A PERPETUAL PARADIGM ON TIME and CALENDAR by D. N. Rahni, Ph.D.

August 1999 CE

For in and out, above, about, below,Tis nothing but a Magic Shadow-show,

Play’d in an “Earth” Box whose candle is the Sun,Round which we phantom Figures come and go.

(By Omar Khayam, the 11 th century Persian Poet and Philosopher)

Prehistoric man most likely developed a certain cognition level of the concept of time perhaps as early as several million years ago. It goes without saying, however, that a biological clock based on physiological and biochemical needs and balances must have existed in all animal species throughout evolution.

Based on our current anthropological, mythological and archaeological approaches, we can only reflect on the past one hundred thousand years. We should, nonetheless, accept the possibility that humanoids may have evolved to certain advanced cognitive level throughout the past five million years. Artistic and aesthetic expressions such as the cave paintings of rhinos, bison, and horses created in France of using black charcoal and red ocher around 32,000 BCE preceded the recording of time. Later humans in Africa and Australia used the same pigments to paint local animals. Musical expression can be dated back to 25,000 years ago, based on a bird-bone flute found in France. Grapes were first crushed in the Middle East over 5000 years ago to make wine, and there is evidence for a barley based beer brewery in Northwestern Iran nearly 7000 years ago (1).

Cognitive, instinctive, and intuitive evolution as the pre-requisites toward the understanding, appreciation, control and mimic of natural phenomena were accomplished distinctly by humans in contrast to the rest of the animal species when observing natural phenomena and recognizing periodic terrestrial changes. These included the appearance, disappearance and color variations of vegetation, climate and shadow patterns, and, animal migrations. Serendipity played a crucial role in harnessing natural resources by humans. The concept was further strengthened by extraterrestrial and celestial observations, namely those of the heavens and heavenly bodies epitomized by the repetitive pattern variations in shape and locations associated with the two main celestial bodies, the Sun and the Moon, as well as certain bright stars.

The Sun was recognized to be the much more vital celestial object to which early humans depended on for both spiritual and materials purposes. Zoroastrianism and Mithraism, perhaps the first monotheistic religions were preceded by a form of sun worshipping; thence, the reason for the sacredness of light and fire in these and many subsequent religions. In fact, Dies Natalis, i.e., December 25, the date when the Invincible Sun God (Sol Invinctus) was born, became the most sacred festival for Mithraism, Zoroastrianism, and later paganism in Europe. The date was adopted millennia later by the Christians to signify the birth of their prophet, Jesus., even though there were some earlier historical evidence of placing the Jesus’s birth in March. Zoroastrians feel obliged to continuously keep a sacred fire alive in their temples ever since. In fact, light manifested itself as a “halo”, an important religious symbol in almost all religions thereafter. Mazdakism and Maniism, religions that were based on pictorial conceptualization and spatial visualization, utilized the power of light, fire and energy immensely.

Before the agricultural era ten thousand years ago in Mesopotamia when herding and cropping evolved, humans were gatherers and hunters, migrating from one place to the other in search of food and shelter. Based on memories, they cognitively and intuitively concluded that they only needed to identify and migrate between two regions, warm and cold, so as to increase their chances of survival and sustenance. Undoubtedly, this was one of the earliest points that is so pivotal to the establishment of the systematic method of keeping track of time known as CALENDAR. This tracking of time is observed in the behavior of many migratory species of birds and mammals as well. BCE stands for “Before Common Era, CE stands for After Common Era, using 1 A.D. as a reference.

Upon careful observation of various natural phenomena, humans must have first considered many of the more dramatic ones as supernatural or as signs of gods, and thereby worshipped many

objects such as the Sun and the moon. Understanding the behavior of fire, and harnessing its properties for the benefit of mankind must have indeed been preceded by the sight of lightning striking trees and prairies. Observation of directions and length associated with shadows of natural and man-made objects provided an effective means of keeping track of daily time and seasonal variations.

The internal struggle in humans manifested itself in creating and visualizing mythological dual gods and images for every scenario: gods of day vs. night, death vs. life, light vs. dark, thunder vs. serenity, good vs. bad, heaven vs. hell, and later God vs. Satan or the devil. The need for having a calendar became even more important after people settled in small agricultural and herd based communities, and had to keep track of their important events in their lives.

Again, recognizing the green season vs. a dry cold season, they learned to plant crops at certain periods in order to optimize their output, which also coincided with the birthing period of many domesticated and wild animals around them. In other words, the importance of the spring season as the period during which birth and rebirth of vegetation and animals is at a maximum (presumably for evolutionary reasons) was recognized, and most probably celebrated. That by itself provides the strongest evidence of the vernal equinox, now March 21, as the commencement of a New Year in subsequent calendars that were developed in the Mesopotamian region and beyond. Once again, this might have been a million years ago, but we have no record of it, only circumstantial evidence and extrapolation. Calendars developed by the various peoples of Mesopotamia, as far back as 6000 years, are among the first calendars known to-date.

The term, “Kalends” as the precursor to the word calendar for tracking time, is Latin meaning the beginning of the month. Professor W. Sayce in an 1874 article in Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology writes, “The standard astrological work of the Babylonians and Assyrians was one consisting of seventy tablets, drawn up for the Library of Sargon, King of Agane, in the 16 th century BCE. This date is, however, revised to date back to 3800 BCE. The Accadian calendar was arranged to suit the order of the zodiacal signs. Nisan, the first month, answered to the first zodiacal sign. From as far back as 4698 BCE, when the sun entered the first point of Aries at the vernal equinox in the time of Hiparkhus and before then, New Year was observed by the Accadians based on zodiacal observations. Nisan was the first month of the year. The earliest evidence support the fact that the first Accadian calendar had originated when the winter solstice, perhaps the time of throwing agriculture seeds for subsequent year, and not the vernal equinox coincided with the sun’s entry into the constellation Aries, dating back to 6000BCE, but was later moved to Nisan, the first month of spring. The Accadian months were: Nisannu (Barzig-gar in Accadian), Airu, Simjannu, Duzu, Abu, Ululu, Tischritu, Arah-samna, Kislimu, Tebitu, Sabatu, Adaru (2).

