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• Welcome to the Summer Burst of AG 101. • You should be able to hear music – and can
control the MP3 Player shown in your view. • Program will begin at 1:00 PM. • Kristen Saacke Blunk, Penn State
Cooperative Extension, Moderating
Today’s Program –
Field, Forage and Grains
Crop Identification and Production
Today’s Session – Session VII • Field, Forage & Grains – Crop
production and identification
Next Week - Session VIII • Pest Management – weeds,
insects, fungus, virus, disease
Session IX • Specialty Crops – Vegetables, fruits,
greenhouse production
AG 101 “Winter Burst” focused on Pennsylvania Farms and Livestock Operations. The “Summer Burst” – beginning with today’s program – will take us along the following path:
Session XI •Wood Crops, Agroforestry, and
Woodlot Management
Session XII •Special Topics – whole landscape
approaches, riparian systems, adaptive management
Summer Burst Farm Visits
AG 101 Summer Burst
Average temperature for Winter Burst Field/Farm Visits: 23 degrees F
Summer Burst Anticipated
Average Temperature: >80 degrees F
Today’s Program –
Field, Forage and Grains
Crop Identification and Production
Marvin Hall Professor of Forage Management
Penn State Crop and Soil Sciences
Greg Roth Professor of Agronomy
Penn State Crop and Soil Sciences
Charlie White Extension Associate in Sustainable AG
Penn State Entomology
Today’s presentation will follow this format:
1. Plant Identification and Adaptation 2. Production Principles 3. Best Management Practices 4. Crop Utilization
Forages Alfalfa (perennial legume)
– Seed: color - light and dark brown to greenish yellow. shape - predominately kidney bean, but few mitten-shaped 2 - 5 mm
– Mature plant: 3-4 ft tall with multiple stems per plant; leaflets generally long and narrow, serrated at tips to approximately 1/3 of entire margin, pinnately compound, small pointed stipules; flower color variable but mostly purple, flower is a modified raceme
– Adaptation: deep, well drained soils with a pH of 6.5 -7. Generally for hay or silage but also grazing (caution with bloat)
Red clover (perennial, short lived legume) – Seed: color - yellow, brown, red, purple (multiple colors); few
seeds are 1/2 dark-colored (purple) and 1/2 light colored (yellow). shape - both heart and mitten-shaped. 2-5 mm (larger than white clover)
– Mature plant: 2-3 ft tall; palmately compound leaves; leaves and stems are pubescent; older leaflets have white, V-shaped, marks; flowers are red borne terminally on spherical head.
– Adaptation: Grows better than alfalfa on wetter and lower pH (5.5 – 7.0) soils. Good for silage or grazing (caution with bloat) but not hay. Only lives 2-3 years.
White clover (perennial legume) – Seed: color - yellow, brown, red, purple (multiple colors); shape
- both heart and mitten-shaped. 1-3 mm (smaller than red clover)
– Mature plant: 4-8 inches tall; stems prostate; palmately compound leaves; leaves and stems are not pubescent; flowers are white and borne terminally on spherical head.
– Adaptation: tolerated shading, grows best cool & moist conditions, soil pH 5.5 – 7.0. Good grazing species (caution with bloat) but doesn’t contribute much to hay or silage yield.
Orchardgrass (perennial) – Seed: color - light yellow in color. shape - many seeds show curved-form;
some florets in clusters; short awns or awn points visible on many seeds. Rachilla is cylindrical with “saucer” end. 5 to 9 mm. chaffy
– Mature plant: blades > 10 mm wide, with leaves folded in a bud shoot (flat stem). Sheaths are distinctly flat. Panicle type inflorescence - compact, upright spikelets on short and long pedicles; spikelets occur in groups appearing as one-sided clusters, sometimes having a purplish color; short awns or awn points; similar in general appearance to reed canarygrass. perennial. Bunch type growth habit (no rhizomes or stolons).
– Adaptation: Grows well on deep well drained soils with a pH of 6.0 – 7.0. Good for hay, silage or grazing. Commonly grown in mixtures with alfalfa
Cool-Season Forage Grasses grow best under moist and cool (<85° F) conditions
Timothy (perennial) – Seed: short (1 – 2 mm) and round, whitish brown in color, no rachilla, palea
or lemma. – Mature plant: upright growth, 3-4 ft tall in spring; inflorescence – spike-like
panicle; no rhizomes; corm (small bulb) at base of stem (see middle image below).
