TORINO PROCESS 2014 ARAB MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES...TORINO PROCESS 2014 ARAB MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES | 03 SUMMARY The Torino Process (TRP) is a participatory process leading to an evidence-based

TORINO PROCESS 2014 ARAB MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES PRELIMINARY UPDATE ON PROGRESS

Prepared for the Policy Leaders’ Forum for Ministers from

Arab Mediterranean Countries, Turin, 20 November 2014

TORINO PROCESS 2014 ARAB MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES | 02

Contents

Summary ............................................................................................................................... 3

1. Progress on vision ........................................................................................................... 6

2. Progress in addressing economic and labour market demand ......................................... 9

3. Progress in addressing demographic, social and inclusion demands ............................. 15

4. Progress in internal efficiency of vocational education and training systems .................. 19

5. Progress in governance and policy practices in vocational education and training systems ......................................................................................................................... 24

Key issues and challenges ................................................................................................... 28

Abbreviations and acronyms ................................................................................................ 31

References .......................................................................................................................... 32


SUMMARY

The Torino Process (TRP) is a participatory process leading to an evidence-based analysis of

vocational education and training (VET) policies in a given country. Introduced in 2010 as a biennial

methodology for partner countries, the Torino Process diagnoses policy problems and helps

stakeholders to collectively agree on strategic goals for reform. The second round in 2012 established

a robust baseline in each country against which to monitor policy progress. The third round of the

Torino Process started in 2014 and is designed to both monitor policy progress against the 2012

baseline, and to address the wish of partner countries to move forward from problem diagnosis to the

formulation of optimal policy solutions.

The added value of the Torino Process lies in the fact that it embeds VET within its socioeconomic

context, and ensures that the analysis is informed by relevant evidence and takes place through a

structured dialogue. The Torino Process proposes a common framework to monitor progress of VET

reform both at national and at regional, cross country level. The objective is twofold: to facilitate policy

making and at the same time to foster dialogue and peer learning.

This summary report is part of a comprehensive draft regional report which identifies the preliminary

findings in monitoring progress of the 2014 Torino Process in Arab Mediterranean Countries (AMCs),

to be debated at the Policy Leaders’ Forum for Ministers of the AMCs (Turin, 20 November 2014). The

regional report takes as a basis the draft Torino Process reports prepared by five countries with ETF

support (Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, and Palestine1), a Torino Process self-assessment report

prepared by Tunisia, and the final report prepared in 2013 and revised in 2014 for Libya. It also draws

on intelligence, evidence and information available within the ETF on Algeria. These draft country

reports have been prepared in consultation with all key stakeholders, including not only governments

and VET institutions, but also employers, social partners and representatives from the civil society. A

new feature of TRP 2014 is the possibility for countries to compare themselves to the EU benchmarks

in education and employment, as a peer learning exercise. Among the AMCs, two countries (Tunisia

and Palestine) have volunteered to include this reflection in their TRP reports. Another innovation in

TRP 2014 in the AMCs is the attempt to reach out to the civil society. In this respect, a first step was

made in 2012 with the launch of the Young Mediterranean Leaders’ programme; in 2014, the

consultation has included youth platforms as representatives from the civil society (in Jordan,

Lebanon, Morocco, and Palestine), to provide a qualitative insight in youth perceptions and

experiences on issues as career choice, job search and labour market integration. In addition, an on-

line consultation has been launched on social media2.

This summary report takes as a benchmark to monitor progress in VET reform the Statement of the

Dead Sea Conference held in Jordan in September 2012 (at the first TRP Policy Leaders’ Forum for

the AMCs) and the ETF TRP 2012 regional report for the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean. At the

Dead Sea Conference, countries agreed that skills are at the heart of the economic development and

job creation strategies, that they are a fundamental part of social cohesion, peace and democracy and

that they need effective public management. Common objectives were identified on vision and

governance, as well as on youth employability. These topics were again revisited and debated in the

second Policy Leaders’ Forum for the AMCs, which took place in Marseilles in October 2013. The third

Policy Leaders’ Forum to be held in Turin on 20 November 2014 will therefore constitute the next

important step in the monitoring of progress in the implementation of VET reforms in the region.

1 This designation shall not be construed as recognition of a State of Palestine and is without prejudice to the

individual positions of the EU Member States on this issue. 2 More details on these initiatives can be found in the annex to the regional report.


Other sources that have been used in the preparation of this summary report include the regional

report on VET governance in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean region (ETF, 2014a), prepared

in the context of the GEMM programme3; the regional employability report on the role of active labour

market policies (ALMPs) in tackling youth employability in the AMCs (ETF, 2014b); and the regional

report on SME Policy Index: The Mediterranean Middle East and North Africa 2014 Implementation of

the Small Business Act (OECD et al., 2014). The final version of the TRP regional report will be

published next year, prior to the third Torino Process conference to be held in Turin in June 2015.

Policy context in Arab Mediterranean countries

After 2011, following the popular uprisings known as the Arab Spring, new demands and greater

expectations from the people were placed on governments in the region, in particular asking for more

transparency, accountability and participation in the policy and decision making processes. VET

reform was pushed up in the policy agendas of many countries, reflecting not only its importance

connected to economic development and competitiveness, but also a social dimension directly linked

to the problem of youth unemployment in the region and to the aspirations to achieve more social

inclusion in a part of the world marked by great disparities (ETF, 2013).

Three years later, the policy context for VET in the AMCs is still marked by important challenges and

great volatility. Although the Maghreb has enjoyed a relatively more stable political situation than

Mashreq, the situation of the region as a whole has been and is still highly unstable. Tunisia and

Egypt, the two flagship countries of the Arab Spring, have gone through very complex and different

political transitions, often marked by open conflict and social turbulence, and accompanied by an deep

economic crisis (in particular affecting to key sectors such as tourism or foreign investment), and

where positive recovery trends have only recently become apparent. The revolution in Libya led to the

fall of the regime and a political transition process, marked by continuing internal conflicts and high

insecurity, accompanied by a deep economic recession. Security concerns have heightened in the

entire region, following an escalation in the Syrian conflict and its spill over into other neighbouring

countries, including massive influxes of refugees in countries like Jordan and Lebanon. These two

countries are also affected by heightened political instability, reflected in constant changes of

governments and insecurity. All these factors have not created the most conducive environment for

the progress in the implementation and consolidation of reforms, in all sectors, VET included.

Economies in the region (with a regional average growth of 3% in 2013-144) have been affected by

political and social instability and insecurity, as mentioned above, and the recent trend towards

moderate growth (as shown in Graph 1) is very recent.

3 Governance and Employability in the Mediterranean, an EU project implemented by the ETF in nine countries

4 ETF TRP 2014 database


According to Eurostat methodology, a positive value of employment growth (i.e. the percentage

change in the employed population calculated with regard to the previous year), denotes the

achievement of job creation enhancement.

According to the last available data (see Graph 2), services have positive values for all the countries,

as well as for the EU average, while for agriculture and industry the situation changes from country to

country: both are negative in Morocco, like in the EU, both positive only in Algeria, with opposite

values in the other countries.

-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

DZ

EG

JO

LB

MA

PS

TN

EU-28

Sources: TRP 2012 and TRP 2014 statistical database. EU 28 Average: ETF calculations based on World Bank data

Graph 1: Annual GDP growth: TRP2012-14 changes (%)

25.1

5.0

-1.4

-5.3 -7.7

-2.2

6.7

-2.1 -2.1

8.4

3.3

-1.5

3.0 1.5 2.7 2.4

5.5

0.2

-10.0

-5.0

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

DZ EG MA PS TN EU-28

Sources: DZ, NSO; EG, MA, PS, TN: ILOSTAT; EU-28: Eurostat Note: MA data for 2012

Graph 2 - Job creation (Employment growth (%) by activity branches) - 2013

Total Agriculture Industry Services

Improving Decreasing


1. PROGRESS ON VISION

Two years after the Arab Spring, VET is still perceived as an important factor for enhancing economic

competitiveness and for achieving better results in youth employability and social inclusion in the

region. The commitment of the countries towards ‘visions for skills to promote their drive towards

economic competitiveness and inclusive growth’5 remains visible in all the strategic documents and

action plans from AMCs countries. The need for VET to meet the demands of the labour market and

thus contribute to employability of their citizens is the main driver of most of the reforms. However, this

effort has to go hand in hand with the enhancement of the opportunities for economies to create

sufficient jobs for VET graduates. The real challenge is to be able to come up with a holistic vision,

reconciling the agenda of providing more skills with also providing more jobs.

