The Role of Government Propaganda
in the Educational System during the
Cultural Revolution in China
Jing Huang
1. Introduction
The Proletarian Cultural Revolution, also called the Cultural Revolution in
China, which took place between 1966 and 1976, was a social-‐political
movement. Mao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist Party of China,
started this movement, originally aiming at reinforcing communism, more
specially socialism with Chinese characteristics or Maoism. Capitalism
and traditional Chinese culture were to be obliterated. The whole society
was paralyzed economically, politically and socially. (Bianco, 1971)
There are many aspects of the revolution worth investigating, however,
due to the complexity of the ten-‐year movement, it is impossible to cover
all of them. This essay will focus on how the Chinese government used
propaganda to instigate the entire nation with a huge population to be
involved in this movement. In particular, the propaganda methods,
including but not limited to posters, songs and newly established
organizations, adopted within educational system will be examined in
order to better understand the impacts of the revolution on the young
generation back to that time.
Since this area is rarely researched independently as a main subject
before, please make corrections and comments if anything wrong.
2. Propaganda Posters
With high illiteracy rate and a majority of population composed of
peasants, Chinese government thus used easy aids with plain language
and simple expression to reach out to the public. Among them, posters
played a significant role.
Even now, Cultural Revolution style products are commonly seen
especially in tourist attractions. Some fresh graduates dress up like the
Red Guards to take graduation photos, developing a controversial retro
fashion as shown by figure 1 below. (Pan, 2008)
Figure1: Students in "Red Guard" outfits pose for graduation photos (People's Daily Online, 2012)
Tremendous propaganda posters were created during the 60s and 70s
with a wide range of topics and forms, covering nearly everything from
personal conducts to diplomatic relationships. However, in this essay, the
focus will be on the propaganda posters targeting at the students or
young generation in general.
2.1 Characteristics
Characteristics of the propaganda posters in the Cultural Revolution were
distinct, easy to be identified even when mixed with piles of posters. In
this session, the features will be illustrated with the assistance of real
examples of the posters.
2.1.1 Simplicity
To cater for the educational level of the majority of the public, the posters
were designed to deliver direct and clear information. Ideally, people
could understand the contents without knowing the meaning of any
Chinese character. As a result, pictures, the traditional and effective vision
aid, were wildly used. Sentences on the posters tended to be short and
rhymed. (Cai, 2009)
Some posters do not even have words on them. Typical images include
workers and peasants holding ‘Quotations from Chairman Mao’, also
known as ‘Little Red Book’ (figure 2), which people were required to
reside all the contents in the book; Chairman Mao looking into the
distance with a smile of triumph (figure 3) and etc.
Figure 2: Reviewing the Propaganda Posters in Cultural Revolution (Phoenix New Media, 2010)
Figure 3: Mao Zedong reviewing the army (Unknown, 2011)
2.1.2 Anti-‐intellectualism
According to Mao Zedong’s instructions in several occasions, to sum up,
knowledge was blamed to be the culprit of social uncertainty. In other
words, the powerful knowledge hindered the implementation of
obscurantist policy, thus making Chairman Mao feel threatened given the
revolution was set into motion to consoled his political position in the
country to regain public prestige and control.
Mao viewed the educated as potential threats to his governance and was
never a fan of promoting intellectual activities in the society.
(Referring to the Kuomintang) There are many stubborn elements,
graduates in the specialty schools of stubbornness. They are
stubborn today, they will be stubborn tomorrow, and they will be
stubborn the day after tomorrow. What is stubbornness (wan gu)?
Gu is to be stiff. Wan is to not progress: not today, nor tomorrow, nor
the day after tomorrow. People like that are called the stubborn
elements. It is not an easy thing to make the stubborn elements listen
to our words. (Mao, 1965)
In his view, well-‐educated people who could think freely were often more
rebellious and less obedient in the period of uncertain society. More
importantly, these people were less likely to be manipulated or controlled
and tended to fight for what they thought to be right ‘stubbornly’. Thus
the intellectuals were to be educated by the proletarian class such as
workers, peasants and soldiers, in Mao Zedong’s words, to be reborn.
