The  Role  of  Government  Propaganda  

in  the  Educational  System  during  the  

Cultural  Revolution  in  China    

Jing  Huang    

 

 

 

 

 

1. Introduction  

 

The  Proletarian  Cultural  Revolution,  also  called  the  Cultural  Revolution  in  

China,   which   took   place   between   1966   and   1976,   was   a   social-­‐political  

movement.  Mao  Zedong,  then  Chairman  of  the  Communist  Party  of  China,  

started  this  movement,  originally  aiming  at  reinforcing  communism,  more  

specially   socialism   with   Chinese   characteristics   or   Maoism.   Capitalism  

and  traditional  Chinese  culture  were  to  be  obliterated.  The  whole  society  

was  paralyzed  economically,  politically  and  socially.  (Bianco,  1971)  

 

There   are  many  aspects   of   the   revolution  worth   investigating,   however,  

due  to  the  complexity  of  the  ten-­‐year  movement,  it  is  impossible  to  cover  

all   of   them.   This   essay  will   focus   on   how   the   Chinese   government   used  

propaganda   to   instigate   the   entire   nation  with   a   huge   population   to   be  

involved   in   this   movement.   In   particular,   the   propaganda   methods,  

including   but   not   limited   to   posters,   songs   and   newly   established  

organizations,   adopted   within   educational   system   will   be   examined   in  

order   to   better   understand   the   impacts   of   the   revolution   on   the   young  

generation  back  to  that  time.    

 

Since   this   area   is   rarely   researched   independently   as   a   main   subject  

before,  please  make  corrections  and  comments  if  anything  wrong.    

 

2. Propaganda  Posters  

 

With   high   illiteracy   rate   and   a   majority   of   population   composed   of  

peasants,   Chinese   government   thus   used   easy   aids   with   plain   language  

and   simple   expression   to   reach   out   to   the   public.   Among   them,   posters  

played  a  significant  role.    

 

 

 

Even   now,   Cultural   Revolution   style   products   are   commonly   seen  

especially   in   tourist   attractions.   Some   fresh   graduates   dress   up   like   the  

Red  Guards   to   take   graduation   photos,   developing   a   controversial   retro  

fashion  as  shown  by  figure  1  below.  (Pan,  2008)  

 

 Figure1:  Students  in  "Red  Guard"  outfits  pose  for  graduation  photos  (People's  Daily  Online,  2012)  

 

Tremendous   propaganda   posters   were   created   during   the   60s   and   70s  

with  a  wide   range  of   topics   and   forms,   covering  nearly   everything   from  

personal  conducts  to  diplomatic  relationships.  However,  in  this  essay,  the  

focus   will   be   on   the   propaganda   posters   targeting   at   the   students   or  

young  generation  in  general.    

 

2.1 Characteristics  

 

Characteristics  of  the  propaganda  posters  in  the  Cultural  Revolution  were  

distinct,   easy   to  be   identified  even  when  mixed  with  piles  of  posters.   In  

this   session,   the   features   will   be   illustrated   with   the   assistance   of   real  

examples  of  the  posters.    

 

 

 

 

 

2.1.1 Simplicity  

 

To  cater  for  the  educational  level  of  the  majority  of  the  public,  the  posters  

were   designed   to   deliver   direct   and   clear   information.   Ideally,   people  

could   understand   the   contents   without   knowing   the   meaning   of   any  

Chinese  character.  As  a  result,  pictures,  the  traditional  and  effective  vision  

aid,  were  wildly   used.   Sentences   on   the   posters   tended   to   be   short   and  

rhymed.  (Cai,  2009)  

 

Some   posters   do   not   even   have  words   on   them.   Typical   images   include  

workers   and   peasants   holding   ‘Quotations   from   Chairman   Mao’,   also  

known   as   ‘Little   Red   Book’   (figure   2),   which   people   were   required   to  

reside   all   the   contents   in   the   book;   Chairman   Mao   looking   into   the  

distance  with  a  smile  of  triumph  (figure  3)  and  etc.  

