The Pine Barrens ofSoutheast Massachusetts

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Pine Barrens of Southeast MassachusettsFound only in scattered locations fromNew Jersey toMaine, pinebarrens are characterized by sandy soils that are poor in nutrientsand prone to drought. They have a long history of relativelyfrequent fire and harbor highly specialized plant and animalspecies, many of which are adapted to fire for their survival.

Two of Earth’s largest remaining pine barrens are found in south-east Massachusetts: one is found on and aroundMyles StandishState Forest in Plymouth, Carver andWareham; and the other is

located on and around theMassachusetts MilitaryReservation in Bourneand Sandwich. Both ofthese large forests featurea mosaic of pitch pine andscrub oak woodlands, withembedded ponds that har-bor rare species and helpprotect the critical fresh-water resources of thisrapidly growing region.

The term “pine barrens”refers collectively toseveral variations of plant

communities, distinguished from each other by their relative pro-portions of two defining trees: pitch pine and scrub oak. In someareas, pitch pine forms a dominant overstory that shades theground, resulting in a fairly open understory. In other areas, densethickets of scrub oak dominate. And in others, a mixture of pitchpine and scrub oak occurs.

Pine barrens also give rise to unique ecological features like “frostbottoms.” Formed by chunks of ice left to melt in place as the lastglacier retreated, these depressions act as sink holes for cold air,often creating such sharp gradients in temperature that vegetationnear the bottom of these depressions experience frost even inwarmmonths of the year. Frequent frosts kill back young trees,benefiting species like scrub oak, lowbush blueberry and herbace-ous plants that re-sprout readily in the open sun. These plants thenprovide tender new leaves to animals when other vegetation is scarce.

Because the pine barrens of southeast Massachusetts are stillrelatively uninterrupted by roads and development, one can finda rich mosaic of plants, insects, birds, amphibians, reptiles andmammals here. Many of them are rare, and many of them areadapted to this habitat. We encourage you to learn more about thisremarkable place and explore it for yourself. Please remember toLeave No Trace.

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Frost Bottom in Myles Standish StateForest

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Plants of our Pine BarrensPitch Pine – Pinus rigidaA defining plant of the pine barrens, pitch pine is able to grow invery dry environments where most other trees cannot survive. Itsthree- to six-inch long needles occur in clusters of three, andnumerous pine conescan often be seenhanging from itstwisted branches.The plant is highlyflammable but welladapted to survivefire. Unlike some ofits competitors, suchas white pine andscarlet oak, it hasthick bark thatprotects its livingtissue and buds. Aftera fire, dormant budsproduce sprouts ofneedles that growdirectly out of the trunk and branches, allowing photosynthesis andcone production to continue. Pitch pine is the only conifer in theeastern U.S. that sprouts in this way.

Pitch pines can also produce a special type of cone that is adaptedfor areas where fire is frequent. These serotinous cones are sealed

with resin, and their seedsoften take years to fullydevelop. When a hot fireburns through a forest, theseeds of other species maybe damaged by intense heat,but the resin of a serotinouscone protects the pitch pineseeds inside. As the heatslowly melts the resin, thecones open, and the matureseeds fall to the groundwhere they can take root inthe freshly exposed mineralsoil. Thus, black fire scars onthe bark of mature pitch

pines are actually evidence of a healthy pine barrens system. Pitchpine supports unique communities of moths, leafhoppers and otherinsects.

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Kadis

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Scrub OakScrub oak is a general termfor oaks that do not growlarge enough to be consid-ered conventional trees. It isalso the common name for aparticular species:Quercusilicifolia. In southeastMassachusetts,Quercusilicifolia is the most common“scrub oak” species and issometimes referred to as“bear oak.” Rarely exceeding10 to 15 feet in height, its

leaves are usually two to five inches long and one to three incheswide, with a shape that is similar to, but more variable than, leavesof large oak trees. The leathery leaves are dark green above andcovered in fine pale hairs below. Scrub oak does well in nutrient-poor, sandy soils, and is adapted to thrive in disturbed areas. Itneeds sun and will disappear from the forest if there is too muchshade. With large root reserves that allow it to quickly re-sprout,scrub oak is often found in areas recently disturbed by fire, clearingor storm damage. Scrub oak is an important food source for manymammals and insects. Its leaves are the primary food for 16 of the56 moths and butterflies of conservation concern that inhabit pinebarrens in this region. Its acorns are an important food source forwhite-tailed deer, squirrels and wild turkeys.

