THEORIES OF MOTIVATION. “Movere” = Motivation = To Move Motivation—processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of

THEORIES THEORIES OF OF

MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION

““Movere” = Movere” = Motivation = To MoveMotivation = To Move

Motivation—processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal

We are dealing with 3 questions:

1.What energizes human behavior?2.What directs or channels behavior?3.How this behavior is maintained or sustained?

A REWARD is a work outcome of positive value to the individual. EXTRINSIC REWARDS are externally

administered (e.g., pay and verbal praise); the motivational stimulus originates outside the person.

INTRINSIC REWARDS are self-administered; they occur "naturally" as a person performs a task. The feelings of competency, personal development, and self-control people experience in their work.

MOTIVATION THEORIES EARLY THEORIES

1. Hierarchy of NeedsNeeds Abraham Maslow – Content Theory

2. Two Factor/Motivation-Hygiene Theory Frederick Herzberg – Content Theory

3. Theory of NeedsNeeds David McClelland – Content Theory

STRONG RESEARCH STRONG RESEARCH SUPPORTSUPPORT

CONTEMPORARY THEORIESGoal Setting Theory

Edwin Locke – Process Theory• Self-Determination theorySelf-Determination theory• Self-efficacy theorySelf-efficacy theoryAlderfer’S ERG theory is a simplified versionsAlderfer’S ERG theory is a simplified versions

Reinforcement Theory (behavioral)

Equity TheoryJ. Stacey Adam – Process Theory

Expectancy TheoryVictor Vroom – Process Theory

STRONG RESEARCH STRONG RESEARCH SUPPORTSUPPORT

Needs HierarchyTheory

EARLY THEORIES

Self-Actualization

EsteemEsteem

BelongingnessBelongingness

SafetySafety

PhysiologicalPhysiological

Maslow arranged five needs in a hierarchy

Satisfaction-progression process

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Safety Need: Safety Need: a minimal degree of employment security; a minimal degree of employment security; the knowledge that we cannot be fired on a the knowledge that we cannot be fired on a

whim whim appropriate levels of effort and productivity will appropriate levels of effort and productivity will

ensure continued employmentensure continued employment

Social NeedsSocial Needs an ability to interact with one's coworkean ability to interact with one's coworkersrs be able to work collaboratively colleagues.be able to work collaboratively colleagues.

MASLOW IN THE WORKPLACEMASLOW IN THE WORKPLACE…

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

EARLY THEORIES

Need forAchievement

Need forNeed forPowerPower

Need forNeed forAffiliationAffiliation

Need for AchievementThe drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.At work…the need to take responsibility for finding solutions to problems, master complex tasks, set goals, get feedback on level of success.

Need for AffiliationThe desire for friendly and close personal relationships.At work…enjoyment of teamwork

Need for PowerThe need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.At work…a drive to control and influence others, a need to win arguments, a need to persuade and prevail.

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES

Need forAchievement

Need forNeed forPowerPower

Need forNeed forAffiliationAffiliation

Predictive Power of Needs!

-Research strongly supports the relation between Nach and performanceNach and performance

1. When the jobs have high degree of personal personal responsibility, feedback and intermediate riskresponsibility, feedback and intermediate risk, high achievers are strongly motivated

2. A high need to achieve does not necessarily make a person a good manager. High achievers care about how well they do, not about how to how well they do, not about how to motivate othersmotivate others

3. The best managers are high in their need for power and low in their need for affiliation

THIS IS ONE OF THE MOTIVATION THEORIES THIS IS ONE OF THE MOTIVATION THEORIES WITH BEST RESEARCH SUPPORT!WITH BEST RESEARCH SUPPORT!

IMPORTANT NOTE ABOUT NEED IMPORTANT NOTE ABOUT NEED THEORIES….THEORIES….

Only those needs Only those needs which are not satisfiedwhich are not satisfied act as motivators.act as motivators.

Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene (Two-Factor) Theory

Describe the situations when you feel exceptionally good/bad about your job?

Motivation factors…system for personal growth Factors contributing to job satisfaction

• Growth, advancement, responsibility, achievement, recognition, work itself…(intrinsic factors)

Hygiene factors… structure for avoidance of unpleasantness

Factors contributing to job dissatisfaction• Working conditions, salary, company policies,

interpersonal relations…(extrinsic factors)

Improvements in Improvements in Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors can prevent and/or eliminate can prevent and/or eliminate job dissatisfaction; they job dissatisfaction; they will notwill not improveimprove job satisfaction. job satisfaction.