 

 Figure  2:  Reviewing  the  Propaganda  Posters  in  Cultural  Revolution  (Phoenix  New  Media,  2010)  

 

 Figure  3:  Mao  Zedong  reviewing  the  army  (Unknown,  2011)  

 

2.1.2 Anti-­‐intellectualism    

According   to  Mao  Zedong’s   instructions   in   several  occasions,   to   sum  up,  

knowledge   was   blamed   to   be   the   culprit   of   social   uncertainty.   In   other  

words,   the   powerful   knowledge   hindered   the   implementation   of  

obscurantist  policy,  thus  making  Chairman  Mao  feel  threatened  given  the  

revolution   was   set   into  motion   to   consoled   his   political   position   in   the  

country  to  regain  public  prestige  and  control.    

 

Mao  viewed  the  educated  as  potential  threats  to  his  governance  and  was  

never  a  fan  of  promoting  intellectual  activities  in  the  society.  

 

(Referring   to   the  Kuomintang)  There  are  many   stubborn   elements,  

graduates   in   the   specialty   schools   of   stubbornness.   They   are  

stubborn   today,   they   will   be   stubborn   tomorrow,   and   they   will   be  

stubborn   the  day  after   tomorrow.  What   is   stubbornness   (wan  gu)?  

Gu  is  to  be  stiff.  Wan  is  to  not  progress:  not  today,  nor  tomorrow,  nor  

the   day   after   tomorrow.   People   like   that   are   called   the   stubborn  

elements.  It  is  not  an  easy  thing  to  make  the  stubborn  elements  listen  

to  our  words.  (Mao,  1965)  

 

In  his  view,  well-­‐educated  people  who  could  think  freely  were  often  more  

rebellious   and   less   obedient   in   the   period   of   uncertain   society.   More  

importantly,  these  people  were  less  likely  to  be  manipulated  or  controlled  

and   tended   to   fight   for  what   they   thought   to  be   right   ‘stubbornly’.  Thus  

the   intellectuals   were   to   be   educated   by   the   proletarian   class   such   as  

workers,  peasants  and  soldiers,  in  Mao  Zedong’s  words,  to  be  reborn.  

 

 Figure  4:  Intellectuals  must  integrate  with  the  workers,  peasants  and  soldiers  (Picture  China,  2009)  

 

The  above  poster   lively   illustrates   the  standard  back   to   the  60s   that   the  

educated  would  only  be   treated  equal   if   they  cooperatively   received   the  

re-­‐education  from  the  public.  

 

More   specifically,   during   the   revolution   Mao   Zedong   launched   several  

policies  and  delivered  various  orders  to  reshape  the  educational  system,  

among  which  universities  were  one  of  the  major  emphases.  13  June  1966,  

the   Central   Committee   of   the   Communist   Party   of   China   (CCCPC   for  

abbreviation)   and   the   State   Council   issued   ‘Decision   on   deferring   new  

enrolment   in   higher   education   for   half   a   year’   which   postponed   the  

admission  in  fall  of  1996.  Only  about  one  month  after  the  issuance,  CCCPC  

and   the  State  Council   sent  out  an  updated  version  of   the  decision  called  

‘Announcement   concerning   the   reform   of   higher   education   admission’.  

The  announcement  marked  the  cancellation  of  National  College  Entrance  

Examination   (NCEE   for   abbreviation).   Further   more,   it   declared   an  

alternative   way   to   select   students   for   universities   by   recommendation  

and   put   political   related   characters   as   the   prime   concern   for   selection.  

However,  the  alternative  selection  approach  was  never  practiced  because  

all  classes  were  suspended  for  revolution.    (Fairbank,  1986)  

 

Mao  Zedong  was  particularly  against  students  taking  arts  related  subjects.  