– Adaptation: Grows best in cool and moist conditions. Doesn’t tolerate drought or heat so production is minimal after first harvest. Good for hay or silage but doesn’t persist well under grazing. Popular grass for horse hay.
Smooth bromegrass (perennial) – Seed: very flat and papery-like in appearance; blunt apex; lemma
distinctly veined. 10 - 15 mm long, chaffy – Mature plant: (united sheath) inflorescence - panicle type; open, but
upright short and long pedicles; membranous; rhizomes; dense stands; M or W watermark on leaf about 1/2 way up (see middle image below).
– Adaptation: Grows well in wet or dry soil conditions. Produces seedheads about 3 weeks after orchardgrass (late May to early June in Pennsylvania). Good for hay or silage but doesn’t persist well under grazing.
Tall fescue (perennial) – Seed: color - yellow, brown single seeded; rachilla is
cylindrical with “bat handle” end. – Mature plant: 3-4 ft tall; produces seed head only in
spring growth, regrowth is vegetative. Leaves have heavey veins (see middle image below) and are frequently barbed along edges. Flowers are a panicle.
– Adaptation: Grows well under a wide range of soil conditions (pH 4.5 – 7) and managements. Good for grazing, silage or hay. Newer varieties are endophyte free or contain the “friendly” endophyte.
Ryegrass (annual to perennial) – Seed: single floret, usually with a short awn, color -
yellow, brown, 3-5 mm long. Rachilla is wedge shaped. – Mature plant: 1-2 ft tall, leaves are wazy; flowers are
arranged in a spike with spikelets parallel to the stem (see image on right below).
– Adaptation: Establishes rapidly. Grows best under cool and moist conditions, doesn’t grow well when the weather is hot. Good for silage or grazing but waxy leaf makes drying for hay difficult. Usually grown with a legume.
Switchgrass (perennial) – Seed: yellow to brown, 6-8 mm long, roundish. – Mature plant: 3 -6 ft tall; sheath edges are hairy. Ligule
is a fringe of hairs. Flowers are arranged in an open panicle. Spreads by rhizomes.
– Adaptation: Slow to establish. Grows best on moist, well-drained soils but also does well in dry, low fertility soils. Pasture or hay but don’t harvest lower than 8 inches above ground. Gaining interest as a potential biofuel grass.
Warm-Season Forage Grasses grow best under hot (>85° F) conditions
Depth of Planting (#1 cause of failure)
Percent seedling emergence of several forage crops when planted at 5 depths.
Rules of Thumb: Heal of shoe shouldn’t sink in more than ½ inch. About 10% of seeds should be on soil surface after planting!
Forage Establishment
Seeding depth (inches)
Crop 0.25 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Alfalfa 78 64 53 45 19
Clover, white 91 47 28 2 0
Clover, red 89 56 62 22 14
Bluegrass, Kentucky 70 43 7 4 0
Bromegrass, smooth 94 78 69 51 24
Timothy 98 89 81 39 12
Seed-to-Soil Contact (#2 cause of failure) Most forage seeds must absorb more than their own weight in water
from the soil before germination begins.
Soil
Seed
Soil
Seed
Bad Good
Soil
Soil Fertility Management • Every ton of harvested forage removes about:
• 60 lbs of N • 20 lbs of P2O5
• 60 lbs of K2O
1 Ton of Hay
Forage yield increases as the plant matures. Harvest at full flower
Forage Harvest Management
Forage quality declines as the plant matures. Harvest at bud or boot stage.
Stored carbohydrates increase as the plant matures. Harvest is a compromise between: yield quality persistence
Grazing – Oldest form of forage harvesting. However, with Pennsylvania’s
cold winter weather it is necessary to store some forages to use when forage plants aren’t growing. A good grazing system will lose 20-25% of the available forage.
Hay – Forage is mowed and allowed to dry in the field until its
moisture content is low enough (< 20%) for it to be stored without molding. The drying can take from 3-6 days and increases the risk of loss due to rain. A good hay making system under ideal weather conditions will lose 15-25% of the available forage.
Silage – Forage is mowed and allowed to wilt in the field until its
moisture content is 50 to 65% before it is baled (baylage) or chopped (haylage) and put in a sealed contained (plastic wrap or tube, bunker, silo) where it ferments (bacteria consume carbohydrates and produce lactic acid which lowers the pH) and can them be stored without molding. A good silage making system will lose 15-25% of the available forage.