Barzig-gar in early Pahlavi and perhaps in Proto-Indo-European languages meant the season for seeding. In fact, in Persian, the word “Barz” refers to crop seeds, and “Gar” is a subjective suffix referring to one’s profession similar to “-smith” in English. The word Barzgar is still used in Iran and the surrounding countries referring to a farmer who spreads and cultivates crop seeds. In the northern valley of Karkas (Vulture) Mountain (altitude: 4200 meters) located in Natanz, a provincial town between Kashan and Esphahan in Iran, there is a fertile oasis village called Barz. It is located in the vicinity of Abyaneh, another antiquated village (registered by UNESCO as a historical community), where the inhabitants spoke a middle Pahlavi dialect, and where the religion was Zoroastrian until presumably as recently as 16th century in the Safavid era. In fact, the Zoroastrian temple and the mosque co-exist side by side today.

Professor M. Hommel of the University of Oxford in the 1899 March number of the Proceedings of Biblical Archaeology calls attention in his Assyriological Notes to the name “Assara Mazas” appearing among the Assyrian Gods; its similarity with the Persian God Ahura Mazda is hard to miss. The older Persian word in the Kassitic Surias, “sun”, later became Ahura and Hvarya. In Sanskrit, Asura and suria are of the highest importance for the history of Aryan languages. In the same Kassitic period, between 1700 and 1200 BCE, the Assyrians most likely borrowed the Iranian god Assara-Mazas. Asura in the Vedic literature means Spirit, the wise.

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The Dionysian year commenced with March 25, that being the date usually assigned to the “Incarnation of the World”. The earliest Roman calendar had ten months--January and February had no place and March was indeed the first month of the year, which was confirmed by the ceremony of rekindling the sacred fire in the Temple of Vesta. Macrobius recorded the practice of placing fresh laurels in the public buildings. Such observation and the scared treatment of fire were Zoroastrian rituals from Persia. A close re-examination of the current Western Gregorian calendar reveals that the suffixes Sept-, Oct-, Nov-, Dec-, refer to the 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th months of the year. That in turn makes January, named after the two-faced god Janus, and February named for the cloak of the godess June (februa), which naked men wore during the very important Lupercalia fertility festival held at that time of the year, were added in the first century ACE as the 11th and 12th months of the year. This was yet another indication of March as the first month of the year and mid-March as the turning point of the New Year (3,12). At the time when Christianity was being introduced, two religions, Graeco-Roman and the Mithraic faith of Persian-Hindu origin, were the dominant religions in Asia Minor and Mesopotamia. For Persian Mithraism December 25, Dies Natalis, the date that invincible Sun God (Sol Invictus) was born, and, for the Roman Saturnalia December 17, named after Saturnus the later defied first King of Latinum were the two most important festivals in their calendars. The Christians, however, had very few holidays of their own that they could unanimously agree on the dates at that juncture: the Jewish Passover, the Crucifixion and the Resurrection. Besides, these Christian holidays were very somber. So, they adopted the pagan Dies Natalis (God’s Birthday), i.e., December 25 for the birth of Jesus. That would in turn make January 1 the Day of Circumcision of the baby Jesus, according to the Jewish faith as practiced by Mary and Joseph, where the eighth day after birth, a boy had to be circumcised in order to be a “Son of the Covenant” (Ben Brith). So, once again, the contribution of Persian Mithraism to Western civilization and the global observation of January 1 as the New Year become evident.

While at one point the ancient Romans in pagan times, began January 1 as the “ New Year’s day”, most others including the Hebrews, Persians, and others in what is now the Middle East observed the vernal equinox. The Greeks observed the summer solstice, the Egyptians observed the harvest (4, 5).

NoRuz, the first day of Spring on or about March 21 when the vernal equinox crosses the equator and makes the days and nights equal in length in the northern Hemisphere, has been celebrated for millennia by the Iranians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Chaldeans (900 BCE) in the Persian plateau (extending from the Southeast Oral Lake to Northwest Persian Gulf where Mesopotamia once flourished). NoRuz occurs when the sun enters the zodiac sign of the Ram, when the constellations of Leo and Taurus at their zenith, coincide with the spring equinox. Celebration of NoRuz reaffirms the connections between human beings and nature. In Persian mythology, “ Uncle” NoRuz is an old humble man, an emblem of benign authority and wisdom. Year after year, he appears invisible to humans at the time of the Persian New Year, when an old woman having cleaned her dwelling and worn new clothing, has set up ceremonial display and special offerings, but misses him by falling asleep right before he arrives (6). During her sleep she dreams of renewal and rebirth, a reflection of the myth of the whole nations.

The “Poem of Creations” on seven tablets, dating from the ninth Century BC, was recited in the course of the Babylonian festival. It tells of the victory of Marduk, the sun-god, who also symbolized the forces of spring. These hymns of creation were honored by the many people who inhabited Mesopotamia- Sumerians, Semites, Indo-Europeans, and can be viewed as a precursor to later celebrations like Passover, Good Friday, and Easter (7).

In practice, the NoRuz celebration begins from almost a week to thirteen days after the New Year. Water (continuity, dynamism, passing), green sprouts (rejuvenation, birth, growth), and fire (energy) all strong components of nature, play a crucial role in observing these celebrations. When the New Year Came in March is a 1940’s children’s Novel based on true story of a family who crossed the Atlantic Ocean in the 1630’s to come to America. The story is narrated by Humphrey, a small boy who frequently talks about specific stories revolving around March 25, the New Year. A whole chapter is allocated to the New Year, commencing with March 25 when Spring arrives. Archery, i.e., arrow shooting and convening of planing crops were the main events of the day (8). Archery and horseback riding are among the most historical sports among the peoples of the Middle East that have found their

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way into every epic and national stories! This further supports the notion of celebrating the New Year at the commence of Spring hat has its root in Persia and Babylonia.

As the so called third Christian millennium has arrived, it is timely to present an anthology of various calendars, their epoch, their promoters, etc. A comparative presentation of the names of the zodiacs, days of the week and names of months, will demonstrate the amazing commonality among such seemingly divergent calendars and cultures. One could without a doubt conclude that the inter-cultural communications among various cultures from South Asia to Central Africa must have been much more pronounced in the prehistoric era than once was even imagined possible (9).