Science  and  engineering  suited   the  economic  plan  and  were   in   line  with  

central   government’s   ambition   to   foster   heavy   industry.   In   a   comment  

Mao   Zedong  made   to   one   article   named   ‘Investigation   on   the   route   for  

cultivation   of   engineering   technicians:   case   study   in   Shanghai   Machine  

Tool   Works   Ltd’   on   21   July   1968’s   People’s   Daily,   he   mentioned   the  

following:  

 

Universities   are   still   needed.   By   saying   this,   my  main   point   is   that  

universities   of   engineering   and   science   are   in   demand   but   not  

universities   focusing   on   other   subjects.   Shortening   the   length   of  

schooling  is  a  must,  so  is  the  educational  revolution.  The  proletariat  

must   secure   its   leadership   in   this   revolution   to   follow   the   route  

explored   in   Shanghai   Machine   Tool   Works   Ltd.   Students   shall   be  

selected  among  skillful  workers  and  peasants  to  study  in  the  schools  

for  theories.  After  the  study,  the  graduates  shall  go  back  to  practice  

what  they  have  learnt  in  school.  (Tarrow,  1998)  

 

As   a   result   of   this   comment,   a   large   number   of   such   colleges   were  

launched.   Basically,   factories   selected   students   from   their   own  workers  

and  the  proletarian  class  from  other  sources  to  teach  a  short  course  with  a  

length  of  around  two  years  to  study  specialized  skills  as  well  as  Maoism  

and  other  political  subjects.    

 

Shanghai  Machine  Tool  Works  Ltd  pioneered  for  the  new  form  education  

following   Mao   Zedong’s   instructions.   Such   colleges   are   called   ‘721  

Colleges’  that  soon  became  a  fashion  across  the  whole  country.    According  

to  Xinhua  News  Agency’s   report,   in   the   first  half  of  1975,  only  1200   ‘721  

Colleges’  with  more  than  90,000  students  existed.  By  the  first  half  of  1976,  

the   colleges   numbered   approximately   15,000   with   the   number   of  

students  reaching  780,000.  As  recorded   in  China  Education  Yearbook,  by  

the   end   of   1976   when   the   Cultural   Revolution   finally   came   to   an   end,  

nationwide,  a  total  of  33,374  ‘721  Colleges’  accommodating  1.485  million  

students.  (Schoppa,  2006)  

 

 Figure  5:  ‘721  Colleges’  get  better  and  better  (Picture  China,  2009)  

 

2.1.3 Stress  on  Loyalty  to  the  Party  and  Mao  Zedong  

 

One  of  the  main  targets  of  the  movement,  if  not  the  most  important  one,  is  

to  reinforce  the  governance  of  the  Communist  Party  and  re-­‐establish  Mao  

Zedong’s  authority.  

 

During  the  revolution,  the  government  tried  to  equalize  the  concept  of  the  

state   and   the   Party,  Mao   Zedong   as   the   symbol   of   the   Party.   Therefore,  

‘Quotations  from  Chairman  Mao’  was   the  Bible  of   revolution  back   to   that  

time.  According  to  the  memorial  of  people  who  experienced  the  Cultural  

Revolution   by   themselves,   reciting   some   quotes   from   the   book   to   greet  

each  other  was  quite  common.    (Zheng,  1998)  

 

 Figure  6:  Revolute  for  a  whole  life;  Read  Chairman  Mao’s  book  for  a  whole  life.  (Picture  China,  2009)  

 

 Figure  7:  Smash  the  head  of  whoever  is  against  Chairman  Mao  (Picture  China,  2009)  

 

Focus  on  the  cultivation  of  loyalty  started  at  very  early  age.  Initiated  by  

the  university  students,  Red  Guards  spread  out  China  in  an  unbelievable  

manner.  

