TPO 1 – 30

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TPO 1 – 30 Vocabulary

TPO 1 – 30

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TPO 1

Reading 1

Abundant- Precipitation- Streams- emerge- particle- pebble- consolidate-gravel- sediment-laden with-deposit- slope- cement-plug- percolate- porous-lava- bubble-permeability- cavity- crevice- drain- cling- tension- saturate- overcome-

Abundant Ample

Plentiful

Teeming

vs. scarce

an abundant supply of fresh water

abundant opportunities for well qualified staff

Precipitation

Rainfall

Snowfall

Stream Small river

Mountain stream

Blood stream

Emerge Appear

The flowers emerge in the spring.

The sun emerged from behind the clouds.

Eventually the truth emerged.

Particle

a very small piece of something: dust particles

particle of tiny particles of soil

Pebble a small smooth stone found especially on a

beach or on the bottom of a river:

The beach was covered with smooth white pebbles.

Consolidate Strengthen The company has consolidated its position as the

country's leading gas supplier. The team consolidated their lead with a third goal.

Gravel small stones, used to make a surface for paths,

roads etc:

a gravel path

Sand and gravel

Sediment solid substances that settle at the bottom of

a liquid:

a thick layer of sediment

Laden with

fill, fill up, make full

The tables were laden with food.

Deposit put, set, place, pose, position, lay

As the river slows down, it deposits a layer of soil.

Slope a piece of ground or a surface that slopes

a steep slope

a gentle (=not steep) slope

Cement a bag of cement

سیمان

Plug

insert, enclose, inclose , stick in, put in, introduce, cover

We used mud to plug up the holes in the roof.

Percolate diffuse, spread, spread out

The message has begun to percolate through the organization.

These ideas were slow to percolate.

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Porous allowing liquid, air etc to pass slowly through

many very small holes:

porous material

Lava

hot liquid rock that flows from a volcano, or this rock when it has become solid

Bubble a ball of air or gas in liquid:

When water boils, bubbles rise to the surface.

soap bubbles

She was blowing bubbles in her milk with a straw.

Permeability

material that is permeable allows water, gas etc to pass through it [≠ impermeable]:

the permeable cell membrane

Cavity a hole or space inside something:

Put herbs inside the body cavity of the fish.

I have no cavities (=no holes in my teeth)

Crevice a narrow crack in the surface of something,

especially in rock:

small creatures that hide in crevices in the rock

Drain

to make the water or liquid in something flow away:

The swimming pool is drained and cleaned every winter.

Cling cling, cleave, adhere, stick, cohere

He wailed and clung to his mother.

Passengers clung desperately onto the lifeboats.

Tension Stress, worry

The tension was becoming unbearable, and I wanted to scream.

کشش

Saturate fill, fill up, make full

Our culture is saturated with television and advertising

Overcome defeat

He struggled to overcome his shyness.

Her financial problems could no longer be overcome.

Reading 2 Speculation- concrete- envision- champion-

ritual- myth- attribute- perceive- costume- conception- abandon- modify- autonomous- recall- impersonation- imitate- virtuosity-antecedent- penchant- detach- deviation- cease- retain-

Speculation speculate, theorize, theorise, conjecture,

hypothesize, hypothesise, hypothecate, suppose

There is speculation that the president is ill.

Concrete Tangible, touchable

made of concrete:

a concrete floor

2 definite and specific [↪ abstract]:

What does that mean in concrete terms?

the lack of any concrete evidence

a dialogue about concrete issues and problems

Envision visualize, visualise, envision, project, fancy,

see, figure, picture, image

I envisioned a future of educational excellence

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Champion

back, endorse, indorse, plump for, plunk for, support

She championed the cause of religious freedom

Ritual

Religious ceremony

the importance of religion and ritual in our lives

Myth

an idea or story that many people believe, but which is not true

Contrary to popular myth, the majority of accidents are not caused by speeding or drunkenness.

the myth of Orpheus

attribute

ascribe, assign,

The fall in the number of deaths from heart disease is generally attributed to improvements in diet.

perceive

understand, realize, realise, see

That morning, he perceived a change in Franca's mood.