A comprehensive explanation of calendars, mostly ancient but some newer ones as well follows:

Historical: Babylonian, Era of Nabonasser, Macedonia, Hebrew, Selucid, Zoroastrian, era of Antioch, Olympiad era, the era of tyre, Roman, Armenian,

Near East: Iran, Islamic, Fasli (Soor san), Yezdezred, Jalali, Afghanistan, India, Southeast Asia, Akbar, Fasli Deccan, Parasuram, Burmese, Arakanse.Far East: Chinese, Tibet. Africa: Egypt, Coptic, Ethiopian, Central Am: Mayan, Aztec, Inca.Western: Early Northern European, Julian, Gregorian, Christian ecclesiastical Saints, The French Revolutionary, Soviet

BABYLONIAN CALENDAR

A lunar calendar was used in the Near and Middle East in early recorded history. Its influence spanned form Egypt and Greece, through Arabia, Mesopotamia, Persia, and India to Himalayas. This is a precursor to the Hebrew calendar still used to-date. It had 12 months of 29 or 30 days. The day began with sunset, which gave an uneven length of daylight and dark. The year apparently began on the new moon nearest to the vernal equinox, presumably in March. The first Babylonian month was called Nisanu, which in early Aramaic languages meant spring. The months were as follows: 1 Nisanu, 2 Aiaru, 3 Simanu, 4 Duzu, 5 Abu, 6 Ululu, 7 Tashritu, 8 Arahsamnu, 9 Kislimu, 10 Tebatu, 11 Shabatu, and, 12 Addaru.

Although we don’t know how the months were divided, it is highly probable that a month was divided in “Decans” of ten days each with the last decan either 9 or 10 days, a reflection of the number of fingers on both hands. The vernal equinox was the New Year day. The origin of the Decan is based on the numbers of fingers, the first calculator. Though we have no clear record of the number and dates of holidays, one could, nonetheless, infer that new year, the anniversary of the ruler’s ascension to the throne, the winter solstice, new moons, planting and harvesting festivals were among special “holi-“ days.

Although Babylonians used the lunar calendars for religious and daily purposes, a solar based calendar for astronomical purposes had also been devised, the latter was also used by Assyrians and Chaldeans, based on 12 months with the day beginning at 6:00 am (dawn). It is quite clear that the Babylonians invented the Zodiac. The sun determined the length of the year by passing through the 12 signs, and the moon passed through them all in about 29 ½ days. Our horoscope is the direct descendent of the Babylonian Calendar. The Babylonian epoch is March 23, 625BCE.

ZOROASTRIAN CALENDAR

The Zoroastrian calendar epoch is the birth of the prophet Zoroaster on March 3, 389 BCE. It was a vague solar calendar of 365 days, 12 months each comprised of 30 days, with five days added at the end of the year. It didn’t have a leap year, nor did it divide the months into decades or weeks. Each of

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the 30 days of the months had its own name used in much the same way as we use a number for a day in a month today.The Zoroastrian months were: Furvurdeen, Ardibehesht, Khordad, Tir, Amerdad, Sherever, Moher/Mehr, Aban, Adur/Azar, Dey/Deh, Bahman, Aspendadmad/Espand.

The names of the days are: Hormazd, Bahman, Ardibehesht, Sherevere, Aspundad, Khordad, Amerdad, Depadur, Adur, Aban, Khurshed, Mohr, Tir, Gosh, Depmhel, Meher, Serosh, Rashne, Furvurdeen, Behman, Ram, Guvad, Depdin, Din, Ashasang, Ashtad, Asman, Zamiad, Maharesphand, Aniram. The five extra days at the end of the year are: Ahnuvud, Ushtuvad, Spentamud, Vhi-Kashusthra, Vashishtrusht. The names of the months and zodiacs are used to denote the names of the days of the months.

The most important celebration for Zoroastrians was the observance of the New Year, NoRuz on March 21, the vernal equinox day. There is also Mehregan, the harvest celebration in early fall. Whenever the names of a day coincided with the name of that month, it was also celebrated.

The Zoroastrian calendar was well established all over Persia and Asia Minor by 300 BCE, but continues to be used by the people of Zoroastrian faith in Iran, India, and elsewhere. The Persians, have however, used a modified version of it since 7th century ACE, called the calendar of Yezdezred.

YEZDEZRED and JELALI CALENDARS

This calendar is named after the last Persian Sassanid King before the Arab invasion, Yezdezred, who mounted the throne on June 16, 632 CE. It corrected for the five day discrepancy in the Zoroastrian calendar, and was used by almost all people in Persia who were then primarily Zoroastrians by faith, but small minorities Mithraism and Mazdakism followed it, too. This calendar conformed with solar motion by the inclusion of a leap year by Omar Khayam in 1077 ACE at the bequest of Sultan Jelaledin Malik Shah bin Alkh Ashlan Suljooghi of Persia. The Yezdezred Calendar epoch is June 16, 632 CE.

The Persian plateau, the area that we now know as Iran has used many calendars throughout its long history. During the early period, it used the Chaledean, Babylonian, and Zoroastrian calendars. But after the advent of Islam it used an Islamic calendar. Within the past two centuries, four calendars, Gregorian (primarily in larger cities and of correspondence with the west), Iranian lunar Hegira for religious observances, the Borji, based on zodiac signs, and Solar Hegira, have been widely used. A Fifth calendar, Turco-Mongolian was also used in the small Caspian region Turkman Sahara and Gorgan.

The Borji or Zodiac calendar was extensively used, occasionally as the official calendar, in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In this calendar, the beginning of the month corresponded with the date of the entry of the sun into the various signs of the zodiac. Although Arabic names of the months were used for official purposes, the public, nevertheless, preferred Persian names.