 

Red  Guards  were  a  mass  paramilitary  social  movement  of  young  people  in  

the  China  during  the  special  period  of  time.  According  to  the  Red  Guards  

leaders,   the  nature  of  Red  Guards  were  well   elaborated   in   the   following  

Statement:  

 

Chairman   Mao   has   defined   our   future   as   an   armed   revolutionary  

youth  organization...So  if  Chairman  Mao  is  our  Red-­‐Commander-­‐in-­‐

Chief   and   we   are   his   Red   soldiers,   who   can   stop   us?   First   we   will  

make  China  red   from   inside  out  and   then  we  will  help   the  working  

people   of   other   countries  make   the  world   red...And   then   the  whole  

universe.  (Chong,  2002)  

 

The   poster   below   illustrates   that   children   begin   to   receive   political  

brainwash  at  very  early  stage  of  their   life.  Becoming  a  Young  Pioneer  or  

joining  Red  Guards  was  an  honorable  way  as  first  step  to  show  loyalty  to  

the  Party  and  Mao  Zedong.    

 Figure  8:  We  are  Chairman  Mao’s  Red  Guards  

 

In  line  with  Mao  Zedong’s  theory  that  the  larger  the  population,  the  more  

the  benefits,   the  government  advocated  physical  exercises  among  young  

generation   to   prepare   them   for   the   dramatic   revolution   and   serve   the  

communist  development.  

 

 Figure  9:  Do  exercises  for  revolution  (Picture  China,  2009)  

 

2.2  Impacts  

 

Tremendous   criticisms   have   already   been  made   on   the  whole   effects   of  

the   Cultural   Revolution   including   economic,   political   and   social   aspects.  

This  essay  will  stick  to  the  role  of  propaganda  in  the  educational  system.    

 

The   outstanding   simple   but   exaggerating   posters   with   clear   target  

audience   delicately   penetrated   the   message   of   obedience   accompanied  

with  blinded  revolutionary  passion,  making  young  generation  feel  lost  in  

the  directions  of  life.  Schools  were  suspended  to  make  way  to  revolution.  

The   then  young,  passionate  but   lost  young  people  were   in  dilemma  and  

finally  turned  rebellions.  

 

To  a  large  extent,  the  posters  assisted  the  implementation  of  the  policies  

and   influenced   not   only   the   behaviors   of   the  whole   generation   but   also  

the  mindsets.  

 

3. Songs  

 

In  the  Cultural  Revolution,  key  persons  such  as  Lin  Biao,  Gang  of  Four  and  

etc.  made  use  of  Mao  Zedong’s  mistake,   taking  control  of  all  propaganda  

approaches.  The  Cultural  Revolution  was  ironically  not  meant  to  promote  

cultural   elements.   Its   ambition   was   totally   political.   Songs,   the   main  

expression  of  music,  were  well  used  for  propaganda  purpose.  

 

Lyrics   often   carry   a   large   amount   of   information.   Songs   are   ideal   for  

propaganda  for  its   low  cost  rapid  spreading  out  characteristic  as  well  as  

the  low  requirement  of  literary  level.  

 

 

 

 

3.1  Aid  of  the  Press  

 

Press  was  under   strict   control.  During   the  Cultural  Revolution,   officially  

only   two   newspapers   and   one   magazine   existed,   ‘People's   Daily’,  

‘Liberation  Army’   and   ‘Red   Flag   correspondingly.   The   press   served   as   a  

mean   of   promoting   the   songs.   For   instance,   ‘People's   Daily’   published  

various   review   articles   on   arts   including   songs.   ‘Two   well-­‐done  

revolutionary   songs’   and   ‘Revolutionary   songs   as   a   weapon   in   journal’  

were  two  salient  examples  in  1971.  Between  June  5  1966  and  September  

26   1967,   ‘People’s   Daily   published   a   total   number   of   79   revolutionary  

songs.  (Yin,  2012)  

 

After   the   ‘9/13’   incident   that   was   conspired   by   Lin   Biao,   the   Cultural  

Revolution  reached  a  trough,  giving  time  and  space  for  the  government  to  

rethink   the   whole   movement.   The   betrayal   of   Lin   Biao,   then   Vice  

Chairman  stroke  Mao  Zedong  hardly,  yet  failed  to  stop  Mao  Zedong  from  

taking  more  radical  measures  to  escalate  the  revolution.  