The latest available data (from 2010 to 2012) show that the share of VET participation at upper

secondary varies a lot across the region, ranging from 6.1% in Palestine to 48.7% in Egypt, which is

close to the EU average (46%)6. However, VET has to compete with many other pressing priorities

and reforms that have to be implemented more urgently. This is especially true in countries where

concerns about political stability, security and peace are pressing. The political instability and constant

changes of governments are incompatible with the design and implementation of long term vision

policies, as illustrated in the TRP reports of Jordan and Lebanon. There are however other examples,

like Palestine, where despite the difficult environment, TRP 2014 shows evidence of positive

developments in terms of vision and progress, together with sustained ownership within the VET

sector.

VET is mentioned in some of the most recent constitutions in the region (Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia)

both as a tool for economic development and social cohesion. However, and as reflected in the

discussions of the second Policy Leaders’ Forum in Marseilles in October 2013, the necessary

legislation for implementing VET reform is not always available in the countries. Hence the need for

involving legislative bodies in creating supportive legislation for VET reform, as recommended by the

Marseilles Conference.

Most countries have kept working on their strategies and action plans for their vision of VET. In some

countries, further articulation between the VET strategies and other sectors has been sought. For

example, Palestine has a national technical and vocational education and training (TVET) strategy

embedded with another 23 sectoral strategies in the Palestinian National Plan; Jordan has a strategy

associated to employment (E-TVET); in Tunisia there is a clear articulation between the VET strategy

endorsed at the end of 2013 and the Social Contract endorsed by all social partners in early 2014; in

Morocco the new draft strategy 2020 is linked to the National Charter on Education and Training

currently being evaluated. According to the TRP, the challenge remains to make these links with other

strategies more embedded in reality during implementation.

In general, the TRP 2014 reports illustrate that, while strategic planning efforts are still taking place,

the pace of the actual implementation of the reforms is still rather slow. The real challenge for the

region in the field of vision remains how to move more effectively and smoothly into policy

implementation.

The TRP 2014 also points out an absence of comprehensive lifelong learning-oriented strategies in

the region. Regarding continuing vocational training (CVT), there are clear strategies and a vision in

5 Declaration from the Dead Sea Conference, Jordan, 2012

6 Sources: UNESCO for all countries except Palestine (NSO) and the EU (ETF calculations based on UNESCO).

Data for the EU refers to all the 28 countries except Luxembourg, Italy and Greece (data not available for 2012).


some countries, particularly those having training levies or employers’ tax (e.g. Algeria, Morocco,

Tunisia), even if they also have to face additional challenges. In other countries (particularly in the

Mashreq region), CVT is still the weakest part of the VET sector, and in many cases there are not

systemic arrangements in place.

One of the main messages from the TRP 2012 (and the Dead Sea Conference) was the commitment

of the countries to establish coordination and participation mechanisms for a common/shared vision

and understanding. This area, in direct connection to governance issues, was the reflection of one of

the most important expectations after the Arab Spring. Although participation and coordination remain

areas where important progress has still to be achieved in all the countries, TRP 2014 offers some

positive examples: for instance, Tunisia, with participation mechanisms active both in the design and

approval of the new strategy (December 2013) and also in the implementation phase through a

steering committee with decision-making power representing all the key actors. Attention is paid also

to the participation of the new actors (workers from the informal sector, women, small and medium-

sized enterprises (SMEs), youth). The TRP in Palestine indicates the good rate of participation of

representatives from the VET sector in the reform, and the buying into the process.

Moving to other phases of the VET policy cycle, the TRP 2014 indicates that tools and mechanisms to

monitor and evaluate the progress of VET reform are not yet sufficiently developed in the region.

Morocco and Tunisia are both examples of wide ranging evaluations of the former VET strategies; in

other countries, like Egypt or Jordan, there is a move towards preparing new strategies without

evidence of a proper evaluation of the former ones. Although systemic arrangements for monitoring

progress of the reforms do not exist in the majority of the countries, monitoring takes place in different

ways (e.g. Palestine, where there is currently an initiative supported by donors to set up a structured

system). Effective tools for evaluating the performance of VET systems are still non-existent in most

countries, while in others this area is identified as a priority for improvement (Algeria, Tunisia). The

importance of evidence-based approaches for policy making in the region is growing, even if not yet

generalised or mainstreamed. One positive example is the participation of Jordan in the ETF’s PRIME

initiative7, in order to develop policy options to address the increase female employment in the country

(2014-15). The absence of quality data and information systems also hampers the use of evidence-

based approaches to policy making. However, the TRP 2014 provides some examples of progress in

this field, for instance the current work taking place in Palestine to set up VET indicators to monitor the

VET system.

As for the role of the international donor community (very active in promoting different approaches to

vision in VET reform in the AMCs), the TRP 2012 pointed out the need for more coordination and

coherence among activities and approaches. In some cases, progress can be observed, like in

Palestine, where donors actively coordinate interventions and joint projects under the common

umbrella of the strategy and the new TVET agency. In Egypt, the government has recently taken a

stronger coordinating role, particularly through the ministries of Foreign Affairs, International

Cooperation and a dedicated unit within the VET directorate of the Ministry of Education, while donors

also regularly exchange information and try to build synergy in the design of new, joint or

complementary activities through the Donor Partner Group and its specialised committees. There is

still room to increase the ownership of reforms that are donor supported, particularly in countries

where the donor community is large and very active.

7 ETF’s project on application of ex-ante impact assessment to improve VET policies


Key issues on vision

■ The first main challenge in the region remains how to achieve a holistic vision of VET, reconciling

the different agendas of different sectors. As well as looking for more and better skills, VET has to

go hand in hand with creating more jobs. The holistic vision also includes the elaboration on how

VET can contribute to the modernisation of countries and its transformational impact on societies.

■ The second main challenge is still at implementation level: the slow pace of reform remains a

trend in most countries. The political and socio-economic instability in the region has also

hampered the progress of reforms during the last two years.

■ Even if VET is now often mentioned in national constitutions, a challenge in most countries

remains to involve national legislative bodies in creating the necessary supportive legislation that

VET reform needs.

■ Progress can be observed in the strategy and action plan design and approval, and in trying to link

VET strategies with those of other sectors such as education, employment and growth economic

sectors. Next steps include how to ensure that this link remains effective during implementation.

■ In many countries there is still a lack of vision for CVT and none of the countries has an

overarching vision for lifelong learning.

■ Progress can be observed in some countries in terms of enhancing participation in the design of a

shared vision. The main challenges remain in making this participation empowered and effective,

including during implementation.

■ Monitoring and evaluation of policies and strategies, systems to measure the performance of the

systems and evidence-based policy options and choices remain areas for further improvement.

■ A trend towards greater donor coordination efforts (both on the side of donors and at national

level) is illustrated in the TRP 2014. Increasing ownership of the reforms is still an area requiring

further work.


2. PROGRESS IN ADDRESSING ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET DEMAND

2.1 The context

In a number of countries (Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya and Tunisia), the impact of the Arab Spring

has led to important economic crises, from which some countries are only starting to emerge. The

political instability, in some cases involving open conflict, and the insecurity, has seriously hit some

key sectors such as tourism or foreign investment. However, even in times of economic growth, the

basic problem remains that AMC economies are not able to create sufficient jobs for the demographic

pressure that these young societies exert both on labour markets and on education systems. The

population growth in the AMCs is among the highest in the world and the ‘youth bulge’ means that

almost 30% of the population are between 15-30 and another 30% between 0 and 14 years (ETF,

2014b).

International migration flows also influence labour markets in the AMCs: there is a combination

between an important emigration pattern in some of the AMCs towards Europe, North America and

the Gulf countries and the arrival of contingents of labour immigrants coming as ‘cheap labour’, often

to the same countries. Another feature of the region is the massive influx of refugees (more recently

as a result of the conflict in Syria), affecting in particular countries like Jordan and Lebanon. Poverty

and inequalities continue to be very marked across the region, aggravated in some cases by

deteriorating economic situations.

As the ETF regional employability study 2014 points out, this low economic growth, which is shown

both in terms of low economic activity and low investment, leads in turn to low overall job creation.

This is the case in most of the countries in the region. At the same time, labour markets in the AMCs

continue to be influenced by the legacy of a large public sector. The private sector is largely

dominated by SMEs and microenterprises, with a prevalence of informal employment (op. cit.).