Zodiac Persian Arabic Sanskrit Hindi Bengali Urdu Tamil Chinese

Aries Barre Hamal Mesha Vyshak Vaisakha Baisakh Chaitram Tse/RatTaurus Gaw Thur Vrisha Jyest Jyestha Jeth Vyassie Chau/OxGemini Dopeykar Jawza Mithuna Ashadh Ashadh Asarh Auni Yin/TigerCancer Kharchang Saratan Karkata Shrawun Sravana Sawan Audi Mau/HareLeo Shir Asad Sinha Bhadurpud Bhadra Bhadon Auvani Shin/DragonVirgo Khushe Sunbula Kanya Ahwin Aswina Asan Paratasi Se/SnakeLibra Tarazu Mizan Tula Kartick Kartiku Kartik Arpesi Wu/HorseScorpio Kazhdom Aqrab Vrishiga Margashirs Margasirsha Aghan Kartiga Wi/SheepSagittarius Kaman Qaws Dhanus Poush Pousha Pus Margali Shin/MonkeyCapricorn Bozghale Jadi Makara Maugh Magha Magh Tye Yu/RoosterAquarius Dul Dalw Kumbha Phalgoon Phalgoona Phagun Maussi Siuh/Dog

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Pisces Mahi Hur Mina Chytr Chaitra Chait Punguni Hai/PigTABLE I. Zodiacal Nomenclature

BORJI AND SHAHANSHAHI CALENDARS

The Borji calendar was replaced with the Iranian solar calendar by Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1925. In the mid-70’s, the government unsuccessfully experimented with a calendar called Shahanshahi that had its epoch at 599 BCE, when Cyrus, founder of the Persian Empire, was enthroned. However, it was found to be impractical and politically unpopular among certain segments of the society. The New Year is observed on March 21, the vernal equinox that has its origin in the Chaldean, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Zoroastrian calendars. The Borji Calendar epoch is July 16, 622 CE. The Shanshahi Calendar epoch is 559 BCE, presumably the birth of Cyrus the Great, the Persian King form the Archaemenid Dynasty. There is, however, a movement to the concept of utilizing the first Persian King DiaOko of Medean Dynasty, where the epoch is 708 BCE.

Month Persian Arabic Eastern Western (Afghani Pushtoo) (Afghani Pushtoo)

1 Farvardin Muharram Hasan wa huseyn Hasan huseyn2 Ordibehesht Safar Gul shakara Sapara. thapara3 Khordad Rabi al-awwal Rumbey chor Lumrey khor4 Tir Rabi ath-thani Dwayema chor Dwaheyma khor5 Amordad Jamadi al-ulya Dreyema chor Dreyma khor6 Shahrivar Jamdi al-akhira Thalorema chor Thalarema khor7 Mehr Rajab Do Hadai/Bzerga Miasht Do hadai taali miasht8 Aban Sha’ban Shawkadar Barat9 Azar Ramadan Rozha Rozha10 Day Shawwal Warukay arctar Kuchnay akhtar11 Bahman Dhul-Qa’da Miyana miasht Miyana12 Esfand Dhul-Hijja Loy achtar Loy akhtar

TABLE II. Names of the Months

INDIAN CALENDAR

At the peak of Independence movement in the 1940’s, India found itself with no less than 30 calendars! Such diversity had its roots back in 3000 BCE, from a mother calendar called Kali Yuga on dawn, that was based on many bits and pieces of information but no coherent astronomical data. After the advent of the Muslims in 1200 CE, a lunar Hejira calendar was adopted for administrative and Muslim religious purposes. This calendar was continually used through 1757 (when the British brought the Gregorian calendar) except for one short period (1556-1605) when Emperor Akbar imposed his own calendar. At one point, March 12 was also celebrated, but now the harvest festival of deep waali marks the New Year. The date which we know as March 21 1957, would be called Chaitra 7 in Bengal, Chitra 8 in Orissa, Phalguna 8 in the South, and, Chaitra Vadi 6 or Phalguna Vadi 6 by the Indian lunar calendar. Ironically, the Indian solar year begins around April 13/14, according to the western calendar. This year is divided into 6 seasons of two months each: Vasanta, Grishma, Varsha, Saruda, Hemanta, Sisira. One of the Indian Calendars has an epoch of 569 BCE.

English Persian Hindu Indian Tibetan Burmese

Sunday Yek-shanbehRavi-var Etwar Gyah-nyi-ma Tanang-ganveMonday Do-Shanbeh Som-var Peer Gyah-zla-va Tanang-laTuesday Se-shanbeh Mangal-var Mungul Gyah-mig-amar Ang-garWednesday Chahar-Shanbeh Budh-var Boodh Gyah-thag-pa Bhddha-hu

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Thursday Panj-Shanbeh Guru-var Jumerat Gyah-phur-bu Kyasa-padeFriday Adineh Sukra-var Juma Gyah-pa-sangs Sok-kyaSaturday Shanbeh Sani-var Sunnecher Gyah-spen-pa Cha-na

TABLE III. Names of the days of the Week

ERA OF NABONASSER

It was during the reign of Assyrian King Nabonasser (747-734 BCE), when a solar based, 365 days duration corrected version of the Babylonian solar-lunar calendar was devised that had no leap year, but every fifth year began a day earlier. It had 12 months of 30 days each with five days added at the end. Again, this calendar was extensively used in the Near and Middle East, and was finally adopted by the Greek Seleucides. Its holidays were essentially the same as the Babylonians, and in certain areas local names were used to denote the months, but the Babylonian names were predominantly used throughout. From the time of the invasion of Egypt by the Persians in the 6th Century BCE until the calendar reform there by Diocletian in 284 A.C.E., the Egyptian calendar was identical to that of Nabonasser. The Era of Nabonasser epoch is February 26, 747 BCE.

MACEDONIAN CALENDAR

This calendar was very similar to the Babylonian and Nabonasser calendars used widely since the 9th Century BCE, except that the New Year was celebrated in October, instead of March. It was a lunar-solar calendar, using a 354 lunar year with a periodic intercalated month of 29 or 30 days to correct for divergence between solar and lunar motions. This is the first documented calendar where the month was either divided into ten or seven day intervals. The Macedonian names of the months were: 1 Dios, 2 Apellaeus, 3 Andynaeus, 4 Peritius, 5 Dystrus, 6 Xanticus, 7 Artemisios, 8 Daesius, 9 Panaemus, 10 Lous, 11 Gorpiaeus, 12 Hyperberetaeus. The Macedonian Calendar epoch is October 4, 526 BCE.