 

In   order   to   break   the   stagnant   situation   of   the   revolution,   the   State  

Council  Culture  Group  published  a  collection  of  revolutionary  songs  in  the  

name   to   celebrate   thirty-­‐year   anniversary   of   Chairman   Mao’s   famous  

speech   in   Yan’an   in   1942,   publicly   affirming   the   importance   of  

propaganda  in  political  movements  for  the  first  time.  (Li,  2000)  The  songs  

spread   widely   in   the   nation   containing   the   same   stories   to   praise   the  

victories  of  the  Communist  Party  and  the  rightful  leadership  of  Chairman  

Mao.  However,  the  songs  started  to  have  some  subtle  changes  in  terms  of  

melody   and   lyrics.   Many   past   stories   were   adjusted   for   the   current  

situation   with   plain   language   use   to   approach   as   many   as   possible  

audience.    

 

These  works  were  viewed  as  a  form  of  ‘Literature  for  Political  Policy’  and  

suited  the  need  of  the  Culture  Group.  The  prime  benchmark  for  the  songs  

was   to   ‘put  Chairman  Mao’s  political  demands   in   the   first  place  and   the  

artistic  criterion  in  the  second’  and  ‘  unify  revolutionary  political  content  

with   the   perfect   form   of  music’.   Between   1972   and   1976,   another   four  

sets  of  similar  songs  were  published,  pushing  the  revolution  back  to   the  

peak  again  by  successfully  instigating  all  classes.  (Chueng,  2007)    

 

3.2  Educational  Function  of  Songs  

 

Far   back   to   Zhou   Dynasty   (1046BC   –   256   BC),   Chinese   government  

developed  a  system  of  ruling  the  nation  that  put  great  emphasis  on  music  

and   etiquette.     People   believed   that   the   elegant  music   could   deliver   the  

message  to  foster  good  self-­‐discipline.  Later   in  the   long  history  of  China,  

Confucianism   was   one   of   the   main   advocators   of   music.   During   Han  

Dynasty,   specifically   in   the   year   134BC,   Dong   Zhongshu   successfully  

helped  Confucianism  to  gain   the  exclusive  position   in  China.  As  a   result,  

songs  were  always  one  of  the  most  essential  parts  of  life.    

 

The   poems   in   Tang   (618   AD   –   907   AD)   and   Song   (960   AD   –   1279   AD)  

Dynasty  could  be  sung.  Typically  in  Song  Dynasty,  people  always  sang  the  

poems   with   certain   pattern   of   melodies,   especially   popular   in   brothels  

where   poets   and   educated   prostitutes   met.   The   Song   poems   were   well  

received  and  many  of  them  have  even  been  circulating  till  now.  

 

As   a   traditionally   accepted   form   of   information   delivery   channel,   songs  

have   been   effective   throughout   the   Chinese   history   in   providing   the  

messages  the  central  government  have  wanted  to  convey.  

 

3.3  Case  Study:  The  East  is  Red  

 

‘The  East  is  Red’  was  a  widely  spread  song,  if  not  the  most,  in  the  1960s.  

Originally   the  melody  was   derived   from   a   Shaanxi   folk   song  with   lyrics  

written  by  Li  Youyuan,  a  farmer  from  northern  Shaanxi.    

 

The   lyrics   are   given   as   below   with   original   simplified   Chinese,   Pinyin  

translation  as  well  as  English  translation.  

