• Zygote: fertilized cell created by the union of the egg and sperm

• >200 types of human cells

• Embryonic stem cells– Created during

earliest divisions– Potential to become

any type of cell

Determination• Determination

– Process where stem cells commit to a specific type

– Few weeks into development

– Irreversible

Differentiation• Differentiation

– Process where cells acquire the structures & functions of a specialized cell

– Specific genes activated

– Ex: Nerve cells grow dendrites

• Cell: Basic unit• Tissue: Group of cells

– 4 types• Organ: Groups of tissue

– Ex: lung contains each tissue• Organ System: Group of organs working together

– Digestive System• Organism: all organ systems working together

• Muscle: contracting cells– Skeletal, cardiac cells

• Connective Tissue: Support the body– Bone, fat, tendons

• Epithelial: protection sheet of cells– skin, stomach lining

• Nerve Tissue: Transmit electric signals– Brain & Spinal Cord

Topic 2: Homeostasis

Homeostasis• Process where the

body maintains a constant internal environment

• Reactions & enzymes work best in specific conditions

• Control systems adjust to internal/external changes– pH, temp, fluids

• Constant internal environment maintained

Control Systems• Sensors (aka: receptors)

– Gather information about the body and environment

– Ex: skin senses pressure• Communication Center

– Messages sent throughout the body to respond

– Ex: Impulse travel through your nerves

• Control Center– Receives information from the

sensors– Ex: Brain interprets the impulse

• Targets– Body part that changes its activity– Ex: Muscles in foot stretch/contract

abruptly

!*%!?%&#

Negative Feedback Loops• Regulates most

of the body• Counters

changes in the body that move conditions away from a set point– Reverses the

change• Keeps internal

environment stable

Positive Feedback Loop• Increases the

changes away from set points

• Important when rapid changes needed

• Ex: Oxytocin released– When uterus

contractions begin, oxytocin released to speed up the contractions (not stop them)

Working Together

• Thermoregulation: Maintenance of body temperature– Skin: sensors provide feedback to brain– Nervous & Endocrine system: send messages to/from brain– Muscles: Start to shiver

Homeostasis disruption

• Sensors fail• Wrong messages sent• Message doesn’t reach

target• Serious injury• Microorganism infection• Short Term

– Temporary discomfort (usually)

Long Term: Diabetes

• Normal Cells– Glucose circulates in blood;

pancreas releases insulin– High glucose levels: insulin

opens gates of cells to allow glucose to enter

– Glucose levels lowered• Type 1 Diabetes

– Immune system destroys cells to produce insulin

– Pancreas fails: no signal for gates to open = glucose accumulated in blood stream

• Type 2 Diabetes– Low insulin production due to

overworked pancreas– No signal for gates to open =

glucose accumulated in blood stream

Topic 3: The Nervous System

• AKA: Nerve Cells• Transfer electrical impulses to/from the brain• 3 Main Parts1) Cell body: contains nucleus and organelles2) Dendrites: branches that receive messages from

neighboring cells3) Axon: extension that carries messages away from the cell

body

Neurons

Resting Potential • Defined: Neuron at rest

• Neuron Exterior:– Positive

charge– Mainly Na+

outside the cell

• Neuron Interior:– Negative

charge (from various proteins)

– K+ inside the cell

-

-

-

-

-- - -

-

-

-

-- -

--

--

--

---

- - -

APPEAR/HIDE

Action Potential• Defined: Electrical

impulse is triggered• Front end of impulse

– Na+ enter the cell– Negative impulse

attracted towards positive Na+

• Back end of impulse– K+ exits the cell– Interior returns to

normal charge• Impulse pulled along by

the changing of electrical charges

impulse

Na+ Na+

Na+Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+Na+

Na+Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+ Na+

Na+Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+Na+

Na+Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+K+

Na+ Na+

Na+Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+ Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+Na+

Na+

Na+Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+ Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+Na+Na+ Na+

Na+

Na+ Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+Na+

Na+

K+ K+

K+

K+

negative impulse

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+

K+ K+

K+

Synapse• Defined: Gap between

neurons• Problem: Impulse cannot

cross the gap• Solution: Impulse

converted into chemical molecules (neurotransmitters)

• Steps:– Impulse reaches

neuron’s end– Vesicle releases

neurotransmitters– Neurotransmitters

attach to neighboring neuron

– New impulse created

impulse

Impulse stimulates a vesicle, which contains neurotransmitters

Vesicle exits the cell and dissolves

End of one cell

Start of another cell

impulse imp

ulse

Neurotransmitterscross the synapse and attach to receptors of a neighboring neuron

Neurotransmitters stimulate a new impulse

End of one cell

Start of another cell

Feet

Brain

….