Forage Utilization
Grain Crops Corn (annual) – Seed: (see image below) yellow – Mature plant: average hybrid develops about 20-21 total
leaves, silks about 65 days after emergence, and matures about 125 days after emergence
– Adaptation: Corn is best adapted to deep well drained soils, but can be grown on shallower or less well drained soils also, but with lower yield potential.
Grain Crops Soybean (annual) – Seed: (see image below) light yellow; shiny. shape - nearly spherical. large
hilum (where seed was once attached to pod), dark-colored with white slit. – Mature plant: palmately compound; netted veins; white or purple flowers at
nodes on racemes. 2-4 seeds/pod. Stems hairy. Planted in May and harvested in October.
– Adaptation: Soybeans is best adapted to deep well drained soils, but can be grown on shallower or less well drained soils also, but with lower yield. More drought tolerant that corn due to extended flowering period.
Grain Crops Winter wheat (winter annual) – Seed: (see image below) light reddish brown – Mature plant: Large grass plant, approx 36-40 inches tall, spike type
head with 2-row effect in front and back on zig-zag rachis; many awned lemmas; leaves thinner and narrower than barley. Planted in September and October, harvested in July.
– Adaptation: Best adapted to deep well drained soils, but can be grown on shallower or less well drained soils also. More drought tolerant than corn. Mostly soft red winter wheat is grown in PA.
Grain Crops Winter barley (winter annual) – Seed: (see image below) Yellowish brown kernels – Mature plant: Large grass plant, approx 30-40 inches tall, spike type
head; short, club-shaped; 3-row effect in front and back; awned; glaborous; clasping auricles Planted in September and early October, harvested in June .
– Adaptation: Best adapted to well drained soils, not tolerant of low pH or less well drained soils . More drought tolerant than corn.
Grain Crops Spring Oats (annual) – Seed: (see image below) Pale yellow to light brown, depending on
weathering prior to harvest – Mature plant: Large grass plant, approx 30-40 inches tall, panicle
type head; compact, upright spikelets on short and long pedicles. Planted in March and April, harvested in late July and August.
– Adaptation: Best adapted to deep well drained soils, but can be grown on shallower or less well drained soils also. More drought tolerant than corn.
Grain Crops Sorghum (annual) – Seed: (see image below) Red, bronze or cream, spherical, BB sized – Mature plant: Vegetation similar to corn except grain on loose to dense
panicle on top of plant; saw tooth margin on sorghum leaves. Can vary in height from 3 feet to 12 feet tall. Shorter types are known as grain sorghum, taller types are known as forage sorghum. Usually planted at end of May and harvested in October or November.
– Adaptation: Adapted to a range of soil types. More drought tolerant than corn.
Grain Crops Canola (annual) – Seed: (see image below) black to dark brown and spherical – Mature plant: Vegetation similar to wild mustard plants 40-60 inches tall,
with yellow flower. Smells like broccoli. Winter and spring types available. Winter types planted in September and harvested in July.
– Adaptation: Adapted to a range of soil types. Does not tolerate wet soil conditions.
Grain Crop Establishment Grain crops are planted with either a planter or drill,
depending on the species • Planter: Corn, soybeans, sorghum • Drill: Wheat, barley, oats, canola, sorghum or
soybeans
Grain Crop Harvesting Grain crops are harvested in several ways • Combine: harvests grain for dry or ensiled storage • Forage harvester: Chops entire plant or part of
plant (ear or head) for ensiled storage • Corn picker: harvests corn ears for dry storage.
Grain Crop Residues The residues from some Grain Crops are also widely used • Corn: stover can be baled for bedding or mushroom
compost • Wheat, barley, or oats: straw is often baled for animal
bedding • Soybeans and canola: residue is not often baled.