Cats are not able to perceive colour .

costume

a set of clothes

Hallowe'en costumes

conception Understanding

They have no conception of what women really feel and want.

Misconception

abandon Leave

Quit

We had to abandon the car and walk the rest of the way.

modify Change

The feedback will be used to modify the course for next year.

The regulations can only be modified by a special committee.

recall remember, retrieve, recall, call back,

call up, recollect, think

I seem to recall I've met him before somewhere

impersonation act, play, mock

Do you know it is a very serious offence to impersonate a police officer?

imitate Copy

Imitate s.o’s behavior

virtuosity a very high degree of skill in

performing

antecedent

Ancestors

penchant Tendency, inclination

a penchant for fast cars

detach

Separate

Please detach and fill out the application form.

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deviation Differ, divert

deviation from the normal procedure

cease

Stop

Ceasefire

Cessation

retain

Keep

Hold

Retain your composure

Reading 3

Shrub- herb- moisture- tropic- deciduous- twist- deform- latitude- tend- attain- prone- avalanche- creep- velocity- altitude- bare- prostrate- striking- adjacent- insulation- equator- prevalent- moss-

shrub

a small bush with several woody stems

herb Plant

Herbal tea

Herbivorous

Carnivorous

Omnivorous

Moisture

Wetness

Plants use their roots to absorb moisture from the soil.

Your skin's moisture content varies according to weather conditions.

tropic

the tropicsPG the hottest part of the world, which is around the equator:

plant species found in the tropics

deciduous deciduous trees lose their leaves in

winter [≠ evergreen]

twist flex, bend, deform, twist, turn

He twisted his head slightly, and looked up at her.

deform contort, deform, distort, wring

Wearing badly-fitting shoes can deform your feet.

latitude

the distance north or south of the equator (=the imaginary line around the middle of the world), measured in

degrees [↪ longitude]

2 latitudes [plural] an area at a particular latitude:

The birds breed in northern latitudes.

the oceans of the lower latitude

tend

Incline

People tend to need less sleep as they get older.

My car tends to overheat in the summer.

attain achieve, accomplish, attain, reach

More women are attaining positions of power.

prone

likely to do something or suffer from something, especially something bad or harmful

prone to

Some plants are very prone to disease.

prone to do something

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Kids are all prone to eat junk food.

avalanche

a large mass of snow, ice, and rocks that falls down the side of a mountain:

Two skiers were killed in the avalanche.

creep

to move in a quiet, careful way, especially to avoid attracting attention

creep into/over/around etc

Johann would creep into the gallery to listen to the singers.

He crept back up the stairs, trying to avoid the ones that creaked.

velocity

the speed of something

the velocity of light

The speedboat reached a velocity of 120 mph.

a high velocity bullet

altitude

the height of an object or place above the sea

altitude of

We're flying at an altitude of 40,000 feet.

high/low altitudes

At high altitudes it is difficult to get enough oxygen.

bare

Not covered

Land, hand, child

prostrate

lying on your front with your face

towards the ground:

They found him lying prostrate on the floor.

prostrate body/figure/form

2 too shocked, upset, weak etc to be able to do anything

prostrate with

Julie was prostrate with grief after her father's death.

Prostrate plant

striking

unusual or interesting enough to be easily noticed

striking contrast/similarity/parallel etc

a striking contrast between wealth and poverty

Noticeable

adjacent

Next to

We stayed in adjacent rooms.