Table 1. Labour market indicators, 2013 or last available years

DZ EG JO LB LY MA PS TN

EU-28

average

Activity rates by sex (15+)

Total 43.2 51.3 37.1 49.2 47.8 48.4 43.6 47.4 57.6

Female 16.6 23.9 13.2 25.6 33.8 M 17.3 25.6 51.2

Employment rates by sex (15+)

Total 39 36.7 32.4 43.6 38.7 44.1 33.4 33.9 51.4

Female 13.9 15 10.3 19.7 25.3 22.3 11.2 M 45.6

Social burden (15+) M 1.04 M 1.2 M 1.1 1.7 1.3 0.8

Unemployment rates by sex (15+)

Total 9.8 12.7 12.6 11.4 19 9.2 23.4 15.9 10.8

Female 16.3 24.1 22 23 25.5 9.6 35 23 10.8

Youth unemployment rates by sex (15-24)

Total 24.8 29.7 31.2 16.8 48.7 19.3 41 42.3 23.4

Female 39.7 53.2 55.1 22.3 67.9 18.1 64.7 45.4 22.6

Notes: M – missing data; EG (social burden, 2012; all the other indicators, 2011); LB (2009); LY (2012); MA (social burden, 2011; activity rate by gender, 2012); PS (social burden, 2012); TN (unemployment indicators, 2011)

Sources: National statistical offices (LY: ILO; PS: ETF calculations based NSO data); Eurostat


Low employment rates (32.4% in Jordan to 44.1% in Morocco) as indicated in Table 1 are strongly

influenced by very low female employment (from 10.3% in Jordan to 25.3% in Libya), all below the

corresponding EU averages.

The latest data compared to the TRP 2012 results, show increasing total employment rates in Algeria

and Tunisia, while rates decrease in all the other countries (see Graph 3)8. In EU the situation is more

or less stable.

Unemployment rates are high in some countries, like Libya and Palestine, and relatively low in others,

like Algeria and Morocco (see Table 1). Female unemployment rates are much higher than the total

unemployment rates, except in Morocco, where it is slightly above average (which follows the EU

trend). For the rest of the countries, it moves between 16.3% in Algeria and 35% in Palestine.

Unemployment hits, in particular, youth, ranging from 16.8% in Lebanon to 42.3% in Tunisia and

48.7% in Libya (EU 28 is 23.4%). Except in Morocco, young females are additionally hard hit by

unemployment at 40-67.9% in most of the countries. In Morocco the rate is 18.1% and in Lebanon

22.3%9 (EU 28 is 22.6%).

As pointed out by the ETF regional employability report, another striking distortion of the labour market

in the AMCs is the inverse correlation between education and employment. The higher the level of

education, the higher the unemployment rates, reaching a peak for female university graduates (ETF,

2012). Data do not show a clear correlation between the participation in VET and the unemployment

rates.

2.2 Preliminary assessment of progress since 2012

In 2012 the TRP identified the demands that the Arab Spring had placed on governments of the

AMCs, to reach the conclusion that the employability of young people and women was the most

urgent challenge (ETF, 2013). The Dead Sea Declaration of 2012 stressed the need for long term

measures in parallel to job creation initiatives in key economic sectors. Other areas for action were

8 ETF TRP database 2014

9 Ibid.

-30-25-20-15-10

-505

10152025

DZ EG JO LY MA PS TN EU-28

Sources: TRP 2012 and TRP 2014 statistical databases. EU 28 average: ETF calculations based on Eurostat

Graph 3: Employment rate (15+) by sex: TRP2012-14 changes (%)

Employment rate (15+) Employment rate, female (15+)

Improving

Decreasing


enhancing access to skills development opportunities both in the formal and non-formal VET systems,

setting up apprenticeship or work-based learning opportunities and improving the transition from

school to work, in particular for young women and to further support entrepreneurial learning. Progress

on these issues is the main topic of this chapter.

Regarding long term measures in parallel to job creation initiatives, the ETF regional employability

report 2014 (ETF, 2014b) illustrates the situation of employment strategies in the region, where

differences among countries can be observed: Algeria, Jordan, Palestine and Tunisia have developed

their strategies, while in Egypt approval is still pending. In Morocco the topic has achieved a special

status in the policy agenda, with the proposal to set up a national pact for youth employment. In other

countries, like Lebanon and Libya, no strategy exists. As the report points out, employment strategies

in the AMCs place an overwhelming emphasis on ALMPs and much less on job creation, education

and training and social security.

Regarding ALMPs10

, in the aftermath of the Arab Spring almost all AMCs have experienced a

proliferation of youth-targeted ALMPs, even if the experience differs among countries (e.g. Algeria has

been implementing these types of measures since 1989, while in Jordan they have started only very

recently). The main constraints are weak labour market information systems (lack of data, insufficient

use of labour force surveys, informal sector), very limited capacity in the Public Employment Services,

fragmentation and poor coordination, poor programme targeting, lack of monitoring and evaluation

systems, and weak cooperation of employers (ETF, 2014b). The progress in the implementation of

ALMPs in the AMCs was also revised in the Policy Leaders’ Forum in Marseilles in October 2013,

where countries confirmed the intention of developing new and innovative policy frameworks bringing

together both the central contribution of employment to economic growth and the need for incentives

for job creation.

The TRP 2014 confirms the existing awareness in all AMCs of the absolute need to move from a

supply led provision of VET to a demand-oriented system, closely linked to the real needs of the

economy and the world of work. VET is perceived more and more as a tool for enhancing

competiveness of enterprises, to attract foreign investment and to promote social inclusion. Having

said this, in some countries progress has been very limited in the last two years (e.g. Lebanon); in

others, like Libya, the TRP identifies the existing disconnect between VET provision and the needs of

the world of work as one of the most urgent issues to be addressed in VET reform efforts. In many

countries, a wide range of pilot projects or activities, often linked to donors’ interventions, are being

implemented in order to bring the business sector closer not only to the design, but also to the

implementation and delivery of VET (partnerships). Some examples of this are the Local Employment

and Training Councils in Palestine or the Employment and Training Partnerships in Egypt. The

challenge where additional effort still needs to be made is still how to assess and capitalise on these

pilots and how to mainstream the most successful initiatives into the national systems.

In order to address the absence of structured labour market needs information and analysis related to

skills, perceived as a major problem to match training programmes to actual employment opportunities

(e.g. Jordan), some countries, like Morocco, are reviving the concept of national observatories for

employment (May 2014) and similar discussions are also taking place (facilitated by donors) in Egypt.

In Palestine, the Labour Market Information System (officially launched in 2012 and expanding) is

identified in the TRP as the most ambitious reform in the employment strategy framework. The TRP

report for Libya underlines the importance of bridging the gap that exists in reliable labour market

information in order to bring VET provision closer to the demand of the world of work.

10 This report does not elaborate further information on ALMPs, as more information can be found in the ETF

regional employability report (ETF, 2014b).


Regarding work-based learning and apprenticeship, progress also varies from country to country. In

Jordan, stakeholders identify the very limited practical part (only 30%) in the secondary vocational

education, without work-based learning opportunities, as one of the key problems. In Egypt, one

cluster of technical secondary schools follows the dual Egyptian system, inspired in the German

system, and the number has been increasing; however, many other VET schools in the country have

no access to practical training or contact with the world of work and several models coexist in the

system, following the implementation of different pilots. In Tunisia, the alternance system has

continued its successful expansion, and it is now in the majority of the VET centres in the country,

although also facing some challenges, in particular the need for a stronger involvement of the private

sector and the development of the figure of the tutor.

In the field of more direct measures to support the transition from school, some developments have

also taken place in the countries. In Egypt a School-to-Work Transition Unit was set up at the Ministry

of Education in June 2014, following donor support. This Unit, headed by the Technical Education

Sector, includes a division on career guidance which is the first of its kind in the history of TVET and

education in Egypt. The development of career guidance and counselling systems, or their

improvement where they already exist is identified as a key priority area by many TRP country reports

(e.g. Egypt, Lebanon, Palestine). In Algeria the efforts made in setting up career guidance and

counselling services are among the achievements mentioned from the latest Action Programmes of

the Government and the topic is as well included in the new Action Programme (2014-18). In Tunisia,

67 career guidance and counselling units were set up in 2012-13, while the start of some new national

programmes is foreseen in 2014.

The progress on entrepreneurial learning is addressed both in the TRP 2014 and in the Small

Business Act (SBA) regional assessment (OECD et al., 2014). The latter shows limited progress in

policy development since 2008 (last time that the SBA assessment was implemented in the Middle

East and North Africa region), in particular on how education systems address entrepreneurship as a

key competence, as illustrated by Graph 4.

Most countries of the region, in the absence of a comprehensive strategy for human resources

development, also lack a national strategy on entrepreneurial learning (e.g. Egypt, Jordan, and

Lebanon). Tunisia continues to be the leader in this area. Interesting work has been carried out by

Jordan and Palestine in introducing key components of entrepreneurship in the national curriculum in

lower and upper secondary education, with efforts made in Lebanon in strategic piloting. Most

countries have improved their sharing of good practice. In the area of training for women’s

entrepreneurship, Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and Palestine offer examples and potential for more

strategic development.

