Theory, Method, Design

What does the term "theory" mean? Andrew Sayer (1993) provides a useful definition of theory as an examined conceptualization of some object. From this

standpoint, theories are composed of concepts and statements of relationships. And to theorize means to prescribe a particular way of conceptualizing something.

Concepts are abstract elements representing classes of phenomena within the field of study.

Example : the concepts relevant to a theory of deindustrialization would include, for example, restructuring, the new international division of labor and the global assembly line.

NOTE: "Conceptual systems concern not only what we (think we can) observe, or what we think exists yet cannot observe, but what we can do and how we can do it. Consequently, it may be wise to avoid thinking of knowledge as attempting to "represent" or "mirror" the world like a photograph. A better analogy may be that of a map or recipe or instruction manual, which provide means by which we can do things in the world or "cope" with events" (Sayer, 1993: 59)

What is the difference between "theory" and "description"?This question is often asked by beginning researchers. The answer, as Strauss and Corbin (1990: 29) point out, comes down to

two main points: First, theory uses concepts. Similar data are grouped and given conceptual labels. This means placing interpretations on the data.Second, the concepts are related by means of statements of relationships. In description, data may be organized according to

themes. These themes may be conceptualizations of data, but are more likely to be a precis or summaries of words taken directly from the data. There is little, if any, interpretation of data. Nor is there any attempt to relate the themes to form a conceptual scheme.

Deductive Reasoning

Trochim, W. M. K. and Donnelly, J. P. (2007) Research methods : the concise knowledge base, 3e, Atomic Dog Pub., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Inductive Reasoning

Trochim, W. M. K. and Donnelly, J. P. (2007) Research methods : the concise knowledge base, 3e, Atomic Dog Pub., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Ways of Finding Out About Behavior

Six ways of finding out about behavior

1. Reading--examine written records (e.g., literature, documents, historical archives)

2. Asking people--about their own and others' behavior (e.g., interviews, surveys)

3. Observing others as well as your own behavior (e.g., participant and non-participant observation)

4. Inferring behavior from information or observations (detectives clues, physical traces, statistical/ content

5. Experiment (e.g., natural, controlled)6. Imagine (self-reflection, conjecture, scenarios)

• Think of a research question you might like to address – e.g.:• What led to the creation of San Diego’s Food

System Alliance and how has that shaped its mission?

• Why did SANDAG get sued over its Regional Transportation Plan and how has the litigation impacted the planning process?

• With a question mind, think about what kinds of evidence might you collect with your method of choice?

Five major research methods

1. Experiments2. Surveys3. Archival analyses (e.g., economic modeling,

or a statistical analysis in an epidemiological study)

4. Histories

5. Case studies

Three Interrelated Concerns:1. Do-ability

2. Should-do-ability3. Want-to-do-ability

“Do-Ability”: Considerations of Feasibility

• Are there sufficient resources to support the conduct of the study? Are access and willing participation likely in the setting? Is the study focused enough so it can be completed? Does the researcher provide evidence of methodological competence?

“Should-Do-Ability”: Considerationsof Potential Significance and Ethics

Does the study have the potential to contribute to theorizing and research—the ongoing discourse in a social science discipline or an applied field; to policy issues and policy making; and/or to issues of practice. The researcher should argue that the study will likely contribute to scholarship, policy, and/or practice and address the familiar question “So what?” He should respond cogently and knowledgeably when asked why the study should be conducted.

• Should the study be conducted? • How will it contribute to scholarship? Policy deliberations? Practice?

Another crucial facet of these “should” considerations is the critically important area of ethics and ethical practice:

• What ethical concerns or issues may arise?• What resources can the researcher draw on to respond sensitively to

these issues?

“Want-to-Do-Ability”: Considerations of Sustained and Sustaining Interest

• Does the topic grip you? • Are you passionate about it?• Will the topic sustain your commitment from design to

implementation to analysis to writing up the final report?

[Keith's note: It is often the case that students will first be very enthusiastic about their topic, fall in love with it, but then reality sets in --its not so easy, or as juicy as first thought, or fun. And then begins a process of jumping from one topic to another in search of reinvigorated passion. Don't let that happen. All good marriages (in this case you and your topic) are bound to have highs and lows. Once you commit to a topic and it meets the other criteria (i.e., it is significant and doable), then hang onto it like white on rice. Don't worry if it isn't setting your heart of fire at all times.

The four traditions of planning theoryA summary of Friedmann’s work by Roseland (2000, 89)

Social reform: includes the disciplines of sociology, institutional economics, and pragmatism. Itrecognizes the state as the vehicle of social action. Planning is a scientific endeavor to make stateaction more effective. The economy can be adjusted to serve representative needs throughbusiness-cycle analysis, input/output analysis, economic policy models, and others.

Policy analysis: includes the disciplines of systems analysis, welfare and social choice, andpolicy science. It concentrates on decision making as a means of identifying the best possiblecourses of social action. Planning is a decision process which emphasizes stages that begin withthe identification of goals that will structure the decision and ends with program analysis, whichevaluates the correctness of the decision. This is the rational model participated in by technicalplanners who view themselves as social engineers serving the existing power base.

Social learning: includes the field of organization development. It is an effort to minimize thecontradictions between what we know and how we act. Planning attempts through socialexperimentation to change social behaviour. This is accomplished by doing: knowledge isvalidated practice, and theory is enriched from lessons learned from experience. Planners andclient actors are involved in nonhierarchical exchanges of information to further learning.

Social mobilization: includes neo-Marxism, the Frankfurt School (of critical theory), and acategory Friedmann calls utopians, social anarchists, and radicals. It is a view of the primacy ofaction from below. Planning is a political activity which attempts to change the status quo ofoppression and alienation under capitalism. Social mobilization emphasizes the politics ofdisengagement and confrontation. The planner’s role is one of community organization,advocacy presentation and interpretation of data, and representation within and cooptation of thedecision-making process.

Source: M. Roseland / Progress in Planning 54 (2000):Table 1.Source: Robson (2002) Real World Research, p. 28.