Dwarf Chestnut Oak orDwarf Chinkapin Oak –Quercus prinoidesLess prevalent in the regionthanQuercus ilicifolia, dwarfchestnut oak is also consid-ered a scrub oak, though itcan grow up to 20 feet inheight. Its leaves have four toeight shallow lobes that endin sharp teeth, giving a wavyappearance to the leaves.Dwarf chestnut oak canform large colonies by send-

ing out shoots that grow horizontally along the ground. It can befound in the same dry, nutrient-poor soils as bear oak. Fire ofteninvigorates this species: it will sprout readily after a fire has burnedit to the ground and may even produce more acorns after fire. Theacorns take one year to mature and are a key food source for manymammals.

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Hillside and LowbushBlueberry – Vacciniumpallidum andV. angustifoliumHillside and lowbush blue-berry can be difficult for thecasual observer to tell apart.To make things even moredifficult, both plants areoften found with black huck-leberry, which also lookssimilar. Both species of blue-berry produce small, white,bell-shaped flowers that arean important source ofnectar for insects early in theseason. In the fall, the leavesof both species turn a beautiful red.

While the fruit of hillside blueberry is considered bland-tasting,lowbush blueberries are delicious and grown commercially. Bothplants are well-adapted to survive fire and will sprout from thebase. In fact, periodic burning is a standard management methodfor commercial lowbush blueberry cultivation. The fruit is animportant food source for many kinds of birds and mammals suchas eastern towhees, ruffed grouse, squirrels and foxes. The leavesare also an important food source for the caterpillars of slenderclearwing sphinx.

Black Huckleberry –Gaylussacia baccataBecause of its simple ovalleaves and black or blueberries, black huckleberry iseasily confused with blue-berry. The best way todistinguish it is to look forsmall yellowish dots on bothsurfaces of its leaves and theten large seeds found in itsberries. Black huckleberryoften grows alongside blue-berries in the pine barrens.The plant regeneratesprimarily by sprouting fromits rhizome (horizontalunderground stem) roots.

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Bearberry –Arctostaphylos uva-ursiBearberry is a low-growingevergreen shrub with trailingstems and simple leatheryleaves that are about a half-inch long. It flowers inMayand early June and producesred berries. The fruit remainson the plant for a long time,providing food for animalseven in the winter. Bearberryneeds sun and is found in areasof the pine barrens with opencanopy, such as frost pockets. Itcan survive low intensity fires

and sprouts vigorously from buds at the base of the plant. Its seedsare also fire resistant. Bearberry is sometimes called “kinnikinnick,”which means “mixture” in Algonquian. The Algonquians smokedbearberry mixed with other plants in ceremonies. Bearberry hasmany medicinal uses.

Broom Crowberry –Corema conradiiBroom crowberry is one ofseveral members of the heathfamily found in the pinebarrens. The plant is alwayslow-growing and reaches amaximum height of about 20inches. While individual plantsare small, broom crowberry cangrow in large colonies: onecolony onNantucket is 40acres in size. Broom crowberryretains its needle-like leavesthrough the winter. InMarch,small purplish flowers appear

at the ends of its branches. Broom crowberry is a rare plant inMassachusetts, in part because it requires a high frequency ofdisturbance, such as fire. With increasing fire suppression, theseplants have been overtaken by competitors. Broom crowberry islisted as a Species of Special Concern inMassachusetts due to its rarityand threats from development and habitat succession.

©Robert C. Conway

©Robert C. Conway

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Birds-foot Violet –Viola pedataOften considered one of the mostattractive violets, birds-foot violet isgrown commercially for gardenersbut is relatively uncommon in thewild. The violet grows four to teninches high, and its purple flowerscan be seen from April to June. It isdistinguished from other violets byits leaves, which are deeply dividedinto three to five lobes that resem-ble the toes on a bird’s foot. The violet is not adapted to fire butthrives in the pine barrens’ dry sandy soils and open woods. Birds-foot violet has an unusual method for dispersing its seeds: when theseeds fall to the ground, they emit a sugary solution that attractsants, which carry the seeds off to new locations.

Birds of our Pine BarrensEastern Towhee –Pipilo erythrophthalmusThe eastern towhee is a commonsight in the pine barrens ofMassa-chusetts. The bird is often heardand seen using a double hop as itrustles leaves and forages for insectson the forest floor. Because theyprefer open woodlands—like thosethat result from periodic fires—populations of eastern towheedecline as a forest matures. One study in Plymouth, Massachusettsshowed that suburban development within the pine barrens hasdecreased populations of the eastern towhee by 50 percent.