Insulation

to cover or protect something with a material

Good insulation can save you money on heating bills.

equator

the equator an imaginary line drawn around the middle of the Earth that is exactly the same distance from the North Pole and the South Pole

on/at/near the equator a small village near the equator

prevalent

common at a particular time, in a particular place, or among a particular group of people

Solvent abuse is especially prevalent among younger teenagers.

the prevalent belief in astrology

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moss a very small green plant that grows in a thick

soft furry mass on wet soil, trees, or rocks

—mossy adjective:

a high, mossy wall

خزه

TPO2

Reading 1 Lung- gill- Disguise- affinity- dwell-

limb- embed-

Precious- detect- expose- vestige- portion- rear-

Propulsion

Lung

one of the two organs in your body that you breathe with:

Smoking can cause lung cancer

شش

Gill

one of the organs on the sides of a fish through which it breathes

آبشش

Disguise

hide, conceal

There's no way you can disguise that southern accent.

Affinity a close relationship between two

things because of qualities or features that they share

affinity with/between

the affinity between Christian and Chinese concepts of the spirit

Dwell populate, dwell, live, inhabit

They dwelt in the forest.

Limb an arm or leg

Embed implant, engraft, embed, imbed, plant

A piece of glass was embedded in her hand.

Feelings of guilt are deeply embedded in her personality

Precious Valuable

We cannot afford to waste precious time.

planes delivering precious supplies of medicine and food

our planet's precious resources

Detect

detect, observe, find, discover, notice

Many forms of cancer can be cured if detected early.

Dan detected a change in her mood.

Expose

expose, exhibit, display

Potatoes turn green when exposed to light.

The report revealed that workers had been exposed to high levels of radiation.

Vestige 1 a small part or amount of something

that remains when most of it no longer exists [= trace]

vestige of

The new law removed the last vestiges of royal power.

2 the smallest possible amount of a quality or feeling

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vestige of

There's not a vestige of truth in the story.

Portion

a part of something larger, especially a part that is different from the other parts

portion of

The front portion of the rocket breaks off.

significant/substantial/major/good portion

The main character's childhood takes up a good portion of the film.

Rear

the rear the back part of an object, vehicle, or building, or a position at the back of an object or area [≠ front]

a garden at the rear of the house

a passenger travelling in the rear of a car

Propulsion

the force that drives a vehicle forward

[↪ propel]

research into liquid hydrogen as a means of propulsion

Reading2

approximately- accelerate- ridge- runoff- deterioration- arid- semiarid- delicate- phenomena- diminish- cultivation- graze- irrigation- devoid of- susceptible- erosion- dominant- trample- pulverization- salinization- sink- drainage- evaporate- tremendous- rigorous

Approximately Nearly, almost

The plane will be landing in approximately 20 minutes.

How much do think it will cost, approximately?

accelerate accelerate, speed up, speed, quicken

measures to accelerate the rate of economic growth

The car accelerated smoothly away.

ridge

a long area of high land, especially at the top of a mountain:

We made our way carefully along the ridge.

Runoff rain or other liquid that flows off the

land into rivers

deteriorate Decay, worsen

Ethel's health has deteriorated.

America's deteriorating economy

arid

Dry

Water from the Great Lakes is pumped to arid regions.

Delicate Fragile, frail, vulnerable

The sun can easily damage a child's delicate skin.

a delicate child

her delicate features

phenomenon Event

something that happens or exists in society, science, or nature, especially something that is studied because it is difficult to understand

phenomenon of

the growing phenomenon of telecommuting

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Homelessness is not a new phenomenon.

Language is a social and cultural phenomenon.

Diminish

decrease, diminish, lessen, fall

These drugs diminish blood flow to the brain.

But that's not to diminish the importance of his discoveries.

cultivate

crop, work

The land was too rocky to cultivate.

We cultivated maize and watermelons

graze crop, browse, graze, range, pasture

Groups of cattle were grazing on the rich grass.

fields where they used to graze their sheep

irrigate

water, irrigate

The water in Lake Powell is used to irrigate the area.

Devoid of to be completely lacking in something:

His face was devoid of any warmth or humour.

susceptible likely to suffer from a particular illness

or be affected by a particular problem

[↪ immune]

susceptible to

Older people are more susceptible to infections.