Currently, the Holiday Season in Greece begins on the morning of Christmas Eve with the advent of Kallikantzari, the mischievous goblins. It is a gremlin like mythological creature that ascends upon the earth from inside around mid-night, similar to its American cousins to check what all the excitement is about (11). In order to placate Killikantzari, sausages and sweets are left for them atop the roofs. A series of ceremonial rituals commencing on Christmas ends by the feast of Epiphany.

HEBREW CALENDAR

The Jewish calendar, influenced greatly by the 6th Century BCE Babylonian exiles, had its origin in the 7th century as an observation rather than calculation based lunar calendar. It was finally fixed as a lunar-solar calendar. The Hebrew New Year, at one point celebrated in Nissan, i.e. in Spring, was later moved to Tishri, when the Babylonians celebrated it. The Hebrew names for the months were also replaced with Babylonian names. So, for calendric purpose, the day begins at 6:00 am, but it commences at sunset for religious purposes. The day consists of 24 hours, each being divided into 1080 parts, or 3.3 seconds each. The Jewish calendar is complicated by certain religious requirements that pre-determine that certain events not fall on specific days. For instance, New Year must not fall on Sunday, Wednesday or Friday. The day of atonement must not fall on Friday or Sunday; the day of Tabernacles must not fall on a Saturday; and, Passover and Pentecost must precede the New Year by 163 and 113 days, respectively.The Hebrew names of the months: 1 Tishri, 2 Marheshvan, 3 Kislev, 4 Tebeth, 5 Shebat, 6 Adar, 7 Nissan, 8 Lyyar, 9 Sivan, 10 Tammuz, 11 Ab, 12 Ellul. The Jewish calendar uses a solar cycle of 28 years and a lunar cycle of 19 years. The Hebrew calendar epoch, the “year of creation: Anno Mundi” is 23 September, 3762 BCE.

SELEUCID AND ERA OF ANTIOCH CALENDAR

Based on its precursor, the calendar used in Syria, Selecus Necator, one of Alexander’s generals, devised this calendar in the 4th Century BCE. He established an empire that ultimately stretched from

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Asia Minor to India. The calendar was a solar one of 365 days with an extra day every fourth year to account for divergence of solar motion. It was comprised of 12 months of 30 days each and an extra five (or in leap year six) days at the year’s end. Due to the rather extensive size of the empire and its diverse religious and ethnic groups, many variations of the same calendar were used. For instance, Greeks in Syria and the native Syrians celebrated the New Year on October 9, Greeks and Indians on September 1, and Persians and Chaldeans on March 21. But soon after the Roman invasion of Syria in 64 BCE, the Syrians adopted yet another variation of the calendar, moving back the new year from October to August, with the Seleucid epoch in 48 BCE, called the Era of Antioch. The Seleucid Calendar epoch is October 2, 312 BCE.

The OLYMPIC ERA

In honor of Zeus, the Olympiad was celebrated by the Greeks every four years since 776 BCE. Referred to as Attic calendar, it was a lunar-solar one of 12 months of 29 or 30 days. A month began on the day when the moon would first showed after conjunction, divided into periods of ten days or decades. The year began at the summer solstice, around July 2. The Olympic games were held on the 11 th through the 15th day after the New Moon following the summer solstice. The Olympian months were: 1 Hecatombaen, 2 Metageitnion, 3 Boedromion, 4 Pyanepsion, 5 Maemacterion, 6 Poseideon, 7 Gamelion, 8 Anthesterion, 9 Elaphebolion, 10 Munychion, 11 Thargelion, 12 ScirophorionThe Olympia Era epoch is July 9, 776 BCE.

THE ERA OF TYRE

The Phoenicians, a seafaring people from as far back as 600 BCE, had initially used Babylonian, Assyrian and Chaldean calendars in turn. However, after the conquest of their territories by Alexander, especially their Headquarters Tyre in 333-332 BCE, they adopted a calendar similar to the Macedonian one around 125 BCE. However, the New Year was celebrated 17 days later than the Macedonians, and the whole calendar was abandoned after the Roman conquest that followed. The era of the Tyre epoch is October 19, 125 BCE.

ROMAN CALNEDAR

Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome is credited with devising the Roman 365 days solar calendar that consisted of ten months: March, April, May, June, Quintrilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December. Roman King Numa Popilius reformed the calendar in 715 BCE by adding January and February. He later devised a lunar based calendar of 354 days, but since even numbers were considered unlucky, he added a day making it 365 days. Again, the spring was when the new year began. The Roman Calendar epoch is 715 BCE.

THE ARMENIAN CALENDAR

The era of Armenians was established in the mid 6 th Century CE. Previously residents of the area had used Babylonian and Greek calendars. The Armenian calendar is based on a vague solar year of 365 days only, and makes no allowance for a leap year. The calendar was replaced by the Julian calendar after the full advent of Christianity in the area. The Armenian epoch is July 9, 552 CE.

The ISLAMIC CALENDAR

Computed from the Hejira, the flight of Prophet Mohammad from Mecca to Medina, the epoch in this calendar is, therefore, equivalent to be the sunset of July 16, 622 CE. A purely 354 days lunar calendar with periodical addition of a day to correct for a leap year, it consistently moves back 11 days for each solar year. The Islamic months are: Muharram, Safar, Rabi I, Rabi II, Jamada I, Jamada II, Rajab, Sha’ban, Ramadan, Shawwal, Dhu al-qada, and Dhu al-Hijjah.

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The Islamic epoch is July 16, 622 ACE. While Saudi Arabia and other smaller Arab countries in the Persian Gulf area utilize this calendar as the official government calendar, in most other Muslim countries it is used for religious purpose. A modified solar version of it with Persian names of the months and many pre-Islamic Persian and religious observances is utilized in Iran, presently.

FASLI (SOOR SAN) CALENDAR

This is one of the calendars that was devised and used in Asia Minor and India after the advent of Islam. It is comprised of 12 months of 30 days each, with an extra five or six (leap year) days added in the end. It follows another rather interesting complicated cyclical structures of 10, 100, and 1000 years.The calendar used to begin in late May according to the Julian Calendar and now begins in early June according to the Gregorian Calendar. Certain forms of this calendar are still used in the Middle East. Fasli (Soor San) epoch is May 24, 600 CE. The names of the Fasli months are: Baune, Abib, Meshri, Tot, Babe, Hatur, Kyak, Tabe, Mashir Amshir, Buramat, Barsude, and Bashans.