Figure 4: Intellectuals must integrate with the workers, peasants and soldiers (Picture China, 2009)
The above poster lively illustrates the standard back to the 60s that the
educated would only be treated equal if they cooperatively received the
re-‐education from the public.
More specifically, during the revolution Mao Zedong launched several
policies and delivered various orders to reshape the educational system,
among which universities were one of the major emphases. 13 June 1966,
the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CCCPC for
abbreviation) and the State Council issued ‘Decision on deferring new
enrolment in higher education for half a year’ which postponed the
admission in fall of 1996. Only about one month after the issuance, CCCPC
and the State Council sent out an updated version of the decision called
‘Announcement concerning the reform of higher education admission’.
The announcement marked the cancellation of National College Entrance
Examination (NCEE for abbreviation). Further more, it declared an
alternative way to select students for universities by recommendation
and put political related characters as the prime concern for selection.
However, the alternative selection approach was never practiced because
all classes were suspended for revolution. (Fairbank, 1986)
Mao Zedong was particularly against students taking arts related subjects.
Science and engineering suited the economic plan and were in line with
central government’s ambition to foster heavy industry. In a comment
Mao Zedong made to one article named ‘Investigation on the route for
cultivation of engineering technicians: case study in Shanghai Machine
Tool Works Ltd’ on 21 July 1968’s People’s Daily, he mentioned the
following:
Universities are still needed. By saying this, my main point is that
universities of engineering and science are in demand but not
universities focusing on other subjects. Shortening the length of
schooling is a must, so is the educational revolution. The proletariat
must secure its leadership in this revolution to follow the route
explored in Shanghai Machine Tool Works Ltd. Students shall be
selected among skillful workers and peasants to study in the schools
for theories. After the study, the graduates shall go back to practice
what they have learnt in school. (Tarrow, 1998)
As a result of this comment, a large number of such colleges were
launched. Basically, factories selected students from their own workers
and the proletarian class from other sources to teach a short course with a
length of around two years to study specialized skills as well as Maoism
and other political subjects.
Shanghai Machine Tool Works Ltd pioneered for the new form education
following Mao Zedong’s instructions. Such colleges are called ‘721
Colleges’ that soon became a fashion across the whole country. According
to Xinhua News Agency’s report, in the first half of 1975, only 1200 ‘721
Colleges’ with more than 90,000 students existed. By the first half of 1976,
the colleges numbered approximately 15,000 with the number of
students reaching 780,000. As recorded in China Education Yearbook, by
the end of 1976 when the Cultural Revolution finally came to an end,
nationwide, a total of 33,374 ‘721 Colleges’ accommodating 1.485 million
students. (Schoppa, 2006)
Figure 5: ‘721 Colleges’ get better and better (Picture China, 2009)
2.1.3 Stress on Loyalty to the Party and Mao Zedong
One of the main targets of the movement, if not the most important one, is
to reinforce the governance of the Communist Party and re-‐establish Mao
Zedong’s authority.
During the revolution, the government tried to equalize the concept of the
state and the Party, Mao Zedong as the symbol of the Party. Therefore,
‘Quotations from Chairman Mao’ was the Bible of revolution back to that
time. According to the memorial of people who experienced the Cultural
Revolution by themselves, reciting some quotes from the book to greet
each other was quite common. (Zheng, 1998)
Figure 6: Revolute for a whole life; Read Chairman Mao’s book for a whole life. (Picture China, 2009)
Figure 7: Smash the head of whoever is against Chairman Mao (Picture China, 2009)
Focus on the cultivation of loyalty started at very early age. Initiated by
the university students, Red Guards spread out China in an unbelievable
manner.
Red Guards were a mass paramilitary social movement of young people in
the China during the special period of time. According to the Red Guards
leaders, the nature of Red Guards were well elaborated in the following
Statement:
Chairman Mao has defined our future as an armed revolutionary
youth organization...So if Chairman Mao is our Red-‐Commander-‐in-‐
Chief and we are his Red soldiers, who can stop us? First we will
make China red from inside out and then we will help the working
people of other countries make the world red...And then the whole
universe. (Chong, 2002)
The poster below illustrates that children begin to receive political
brainwash at very early stage of their life. Becoming a Young Pioneer or
joining Red Guards was an honorable way as first step to show loyalty to
the Party and Mao Zedong.