Soil on the mountain slopes is very susceptible to erosion.

erosion the process by which rock or soil is

gradually destroyed by wind, rain, or the sea:

the problem of soil erosion

the erosion of the coastline

dominate

master control, command

The industry is dominated by five multinational companies.

New Orleans dominated throughout the game.

Her loud voice totally dominated the conversation.

Education issues dominated the election campaign.

trample to step heavily on something, so that

you crush it with your feet

trample on/over/through etc

There was a small fence to stop people trampling on the flowers.

trample somebody/something underfoot

The children were in danger of being trampled underfoot in the crowd.

Pulverization to crush something into a powder:

The seeds can be used whole or pulverized into flour.

Salinization containing or consisting of salt:

saline solution

sink

sink, settle, go down, go under

Their motorboat struck a rock and began to sink.

The kids watched as the coin sank to the bottom of the pool.

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The heavy guns sank up to their barrels in the mud.

Drain consume, eat up, use up, eat, deplete,

exhaust, run through, wipe out

to make the water or liquid in something flow away:


Evaporate

Vaporise

if a liquid evaporates, or if heat evaporates it, it changes into a gas:

Most of the water had evaporated.

The sun evaporates moisture on the leaves.

tremendous

very big, fast, powerful etc:

Suddenly, there was a tremendous bang, and the whole station shook.

She was making a tremendous effort to appear calm.

She praised her husband for the tremendous support he had given her.

Sales have been tremendous so far this year.

This plan could save us a tremendous amount of money.

rigorous careful, thorough, and exact:

a rigorous analysis of defence needs

the rigorous standards required by the college

Reading 3 Consumption- initial- arcade- parlors-

vaudeville- Legitimate- spectacle- spectator- manipulation- Expand- minute- minuscule

consume consume, eat up, use up, eat, deplete,

exhaust, run through, wipe out

to use time, energy, goods etc [↪ consumption]:

Only 27% of the paper we consume is recycled.

A smaller vehicle will consume less fuel.

initial happening at the beginning [= first]:

an initial investment of £5000

initial stage/phase/period

the initial stages of the disease

The initial response has been encouraging.

arcade

1AATBB a covered passage at the side of a row of buildings with pillars and arches supporting it on one side

2 a covered passage between two streets with shops on each side of it

3 British English also shopping arcadeBBT a large building or part of a building where there are many shops

4DL an amusement arcade:

arcade games

parlor

Salon

vaudeville a type of theatre entertainment,

popular from the 1880s to the 1950s, in which there were many short performances of different kinds, including singing, dancing, jokes etc

[↪ music hall]

legitimate

air or reasonable:

That's a perfectly legitimate question.

Most scientists believe it is legitimate

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to use animals in medical research.

2 acceptable or allowed by law:

Their business operations are perfectly legitimate.

3SSC a legitimate child is born to parents who are legally married to each other [≠ illegitimate]

spectacle 1 a very impressive show or scene:

a multimedia dance and opera spectacle

2 [usually singular] an unusual or interesting thing or situation that you see or notice - used especially in order to show disapproval:

The trial was turned into a public spectacle.

spectator

someone who is watching an event or

game [↪ audience]:

The match attracted over 40,000 spectators.

manipulation manipulate, keep in line, control

software designed to store and manipulate data

You can integrate text with graphics and manipulate graphic images.

expand

Enlarge

Water expands as it freezes.

The computer industry has expanded greatly over the last decade.

Minute- minuscule Small

Tiny

TPO 3

Reading 1 Aspiration- texture- harmony- shelter-

enhance- inspiration- delight- contribute- enrich- feasible- mediocre- trace- dramatically- devise- gravity- withstand- integral- enclose- interior- plumbing- permanence- arduous- piling- curve-brick- segment- horizontal-

aspiration

a strong desire to have or achieve something [= ambition]:

a high level of political aspiration

aspiration of

the aspirations of the working classes

texture the way a surface or material feels

when you touch it, especially how smooth or rough it is

smooth/silky/rough etc. texture

the smooth texture of silk

a designer who experiments with different colours and textures

بافت

harmony when people live or work together

without fighting or disagreeing with each other:

I do believe it is possible for different ethnic groups to live together in harmony.

the pleasant effect made by different things that form an attractive whole:

the harmony of sea and sky

shelter a place to live, considered as one of

the basic needs of life:

They are in need of food and shelter.