….

….

….

• Impulse causes the muscles to stretch and contract…this causes MOVEMENT!

Motor neurons reach the muscles

Topic 4: The Senses

Eye Anatomy• Cornea

– Protective layer of the eye

• Iris– Colored part of the

eye– Contains muscles to

open & close the pupil• Pupil

– Size adjusts with light• Small: more light• Large: less light

• Lens– Focuses light onto the

retina• Retina

– Back of the eye– Contains rods &

cones

Vision Process

• 1) Light passes through pupil• 2) Lens focuses light onto retina• 3) Photoreceptors of the retina create impulses

– Impulse travels up optic nerve to brain

#1#2

#3

Ear Anatomy

• Pinna– Outer ear

• Eardrum– Amplifies sound by 3 bones: malleus, incus, stapes

• Cochlea– Contains mechanoreceptors (measures pressure)

SoundTransmission

1) Sound waves (vibration of the air) enters the ear canal2) Eardrum & the small bones vibrate3) Fluid in the cochlea vibrates 4) Hair cells in the cochlea bend5) Impulse transmitted through the auditory nerve and to the brain

Smell & Taste

• Nose– Scent chemicals dissolve

in mucus– Impulse travels from

olfactory nerve to brain

• Tongue– Chemicals dissolve in

saliva– Chemoreceptors in taste

buds creates impulse

Touch, Temperature, Pain• Mechanoreceptors

in skin sense pressure– Upper layer:

gentle touches– Lower layer:

heavy pressure• Thermoreceptors &

Pain receptors detect temps and chemicals released by damaged cells

• Impulses sent to brain

Topic 5: The Immune System

The Skin

• 1st line of defense: physical barrier• Oils & sweat destroy some pathogens

–Some cells burst–Some cells shrivel

Mucus Membranes

• Coat the openings of the body– Nose, mouth, ears, eyes, genitals, anus

• Lined with cilia & sticky fluids to trap pathogens

White Blood Cells

• Job: Search & destroy

• 1) Phagocytes: surround & engulf invaders by phagocytosis

• 2) Lymphocytes:–T cells: destroy infected body cells–B cells: Inactivate invaders

bacteria

Defense Proteins

• Complimentary Proteins–Weaken cell membrane–Attract phagocytes–Cause microbes to stick to wall of blood vessel

Defense Proteins

• Antibodies–Made by B cells–Stick to pathogens–Causes pathogens to

clumpMore susceptible to

phagocytes

–Weakens the cell membraneCauses them to burst

• Interferon–Produced by

virus infected cells

–Stimulates uninfected cells to create infection preventing enzymes

Defense Proteins

• Prevents infections (not a cure)

• Memory cells developed without actually getting the disease

• Vaccine– Contains antigens

of a pathogen– Weakened

pathogen is injected

– Stimulates the production of memory cells

• Speeds up immune response if you encounter the unweakened virus

Vaccination

Topic 6: Blood

Components of Blood

• Whole blood– RBCs– WBCs– Platelets: cell fragments that aid in clotting

• Plasma– 90% water (allows materials to dissolve)– Amino acids, glucose, hormones, vitamins, salts, waste– Concentrations allows diffusion in/out of blood stream

Red Blood Cells

• Produced from stem cells in bone marrow– Lose nucleus as they mature

• Transport O2 to cells– O2 binds to hemoglobin proteins

• Dead cells filtered by liver & spleen

• Proteins on blood cells determined blood type• Antigen (markers)

– proteins on cell’s surface that identify cells as foreign or natural

• Antibodies:– proteins from WBCs to attack invaders– Float freely in plasma

ABO Blood Groups

Type A BloodAntigens: AAntibodies: B

Type O BloodAntigens: ----Antibodies: A, B

Type B BloodAntigens: BAntibodies: A

Type AB BloodAntigens: A, BAntibodies: ----

Rh Factors• Rh+

– Have Rh antigens– Lack Rh antibodies

• Rh-– Lack Rh antigens– Have Rh antibodies

Blood type AB+

Antigens: Which does they have?

ABRh

Antibodies: Which does they have?

ABRh

Blood type O+

Antigens: Which does they have?

ABRh

Antibodies: Which does they have?

ABRh

Blood type AB-

Antigens: Which does they have?

ABRh

Antibodies: Which does they have?

ABRh

Blood type B+

Antigens: Which does they have?

ABRh

Antibodies: Which does they have?

ABRh

Blood type O-

Antigens: Which does they have?

ABRh

Antibodies: Which does they have?

ABRh

Francis was just in a bad accident and lost a lot of blood. He is blood type B+. Can you help save him?