Figure 8: We are Chairman Mao’s Red Guards
In line with Mao Zedong’s theory that the larger the population, the more
the benefits, the government advocated physical exercises among young
generation to prepare them for the dramatic revolution and serve the
communist development.
Figure 9: Do exercises for revolution (Picture China, 2009)
2.2 Impacts
Tremendous criticisms have already been made on the whole effects of
the Cultural Revolution including economic, political and social aspects.
This essay will stick to the role of propaganda in the educational system.
The outstanding simple but exaggerating posters with clear target
audience delicately penetrated the message of obedience accompanied
with blinded revolutionary passion, making young generation feel lost in
the directions of life. Schools were suspended to make way to revolution.
The then young, passionate but lost young people were in dilemma and
finally turned rebellions.
To a large extent, the posters assisted the implementation of the policies
and influenced not only the behaviors of the whole generation but also
the mindsets.
3. Songs
In the Cultural Revolution, key persons such as Lin Biao, Gang of Four and
etc. made use of Mao Zedong’s mistake, taking control of all propaganda
approaches. The Cultural Revolution was ironically not meant to promote
cultural elements. Its ambition was totally political. Songs, the main
expression of music, were well used for propaganda purpose.
Lyrics often carry a large amount of information. Songs are ideal for
propaganda for its low cost rapid spreading out characteristic as well as
the low requirement of literary level.
3.1 Aid of the Press
Press was under strict control. During the Cultural Revolution, officially
only two newspapers and one magazine existed, ‘People's Daily’,
‘Liberation Army’ and ‘Red Flag correspondingly. The press served as a
mean of promoting the songs. For instance, ‘People's Daily’ published
various review articles on arts including songs. ‘Two well-‐done
revolutionary songs’ and ‘Revolutionary songs as a weapon in journal’
were two salient examples in 1971. Between June 5 1966 and September
26 1967, ‘People’s Daily published a total number of 79 revolutionary
songs. (Yin, 2012)
After the ‘9/13’ incident that was conspired by Lin Biao, the Cultural
Revolution reached a trough, giving time and space for the government to
rethink the whole movement. The betrayal of Lin Biao, then Vice
Chairman stroke Mao Zedong hardly, yet failed to stop Mao Zedong from
taking more radical measures to escalate the revolution.
In order to break the stagnant situation of the revolution, the State
Council Culture Group published a collection of revolutionary songs in the
name to celebrate thirty-‐year anniversary of Chairman Mao’s famous
speech in Yan’an in 1942, publicly affirming the importance of
propaganda in political movements for the first time. (Li, 2000) The songs
spread widely in the nation containing the same stories to praise the
victories of the Communist Party and the rightful leadership of Chairman
Mao. However, the songs started to have some subtle changes in terms of
melody and lyrics. Many past stories were adjusted for the current
situation with plain language use to approach as many as possible
audience.
These works were viewed as a form of ‘Literature for Political Policy’ and
suited the need of the Culture Group. The prime benchmark for the songs
was to ‘put Chairman Mao’s political demands in the first place and the
artistic criterion in the second’ and ‘ unify revolutionary political content
with the perfect form of music’. Between 1972 and 1976, another four
sets of similar songs were published, pushing the revolution back to the
peak again by successfully instigating all classes. (Chueng, 2007)
3.2 Educational Function of Songs
Far back to Zhou Dynasty (1046BC – 256 BC), Chinese government
developed a system of ruling the nation that put great emphasis on music
and etiquette. People believed that the elegant music could deliver the
message to foster good self-‐discipline. Later in the long history of China,
Confucianism was one of the main advocators of music. During Han
Dynasty, specifically in the year 134BC, Dong Zhongshu successfully
helped Confucianism to gain the exclusive position in China. As a result,
songs were always one of the most essential parts of life.
