.!Many!of!the!youth!stated!that!without!PAL!they!would!not!have!the!opportunity!to!participate!in!a!sport!program.!As!a!result,! it! is!recommended!that!community!sport!and!recreation!organizations!recognize!the!value!of!incorporating!a!philosophy!similar!to!PAL,!as!using!sport!as!a!tool!for!enhancing!social!development!can!have!a!positive!impact!on!the!development!of!youth.!However,!there!is!always!room!for!improvement!and!it!is!suggested!that! researchers! and! practitioners!work! together! to! identify! both! the! strengths! and! areas! of! development! for! the!various! sport! and! recreation! programs! in! which! they! are! involved.! Once! strengths! and! areas! of! improvement! are!identified,!specific!strategies!can!be!implemented!to!further!enhance!the!development!of!the!youth!participants.!This!study!showed!that!the!PAL!program!is!helping!youth!set!goals,!learn!how!to!put!forth!effort,!regulate!their!emotions,!
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and!develop! stronger! relationships!with!peers! and! their! community.!Nevertheless,! future!work! is!needed! to!better!understand!the!role!(and!impact)!of!coaches!and!instructors!in!teaching!life!skill!development!and!transference.!
CONCLUSION0
This!research!provides!insight!into!the!youth’s!experiences!and!perceived!impact!of!the!PAL!program!offered!through!the!Boys!and!Girls!Club!located!in!Eastern!Ontario,!Canada.!It!was!evident!that!the!youth!participants!perceive!PAL!as!a!positive!context!and!a!program!that!enhances!their!personal!and!athletic!development.!More!specifically,!it!appears!that!providing!an!environment!that!was!fun,!safe!and!accessible!enabled!participants!to!develop!friendships,!to! experience! success,! to! develop! life! skills,! and! to! transfer! these! skills! into! other! domains,! particularly! the! school!environment.!However,!it!is!important!to!note!that!this!positive!and!supportive!environment!is!strongly!influenced!by!the!coaches!and!staff!members!that!facilitate!the!PAL!program.!In!sum,!this!research!contributes!to!the!growing!body!of! knowledge!on!PYD!and! it! is! recommended! that! the!Boys!and!Girls!Club! continue! to!offer!programs! like! the!PAL!program!so!that!youth!can!build!a!stronger!foundation!that!will!help!them!to!succeed!in!their!future!endeavours.! !
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS0
The! authors! would! like! to! thanks! the! Boys! and! Girls! Club! of! Ottawa! for! their! ongoing! support! and!collaboration!throughout!this!project.!
REFERENCES0
Bloom,!M.! (2000).! The!uses!of! theory! in!primary!prevention!practice:! Evolving! thoughts!on! school! and!after_school!activities! as! influences!of! social! competence.! In! S.! J.!Danish!&!T.!Gullotta! (Eds.).! !Developing! competent! youth!and!strong!communities!through!after_school!programming!(pp.17_66).!!Washington,!DC:!CWLA!Press.!
Botvin,! G.! J.! (2004).! Advancing! prevention! science! and! practice:! Challenges,! critical! issues,! and! future! directions.!Prevention!Science,!5(1),!69_72.!
Boys!and!Girls!Clubs!of!Canada.!(2012a).!Our!history.!Retrieved!from!
http://www.bgccan.com/en/AboutUs/OurHistory/Pages/default.aspx!
Boys!and!Girls!Clubs!of!Canada.!(2012b).!Who!we!are.!Retrieved!from!
http://www.bgccan.com/en/AboutUs/Pages/Who_We_Are.aspx!
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