Eastern Bluebird – Sialia sialisEastern bluebirds were among thespecies devastated by the use ofDDT before it was banned, andthey provide a wonderful exampleof how humans can aid in therecovery of declining wildlife popu-lations. Special nest boxes installedby hundreds of concerned citizenshelped increase the population ofthis species by replicating treecavities that were lost to logging ordevelopment. In southeast Massachusetts, eastern bluebirds canfind natural cavities in pitch pine after fire has burned an area.These burned areas also create the open spaces that bluebirds needfor foraging.

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Pine Warbler –Dendroica pinusThe pine warbler nests in largepitch pine forests with talltrees. The number of pinewarblers has been declining insoutheast Massachusetts sincethe 1940s and 50s as bothdevelopment and successionhave decreased the size of thepine barrens. The male pine

warbler defends his treetop nest through persistent singing andfighting. While caterpillars and other insects are the bird’s favoritefoods, the pine warbler is the only warbler species that consumes asignificant amount of seeds as part of its normal diet.

Prairie Warbler –Dendroica discolorPine barrens are the favoredhabitat inMassachusetts forthis warbler, which typicallybreeds in shrubby habitats suchas overgrown fields, young pinethickets and open or disturbedwoodlands. Breeding surveyshave found that Myles StandishState Forest harbors more

prairie warbler pairs than anywhere else in the state, with the high-est density observed in areas that burned ten to 20 years previously.The prairie warbler constructs its nests with an outer shell of plantmaterials and fibers. In this region, nests are typically foundbetween one and ten feet up in the forks or lateral branches of lowshrubby trees—especially scrub oak.

Whip-poor-will –Caprimulgus vociferusThough not exclusive to pinebarrens, whip-poor-wills areground nesting birds that needdry open woodlands. Becausethey are nocturnal and rarelyseen, they are most frequentlyidentified by the call of “whip-poor-will,” for which they arenamed. They forage by perch-

ing on the ground and flying up to catch passing insects. Whip-poor-will populations decline when an absence of disturbanceresults in a maturing forest that is less open. Myles Standish StateForest has one of the largest remaining whip-poor-will populationsinMassachusetts.

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Insects of our Pine BarrensPersius Duskywing –Erynnis persius persiusThe Persius duskywingbutterfly is found in pinebarrens and dry, open oakwoodlands, particularly indisturbed areas within thesehabitats. Adult butterfliescan be seen inMay and earlyJune. In their search forfemales, males oftenfrequent hilltops, and bothmales and females perch onthe ground or on low twigs.Females lay their eggs onplants like wild indigo(Baptisia tinctoria). The caterpillars then feed on these plants andmake nests out of their rolled up leaves before spending the winterburied in the leaves on the ground. The Persius duskywing is listedas an Endangered species inMassachusetts. The pine barrens ofPlymouth andWareham harbor the only known population of thisbutterfly in the state. It can be difficult to distinguish frommorecommon duskywing species, five of which occupy similar habitat inthe region.

Frosted Elfin –Callophrys irusOpen areas in the pinebarrens are favored by thisbutterfly, the larvae of whichfeed on wild indigo growingin open, sandy soils. Adultsfly from late April to mid-June. InMay, you mayobserve newly emergedadults in courtship flightsover their preferred openhabitat. Two other elfinspecies have similar white,frost-like scaling on theirhind wings, but the frostedelfin is distinguished by a distinct dark spot along its wings’ outermargins. The frosted elfin occurs across the eastern U.S., butcolonies are scarce and highly localized. It is listed as a Species ofSpecial Concern inMassachusetts.

©M.W. Nelson, MA NHESP

©M.W. Nelson, MA NHESP

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Slender ClearwingSphinx – HemarisgracilisThis moth is found in avariety of habitats includ-ing pinelands, rocky sum-mits and wetlands. Theadults can be seen duringthe day fromMay to June.With a wingspan up to 1¾inches, they are often mis-taken for hummingbirdsas they fly from flower toflower in search of nectar.The caterpillar lookssimilar to a small tomatohornworm and feeds onlowbush blueberry. There

are currently only four known populations of this insect in thestate. It is listed as a Species of Special Concern inMassachusetts.

Barrens Buck Moth -Hemileuca maiaThe barrens buck moth isa large (wingspan 2½inches) day-flying moth.The adults are often spot-ted by hunters in the fall,hence the name barrensbuck moth. The femaleslay their eggs on the twigsof scrub oak. Upon hatch-ing inMay, the blackcaterpillars feed on thetender young leaves andoften form large groupson the twigs. Frost bot-

toms are important for this species because the cold causes leavesto come out later in the season. The caterpillars grow larger morequickly feeding on tender young leaves than if they were to feedon older leaves. The caterpillars pupate in the soil and, if condi-tions are dry, may remain in the ground for up to four years. InMassachusetts, the barrens buck moth is found primarily along thesoutheast coast and onMartha’s Vineyard andNantucket. It islisted by the state as a Species of Special Concern.