AFRICAN CALENDARS

Until the mid-20th century, historians had wrongly assumed that except for Egypt there were no mentionable civilizations in Africa. This assumption was, however, proven wrong with the many archaeological discoveries dating back to 6th Century BCE of the six Western and Central Empires: Nok, Benin, Mali, Songhay, Kanem Bornu, and Ancient Ghana. Among Africa’s peoples- Negroid, Semitic, Berber and Hametic-time was regulated by their way of life as hunters, gatherers, farmers and nomads. Generally speaking, unwritten calendars were kept by correlating the motion of the moon with annual seasons: a wet, a growing and a hot season. These groups recognized the times of the solstices and equinoxes as well as rising and setting of bright stars. Sirius, the brightest of such stars played a prominent role in the African Calendars. After the arrival of the Persians in 6 th century BCE, the Greeks in the 3rd Century BCE, the Romans in the 1st century, the Arabs in the 6th century and other conquerors most of the original African calendars went into oblivion.

EGYPTIAN CALENDAR

The Egyptians first had a lunar calendar, but as time progressed they attempted to bring it in line with solar motion. The initial 360 days-based calendar was finally changed to 360+5 days during the 8th century BCE. The Egyptian calendar is the only one based on geophysical rather than astronomical fact, dependent on the rising and falling of Nile flood lines. The Egyptian epoch is August 29, 293 BCE. There are variations for Coptic and Ethiopians (Abyssianians) names of the months as presented in the Table IV.

SOUTHEAST ASIA CALNDARS

The earliest recorded Southeastern history dates back to Kali Yuga, January 21, 3102 BCE. In the 11th Century, Islam began to spread to the East, and within a short period of time the entire region was controlled by Muslim governments. In the 16th century, European influence began to penetrate the area, thereby imposing the Western calendar. After colonization in the 20 th century, many nations revived their local calendars and used it along with the Gregorian calendar. A number of outside calendars, such as the Zoroastrian, was used as well. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Akbar, Mogul emperor of India (1556-1605) who had become disillusioned with orthodox Islam, promulgated an eclectic creed of his own, derived from Islam, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and Christianity. The Akbar calendar epoch is February 19, 1556.

The Buddhist lunar Calendar, originating in India, is used extensively in Southeast Asia, e.g., Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and Burma.

FAR EAST CALENDAR

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The Chinese calendar is the longest unbroken sequence of time measurement in history. Its epoch is said to be 2953 BCE. The calendar was later adopted by Koreans and Japanese. It is based on the apparent motion of the sun, moon, and the planets, which is expressed by the Chinese concept of three Roads: Red, Yellow and White through the heavens. It is based on 60-year cycles. The Chinese New Year falls on the new moon nearest to the 15th degree of Aquarius. In modern times this corresponds to about the 4th or the 5th of February so that the new moon could be 15 days on either side of that date. The year is divided into 24 periods of about two weeks each, i.e., 15o on the 360o circle. The Chinese adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1911 for official purposes, but the ancient calendar is still used extensively.

CENTRAL AMERICA CALENDARS

The oldest writing in the Americas known today are two carved tablets with calendric information produced by the Zapotec people in present-day Oaxaca, Mexico around 500 BCE (National Geographic, Vol. 196, No. 2, August 1999). The many ancient civilizations of Central America-the Mayan, Aztec, Inca, etc. employed almost the same calendar, differing only in the epoch and the New Year. For instance, rock made sundials in the Aztec civilization was quite widespread. Although initially a system of time measurement was used which was abased on a 60-year cycle (where a year consisted of twelve 30-day months plus 5 extra days) later for instance, the Mayans used a 365-day with 18 months to a year, 20 days each month, and one short month of only 5 days, called Uayeb (considered to be very unlucky).

EARLY NORTHERN EUROPEAN CALENDARS

Until the 7th and 8th centuries when England and other countries conquered the Scandinavians and other “Barbarian” tribes in Northern Europe, they used a peculiar construction know as “week-year”, consisting of 52 weeks of seven days (subdivided into two 26 weeks of winter and summer), approximately 1 ¼ days shorter than the tropical year. The Celts celebrated the New Year the first of November. Though Julian and Gregorian calendars were gradually accepted, Lapland and Iceland held on to the old local calendars through the 20th century. The Celts year ended October 31st, but not at midnight. The hours that were not accounted for, was the time the dead washed.

JULIAN AND GREGORIAN CALENDARS

In 46 BCE Julius Caesar reformed the Roman calendar once more, replacing the lunar based calendar with a completely solar calendar, at the advice of astronomers. It was a 365 ¼ days with the extra day added every fourth leap year. During the Roman era March 1 was celebrated as the New Year. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII reformed the Julian calendar to rectify an error that had moved the vernal equinox from March 21 to March 11 over time. The Gregorian calendar was immediately accepted by the Roman Catholic countries, later adopted by France, Germany and eventually by Protestant countries. Great Britain adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1750, and put it into effect in 1752. At the same time, the beginning of the legal year was changed from March 25 to January 1. The Gregorian calendar is presently the most extensively used calendar for international business and diplomacy.

CHRISTIAN ECCLESIASTICAL CALNDAR

Used by Roman Catholics and some Protestants, this calendar relates the year to various events to in the life of Christ and the history of the Church. In 325 ACE the Council of Nicaea decreed that Easter should be observed on the Sunday following the first full moon occurring after the vernal equinox, which they determined to be March 21. A calendar of Saints has from 3 to ten Christian saints’ names for every day of the year.