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

DZ EG JO LB MA PS TN

Graph 4 : 2008 and 2013 results dimension 1: Education and training for entrepreneurship (Weighted scores)

2008 2013

Source: SME Policy Index, The Mediterranean Middle East and North Africa 2014, OECD, EC, ETF


In terms of enterprise skills, in particular for SMEs and microenterprises, which make up for the

majority of the companies in the AMCs, the SBA assessment identifies improvement in developing

skills for SMEs in the majority of the AMCs (see Graph 5).

However, the SBA assessment stresses the fact that there is an absence of systemic mechanisms for

training needs analysis in many countries in the region, although most of them have pilot projects or

ad hoc mechanisms to deal with this issue (e.g. Morocco and Palestine). The availability of training for

SMEs has improved (e.g. Jordan, Tunisia for start-ups), while a general problem on availability of data,

information and evidence can be observed across the region. In countries where a training levy exists

for CVT (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), proper funding and institutional arrangements exist for the

provision of training to companies, although SMEs have more difficulties in benefiting from them due

to often cumbersome bureaucratic procedures.

Another factor to be considered is the existence of a large informal sector in the AMCs, where skills

are also acquired via informal apprenticeships or on the job training in small workshops but for which

there is still very limited information and evidence. The TRP 2014 Tunisian report mentions specifically

the skills acquisition in the informal sector as one area for further attention in the new VET strategy.

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

DZ EG JO LB MA PS TN

Graph 5 : 2008 and 2013 results sub-dimension 8.1: Enterprise skills (Weighted scores)

2008 2013

Source: SME Policy Index, The Mediterranean Middle East and North Africa 2014, OECD, EC, ETF


Key issues

■ Progress in developing employment strategies can be observed in the region, with great variations

country by country. More attention has been paid to emergency measures and less to sustainable

job creation policies.

■ Almost all countries of the region have developed a wide range of youth targeted ALMPs during

the last years, but their effectiveness is still hampered by issues such as weak labour market

information systems, the limited capacity of Public Employment Services and problems of

fragmentation and coordination.

■ Progress can be observed in setting up many pilot initiatives in most countries to make VET

provision more relevant to demand from the labour market. The main difficulty remains in how to

assess and mainstream these projects and pilots into national initiatives.

■ VET has therefore to become more relevant for labour market needs but this has to be associated

with creation of jobs that can be taken by the VET graduates.

■ Apprenticeship and work-based learning, career guidance and other specific measures for the

transition from school to work remains high on the reform agenda for the future.

■ Limited progress has been observed in the field of entrepreneurial learning in the region, despite

the mushrooming of initiatives and pilots. Further work is expected to take place in developing

national strategies and setting up national systems for training needs analysis, mainstreaming

pilots and catering in a more homogenous way for the training needs of SMEs and

microenterprises in the region.


3. PROGRESS IN ADDRESSING DEMOGRAPHIC, SOCIAL AND INCLUSION DEMANDS

3.1 The context

As mentioned in Chapter 2, the population growth in AMCs is among the highest in the world and the

‘youth bulge’ means that almost 30% of the population are between 15-30 and another 30% between

0 and 14 years (ETF, 2014b). This positions youth as one of the main groups in terms of social

demands, in particular the unemployed young people and women.

A new alarming phenomenon that has been drawing growing attention is the increasing group of

young people who are not in education, employment or training (NEETs). Although there are still few

data on NEETs in the AMCs, a recent ETF study (2014d) found that the NEETs in the 15-29 age

group might account for around 32% of the youth in Tunisia, 36% in Palestine, 29% in Jordan and

40% in Egypt, all above the EU average (15.9%) (see Graph 6). The rate is much higher for young

women, while in EU the difference between the total rate and the female one is not so dramatic. The

study also revealed that youth with higher education are more likely to become NEETs than those with

lower education in Egypt and Palestine while in Jordan and Israel those with higher education are less

likely to become NEETs. Dropping out from education is a high risk factor of becoming NEETs or

being in low quality employment in the future. The number of NEETs is one of the more serious

problems in AMCs, affecting both social inclusion and lost opportunities for economic growth.

Moreover, prolonged unemployment or inactivity in early life can permanently impair employability,

future earning and access to quality jobs (ETF, 2014b).

This socioeconomic context puts strong pressure on VET systems in terms of the expectation that they

may become tools to facilitate youth employability. In addition, VET is also expected to be innovative

in terms of helping learners to gain a wide range of transversal as well as technical skills and

competences, and to respond to the changing labour market skills needs. However, VET is not yet

highly regarded by learners, their families and employers across the region (ETF, 2014a). As the

Policy Leaders’ Forum in Marseilles 2013 put it, the real challenge is how to make VET an option for

40.5

29.0

36.4

32.2

15.9

64.3

44.2 48.9

42.3

17.7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

EG JO PS TN EU-28 AverageSource: Sources: Jordan, and Tunisia, ETF calculations based on the ILO School to Work Transition Surveys (2012-13); Egypt: ETF calculations based on the Egyptian Labour Market Panel Survey (ELMPS) 2012; Palestine: ETF calculations based on Labour Force

Graph 6: NEETs rates (15-29) by sex (%) - 2013 or last available year

TotalFemale


winners in society rather than losers11

. The VET systems in the AMCs have suffered traditionally from

problems of lack of relevance, quality, under resourcing and internal efficiency. Their governance

structures are highly centralised and at the same time fragmented, which imposes important

challenges in terms of the coordination, participation and autonomy that are demanded at the various

levels (national, sectoral, local and institutional) by the new groups of stakeholders (world of work,

social partner, civil society, disadvantaged groups).

3.2 Preliminary assessment of progress since 2012

The TRP 2012 reflected upon the social demands created by the Arab Spring, which were in turn

expected to be reflected in the expectations on VET systems across the AMCs (ETF, 2013). The main

demand was for greater participation and representation from the different groups of citizens in the

decision making processes of governments. There was also a strong request for catering for the

needs of the disadvantaged groups (with special emphasis in unemployed youth, women and NEETs)

and the less economically advanced regions inside each country. The fight against poverty and for

better, decent living conditions for all citizens was one of the banners of the Arab Spring revolts.

The Dead Sea Declaration in 2012 mentioned specifically the countries’ commitment to increase the

attractiveness of VET by providing pathways towards different and higher levels of education, together

with campaigns to improve the image of VET among citizens and enterprises. At the same time,

countries acknowledged the importance of providing skills development opportunities for different

groups, in particular drop outs, those in the informal economy or inactive both in education and in the

labour market (NEETs). Progress reported by the TRP 2014 in these areas is the main subject of this

chapter.

Regarding access and participation in VET, it is important to point out that all AMCs include in one

way or another universal access to VET as one of their objectives in their strategic documents. In

some cases, like in Morocco, it is mentioned in the constitution as a right of the citizen. There is

evidence that VET has gained importance in the aftermath of the Arab Spring as a tool not only for

economic development and competitiveness, but also for social cohesion.

According to the comparison of regional data between TRP 2012 and 2014, participation in VET as a

percentage of upper secondary has descended in all AMCs (ranging from small variations such as

0.8% in Jordan and 0.9% in Morocco to 19.8% in Algeria, passing through 3.3% in Lebanon, 3.6% in

Tunisia or 4.1% in Egypt), (see Graph 7). The same situation is shown for the EU average.

11 ETF, Summary of outcomes, Policy Leaders’ Forum, Marseilles, 2013

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5

DZ

EG

JO

LB

MA

TN

EU-28

Sources: TRP 2012 and TRP 2014 statistical databases. EU-28 Average: ETF calculations based on UNESCO

Graph 7: Participation in VET (% of Upper Secondary ): TRP2012-14 changes (%)

Improving Decreasing


However, and according to the TRP 2014, participation of women in VET is much lower than men’s at

least in some countries (e.g. Jordan with the exception of the Community Colleges, Palestine). At the

same time, several TRP reports (Morocco, Tunisia) discuss the increasing evolution of drop outs in

VET. The Tunisian report states that the higher the education level is, the higher the chance of

dropping out of the system. This trend mostly affects males and particularly economically

disadvantaged regions. A similar situation is described for Algeria, where males account for 72% of

the total number of drop outs. This is in principle to be attributed to the fact that males opt more often

to go to the world of work, particularly in cases where the economic situation of the family is not

favourable. The Tunisian report quotes as well the results of some surveys, where students also

mention the lack of quality and relevance of VET as a reason for dropping out.