 

Simplified  Chinese   Pinyin   English  

东方红，太阳升，

中国出了个毛泽东。

他为人民谋幸福，

呼尔嗨哟，他是人民大救

星！

毛主席，爱人民，

他是我们的带路人，

为了建设新中国，

呼尔嗨哟，领导我们向前

进！

共产党，像太阳，

照到哪里哪里亮。

哪里有了共产党，

呼尔嗨哟，哪里人民得解

放！

 

Dōngfāng  hóng,  tàiyáng  shēng,  

Zhōngguó  chū  liǎo  ge  Máo  Zédōng,  

Tā  wèi  rénmín  móu  xìngfú,  

Hū'ěr-­‐hei-­‐yo,  tā  shì  rénmín  dà  jiùxīng!  (Repeat  last  two  

lines)    

Máo  zhǔxí,  ài  rénmín,  

Tā  shì  wǒmén  de  dàilùrén  

Wèile  jiànshè  xīn  Zhōngguó,  Hū’ěr-­‐hei-­‐yo,  lǐngdǎo  wǒmén  xiàng  qiánjìn!  (Repeat  last  two  

lines)    

Gòngchǎndǎng,  xiàng  tàiyáng,  

Zhàodào  nǎlǐ  nǎlǐ  liàng,  

Nǎlǐ  yǒu  liǎo  Gòngchǎndǎng,  Hū‘ěr-­‐hei-­‐yo,  nǎlǐ  rénmín  dé  jiěfàng!  

(Repeat  last  two  lines)  

The  east  is  red,  the  sun  rises.  

From  China  arises  Mao  Zedong.  

He  strives  for  the  people's  happiness,  Hurrah,  he  is  the  people's  great  

savior!  (Repeat  last  two  

lines)    

Chairman  Mao  loves  the  people.  He  is  our  guide  to  building  a  new  

China  Hurrah,  lead  us  

forward!  (Repeat  last  two  

lines)    

The  Communist  Party  is  like  the  sun,  Wherever  it  shines,  

it  is  bright.  Wherever  the  

Communist  Party  is,  Hurrah,  there  the  

people  are  liberated!  

(Repeat  last  two  lines)    

Figure  10:  Lyrics  of  ‘The  East  is  Red’  (Yin,  2012)  

 

Adopting  a  folk  song  for  its  melody,  the  song  was  easy  to  follow  and  learn.  

Lyrics  were  of  extreme  simplicity  so  that  even  people  who  cannot  read  or  

write   could   also   sing   the   song.     Several   features   could   be   concluded   as  

followed.  

 

First,   it   deified  Mao  Zedong   to   re-­‐establish  his   authority   in   the   country.  

The   lyrics   were   simple   but   powerful,   using   the   metaphor   to   state   that  

Chairman  Mao  was  like  the  sun  without  which  the  whole  country  would  

not   be   able   to   survive.   Chairman   Mao   and   the   Communist   Party   were  

always  the  concentrations  of  the  songs.  The  statistics  in  the  five  series  of  

songs   published   by   the   State   Council   Culture   Group   are   summarized   in  

the  following  table.  

 

 

Praise  

Chairman  

Mao  

Praise  the  

Communist  

Party  

Praise  

Communism  

Total  

Number  of  

Praising  

Songs  

Total  

Number  of  

Songs  

Proportion  

of  Praising  

songs  

1st  Series   14   4   1   19   101   18.8%  

2nd  Series   9   5   2   16   100   16%  

3rd  Series   9   7   5   21   124   16.9%  

4th  Series   7   6   4   17   106   16%  

5th  Series   8   6   2   1610   124   12.9%  

Figure  11:  The  statistics  in  the  five  series  of  songs  published  by  the  State  Council  Culture  Group  

(sorted  by  the  author)  

 

Second,   it   stressed   the   significance  of   unification  of   the  whole  nation   to  

defend  itself  and  to  develop  in  the  future.  This  suited  the  needs  of  massive  

public  revolutions.  (Cai,  2009)  

 

4. Conclusion  

 

The   essay   is   trying   to   seek   for   a   relatively   new   approach   to   review   the  

Cultural  Revolution.  The  two  propaganda  methods,  posters  and  songs,  are  

investigated  to  shade  some  light  on  the  related  issue.  

 

 

 

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