Mo. Ethiopian Coptic Arabic Fasli Islamic Accadian Babylonian

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1 Maskarram Thith Tor Tot Muharram NasannuNisanu2 Tekemt Paophi Babe Babe Safar Airu Aiaru3 Hadar Arthyr Hatur Hatur Rabi-ol Avval Simjannu Simanu4 Tahsas Cohiac Kyak Kyak Rabi-os Sani Duzu Duzu5 Tarr Tybi Tobe Tabe Jamadiol Avval Abu Abu6 Yekatit Mesir Meshir Amshir Mashir Amshir Jamadiol Sani Ululu Ulu7 Magawit Pharmenoth Buramar Buramat Rajab Tischritu Tashritu8 Miaziah Pharmouri Baramude Barsude Sha’ban Arah-samna Arahsamnu9 Genbor Pachons Bashans Bashans Ramadan Kislimu Kislimu10 Sanni Payni Baune Baune Shawwal Tebitu Tebatu11 Hamle Epiphi Abib Abib Dhu al-qada Sabatu Shabatu12 Nas’hi Mesori Meshri Meshri Dhu al-hijjah Adaru Addaru

Mo. Zoroastrian Macedonian Hebrew Olympian Gregorian Persian

Furvurdeen Dios Tishri Hecatombaen March FarvardinArdibehesht Apellaeus Marheshevan Metageitnion April OrdibeheshtKhordad Andynaeus Kislev Boedromion May KhordadTir Peritius Tebeth Pyanepsion June TirAmerdad Dystrus Shebat Maemacterion July MordadSherever Xanticus Adar Poseideon August ShahrivarMohr/Mehr Artemisios Nissan Gamelion September MehrAban Daesius Lyyar Anthesterion October AbanAdur/Azar Panaemus Sivan Elaphebolion November AzarDey/Day Lous Tammuz Munychion December DayBahman Gorpiaeus Ab Thargelion January BahmanAspendadmad/Espand Hyperberetaeus Ellul Scirophorion Februaryn Esfand

TABLE IV. Names of the Months

CALENDAR EPOCH REGIONBabylonian March 23, 625 BCE MesopothemiaZoroastrian March 3, 388 BCE Persia/IranYezdezred June 16, 632 CE Persia/IranBorji July 16, 622 CE Persia/IranShahanshahi 559 BCE IranIndian (Jain) 569 BCE IndiaEra of Nabonasser Feb 26, 747 BCE MesopothamiaMacedonian October 4, 526 BCE MacedoniaJewish September 3, 3762 BCE JerusalemSeleucid 48 BCE Asia MinorEra of Antioch October 2, 312 BCE GreeceOlympia era July 9, 776 BCE GreeceEra of Tyre October 19, 125 BCE PhoeniciaRoman 715 BCE RomeArmenian July 9, 552 CE ArmeniaIslamic July 16, 622 ACE MedinaFasli (Soor San) May 24, 600 CE Persia/IranAfrican 600 BCE Central AfricaEgypt/Coptic August 29, 293 BCE Egypt/MesrKali Yuga (SE Asia) January 21, 3102 BCE Sri Lanka/BurmaAkbar February 19, 1556 CE IndiaChinese 2953 BCE China

TABLE V. The origin of Calendars

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CONCLUSION

It is hard to believe that March 25 was observed as the day commencing a New Year through 1562 in Europe and as late as 1755 in England according to the Old Style Calendar (12). This had been preceded by the Romans celebrating March 1 over two thousand years earlier. The contribution of the Persian to provide December 25 as a day of celebration subsequently adopted by the Christians was also discussed earlier. Furthermore, the Assyrian Calendars seem to be the precursors to many of calendars used throughout history.

An examination of the concept of time and calendar reveals despite apparent divergence among peoples, and on the contrary to common wisdom, the human contacts and cultural, social and economic interdependencies has existed far longer than initially perceived. Such intercommunication, not exclusive to Mesopotamia as the so-called cradle of civilization, was quite broad in scope and encompassed every corner of the planet where pre-historic inhabitants moved about. The barter system of trade was one of the early outcomes enhancing everyone’s quality of life. These interactions have also impacted religions and the essence of life throughout the world. For instance, it is estimated that as many as ten thousand languages were spoken at one point or the other by almost the same number of tribes and traits. The current number, disappearing at an accelerated pace due to overpopulation, dominant cultures, and a communication explosion seemingly threaten many of such cultures and languages. Besides, we are not certain as to the possible impact of five mass extinction of species on human evolution in the earth’s life span of nearly five billion years. While one can not deny the influence of technological advances on indigenous cultures, it is, nevertheless, reassuring to note that its effect might not be as detrimental as one is made to believe. Cultures seem to go through adaptation of imported rituals, yet they retain their original identities for millennia.

The far more serious challenge to recognize and resolve is the rapidly depleting natural resources and pollution dilemma. In response to our rapidly depleting natural and energy resources, progressive and proactive people especially in the West rediscovered a new level of appreciation and concern over such realities in the mid-twentieth century. Respect for nature has existed in many indigenous societies of the Americas and the Middle East for millennia. Recognizing the time juncture of the third millennium has prompted many to critically assess the quality of life for all World citizens from guiding visions that are based on the concept of sustainability and intergenerational equity for all. It is based on the notion that Earth’s natural resources are finite, and its carrying capacity is limited; therefore, we must modify our exploitation of such resources in ways to maximize use, and minimize harmful effects, thereby stretching these resources for generations to come. Whereas scientific and technological advances have facilitated and enhanced our lifestyles, they have adversely impacted the Earth and us, ironically by scientific breakthroughs. It was in response to the importance of the aforementioned facts that John McConnell declared Earth Day, to coincide with March 21, the vernal equinox, when the sun crosses the equator and when there are 12 exact hours of daylight and 12 exact hours of night time.

The sustainability concept, truly interdsciplinary in nature and multi-jurisdictional in approach, is based on a series of parameters that could be summarized as follows: Earth, Ecology, Environment, Energy, Economics, Ethics, Equity, Education, Empowerment, and, Aesthetics.

Lee Lawrenece in www.earthday.org (10) writes: “The coming of the New Millennium may impel us to examine what remains to be done to improve the quality of life for individuals all over the world. The past need not be prologue. At the closing of the last millennium, 999 A. D., Europe had become poor and backward. There was no maintenance of cities and roads had fallen into ruin. By our standards, life for most Europeans was unimaginable mean, dirty and unhealthy. The impact on Europe of the Fall of the Roman Empire, five centuries earlier, proved to almost wipe out civilization.”