Connected to this, the lack of attractiveness of VET remains a feature in the region, although countries

have also carried out specific activities in this field. For instance, some countries like Jordan and

Palestine have recently organised public campaigns to improve the image of VET. However, in

general terms in the region, the TRP 2014 shows that VET remains a second choice or last resort

option reserved for poor performing students or dropouts from the general education system. The

prestige and social appreciation of higher education has a strong impact across educational systems

in the region. One of the clearest cases of social disregard for VET illustrated by TRP 2014 is Libya,

but the trend exists across the entire region.

The TRP 2014 establishes a fundamental link between the attractiveness of VET and its increased

relevance and quality. There is awareness in the AMCs that effective links with the world of work and

employability have to be shown. However, VET also has to be relevant to learners in terms of their

own professional aspirations; this is connected to the availability in the labour market of attractive jobs

for VET graduates. In addition, poor and ill equipped VET premises, with low qualified teachers and

obsolete theoretical curricula are also strong factors contributing to the lack of attractiveness.

Consensus is shown in the TRP 2014 reports around the idea that the approach to improving VET

image has to be holistic.

Another aspect strongly connected to attractiveness is the issue of pathways towards other sub

segments of the education system. VET systems in the AMCs have traditionally been seen as dead

ends in the education system, offering few possibilities for progression, in particular to higher

education. The TRP 2014 reports show growing awareness among stakeholders and authorities in the

region about the importance of this issue but not so many examples of implementation. In Palestine,

the development of a national qualification system has opened new possibilities in this respect. In

Tunisia, where the legislation is open for mobility but not yet operational, working groups were set up

in 2014 to revise the possibilities of the system.

The need for gender sensitive career guidance and counselling provisions is an issue raised by some

TRP reports, for instance Jordan, where a career guidance strategy approved in 2011 has not been

implemented to its potential. In Palestine the introduction of an overall system is under development,

and career guidance units and institutions have been considerably strengthened; in Morocco the new

National Portal for Professional Orientation was launched in July 2014. Tunisia has set up 67 new

units in 2012/13.

Little progress is shown by the TRP 2014 regarding the learners’ and society expectations of the

availability and provision of adult learning, which remains a neglected area without structured

approaches (other than CVT in the countries where its provision is organised, such as Morocco,

Algeria or Tunisia) but rather left to the initiative of the individual. This is also connected to the

absence of a national lifelong learning vision in most countries of the region.


Regarding attention to disadvantaged groups and regions, the TRP reports illustrate a number of

initiatives in most countries, basically channelled through ALMPs or through pilot projects (e.g.

Jordan’s women’s satellite training and employment projects in rural areas). The situation of refugees

in some countries, like Jordan or Lebanon, requires specific measures that in some cases exceed the

national capacities. In Morocco there is a new policy focus on regional development, which is

translated in a number of programmes being implemented; more actors have become involved in the

last years in the attention to vulnerable groups. In Tunisia, the TRP reports the existence of

118 projects running in 2014 in support of training in disadvantaged regions and a wide range of

programmes targeting groups with special needs. The dimension of territorial cohesion (support to

disadvantaged territories by bringing a balance in distribution of economic growth but also availability

of skills) is gaining ground and is illustrated by ETF supported projects in Tunisia and Morocco in

specific regions. The Tunisian report identifies the need for further involvement in VET design of the

new social actors (women, youth, SMEs and microenterprises, workers from the informal sector,

disadvantaged regions). In Jordan a positive example is provided by the choice of this topic for the

country’s participation in ETF’s PRIME project: Jordan has chosen to focus on how to develop policy

options for increasing female employment through VET.

Key issues

■ Access to VET remains a clear policy objective for all countries. In addition to its socio-economic

value, VET is perceived in the AMCs as an instrument for social cohesion.

■ Increasing the attractiveness of VET as a first choice option for students remains high on the

agenda of policy makers in the AMCs. However, measures to increase its attractiveness have to

be connected to increased quality and relevance of VET systems, and also to the creation of jobs

that can satisfy the professional aspirations of learners.

■ A wide range of pilot measures to address the needs of disadvantaged groups are being tested in

the countries. Further efforts and focus need to continue in particular for unemployed youth,

women and NEETs.

■ The provision of skills and VET for disadvantaged regions aims to bring greater territorial

cohesion. Progress can be observed in pilot actions, which should be incentivised and continued,

but also in growing leverage of the issue in the policy agenda of certain countries.


4. PROGRESS IN INTERNAL EFFICIENCY OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS

The TRP 2012 identified a wide range of topics for further development in the AMCs in this area (ETF,

2013): the absence of quality assurance systems (and their corresponding governing structures), the

need to develop national qualification systems, VET curricula reforms, and in general, a more holistic

approach towards quality. The poor cost efficiency of the system and the need to rationalise resources

were also pointed out. The need to invest more in teachers’ and trainers’ recruitment, career

development, pre and in service training and incentives also featured highly both in the country and

regional reports. Finally, the important issue of the urgent need to build pathways between VET and

the other subsystems of education, notably higher education, was also widely referenced by the

countries.

At the Dead Sea Conference in 2012, country representatives mentioned their commitment to ‘widen

access and enhanced its quality by bringing it closer to the demands of the labour market, enterprises

and learners’12

. At the Marseilles Policy Leaders’ Forum in 2013, the AMCs again reviewed progress

in the implementation of strategies for quality, long term and holistic approaches13

.

This chapter focuses on progress in the above mentioned topics, under the umbrella of the analysis of

internal efficiency in the VET systems. The TRP 2014 shows that efforts go on in most countries, while

at the same time all the topics are still open for further action and improvement and progress is not

always clearly identifiable. The slow pace in implementation is partially attributable to the long term

nature of these reforms and partially to the political instability and uncertainty in some of the countries,

which makes undertaking the reforms costly and requiring sustained political and financial

commitment in the countries. The TRP also illustrates how many of these reforms are tested through

donor supported projects, and the difficulties to move from pilot project approaches to systemic

solutions.

4.1 Progress in qualifications and quality assurance

The TRP 2014 establishes a link between quality and the existence of national qualifications systems,

to ensure transparency and pathways between the different subsystems in education and also as a

main tool to bring transparency and increase confidence of employers. In many countries of the

region, efforts have been undertaken during years to reach consensus as for the establishment of

national qualifications frameworks (NQFs). The road towards those is certainly not straight, as TRP

2014 exemplifies in the cases of Egypt or Jordan. In Palestine the most recent initiatives are under the

umbrella of the Standard Process for Curriculum Development, which tries to move the VET system

towards a competence approach. Important progress can be observed in Morocco, where a principle

agreement about the NQF [cadre national des certifications] was reached in early 2013 (including

structure, levels and descriptors, certification and governance) and in May 2014 the National

Commission for the NQF was installed, while awaiting a law to regulate the full package. It is important

however to remember, as the GEMM cross-country report points out (ETF, 2014a), that no country

among the AMCs has a fully operational NQF. This means that further progress in implementation has

still to take place before it is possible to draw policy lessons in this field.

12 Dead Sea Declaration, 2012

13 ETF, Summary of outcomes, Policy Leaders’ Forum, Marseilles, 2013


Regarding quality assurance, the GEMM cross-country report and the TRP 2014 reports conclude that

in the AMCs the focus has been (and is largely still) on quality control procedures rather than on

quality improvement assurance systems. At the same time, there is also evidence that countries in the

region are growing more committed to quality assurance, even if initiatives have been limited until

now. In many countries of the region there is not yet an official definition or vision for quality

assurance, but rather some bottom up initiatives which include quality assurance elements (like in

Lebanon or Palestine); Tunisia features both in the TRP report and in the GEMM regional report as an

example of good practice, where there has been a careful investment in quality assurance actions

linked to the competence-based approach.

The link between the lack of internal efficiency and fragmentation in governance is illustrated in the

TRP country reports for Egypt, Jordan, Libya, and Morocco, where different systems for quality

assurance and accreditation coexist according to the different institutions involved. A positive

development in Jordan has been the setting up of the Centre for Accreditation and Quality Assurance

(CAQA), but it still has to coordinate with two other councils depending on different ministries.

As it can be deduced from the previous paragraphs, accreditation of VET providers and programmes

is done in a different way throughout the AMCs: through different parallel systems (Jordan), through

an independent institution (Egypt but only for educational institutes), through a specific department in

the Ministry of Education (as it is the case of the Directorate-General for Vocational and Technical

Education in Lebanon, which has competences for accreditation also for the large network of private

VET providers existing in the country). In countries like Egypt and Palestine there are no formal

accreditation procedures for vocational training centres.

4.2 Progress in policies for VET teachers, trainers and directors

Many AMCs include issues related to teachers, trainers and directors of VET among their main

priorities for action in their strategic documents (like Algeria and Tunisia, among others). This area

covers a wide range of subjects, from recruitment and pre-service training, to career, salary and

incentives, including in service training. Across the region, the qualifications, career, and working

conditions of teachers are one of the critical problems in the internal efficiency of the system. The TRP

well illustrates the fact that, while activities are going on in all the countries, this is one of the areas

where it is most difficult to observe substantial progress in implementation. This is due to a

combination of internal and external factors.

