Theories of Human Development Psychology 117. Theories Parsimonious Parsimonious Internally Consistent Internally Consistent Falsifiable Falsifiable Heuristic

Theories of Human Theories of Human DevelopmentDevelopment

Psychology 117Psychology 117

TheoriesTheories

ParsimoniousParsimonious Internally ConsistentInternally Consistent FalsifiableFalsifiable HeuristicHeuristic SupportedSupported

Key Themes in Developmental Key Themes in Developmental PsychologyPsychology

Nature/NurtureNature/Nurture Organismic (active)/Mechanistic Organismic (active)/Mechanistic

(passive)(passive) Continuity/DiscontinuityContinuity/Discontinuity

– Quantitative vs. QualitativeQuantitative vs. Qualitative

• Figure 2.2 The course of development as described by continuity and discontinuity (stage) theorists.

Key Themes in Developmental Key Themes in Developmental PsychologyPsychology

Universality/Context-SpecificityUniversality/Context-Specificity

AssignmentAssignment The purpose of this assignment is to The purpose of this assignment is to

introduce the various theoretical introduce the various theoretical perspectives and to allow you to realize how perspectives and to allow you to realize how much you already know.much you already know.

Get into small groups (3-4 students) and Get into small groups (3-4 students) and come up with terms, ideas, and “great come up with terms, ideas, and “great psychologists” associated with each of the psychologists” associated with each of the following theoretical perspectives:following theoretical perspectives:– PsychoanalyticPsychoanalytic– Learning/Social-LearningLearning/Social-Learning– CognitiveCognitive– Biological/EthologicalBiological/Ethological– EcologicalEcological

Psychoanalytic PerspectivePsychoanalytic Perspective

Freud’s Psychosexual TheoryFreud’s Psychosexual Theory– Unconscious motives are repressedUnconscious motives are repressed– Development is a conflictual processDevelopment is a conflictual process– Three Components of PersonalityThree Components of Personality

IdId EgoEgo SuperegoSuperego

• Table 2.1 Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development


Freud’s Psychosexual TheoryFreud’s Psychosexual Theory– Contributions and CriticismsContributions and Criticisms

Little evidence Little evidence ContributionsContributions

– Unconscious motivationUnconscious motivation– Impact of early experiencesImpact of early experiences– Emotional side of developmentEmotional side of development


Erickson’s Theory of Psychosocial Erickson’s Theory of Psychosocial DevelopmentDevelopment– Comparing Erickson with FreudComparing Erickson with Freud

Children are active explorers, not passive slaves to Children are active explorers, not passive slaves to biological urgesbiological urges

Emphasis on cultural influences, less on sexual urgesEmphasis on cultural influences, less on sexual urges

– Eight Life Crises (Psychosocial Stages)Eight Life Crises (Psychosocial Stages) Emerge at a time dictated by biological maturation Emerge at a time dictated by biological maturation

and social demandsand social demands Must be resolved successfully for satisfactory Must be resolved successfully for satisfactory

resolution at next stageresolution at next stage Extend throughout lifeExtend throughout life

• Table 2.2 Erickson’s and Freud’s Stages of Development

• Table 2.2 Erickson’s and Freud’s Stages of Development (continued)


Erickson’s Psychosocial TheoryErickson’s Psychosocial Theory– Contributions and CriticismsContributions and Criticisms

Rational, adaptiveRational, adaptive Social conflictsSocial conflicts Vague about causesVague about causes DescriptiveDescriptive


Psychoanalytic Theory TodayPsychoanalytic Theory Today– Largely rejected Largely rejected – Necessitates the clinical methodNecessitates the clinical method

Learning ViewpointLearning Viewpoint

Watson’s BehaviorismWatson’s Behaviorism– Observations of overt behaviorObservations of overt behavior– Continuous Continuous – Habits develop from learning Habits develop from learning

experiencesexperiences– Depends on environmentDepends on environment


Skinner’s Operant Learning TheorySkinner’s Operant Learning Theory– Repeat acts if outcomes are favorable, Repeat acts if outcomes are favorable,

suppress acts if outcomes are suppress acts if outcomes are unfavorable unfavorable OperantOperant ReinforcerReinforcer PunisherPunisher

– PassivePassive– External stimuli External stimuli


Bandura’s Cognitive Social Learning Bandura’s Cognitive Social Learning TheoryTheory– Active information processorsActive information processors– Observational learningObservational learning– Rejects Watson’s environmental Rejects Watson’s environmental

determinismdeterminism– Proposed reciprocal determinismProposed reciprocal determinism

• Figure 2.4. Bandura’s model of reciprocal determinism. ADAPTED FROM BANDURA, 1978.