The poems in Tang (618 AD – 907 AD) and Song (960 AD – 1279 AD)
Dynasty could be sung. Typically in Song Dynasty, people always sang the
poems with certain pattern of melodies, especially popular in brothels
where poets and educated prostitutes met. The Song poems were well
received and many of them have even been circulating till now.
As a traditionally accepted form of information delivery channel, songs
have been effective throughout the Chinese history in providing the
messages the central government have wanted to convey.
3.3 Case Study: The East is Red
‘The East is Red’ was a widely spread song, if not the most, in the 1960s.
Originally the melody was derived from a Shaanxi folk song with lyrics
written by Li Youyuan, a farmer from northern Shaanxi.
The lyrics are given as below with original simplified Chinese, Pinyin
translation as well as English translation.
Simplified Chinese Pinyin English
东方红,太阳升,
中国出了个毛泽东。
他为人民谋幸福,
呼尔嗨哟,他是人民大救
星!
毛主席,爱人民,
他是我们的带路人,
为了建设新中国,
呼尔嗨哟,领导我们向前
进!
共产党,像太阳,
照到哪里哪里亮。
哪里有了共产党,
呼尔嗨哟,哪里人民得解
放!
Dōngfāng hóng, tàiyáng shēng,
Zhōngguó chū liǎo ge Máo Zédōng,
Tā wèi rénmín móu xìngfú,
Hū'ěr-‐hei-‐yo, tā shì rénmín dà jiùxīng! (Repeat last two
lines)
Máo zhǔxí, ài rénmín,
Tā shì wǒmén de dàilùrén
Wèile jiànshè xīn Zhōngguó, Hū’ěr-‐hei-‐yo, lǐngdǎo wǒmén xiàng qiánjìn! (Repeat last two
lines)
Gòngchǎndǎng, xiàng tàiyáng,
Zhàodào nǎlǐ nǎlǐ liàng,
Nǎlǐ yǒu liǎo Gòngchǎndǎng, Hū‘ěr-‐hei-‐yo, nǎlǐ rénmín dé jiěfàng!
(Repeat last two lines)
The east is red, the sun rises.
From China arises Mao Zedong.
He strives for the people's happiness, Hurrah, he is the people's great
savior! (Repeat last two
lines)
Chairman Mao loves the people. He is our guide to building a new
China Hurrah, lead us
forward! (Repeat last two
lines)
The Communist Party is like the sun, Wherever it shines,
it is bright. Wherever the
Communist Party is, Hurrah, there the
people are liberated!
(Repeat last two lines)
Figure 10: Lyrics of ‘The East is Red’ (Yin, 2012)
Adopting a folk song for its melody, the song was easy to follow and learn.
Lyrics were of extreme simplicity so that even people who cannot read or
write could also sing the song. Several features could be concluded as
followed.
First, it deified Mao Zedong to re-‐establish his authority in the country.
The lyrics were simple but powerful, using the metaphor to state that
Chairman Mao was like the sun without which the whole country would
not be able to survive. Chairman Mao and the Communist Party were
always the concentrations of the songs. The statistics in the five series of
songs published by the State Council Culture Group are summarized in
the following table.
Praise
Chairman
Mao
Praise the
Communist
Party
Praise
Communism
Total
Number of
Praising
Songs
Total
Number of
Songs
Proportion
of Praising
songs
1st Series 14 4 1 19 101 18.8%
2nd Series 9 5 2 16 100 16%
3rd Series 9 7 5 21 124 16.9%
4th Series 7 6 4 17 106 16%
5th Series 8 6 2 1610 124 12.9%
Figure 11: The statistics in the five series of songs published by the State Council Culture Group
(sorted by the author)
Second, it stressed the significance of unification of the whole nation to
defend itself and to develop in the future. This suited the needs of massive
public revolutions. (Cai, 2009)
4. Conclusion
The essay is trying to seek for a relatively new approach to review the
Cultural Revolution. The two propaganda methods, posters and songs, are
investigated to shade some light on the related issue.
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