EARLY THEORIES

Herzberg's approach can be Herzberg's approach can be summarized by:summarized by:

If you want people to do a good job for If you want people to do a good job for you, then you must give them a good you, then you must give them a good

job to do.job to do.

What is a good job?What is a good job?


Locke’s Goal Setting Theory

The theory proposes that specific, challenging, and measurable goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance

Determinants of goal-performance relationship

1. Goal commitment (acceptance of the goal, self or other determined?)

2. Self-efficacy (I want ? I can?),

3. Culture 1. Group based vs. individual goals (individual vs. collectivist societies)2. High power distance and colloectivist cultures tend to be more committed to...

1. Group-goals 2. Assigned goals3. Achievable moderate goals

4. Task characteristics 1. Simple or complex2. Well learned vs. new3. Independent vs. interdependent

5. Existence of self-generated feedback rather than external feedback


PROBLEM:

FOCUSING TOO MUCH ON THE GOAL AND IGNORING THE PROCESS

(ETHICAL STANDARDS, CHANGING CONDITIONS...)

Self-Efficacy Theory (A. Bandura)Self-Efficacy Theory (A. Bandura) An individual’s belief that she/he An individual’s belief that she/he “is capable of performing a task”“is capable of performing a task”

The higher the self efficacy, the more confidence you have in your The higher the self efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to suceedability to suceed

How do you think individuals with low and high efficacy will respond How do you think individuals with low and high efficacy will respond to...to...

““difficult situations”difficult situations” ““negative feedback”negative feedback” ““their manager setting a difficult goal for them” (Pygmalion effect)their manager setting a difficult goal for them” (Pygmalion effect)

• (COMPLEMENTS THE GOAL SETTING THEORY)(COMPLEMENTS THE GOAL SETTING THEORY)

How can you increase self-efficacy?How can you increase self-efficacy? Skill masterySkill mastery Arousal with..Arousal with..

• ModellingModelling• Verbal persuasionVerbal persuasion

What about...What about...• IntelligenceIntelligence• Personality (emotional stability and conscientiousness)Personality (emotional stability and conscientiousness)

Self-Determination TheorySelf-Determination Theory ““It is strange...I started to work at It is strange...I started to work at Humane Society Humane Society as a volunteeras a volunteer. I was . I was

working 15 hours a week to help people working 15 hours a week to help people adopt pets and I loved to come to adopt pets and I loved to come to

work...Then three months ago they work...Then three months ago they hired me hired me full-time for 11$ an hourfull-time for 11$ an hour. I am . I am doing the same work I did before but I doing the same work I did before but I

am not finding it as much fun as it used am not finding it as much fun as it used to be...”to be...”

WHY?WHY?

The theory propeses that...People have...The theory propeses that...People have...

1.1. Need for autonomy Need for autonomy (intrinsic motivation)(intrinsic motivation) People prefer to feel they have control over their actions...People prefer to feel they have control over their actions...

• I want to do...I want to do... Obligation undermines motivation...Obligation undermines motivation...

• I have to do...I have to do...

2.2. Need to achieve competenceNeed to achieve competence

3.3. Need to build positive connectionsNeed to build positive connections

Meaningful goals and tasks that matches our core values (self-Meaningful goals and tasks that matches our core values (self-concordance)concordance)

Do you agree? If yes...Do you agree? If yes... Does this theory says that companies should not pay Does this theory says that companies should not pay money, verbal money, verbal

praise or other external rewards to motivate employees? (external praise or other external rewards to motivate employees? (external reward/extrinsic motivation) reward/extrinsic motivation)

No...but the rewards and deadlines for goals should not be perceived as No...but the rewards and deadlines for goals should not be perceived as coercive...coercive...

Self-Determination TheorySelf-Determination Theory

Reinforcement Theory

The assumption that behavior is a function of its consequences.

Concepts: Behavior is environmentally caused. Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by

providing (controlling) consequences. Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated


Adam’s Equity Theory

Focuses on people’s perceptions of the fairness (or lack of fairness) of their work outcomes in proportion to their work inputs.

Asserts that when people believe that they have been treated inequitably in comparison to others, they eliminate the discomfort and restore equity.


EMPLOYEES COMPARE RELATIVE EMPLOYEES COMPARE RELATIVE INPUT-OUTPUT RATIOS OF FELLOW INPUT-OUTPUT RATIOS OF FELLOW

WORKERSWORKERS

OUTPUTOUTPUT

-------------- = EQUITY RATION-------------- = EQUITY RATION

INPUTINPUT

InputsInputs

LoyaltyLoyalty hard workhard work CommitmentCommitment SkillsSkills AbilitiesAbilities ToleranceTolerance EnthusiasmEnthusiasm Personal sacrifices…etc.Personal sacrifices…etc.