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2 [uncountable] protection from danger or from wind, rain, hot sun etc

shelter of

We reached the shelter of the caves.

enhance to improve something:

Good lighting will enhance any room.

The publicity has enhanced his reputation

intensify, compound, heighten, deepen

better, improve, amend, ameliorate, meliorate

inspiration a good idea about what you should do,

write, say etc, especially one which you get suddenly

The Malvern Hills have provided inspiration for many artists and musicians over the decades.

He raised his eyes to the altar as if seeking inspiration.

He draws inspiration from ordinary scenes.

Mary Quant's inspiration comes from the glam style of the 70s.

He had a sudden flash of inspiration.

He has always been a source of inspiration for me.

الهام

delight

a feeling of great pleasure and satisfaction

The kids were screaming with delight.

It was a delight to see him so fit and healthy.

contribute

to give money, help, ideas etc to something that a lot of other people are also involved in

contribute to/towards

City employees cannot contribute to political campaigns.

enrich to improve the quality of something,

especially by adding things to it:

Add fertilizer to enrich the soil.

Education can greatly enrich your life.

better, improve, amend, ameliorate, meliorate

feasible Possible- practical

a plan, idea, or method that is feasible is possible and is likely to work:

a feasible solution

economically/technically/politically etc feasible

It was no longer financially feasible to keep the community centre open.

mediocre

not very good [= second rate]:

I thought the book was pretty mediocre.

a mediocre student

trace find somebody/something to find

someone or something that has disappeared by searching for them carefully:

She had given up all hope of tracing her missing daughter.

Police are trying to trace a young woman who was seen near the accident.

origins to find the origins of when something began or where it came from

trace something (back) to something

They've traced their ancestry to Scotland.

The style of these paintings can be traced back to early medieval influences.

dramatically great and sudden

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dramatic change/shift/improvement

Computers have brought dramatic changes to the workplace.

dramatic increase/rise/fall/drop/reduction etc

Universities have suffered a dramatic drop in student numbers.

dramatic effect/results

A serious accident can have a dramatic effect on your family's finances.

devise invent, contrive, devise, excogitate,

formulate, forge

She devised a method for quicker communications between offices.

gravity the force that causes something to fall

to the ground or to be attracted to anotherجاذبه

the extreme and worrying seriousness of a situation

gravity of

I could not hide from her the gravity of the situation.

The penalties should be proportionate to the gravity of the offence.

withstand [= resist, stand up to]:defy, withstand,

hold, hold up

This fabric can withstand steam and high temperatures.

integral forming a necessary part of

something: essential, necessary, needed

Vegetables are an integral part of our diet.

integral to

Statistics are integral to medical research.

enclose to surround something, especially with

a fence or wall, in order to make it separate: confine

The pool area is enclosed by a six-foot wall.

an enclosed area

interior

the inner part or inside of something [≠ exterior]:

The interior of the church was dark.

the car's warm interior

plumbing

the pipes that water flows through in a building:

We keep having problems with the plumbing

permanence continuing to exist for a long time or for

all the time in the future [≠ temporary]:

He gave up a permanent job in order to freelance.

a permanent change in your eating habits

The blindness that the disease causes will be permanent.

arduous

involving a lot of strength and effort

arduous task/work

the arduous task of loading all the boxes into the van

pile Gather

to fill a place or container or cover a surface with a large amount of things

pile something into/onto etc something

He piled bread and milk into his basket.