Utilization of Grain Crops Grain crops used mostly for animal feed in PA with a few
exceptions. • Corn: Dairy, hog, cattle, poulty feed, ethanol feedstock • Corn silage: Dairy and beef cattle feed • Soybeans: Meal- animal feed, oil-vegetable oil, animal feed,
biodiesel • Wheat: Flour for human consumption, animal feed • Barley: Dairy, cattle and poultry feed • Oats: Dairy cattle, beef and horse feed • Sorghum: Animal feed, birdseed • Canola: Meal-animal feed, oil-vegetable oil, biodiesel
Grain Crop Nutrient Recommendations
Crop Typical Yield N P2O5 K2O
Bushels/acre Pounds/acre
Corn 130 130 50 30
Corn Silage 21 tons/acre 150 110 230
Soybean 40 0 40 60
Wheat 60 60 60 110
Oats 80 60 70 120
Barley 80 60 50 120
Sorghum 80 60 70 120
Canola 40 80 30 20
Corn has one of the highest nutrient requirements, especially when harvested for silage. Soybean has no N requirement. A rule of thumb for many grains is 0.8 to 1.0 lb of N per bushel
Grain Crop Production in PA: 2010
Crop Yield Area Production
Bu/acre 1000 acre 1000 bu
Corn 128 910 116,480
Corn Silage 18 tons/acre 400 7,200,000 tons
Soybean 42 500 20,790
Wheat 59 165 8,850
Oats 59 110 4,720
Barley 75 60 3,375
Sorghum 37 8/3 111
Canola - - -
Corn dominates our cropping systems, followed by soybeans, wheat and oats.
Grain Crop Test Weight and Moisture
Crop Bushel weight Standard Moisture
Pounds/bu %
Corn 56 15.5
Soybean 60 13.0
Wheat 60 13.5
Oats 32 14.0
Barley 48 14.5
Sorghum 56 14.0
Canola 50 10.0
The standard bushel weight of grain is the amount of grain that would fill a bushel container (1.244 cubic feet) when the grain is at a standard moisture content. Usually that moisture content is the level specified in the U.S. grading standards. i.e. “50 bushels of soybeans/acre” is: 50 bu x 60 lb/bu or 3000 lb of grain at 13.0% moisture harvested from one acre
Cover Crops Used in the gaps between economic crops to maintain soil
coverage and provide other benefits
Benefits
Reduce erosion
Reduce nitrogen leaching
Increase nitrogen value of fall applied manure
Nitrogen fixation (legume species)
Add organic matter to the soil
Weed suppression
Compaction alleviation
Supplemental forage
Increase yield potential of economic crops (sometimes)
Costs
Seed costs
Labor to establish and terminate
Increased management intensity
Cereal Rye • Description: Winter hardy cereal grass • Pros: Moderate seed cost. Can be established later in the fall than most other
species. Adds significant quantities of organic matter. Good nitrogen scavenger. • Cons: Can grow too much in the spring if management is untimely. Immobilizes
nitrogen if terminated too late. Forage value is less than other species. • Management Notes: Can be planted through December but late plantings will
provide minimal wintertime soil coverage and nutrient retention.
Oats • Description: Winter killed cereal grass • Pros: Moderate seed cost. Moderate forage value. Quick cover in fall. Winter kill
eases spring management. Fibrous roots enhance soil aggregation. • Cons: Minimal spring-time nitrogen retention. Needs to be planted early in the
fall. • Management Notes: Plant by mid-September to achieve enough soil coverage to
reduce erosion. Makes an excellent nurse crop to improve winter hardiness of companion legumes.
Annual Ryegrass • Description: Winter hardy annual grass • Pros: Low seed cost. Adds significant quantities of organic matter. Good nitrogen
scavenger. Fibrous roots enhance soil aggregation. Excellent forage value. • Cons: Can winterkill with improper management. Can be difficult to kill in the
spring. Risk of becoming a weed if seed set is allowed. • Management Notes: Plant by mid-September to ensure winter hardiness. If there
is significant fall growth, mow or graze to increase winter hardiness. ‘Italian’ and ‘Westerwold’ types differ in cost and agronomic traits.
Red Clover • Description: Short-lived perennial legume • Pros: Moderate seed cost. Moderate nitrogen fixation. Taproot can alleviate soil
compaction. Can increase yield potential of the following crop. Excellent forage value.
• Cons: Requires an early planting date to achieve significant biomass production. • Management Notes: Often ‘frost-seeded’ into small grains in March. Plant by early
August to achieve adequate biomass and N fixation the next spring.
Crimson Clover • Description: Semi-winterhardy annual legume • Pros: Low seed cost. Moderate nitrogen fixation. Quick growth in fall and spring.
Can increase yield potential of the following crop. Excellent forage value. • Cons: Winter hardiness is questionable in central PA, unlikely in northern PA. • Management Notes: Plant with a nurse crop of oats to increase winter hardiness.
Plant by mid- September to achieve good fall soil cover and maximum biomass and N fixation potential the next spring.