Selection procedures for VET teachers and trainers and their qualifications are among the main

problems underlined in the TRP 2014 (e.g. Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon or Palestine). There are no major

initiatives currently reported in the TRP 2014 to tackle this kind of problem.

Regarding in-service training, some developments have taken place. Palestine for instance has

activated its Teacher Education Strategy (approved in 2008 but only recently operationalised) and a

pilot initiative by GIZ is leading to the setting up of a Human Resources Development Unit at the

ministry or alternatively in the National Agency for VET (NAVET). In Egypt, the Professional Academy

for Teachers, which had been set up some years ago with an extensive mandate (covering all

teachers including technical education), started its process of developing professional support

associated with the Teachers Cadre, a scheme for promotion setting up a sort of career ladder. This

independent organisation, directly under the Prime Minister, seems to have had a lower impact on

VET teachers compared to general education. In Tunisia, different activities were carried out in 2013-

14 to support competences of teachers and pedagogical counsellors, as well as inspectors.

Directors of VET institutions are defined in TRP Palestine as crucial and very engaged in the

implementation in the reform, but with little incentive due to the centralised model of governance are

strongly dependent on the lack of autonomy of VET institutions in the region. This is also the case in


most AMCs. Although they are mentioned as a key target group for further empowering in the strategic

documents of a number of AMCs, the TRP 2014 does not provide relevant examples of programmes

or activities that are currently ongoing.

4.3 Progress in teaching and learning

Few AMCs take part in international benchmarking processes, such as PISA (namely only Jordan and

Tunisia). Comparison between the results available in the TRP 2012 (based upon 2009 results) and

2014 (based upon 2012 results) indicate an improvement for Tunisia’s performance in reading and

mathematics, with a decline in science; for Jordan there is a general decline in the three indicators.

In terms of learning approaches, the main problem identified by stakeholders in the TRP 2014 is the

limited availability of practical learning, without sufficient work-based learning opportunities (e.g.

Jordan); the second problem is the narrow specialisations and the need to rationalisation them (e.g.

Jordan and Lebanon). In Tunisia, instead, the alternance training with enterprises, introduced in 2008

has witnessed a great development and is now present in the majority of VET centres. The need for

better equipment and resources in VET centres is mentioned across all reports.

Curricula reform occupies an important part of the attention of many AMCs in terms of pedagogical

innovation. In Lebanon, the TRP identifies this as a key core challenge, where work has started but

progress is not yet very visible. Reasons for delay are to be found in the unstable institutional and

political environment, which prevent major institutional reforms in the country at the current stage. In

Palestine, many issues are under review in the Standard Process for Curricula Development (moving

towards a competence-based approach). In Tunisia, the competence-based approach has been

consolidated, even if the TRP report mentions new challenges (the need for a new financing model,

the need for more involvement from the professional sectors, and greater focus on teacher and trainer

training). In Morocco, and following the work started by international programmes, investment has

continued in the REM (répertoire emploi métier) and in the RECs (référentiel des compétences); these

are potentially powerful tools for quality assurance, certification, and validation of prior, non-formal and

informal learning, which need to be further disseminated and more widely used.

In the field of CVT, Morocco, together with the reform of social partners also launched in May 2014 a

new law for the regulation of continuing training. It implies an expansion of the sector, with 30% of the

VET tax to be dedicated to CVT; a new governance structure is foreseen, as well as validation of prior

learning and professional experience. Further legislation will be needed for the implementation of the

law.

Also in Morocco, Specialised Institutes for VET, a new type of centre, are being developed in

partnership with the economic sectors. This has been achieved in the framework of the National

Programme for Industrial Emergence 2009-15.

New bacs have been launched in some AMCs. In Lebanon, there is the new bac technique (still with a

traditional curriculum); in Morocco, the bac pro, an ambitious project that pursues a closer integration

between VET and the world of work, was launched in its pilot phase in July 2014, in two sectors and

supported through partnerships.

4.4 Progress in efficient use of resources

In 2012, the Torino Process indicated that financing and funding, and the efficient use of resources

was one of the areas where further work had to take place in the AMCs in order to further reflect on

the funding tools available, their potential diversification, and their adaptation to the current needs of

the VET sector (ETF, 2013). This section of the report looks into progress in this matter.


In the AMCs the financing of VET is mostly public, except in some countries, like Lebanon, where the

private VET provision is a very substantial component of the sector. In addition, in some cases a

training tax or training levies exist (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia); in these cases, these funds are

often oriented towards continuing training, which otherwise is left to the private initiative. In many

AMCs, donors and international organisations contribute with external funds to the financing of the

VET sector (of key importance for some countries like Palestine). The public character of the financing

system is also directly related to the centralised type of governance in the region.

The GEMM cross-country mapping of financing states that 80-90% of the budget goes to salaries,

while little is spent in innovation. In general terms, VET is underfinanced in the region and this

underfinancing has a persistent and structural character (ETF, 2014a). In the TRP 2014 there are few

comparable data across countries on public expenditure in education and in particular in VET. The

limited data available14

show a decline in public expenditure in education in some countries (like

Jordan, with a decline of 22.4 % or Lebanon, with a decline of 5.6 %), while in others, like Tunisia, the

situation is stable, with a level of expenditure comparable to the average of the OECD countries.

Furthermore, in Tunisia it is estimated that around 1% of the state budget is dedicated to VET.

According to the TRP report for Egypt, data reported by the Ministry of Education seem to indicate that

the total expenditure in education nearly doubled from 2007-08 to 2012-13 (despite the acute

economic crisis in the country following the Revolution), while the costing scenarios for the new

Strategic Plan for Pre University Education point out towards an increase of 40% in the short period

2014-15 to 2016-17. However, the comparison with other countries is not possible, due to the

limitation of data availability.

One of the problems identified by AMCs in their TRP reports is a lack of awareness about the costs of

VET, the absence of costing systems (e.g. Palestine) and the lack of sufficiently transparent data and

information, which leads to inefficient use of resources (e.g. Jordan). The fact that the budgets are

allocated annually does not favour the financing of long term reforms. In this sense, the adoption by

some countries, like Tunisia and Morocco, of the budget per objectives system is perceived as a more

conducive tool for multiannual reform funding.

The TRP 2014 illustrates some progress made by countries to increase and diversify VET funding in

recent years. Tunisia is one of the countries that has innovated more in terms of alternative tools for

more targeted financing, with the introduction of the ‘cheque de formation’, whose implementation has

continued steadily (despite the economic crisis that followed the Revolution), with three versions until

2012 and a new version expected still for 2014, featuring wider coverage for certain specialities and

regions. The TRP in Palestine reflects on the need to find additional sources of funding by giving more

autonomy to VET centres so that they can generate and keep their own revenue, by creating closer

links with the local labour market and offering services to the external stakeholders, such as

companies, in particular in the field of CVT and in a lifelong learning perspective. However, this kind of

policy decision needs to be associated with changes in the governance models of VET in the region.

Key issues

■ Most countries in the AMCs continue to be engaged in setting up national qualifications

frameworks. Progress is not linear and there is still a work to be done in terms of ensuring the

design and implementation of these systems.

■ Countries in the region have mostly systems of quality control for VET, rather than systems of

quality assurance that can lead to improvement of the internal efficiency. Initiatives in this topic are

very much at a starting phase.

14 ETF TRP database 2012-14


■ Teachers and trainers’ selection, qualifications, pre and in-service training, career, salaries,

incentives are still very prominent among the challenges to be address. Progress in the

implementation of the reforms is slow, although there are pilot initiatives that indicate the

awareness about its importance. Directors of VET institutions have a great potential for the reform

of the system, providing autonomy of VET institutions can be increased.

■ Curricula innovation and practical learning approaches will continue to be two key areas for action

in the quality agenda. Progress is ongoing with different speeds and at different levels across the

region

■ There is consensus in the need to look for new and more efficient tools for financing VET. The

need to diversify also the sources of funding (further than the so far dominant public funding) has

to be associated to a revision of the financing system and to the development of a shared vision

with other actors. Better awareness about real costs and transparent costing systems have still to

be developed in most of the countries.


5. PROGRESS IN GOVERNANCE AND POLICY PRACTICES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS

The Arab Spring created great expectations in terms of increasing the participation of all actors in the

governance of the system, together with a greater transparency and accountability of the public

powers. In the case of VET, this was expressed clearly in the Dead Sea Declaration of September

2012, with ‘countries recognising the imperative of establishing effective coordination mechanisms and

active participation of stakeholders including businesses and civil society. In that respect, the vision for

VET must be shared among actors, who should also have a common understanding of their role,

benefits and obligations’.