©M.W. Nelson, MA NHESP

©M.W. Nelson, MA NHESP

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Melsheimer’s Sack-Bearer Moth –Cicinnus melsheimeriInMassachusetts, theMelsheimer’s sack-bearermoth is associated withbear oak and frost bot-toms. The adults are seenflying in June and July. Inlate summer the caterpil-lars can be seen feeding onbear oak and sewing to-gether oak leaves to makea sack-like shelter. Thecaterpillars carry thesesacks with them and willtie them to twigs when at rest. Caterpillars spend the winter intheir sacks and become adults in the spring. Massachusetts lists thismoth as a Threatened species.

Gerhard’sUnderwing –Catocala herodiasgerhardiInMassachusetts, theGerhard’s underwingmoth is found in pinebarrens that have an opencanopy with bear oak un-derneath. They are foundin Plymouth, Wareham,Cape Cod and the off-shore islands. To startlepredators such as birds,the hindwings of adultsdisplay a red and black pattern that mimics an eye. In the spring,the caterpillars are found feeding on the catkins and new leaves ofscrub oak. Frost bottoms are important habitat for these moths be-cause their “leaf out” occurs later in the season. The caterpillarstake about four weeks to mature and pupate in the leaf litter.Adults can be found flying late at night in the months of July andAugust. They lay their eggs on the stems of scrub oak, and the eggsremain there over winter. Gerhard’s underwing is listed as a Speciesof Special Concern inMassachusetts.

©M.W. Nelson, MA NHESP

©M.W. Nelson, MA NHESP

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Barrens Tiger Beetle – Cicindela patruelaThe 5/8-inch long adult barrens tiger beetle has a striking irides-cent green back with a white pattern along the edges that extendstoward the center of its body. It is sometimes mistaken for the

six-spotted tiger beetle(Cicindela sexguttata), whichhas white dots along theedges of its back. Thebarrens tiger beetle can befound in open, sandy areas inpine barrens that are free ofvehicle traffic. The beetlehas a two-year life cycle. Inthe spring and early summer,the adults lay eggs that hatchquickly. The larvae thenconstruct burrows in thesand. Like their parents, thelarvae are predators that eat

other insects. The larvae spend the first winter in their burrowsand become adults in late summer of the following year, spendingtheir second winter in the ground. The following spring, they laytheir eggs. The pine barrens of Plymouth andWareham are theonly place inMassachusetts where this beetle is known to occur; itis listed by the state as an Endangered species.

Antlion – family MyrmeliontidaeThe adult antlion has a long slender abdomen that makes it lookvery much like a damselfly. However, antlions are weak fliers and

are sometimes attracted tolights. The immatureantlion, or “doodlebug,” isbetter known than the adult.They make cone-shaped pit-fall traps in sand. These pit-fall traps can often be seenalong the edges of trails orunderneath bushes in areasof exposed sand. The antlionmakes the cone by using itshead and mouth parts asshovels and walking back-ward. The antlion will then

bury itself at the bottom of the pit to await its prey. When an un-suspecting ant or other small insect falls into the pit, the antliongrabs it in its powerful jaws, thrashes it against the sides of the pitand pulls it beneath the sand to eat it. If one is careful not to scarethe doodlebug, it can be observed in action by dropping small antsinto its pits. Antlions can be found in a variety of habitats and arecommon in the pine barrens’ sandy soils.

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Reptiles of our Pine BarrensNorthern Red-belliedCooter – PseudemysrubriventrisFormerly known as thePlymouth redbelly turtle andconsidered a separate speciesfrom populations foundfromNew Jersey southward,the northern red-belliedcooters found in PlymouthCounty are now consideredto be a sub-population longisolated from their southerncousins. The cooter’s black head has yellow or ivory lines, but lacksthe yellow spot behind the eye that is seen on the more commonpainted turtle (Chrysemys picta). Adults range from 10-15 inches insize, with upper shells that are mostly black to mahogany. Pondssurrounded by undeveloped sandy soils like those found in andaroundMyles Standish State Forest are the cooters’ favored habitat.They overwinter at the bottom of these ponds, emerging in lateMarch to raise their body temperature by basking on logs andwoody debris in the water. Listed as Endangered inMassachusetts, thenorthern red-bellied cooter is threatened by development of itspondfront habitat, an increase in skunks and raccoons that raid itsnests and the suppression of fires that historically maintainedopenings in the forest canopy to warm favored nesting areas.