The Earth Day of March 21 has been endorsed by a long list of distinguished Nobel Laureates, scientists, politicians, the United Nations, international leaders, artists, entrepreneurs, etc. Periodical anniversaries, observed by people throughout time to keep track of their sorrow, joy, victories, revolutions and revelations have played a crucial role in recording history. Isn’t about time to

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universalize Earth Day when the bounty of nature is celebrated by all people of our fragile planet, as a platform for common understanding and accommodations?

“The vernal equinox calls on all mankind to recognize and respect Earth’s beautiful systems of balance, between the presence of animals on land, the fish in the sea, birds in the air, mankind, water, air, and land. Most importantly there must always be awareness of the actions by people that can disturb this precious balance.” To epitomize, strive to achieve a just unity for the human race requires the recognition of human intra-diversity, dignity and culture on one hand, and the inter-relationship with all other forms of matter at its pinnacle, on the other. A circular paradigm has emerged where humans are not any longer the central superior creature of the World as promoted by certain religious doctrines, but similar to early philosophies a mere member of a whole integrated community.

A poem, which is inscribed atop the entrance of the UN Geneva by the Persian 13 th Century Poet, Sa’di sums it all up:

All Adam’s [Nature’s resources] Race are members of the one frame,Since all, at first, from the same essence came.When by hard fortune one limb is oppressed,

the other members lose their wanted rest.If thou feel’st not for others’ misery,

a son of Adam is no name for thee (13)

Sources and Further Readings

(1) National Geographic, Global Culture, Vol. 196 No. 2, August 1999.(2) Ancient Calendars and Constellations, by Emmeline M. Plunket, Published by John Murphy 1903, London.(3) Handy-Book of Rules and Tables for verifying dates with the Christian Ear, John. J. Bond, Russell & Russell, New York 1966.(4) Praise, Frank, The Book of Calendar, Published by Facts on File 1982, New York.(5) Torpe, B. The Homilies of the Angelo-Saxon Church, 2Vols, pp 98, London 1844.(6) Amir Moez, Yassaman The magic of NuRuz, Indian Journal of Folk-lore, January 1992.(7) Grimal, Pierre, Larousse World Mythology 55-70 (New York, G.P. Putnum 1963.(8) When The New Year Came in March, by Dorothea Stilman, published by E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New York 1944.( 9) The book of Calendars Frank Praise, ed., Published by Facts on File, Inc. 1982.(10) http://www.earthsite.org(11) New Year in Greece, VIKTIS, Vol. 56, No. 6, page 9, 1996.(12) New Year Celebrations—Past & Present, VILTIS, Vol. 55, No. 5, page 5, 1995(13) The Poem, as inscribed atop the UN Headquarters’ entrance in Geneva, by the 13th Century Persian Poet, Sa’di

About the Author:

D. N. Rahni (nrahni@pace.edu ) is Professor of Analytical Chemistry and the main developer and the first Director of the Graduate Program in Environmental Science at Pace University, Pleasantville, New York. In addition, he serves as an adjunct professor in both the LL.M. Environmental Law Program at the Pace University School of Law, and the Department of Dermatology at the New York Medical College. He is the 1999 Chair-Elect, and 2000 Chair of the American Chemical Society’s New York Section. He was selected the 1996 Distinguished Scientist by the American Chemical Society’s Westchester Section. During 1993-94, he was a Fulbright Senior Research Scholar at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) and visiting professor at the University of Oxford, UK. He was also

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awarded a visiting professorship to DTU, by the Royal Danish Research Academy for the summer 1994, where he offered a three-day workshop on surface characterization methodology. In the past, he has served as an adjunct professor of chemistry at Manhattanville College, has held visiting scientist positions with the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center and Ciba-Geigy Research Division, and has either been a visiting professor or given extended lectures at the II University of Rome, the University of Florence, National University of Mexico, Universities of Southampton, Leeds, Loughborough, London, Copenhagen, and the Danish Orsted Institute. He has also served as a visiting United Nations TOKTEN Scholar in the third world, presenting lectures and assisting in curriculum development in, among others, Tehran, Guilan, and the National Universities of Iran (summer 1992, and 1995). He has provided consultation services to many industries, and served extensively as an expert witness on legal matters. He is versed in understanding the challenges and opportunities faced by the higher education and the philanthropic world in the new millennium.

Professor Rahni, earned his Ph.D. and did postdoctoral studies in Analytical Chemistry in Professor G.G. Guilbault’s research laboratory at the (L.S.U.) University of New Orleans (1985-86), his M.S. in Chemistry at Eastern New Mexico University (1980), and his B.Sc. in Chemistry at the National University of Iran (1979). He has published or presented extensively in such diverse fields as immobilized enzyme electrochemical sensors for clinical, environmental and industrial assays, electrodeposition of thin-film compositionally-modulated alloys and metal multi-laminated nano-structures for micro-electronic and micro-mechanical applications, in-situ pH and other key measurements in the diffusion layer of the cathode during the electrodeposition of metals, process engineering, the direct and indirect electrochemical investigation of oxidoreductase enzymes and proteins and their surface interactions, asymmetric synthesis and mechanistic studies of congested heterocyclic phosphorous, sulfur, and germanium compounds, environmental sciences and law, sustainable development, and chemical and science education.

A recipient of 1997-98 Kenan Award for Teaching Excellence, David Rahni has organized and chaired numerous workshops and symposia, as typified by his current fundraising and program leadership for the Nichols Medal Symposium and Banquet, the Nichols being the oldest Chemistry Medal in the Nation. He was the General Chair and Host for the 31st Middle Atlantic Regional Meeting of the American Chemical Society. His other contributions included past membership on the Environmental Advisory Council for the U.S. 20th Congressional District Representative, Nita M. Lowey, and his leadership role as a founding member in Partners for Sustainable Development, NYS wide Initiatives for Economic Development and Climatic Change Conference, and Rene DuBos Annual Conference on Automobile, Energy and Societal Impact. (http://dyson.pace.edu/rahni.htm).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSome technical editing and discussion provide by Professor Johanna Sterben isappreciated.

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