At the same time, the AMCs come from a tradition of strongly centralised systems, where the decision

making, competences and resources are concentrated in the hands of the government and there has

been traditionally little space for autonomy of the regions and territories and the VET institutions. The

starting point does not favour participation of social partners and civil society. Last, but not least, in

most of the countries fragmentation is a traditional feature, with multiple stakeholders involved in the

governance of the system with often overlapping roles and no specific mechanisms for coordination.

All this must be borne in mind when discussing progress in this sector over the last two years, as it is

done in this chapter.

5.1 Progress on institutional settings and coordination

Both the TRP 2014 and the GEMM mapping of governance in the region (ETF, 2014a) report two

major trends in governance in the AMCs: towards increased coordination and towards

decentralisation.

The trend towards increased coordination (and fight against fragmentation) is reflected in the shifting

of governance arrangements from a very fragmented approach (different ministries in charge without

coordination mechanisms) towards a system of councils or even one ministry or agency in charge of

VET coordination. The TRP 2014 illustrates some of these decisions that are being put into practice in

the countries, together with some new emerging challenges.

One country example that illustrates the efforts in the fight against fragmentation is Palestine, where

the National Agency for VET (NAVET) was set up in May 2014. NAVET is a semi-governmental

institution with financial and administrative autonomy and responsibilities both in policy development

and implementation. The agency is however not yet operational, due to the complex political and

security situation in Palestine during the summer 2014. The potential drawback that has been pointed

out by the TRP 2014 would be the risk of further separation or isolation of VET from the rest of the

education system.

Egypt, one of the countries with a greater fragmentation problem in the TVET system, has made

rethinking governance of the VET system the top priority in the sector after the Revolution of 2011. A

number of options have been considered, including the possibility to create a TVET agency, a ministry

for TVET or, as it is the case following recent decisions (May 2014), a system of ‘cascading councils’,

with a National Council for Human Resources Development in charge of policies and strategies and

two Executive Councils (TVET under the Ministry of Education, and Skills Development under the

Ministry of Manpower and Migration) in charge of operational issues. Due to the recent adoption date

of this system, it will be necessary to wait for progress in implementation (particularly in terms of

coordination mechanisms) before drawing further lessons. The TRP 2014 points out however that the


private sector and social partners are poorly represented in the new arrangements. Jordan, with an E-

TVET Council under the Ministry of Labour, which seeks to bring VET closer to employment, reports

ongoing problems of coordination with the other two councils (for education and higher education),

and lack of leadership and empowerment for the effective implementation of the reforms.

Even in countries where the leadership for VET is with one Ministry, efforts continue to underpin the

challenges and try to find new ways to improve coordination. In Morocco, VET is now under the

responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (previously it was linked to the

Ministry of Labour). Changes in the countries illustrate a rotating preference for linking VET more to

education or to employment, all choices having advantages and potential drawbacks that have to be

dealt with in the specific context of the country.

5.2 Progress on empowering participation

In the Dead Sea Declaration, representatives from the AMCs declared their engagement in fostering

active participation of the business sector and civil society in the different phases of the VET policy

cycle. Building capacity of all actors in policy design and implementation was a necessary pre

requirement; a greater role for youth, as part of the civil society and as a follow up of the Arab Spring

aspirations was also envisaged.

TRP 2014 illustrates some of the efforts done in this direction. For instance, in Tunisia the signature of

the tripartite Social Contract in January 2013 (including VET) represents an attempt to include the

Trade Unions (traditionally absent in the VET sector in most countries of the region) into the different

phases of the VET reform. Also in Tunisia, new models of partnership between public and private VET

centres are being tested. In the new Palestinian system, the active involvement of the world of work in

the identification and matching of skills demand with supply (for instance curricula development or

identification of a new vocational profile) is mandatory. The system remains centralised, but it

represents a step forward. In Morocco there is a strong presence of social partners (both employers

and unions, particularly the first ones) and also professional associations in VET policy development

and also in some instances of implementation (like certification, for instance) and very particularly in

CVT. In most countries governments have formally identified social partners and engaged them to

some extend in dialogue (ETF, 2014a).

Other positive developments that can be observed in the TRP 2014, from the implementation point of

view and with the aim to increase participation, in particular of the civil society, are the consultation

with Youth Groups that has taken place in some countries (Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and Morocco),

the online consultation through the social media and the continuation of the Young Mediterranean

Leaders’ programme, which started in 2012 at the Dead Sea Conference.

Despite these efforts, and the growing awareness, effective and empowered participation remains still

a pending challenge for the AMCs. There are countries (e.g. Egypt, Lebanon and Libya) where the

formal legal provisions for the active involvement of the social partners in VET (and the business

sector in particular) are minimal. In others, dialogue takes place at the beginning (planning stage, as in

Jordan), but governments are still reluctant to share decision making processes. In most countries,

trade Unions are not involved in the sector. Capacities of the social partner and civil society

representatives remain in general low to be able to perform actively in the VET policy cycle.


5.3 Progress on decentralisation

The TRP 2012 identified a trend towards decentralisation in several countries of the region (ETF,

2013), despite the strong traditionally centralised culture in the AMCs. This trend is confirmed in the

TRP 2014, even if the pace of reforms in this direction advances slowly. In 2014, the ETF GEMM

mapping report of governance in the region states that ‘a territorial dimension to VET governance, as

a component approaching multilevel governance has gained ground in some countries’ (ETF, 2014a).

The concept of multilevel governance comprises five levels: international, national, sectoral,

territorial/local and training provider.

At territorial level, Morocco and Tunisia are prioritising reforms through the regional level as a national

policy objective, with the objective of VET getting closer to the labour market needs in the regions. In

Palestine, Local Employment and Training Councils have just been established. In most countries

(Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon) employment pilots and training projects are established to try to

meet local employment and training needs (ETF, 2014a). The advantage of the pilot approach is the

possibility to develop innovation; the drawback is the difficulty to mainstream results in systems which

remain still heavily central in terms of decision making processes and institutional arrangements and

without mechanisms for real devolution of powers.

At sectoral level, the TRP 2012 registered the trend to set up sectoral skills councils in several AMCs.

Although many of these institutions continue in the countries, the trend to set up new ones appears

less visibly in TRP 2014, except in the case of Libya, where the TRP mentions the recent creation of

two sector skills councils for tourism and construction. In countries like Morocco and Tunisia, there are

quite strong links between economic sectoral priorities and the identification of the skills to be provided

by the VET systems using different modalities and tools.

Little progress has been made at the level of autonomy of VET institutions in the AMCs. All across the

region, the impossibility for VET schools to keep revenue and the fact that their budgets are strongly

centralised and allocated in a fixed manner prevents them from the incentives of trying to provide

services to the local labour markets (engaging in CVT activities, for instance). In Jordan and in

Palestine, the creation of centres of excellence and centres of competence may open the door to new

possibilities in this respect. Any mechanisms to provide more autonomy to the VET centres would

have to be accompanied by the corresponding measures to increase accountability, transparency,

result orientation and resourcing.

5.4 Progress on the governance of financing and funding (as a functional example)

Financing of VET in the AMCs keeps on being strongly centralised, reflecting the governance

situation, in which most of the funding comes from the central governments, where the decision power

lies. An exception is represented by countries with employers’ tax or training levies for CVT (Morocco,

Tunisia), where the participation of employers is more naturally embedded in the system, although

procedures are reported to be bureaucratically complex. The TRP for Tunisia advocates for an overall

reform of the financing system, springing from a shared vision and shared responsibilities.

In Tunisia, budgeting per objectives has been legally formalised for the Ministry of VET and

Employment in 2013. The mechanism allows for the existence of a ‘contract of objectives’ between the

ministry and the structures under its supervision. However, regions are not yet associated to this

system. There is little indication that governments are preparing to devolve or decentralise any

significant management decisions on finance to the more local levels, except perhaps where there is a

strong emphasis on regionalisation (e.g. Morocco and Tunisia) (ETF, 2014a).


As mentioned in previous sections, the lack of autonomy of the VET institutions across all the

countries, including the impossibility of keeping revenue for additional activities, determines that the

budgets are allocated following a traditional input system and not linked to performance, objectives

and outputs.

5.5 Key issues

■ A clear trend showing efforts for achieving better coordination can be observed in the AMCs. Most

countries are rehearsing different solutions (councils, national agencies or overall responsible

ministries) in order to combat existing fragmentation in the institutions and bodies responsible for

VET in the region; new challenges have been identified while experimenting with these solutions

and trying to embed them in the country context.