Eastern Box Turtle –Terrapene carolinaA terrestrial turtle with ahooked “beak” and an adultlength of less than seveninches, this species draws itsname from the hinged lowershell that allows it to fullyenclose its head, tail and legswhen threatened. In north-ern climates, the turtle over-winters in upland forests byburrowing under leaves and into soft ground. In fire-adaptedsystems, eastern box turtles have been observed to survive an ap-proaching fire by burrowing underground until flames have passed.Adults are most readily seen on summer mornings and evenings,particularly after a rain. Eastern box turtles occur in many types ofhabitats across Massachusetts, but are most heavily concentrated inthe southeastern part of the state. With populations affected byroad mortality and loss of habitat to development, the eastern boxturtle is listed as a Species of Special Concern inMassachusetts.

©Venessa Salvucci, TNC

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Eastern Hognose Snake– Heterodon platirhinosVariable in pattern and col-oration and generally underthree-feet long in adulthood,the hognose snake is distin-guished by an upturnedsnout that it uses to burrowin sandy and loamy soils.Though not poisonous tohumans and unlikely to bite,a threatened hognose snakewill flatten its head horizon-tally, raise its neck off theground (somewhat like a

cobra) and may make repeated hissing strikes. If the potentialpredator is undeterred, the snake will play dead by writhing ontoits back with mouth agape and tongue lolling out, even emitting afoul order, fecal matter and droplets of blood. If rolled upright, thesnake may roll right back over again, “insisting” it is dead. Its eyes,however, will remain on the predator. When it feels the threat haspassed, it will right itself and slither away. Eastern hognose snakesare active in the daytime, hunting primarily for toads, but also foreggs, insects and mice.

Mammals of ourPine BarrensFisher - Martes pennantiThe fisher is a large dark-brown weasel. Males are24-26 inches in total length,and females are 21-23 inchesin total length. Fishers aregenerally shy and tend to beactive from dusk to dawn.They can eat plant materialsuch as blueberries, but

generally prefer squirrels, porcupines, mice, voles, skunks, birds,fish, snakes, toads and carrion. Fishers are known for climbing treesand have a unique ankle that allows them to descend trees headfirst. Once eliminated fromMassachusetts due to land clearing foragriculture, fishers have been moving back into the state as theamount of forest cover increases. Fishers are not restricted to pinebarrens, but do best in unfragmented forests.

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Saving our Pine BarrensRapid development and suppression of fire have caused the pinebarrens to decline dramatically across their range. Already,Massachusetts has lost 60-70 percent of its original pine barrens,and many remaining fragments are too small to accommodate thefull mosaic of community types and the species that depend uponthem.

We can prevent further lossand fragmentation of thepine barrens by workingwith landowners and com-munities to permanentlyconserve properties thatmay otherwise be devel-oped in the future, and byworking cooperatively withprivate and public land-owners to allow the dy-namic life cycle of pinebarrens species and communities to continue. Periodic disturbance—optimally through the careful application of prescribed fire—is acritical part of that cycle.

A Special Place for FireFire-suppressed pine barrens are crowded and thick with vegeta-tion. If the barrens remain undisturbed for long periods of time—with no major fire, storm damage, mowing or thinning—the eco-system will begin to transition into a different type of plant commu-nity. Species such as white pine (Pinus strobus) and shade-toleranthardwoods displace species that rely on pine barrens’ conditions.Historically, wildfire and controlled burning by early inhabitants kept

the region’s pine bar-rens in balance, butdenser human settle-ment has resulted in firesuppression.

Today, The NatureConservancy worksclosely with partners toplan controlled burningoperations that safelyrestore pine barrensdynamics, while simulta-

neously reducing the build up of dry leaves and woody debris thatwould otherwise increase the risk of catastrophic wildfire. Cuttingand thinning can be important tools for the maintenance of pinebarrens, and are an integral part of preparing a site for controlledburning, but fire provides benefits that cutting and thinning cannot.Controlled burning can be applied to areas that would be difficultto reach mechanically, and it is the only practical way to reduceaccumulated leaf litter and organic material to expose the sandy,nutrient-poor soils that are critical to pine barrens species.

©EricAldrich,TN

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©EricAldrich,TN

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The Nature ConservancySoutheast Massachusetts Program

204 Long Pond RoadPlymouth, MA 02360

(508) 732-0300www.nature.org/massachusetts

The Nature Conservancy is an international conservationorganization that works to preserve the plants, animals and

natural communities that represent the diversity of life on Earthby protecting the lands and waters they need to survive.

© The Nature Conservancy, 2009

We wish to thank Ellen P. Bidlack and Michael W. Nelsonfor their editorial assistance.

©Venessa Salvucci, TNC

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