Blood type B+

Antigens: Which does he have?

ABRh

Antibodies: Which does he have?

ABRh

Vein

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens

Can he accept B+ blood?

A antibody

A antibody

A antibody

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.

Vein

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens

Can he accept B- blood?

A antibody

A antibody

A antibody

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B-B antigensB-

B antigensB-

B antigens

Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.

Vein

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens

Can he accept A+ blood?

A antibody

A antibody

A antibody

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

A+A antigens

Rh antigens

A+A antigens

Rh antigens

A+A antigens

Rh antigens

No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.

Vein

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens

Can he accept A- blood?

A antibody

A antibody

A antibody

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

A-A antigensA-

A antigensA-

A antigens

No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.

Vein

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens

Can he accept AB+ blood?

A antibody

A antibody

A antibody

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

AB+A antigensB antigens

Rh antigens

AB+A antigensB antigens

Rh antigens

AB+A antigensB antigens

Rh antigens

No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.

Vein

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens

Can he accept AB- blood?

A antibody

A antibody

A antibody

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

AB-A antigensB antigens

AB-A antigensB antigens

AB-A antigensB antigens

No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.

Vein

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens

Can he accept O+ blood?

A antibody

A antibody

A antibody

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

O+Rh antigensO+

Rh antigensO+

Rh antigens

Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.

Vein

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens

Can he accept O- blood?

A antibody

A antibody

A antibody

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

O-No antigens

O-No antigens

O-No antigens

Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.

Sebastian was just involved in an accident at work and lost a lot of blood. He is blood type A-. Can you help save him?

Blood type A-

Antigens: Which does he have?

ABRh

Antibodies: Which does he have?

ABRh

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen

Can he accept A- blood?

B antibody

B antibody

Rh antibody

A-A antigens

Yes. The B and Rh antibodies do not have antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.

Rh antibody

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen

Can he accept A+ blood?

B antibody

B antibody

Rh antibody

A+A antigens

Rh antigens

No. The Rh antibodies will attack the Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.

A+A antigens

Rh antigens

A+A antigens

Rh antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

Rh antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen

Can he accept B- blood?

B antibody

B antibody

Rh antibody

B-B antigens

No. The B antibodies will attack the B antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.

B-B antigens

B-B antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

Rh antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen

Can he accept B+ blood?

B antibody

B antibody

Rh antibody

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

No. Both B and Rh antibodies will attack the B and Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

B+B antigens

Rh antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

Rh antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen

Can he accept AB- blood?

B antibody

B antibody

Rh antibody

AB-A antigensB antigen

No. The B antibodies will attack the B antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.

AB-A antigensB antigen

AB-A antigensB antigen

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

Rh antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen

Can he accept AB+ blood?

B antibody

B antibody

Rh antibody

AB+A antigensB antigens

Rh antigens

No. Both B and Rh antibodies will attack the B and Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.

Rh antibody

AB+A antigensB antigens

Rh antigens

AB+A antigensB antigens

Rh antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen

Can he accept O- blood?

B antibody

B antibody

Rh antibody

O-No antigens

Yes. The antibodies do not have antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.

Rh antibody

O-No antigensO-

No antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen

Can he accept O+ blood?

B antibody

B antibody

Rh antibody

O+Rh antigens

No. Rh antibodies will attack the Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.

Rh antibody

O+Rh antigensO+

Rh antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

A-A antigens

Topic 7: Endocrine System

Endocrine System Overview• Physically disconnected• Controls growth,

development, environmental responses

• Glands: Major organs of the endocrine system– makes hormones– Hormones: chemical

signals that move through blood

• Hormones attach to cell receptor

• Target cells produce proteins

Steroid and Non-Steroid Hormones• Naturally

produced by the body

• Travel through blood

• Attaches to receptor of the target cell

• Stimulate protein creation

Major Glands• Glands create hormones• Hypothalamus

– Stimulates the pituitary gland to release hormones

– Helps controls growth, reproduction, body temp

• Pituitary gland– Controls cell growth– Stimulates other glands

• Thyroid gland– Regulates metabolism,

growth, development• Thymus

– Allows WBCs to mature to fight infection

Major Glands • Adrenal Glands– Controls “fight or flight”

response– Increases breathing,

alertness, blood pressure

• Pancreas– Controls glucose level

in blood• Gonads: influence sexual

development– Testes (males):

produces testosterone– Ovaries: produces

estrogen, progesterone

Effects of testosterone

Hypothalamus/ Pituitary gland

Thyroid

thymus

Adrenal glands

pancreas

ovaries

testes