Hairy Vetch • Description: Winterhardy annual legume • Pros: Highest nitrogen fixation of the legumes. Excellent weed suppressor. Can
increase yield potential of the following crop. • Cons: Expensive seed. ‘Hard seed’ can create future weed problems. Poor fall
cover. Full nitrogen fixation potential is only achieved late in the spring. • Management Notes: Plant between mid-August to mid-September to increase
winter hardiness. Plant with a companion species like oats to increase fall soil cover. Lightly scarifying seeds reduces the ‘hard seed’ issue.
Forage Radish • Description: Winter killed brassica. Goes by trade names of ‘Tillage Radish’ and
‘Groundhog Radish.’ Identical to ‘Daikon’ radishes grown for human consumption. • Pros: Quick fall biomass production and nitrogen uptake. Taproot alleviates soil
compaction. Weed suppression through early May. Winterkill eases spring management. Minimal residue in spring creates a warmer and drier soil for earlier planting dates of the next crop.
• Cons: Nitrogen in biomass is released very early as residues decompose over winter. Poor soil coverage in spring. Requires an early planting date.
• Management Notes: Plant by September 1 to achieve maximum biomass production in fall. Not tolerant of poorly drained soils. Nitrogen deficiency can limit growth.
Cover Crop Establishment Methods Drill
Planter Airplane
Highboy PSU Crop Seeder
Broadcast
Cover Crop Termination Methods Herbicide Burndown
Tillage
Winterkill
Roller Crimping or Mowing
Moldboard \ Chisel
Cover Crop Adoption
CTIC Survey Results, 2010
Not enough tim
e to get a cover crop
established with
harvest challenges
Cover Crop Adoption One main factor is a barrier to cover crop adoption: Usual Harvest Dates of Major Crops in PA
Crop % of PA Cropland
Usual Harvest Date
Corn 42% Oct 15 – Nov 20
Soybean 23% Oct 20 – Nov 10
Corn Silage 18% Sept 10 – Oct 10 NASS, 2010
Results of 2010 Cover Crop Survey in the Conewago Watershed: Previous Crop Hectares ‘Green’ Biomass Level – Nov. 20th
None Low Medium High
All Cropland 4,244 48% 24% 18% 11%
Corn 1,841 58% 18% 12% 10% Hively, unpublished
Resources for Cover Crop Info
www.sare.org www.extension.psu.edu/cover-crops
Starting in Fall 2011: Cover Crop Innovations Training Program Presented by Penn State Extension With funding from Northeast SARE
Other Resources
• Weekly Field Crop News http://extension.psu.edu/field-crop-news
• Penn State Extension Crop Management Team http://extension.psu.edu/cmeg
• Cover Crops http://extension.psu.edu/cover-crops
• Crop Diagnostic Clinic http://cropsoil.psu.edu/extension/clinic
Other Resources
• Penn State Agronomy Guide http://extension.psu.edu/agronomy-guide
• Upcoming events/trainings – Sustainable Cropping Systems Research Tour – Jun 22 at Rock
Springs, PA http://cropsoil.psu.edu/research/cropping-systems
– Agronomic Weed Science Tour – Jun 29 – SE Ag Research & Extension Center – Manheim, PA http://extension.psu.edu/cmeg/events/agronomic-weed-science-tour
– Today's decisions, tomorrow's successes: Managing soils, weeds & pests in organic cropping systems – Jun 30 at Rock Springs, PA http://extension.psu.edu/cmeg/events/todays-decisions-tomorrows-successes-managing-soils-weeds-pests-in-organic-cropping-systems
Marvin Hall Professor of Forage Management
Penn State Crop and Soil Sciences
Greg Roth Professor of Agronomy
Penn State Crop and Soil Sciences
Charlie White Extension Associate in Sustainable AG
Penn State Entomology
• Recording of this session will be posted in the “AG DIALOGUE” box, along with a pdf of today’s powerpoint AFTER the live session at http://breeze.psu.edu/AG101
• Registered participants will receive post program/pre-program assessment survey following each live session. To register – visit http://guest.cvent.come/d/vdqt1f
Q& A
NEXT on AG 101: Pest Management Weeds, insects, diseases. Pennsylvania farms are often the first line of defense in emerging pest and disease issues. Recognizing the impact of pests and diseases on the farm is foundational to supporting the producers’ choices in management options
• June 15– 1:00 to 2:30 PM at http://breeze.psu.edu/AG101
• SPEAKERS: Dr. Ed Rajotte, Dr. John Tooker, and Dr. Bill Curran
• Register for AG101 at http://guest.cvent.com/d/vdqt1f