■ Another important trend that can be observed is towards decentralisation. Although progress is

slow in the context of traditionally much centralised countries, there are moves towards some

devolution of responsibility towards the regional level, and in some cases, towards sectors. Less

progress can be observed in the achievement of more autonomy for VET schools and centres.

■ Some progress can be observed in enhancing participation of the world of work, social partners

and civil society in VET design in some countries. However, the challenge remains how to make

this participation more effective, and not just nominal, and how to expand it to other phases of the

VET policy cycle, such as implementation and assessment. This could be defined as the

‘democratisation’ of VET.


KEY ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

The TRP 2014 takes the conclusions of the TRP 2012 as a starting point for monitoring progress in

the implementation of VET reforms in the AMCs; these are in particular reflected in the TRP 2012

Regional report and in the Declaration of the Dead Sea Conference, as well as in the respective TRP

country reports. This process of comparison between 2012 and 2014 points out developments that

have taken place in the different countries in the five key building blocks of the TRP (vision,

addressing economic and labour market demands, addressing demographic, social and inclusion

demands, internal efficiency and governance and policy practices). It is possible to conclude that, in

general terms, there has been progress across all areas, hampered in some cases by the difficult

conditions in the region, such as political instability, security, conflicts and economic crisis, among

others. Progress is also more marked in some specific topics than in others and it also varies also

according to country specificities.

Key issues on vision

■ The first main challenge in the region remains how to achieve a holistic vision of VET,

reconciling the different agendas of different sectors. As well as looking for more and better skills,

VET has to go hand in hand with creating more jobs. The holistic vision also includes the

elaboration on how VET can contribute to the modernisation of countries and its transformational

impact on societies.

■ The second main challenge is still at implementation level: the slow pace of reform remains a

trend in most countries. The political and socio-economic instability in the region has also

hampered the progress of reforms during the last two years.

■ Even if VET is now often mentioned in national constitutions, a challenge in most countries

remains to involve national legislative bodies in creating the necessary supportive legislation

that VET reform needs.

■ Progress can be observed in the strategy and action plan design and approval, and in trying to

link VET strategies with those of other sectors such as education, employment and growth

economic sectors. Next steps include how to ensure that this link remains effective during

implementation.

■ In many countries there is still a lack of vision for CVT and none of the countries has an

overarching vision for lifelong learning.

■ Progress can be observed in some countries in terms of enhancing participation in the design of a

shared vision. The main challenges remain in making this participation empowered and effective,

including during implementation.

■ Monitoring and evaluation of policies and strategies, systems to measure the performance of

the systems and evidence-based policy options and choices remain areas for further

improvement.

■ A trend towards greater donor coordination efforts (both on the side of donors and at national

level) is illustrated in the TRP 2014. Increasing ownership of the reforms is still an area requiring

further work.


Key issues in addressing economic and labour market demand

■ Progress in developing employment strategies can be observed in the region, with great

variations country by country. More attention has been paid to emergency measures and less to

sustainable job creation policies.

■ Almost all countries of the region have developed a wide range of youth targeted ALMPs during

the last years, but their effectiveness is still hampered by issues such as weak labour market

information systems, the limited capacity of Public Employment Services and problems of

fragmentation and coordination.

■ Progress can be observed in setting up many pilot initiatives in most countries to make VET

provision more relevant to demand from the labour market. The main difficulty remains in how to

assess and mainstream these projects and pilots into national initiatives.

■ VET has therefore to become more relevant for labour market needs but this has to be associated

with creation of jobs that can be taken by VET graduates.

■ Apprenticeship and work-based learning, career guidance and other specific measures for the

transition from school to work remains high on the reform agenda for the future.

■ Limited progress has been observed in the field of entrepreneurial learning in the region, despite

the mushrooming of initiatives and pilots. Further work is expected to take place in developing

national strategies and setting up national systems for training needs analysis, mainstreaming

pilots and catering in a more homogenous way for the training needs of SMEs and

microenterprises in the region.

Key issues in addressing demographic, social and inclusion demand

■ Access to VET remains a clear policy objective for all countries. In addition to its socio-economic

value, VET is perceived in the AMCs as an instrument for social cohesion.

■ Increasing the attractiveness of VET as a first choice option for students remains high on the

agenda of policy makers in the AMCs. However, measures to increase its attractiveness have to

be connected to increased quality and relevance of VET systems, and also to the creation of jobs

that can satisfy the professional aspirations of learners.

■ A wide range of pilot measures to address the needs of disadvantaged groups are being tested

in the countries. Further efforts and focus need to continue in particular for unemployed youth,

women and NEETs.

■ The provision of skills and VET for disadvantaged regions aims to bring greater territorial

cohesion. Progress can be observed in pilot actions, which should be incentivised and continued,

but also in growing leverage of the issue in the policy agenda of certain countries.

Key issues in internal efficiency

■ Most countries in the AMCs continue to be engaged in setting up national qualification systems.

Progress is not linear and there is still a work to be done in terms of ensuring the design and

implementation of these systems.

■ Countries in the region have mostly systems of quality control for VET, rather than systems of

quality assurance that can lead to improvement of the internal efficiency. Initiatives in this topic are

very much at a starting phase.


■ Teachers and trainers’ selection, qualifications, pre and in-service training, career, salaries,

incentives are still very prominent among the challenges to be address. Progress in the

implementation of the reforms is slow, although there are pilot initiatives that indicate the

awareness about its importance. Directors of VET institutions have a great potential for the reform

of the system, providing autonomy of VET institutions can be increased.

■ Curricula innovation and practical learning approaches will continue to be two key areas for

action in the quality agenda. Progress is ongoing with different speeds and at different levels

across the region.

■ There is consensus in the need to look for new and more efficient tools for financing VET. The

need to diversify also the sources of funding (further than the so far dominant public funding) has

to be associated to a revision of the financing system and to the development of a shared vision

with other actors. Better awareness about real costs and transparent costing systems have still to

be developed in most of the countries.

Key issues in governance and policy practices

■ A clear trend showing efforts for achieving better coordination can be observed in the

AMCs. Most countries are rehearsing different solutions (councils, national agencies or overall

responsible ministries) in order to combat existing fragmentation in the institutions and bodies

responsible for VET in the region; new challenges have been identified while experimenting with

these solutions and trying to embed them in the country context.

■ Another important trend that can be observed is towards decentralisation. Although

progress is slow in the context of traditionally much centralised countries, there are moves

towards some devolution of responsibility towards the regional level, and in some cases, towards

sectors. Less progress can be observed in the achievement of more autonomy for VET schools

and centres.

■ Some progress can be observed in enhancing participation of the world of work, social

partners and civil society in VET design in some countries. However, the challenge remains

how to make this participation more effective, and not just nominal, and how to expand it to other

phases of the VET policy cycle, such as implementation and assessment. This could be defined

as the democratisation of VET.


ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ALMPs Active labour market policies

AMCs Arab Mediterranean Countries

CVT Continuing vocational training

ETF European Training Foundation

EU European Union

GEMM Governance for Employability in the Mediterranean

NAVET National Agency for Vocational Education and Training

NEETs (Young people) not in education, employment or training

NQF National qualifications framework

NSO National statistical office

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

PISA Programme for International Student Assessment

PRIME Projecting Reform Impact in Vocational Education and Training

SBA Small Business Act

SMEs Small and medium-sized enterprises

TRP Torino Process

TVET Technical and vocational education and training

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

VET Vocational education and training

Country codes

DZ Algeria

EG Egypt

JO Jordan

LB Lebanon

LY Libya

MA Morocco

PS Palestine

TN Tunisia


REFERENCES

ETF (European Training Foundation), Martín, I. and Bardak, U., Union for the Mediterranean regional

employability review: The challenge of youth employment in the Mediterranean, Publications Office of

the European Union, Luxembourg, 2012.

ETF (European Training Foundation), Torino Process 2012: Southern and Eastern Mediterranean,

ETF, Turin, 2013.

ETF (European Training Foundation), ‘Governance of vocational education and training in the

Southern and Eastern Mediterranean: A cross-country analysis’, draft report, ETF, 2014a.

ETF (European Training Foundation), ‘The role of ALMPs in tackling the challenge of youth

employability in Arab Mediterranean Countries’, draft report, ETF, Turin, 2014b.

ETF (European Training Foundation), Torino Process 2014 draft country reports for Egypt, Jordan,

Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestine & Tunisia (self-assessment) ’, ETF, Turin, 2014c.

ETF (European Training Foundation), Young people not in employment, education or training in the

ETF partner countries, ETF, Turin, March, 2014d.

OECD/European Commission/ETF, SME Policy Index: The Mediterranean Middle East and North

Africa 2014: Implementation of the Small Business Act for Europe, OECD Publishing, 2014.

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