Contributions of Learning TheoriesContributions of Learning Theories– Amount of informationAmount of information– Precise and testablePrecise and testable– Clinical insights and practical Clinical insights and practical

applicationsapplications


Criticisms of Learning TheoriesCriticisms of Learning Theories– OversimplifiedOversimplified– Study in natural settingsStudy in natural settings– Too little attention to cognitionToo little attention to cognition

Cognitive-Developmental Cognitive-Developmental ViewpointViewpoint

Piaget’s View of IntelligencePiaget’s View of Intelligence– SchemeScheme– Active construction of knowledgeActive construction of knowledge


Piaget’s View of IntelligencePiaget’s View of Intelligence– Four Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentFour Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor (0-2)Sensorimotor (0-2) Preoperational (2-7)Preoperational (2-7) Concrete-operational (7-11/12)Concrete-operational (7-11/12) Formal operational (11/12 – beyond)Formal operational (11/12 – beyond)

– Invariant developmental sequence Invariant developmental sequence


Piaget’s ViewpointPiaget’s Viewpoint– ContributionsContributions

Legitimized studyLegitimized study Social cognitionSocial cognition Education Education

– CriticismsCriticisms UnderestimatedUnderestimated Training can improve performanceTraining can improve performance


Sociocultural Influences: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Influences: Vygotsky’s viewpointviewpoint– How is culture transmitted from How is culture transmitted from

generation to generation?generation to generation?– Socially mediatedSocially mediated– Progression can be culturally specificProgression can be culturally specific


The Information-Processing The Information-Processing ViewpointViewpoint– The mind is like a computer, information The mind is like a computer, information

flows in, is operated on, and is flows in, is operated on, and is converted to output (answers etc.) converted to output (answers etc.)

– Cognitive development Cognitive development Changes in brain and mental processesChanges in brain and mental processes Maturation and experienceMaturation and experience ContinuousContinuous


Information-Processing ViewpointInformation-Processing Viewpoint– ContributionsContributions

InsightsInsights Filled gapsFilled gaps Approach to problems Approach to problems ErrorsErrors StrategiesStrategies


Information-Processing PerspectiveInformation-Processing Perspective– CriticismsCriticisms

Everyday thinkingEveryday thinking Model may underestimateModel may underestimate

– Both are being addressed by Both are being addressed by researchersresearchers

Ethological ViewpointEthological Viewpoint

Ethology: scientific study of Ethology: scientific study of evolutionary basis of behavior and evolutionary basis of behavior and the contributions of evolved the contributions of evolved responses to survival and responses to survival and developmentdevelopment– Assumptions of Classical Ethology:Assumptions of Classical Ethology:

Biologically programmed behaviorsBiologically programmed behaviors


Assumptions of EthologyAssumptions of Ethology– Focus on instinctual responsesFocus on instinctual responses– Study in natural environmentStudy in natural environment


Ethology and Human DevelopmentEthology and Human Development– Crying (for example)Crying (for example)– Critical periodsCritical periods– Sensitive periodsSensitive periods


ContributionsContributions– Adaptive, genetically preprogrammed Adaptive, genetically preprogrammed

characteristicscharacteristics– Value of everyday settingsValue of everyday settings– Value of comparing to other speciesValue of comparing to other species


CriticismsCriticisms– Difficult to testDifficult to test– Retrospective explanationRetrospective explanation– Learning can modifyLearning can modify

Ecological Systems Ecological Systems ViewpointViewpoint

Bronfenbrenner – ecological systems Bronfenbrenner – ecological systems theory: a detailed analysis of theory: a detailed analysis of environmental influencesenvironmental influences– Contexts for DevelopmentContexts for Development


Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts for Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts for DevelopmentDevelopment– MicrosystemMicrosystem– MesosystemMesosystem– ExosystemExosystem– MacrosystemMacrosystem– ChronosystemChronosystem

• Figure 2.5. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of the environment as a series of nested structures. The microsystem refers to relations between the child and the immediate environment, the mesosystem to connections among the child’s immediate settings, the exosystem to social settings that affect but do not contain the child, and the macrosystem to the overarching ideology of the culture. BASED ON BRONFENBRENNER, 1979.


ContributionsContributions– Rich descriptionRich description– Natural settingsNatural settings– Ways to optimize developmentWays to optimize development

CriticismsCriticisms– Biological contributorsBiological contributors– Normative developmentNormative development

• Table 2.4 A summary of the Philosophies Underlying Seven Major Developmental Perspectives

Match Quips/Quotes to Match Quips/Quotes to TheoriesTheories

Russian proverb: No matter how Russian proverb: No matter how much you feed a wolf, he will always much you feed a wolf, he will always return to the forest.return to the forest.


An apple never falls far from the An apple never falls far from the tree.tree.


Spare the rod, spoil the child.Spare the rod, spoil the child.


The things we remember best are The things we remember best are those better forgotten.those better forgotten.– Baltasar GracianBaltasar Gracian


We are not hypocrites in our sleep.We are not hypocrites in our sleep.– William HazlittWilliam Hazlitt


Chinese proverb: By nature all men Chinese proverb: By nature all men are alike, but by education, widely are alike, but by education, widely different.different.


English proverb: Everyone must row English proverb: Everyone must row with the oars he has.with the oars he has.


Custom determines what is Custom determines what is agreeable.agreeable.– Pascal, Pensees, 1670Pascal, Pensees, 1670

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Theories of Human Development Psychology 117. Theories Parsimonious Parsimonious Internally Consistent Internally Consistent Falsifiable Falsifiable Heuristic