OutputsOutputs

All financial rewardsAll financial rewards • PayPay• ExpensesExpenses• BenefitsBenefits• pension arrangementspension arrangements• bonus and commission bonus and commission

Intangibles Intangibles • RecognitionRecognition• ReputationReputation• Praise and thanksPraise and thanks• ResponsibilityResponsibility• TrainingTraining• Sense of achievement and advancementSense of achievement and advancement

EQUITY THEORYEQUITY THEORY

Table 12.3

Condition Person Referent Example

EquityEquity Outcomes = OutcomesInputs Inputs

Outcomes = OutcomesInputs Inputs

Worker contributesmore inputs but also

gets more outputsthan referent



UnderpaymentEquity

UnderpaymentEquity

Outcomes < OutcomesInputs Inputs

Outcomes < OutcomesInputs Inputs


gets the same outputsas referent


gets the same outputsas referent

OverpaymentEquity

OverpaymentEquity

Outcomes > OutcomesInputs Inputs

Outcomes > OutcomesInputs Inputs

Worker contributessame inputs but also


Worker contributessame inputs but also



Restoring Equity: Inequity creates tension in Restoring Equity: Inequity creates tension in workers causing them to attempt to restore workers causing them to attempt to restore equity.equity.

In underpaymentIn underpayment, workers may reduce input , workers may reduce input levels to correct (rebalance) the ratio or seek levels to correct (rebalance) the ratio or seek a raise.a raise.

In overpaymentIn overpayment, workers may change the , workers may change the referent person and readjust their ratio referent person and readjust their ratio perception.perception.

If inequity persistsIf inequity persists, workers will often choose , workers will often choose leave the organization.leave the organization.


Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Major Factors of MotivationMajor Factors of Motivation Expectancy: Probability that effort will result in a level

of performance.• Ex. Employees will work hard if they believe they can attain high

performance— organizations must provide the resources that organizations must provide the resources that support performance.support performance.

Instrumentality: Probability that performance leads to outcomes.

• Ex. Workers are only motivated if they think performance leads to an outcome— managers must link managers must link performance to outcomes.performance to outcomes.

Valence: How desirable an outcome is to a person.• Ex. Workers have preferences for outcomes — mmanagers must anagers must

determine which outcomes are valued.determine which outcomes are valued.


E-to-PExpectancy

P-to-OInstrumentality

Outcomes& Valences

Outcome 1Outcome 1+ or -+ or -

EffortEffort PerformancePerformance



Expectancy Theory of Motivation


Examples for ExpectancyExamples for Expectancy

•If I spend most of tonight studying will it improve my grade on tomorrow's If I spend most of tonight studying will it improve my grade on tomorrow's math exam? math exam?

•If I make more sales calls will I make any more sales? If I make more sales calls will I make any more sales?

Variables affecting the individual's Expectancy perception: Variables affecting the individual's Expectancy perception:

•Self EfficacySelf Efficacy

•Goal DifficultyGoal Difficulty

•Control Over PerformanceControl Over Performance

For example, many profit-sharing plans do not motivate individuals to increase their effort because these employees do not think that they have direct control over the profits of their large companies.

Examples for Instrumentality and ValenceExamples for Instrumentality and Valence•If a get a better grade on tomorrow's math test will I get an "A" in math? If a get a better grade on tomorrow's math test will I get an "A" in math?

•If I produce more than anyone else in the plant, will I get a bigger raise? If I produce more than anyone else in the plant, will I get a bigger raise? A faster promotion? A faster promotion?

•If I make more sales will I get a bonus? A greater commission? If I make more sales will I get a bonus? A greater commission?

•If I make more sales will I be recognized by others as the best sales If I make more sales will I be recognized by others as the best sales person? person?

Variables affecting the individual's instrumentality perception:Variables affecting the individual's instrumentality perception:

Trust - Trust - trusting the leaderstrusting the leaders

Policies - tPolicies - the degree to which pay and reward systems are formalizedhe degree to which pay and reward systems are formalized

MULTIPLIER EFFECT OF EXPECTANCY THEORY

Implies that for motivation to be high, Implies that for motivation to be high, Expectancy, Instrumentality and Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence must be high. Valence must be high.

Motivation =Motivation =

Expectancy x Instrumentality x ValenceExpectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

A zero at any location on the right side of A zero at any location on the right side of the equation will result in zero the equation will result in zero

motivation.motivation.


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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION. “Movere” = Motivation = To Move Motivation—processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of