Melissa piled spaghetti onto her plate

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curve a line that gradually bends like part of

a circle

curve of

the curve of her hips

a sweeping curve of railroad track کج خم

brick

a hard block of baked clay used for building walls, houses etc:

a brick wall

a house made of brick

Protesters attacked the police with stones and bricks.آجر

segment

a part of something that is different from or affected differently from the whole in some way

segment of

segments of the population

Horizontal

flat and level:

a horizontal surface

—horizontally adverb

Opposite [↪ diagonal, vertical

Reading2

Rancher- accumulate- drill- drought- ensuing- negligible- virtually- replenish- drastically- incentive- conserve- grandiose- capillary water- strain- scheme- negligible

Rancher someone who owns or works on a

ranch

a very large farm in the western US and Canada where sheep, cattle, or horses are bred

دامدار

accumulate collect, accumulate, pile up, amass,

compile, hoard

It is unjust that a privileged few should continue to accumulate wealth

the accumulation of data

drill to make a hole in something using a

drill:

Drill a hole in each corner.

drill into/through

He accidentally drilled into a water pipe.

drought a long period of dry weather when

there is not enough water for plants and animals to live

خشکسالی

ensuing

happening after a particular action or event, especially as a result of it

the ensuing battle/conflict/debate etc

In the ensuing fighting, two students were killed.

the ensuing days/months/years etc (=the days, months etc after an event)

The situation deteriorated over the ensuing weeks

negligible

too slight or unimportant to have any effect [= insignificant]:

The damage done to his property was negligible.

virtually

Almost

almost [= practically]:

Virtually all the children come to school by bus.

He was virtually unknown before running for office.

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replenish refill, fill again

fill, fill up, make full

More vaccines are needed to replenish our stocks.

drastically extreme and sudden

drastic action/measures

NATO threatened drastic action if its terms were not met.

drastic cuts in government spending

Drastic changes are needed if environmental catastrophe is to be avoided.

—drastically /-kli/ adverb:

The size of the army was drastically cut

incentive something that encourages you to

work harder, start a new activity etc:

As an added incentive, there's a bottle of champagne for the best team.

create/provide/give somebody an incentive

Awards provide an incentive for young people to improve their skills.

incentive to do something

Farmers lack any incentive to manage their land organically.

economic/financial/tax etc incentives

a recycling drive backed with financial incentives

انگیزه مشوق

conserve

preserve, maintain, keep up

to protect something and prevent it from changing or being damaged [= preserve]:

We must conserve our woodlands for future generations.

efforts to conserve fish stocks

grandiose grandiose plans sound very important

or impressive, but are not practical

grandiose scheme/plan/idea etc

grandiose schemes of urban renewal

scheme an official plan that is intended to help

people in some way, for example by providing education or training [= program

The money will be used for teacher training schemes.

a pension scheme

Capillary water

Water in the soil

strain

Stress

I couldn't look after him any more; the strain was too much for me.

Did you find the job a strain?

the stresses and strains of police life

2) difficulty

The dry summer has further increased the strain on water resources

Reading 3 Succession- cumulative- pond-

relatively- invasion- pest- resilience- niche- vacate-intact-

succession

1 in succession happening one after the other without anything different happening in between:

She won the championship four times in succession.

in quick/rapid/close succession (=quickly one after the other)

He fired two shots in quick succession.

2 a succession of something a number of people or things of the same kind following, coming or happening one

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after the other:

A succession of visitors came to the door.

cumulative increasing gradually as more of

something is added or happens:

Learning is a cumulative process.

cumulative effect (of something)

Depression is often caused by the cumulative effects of stress and overwork.

pond

a small area of fresh water that is smaller than a lake, that is either natural or artificially made

حوضچه

relatively Fairly, almost

The system is relatively easy to use.

E-commerce is a relatively recent phenomenon.

نسبتا

invasion enter, come in, get into, get in, go into,

go in, move into

Every summer the town is invaded by tourists.

Fans invaded the pitch at half-time.

The Romans invaded Britain 2000 years ago.

pest a small animal or insect that destroys

crops or food supplies [↪ vermin]:

a chemical used in pest control

آفت

resilience Toughness

the resilience of youth

People showed remarkable resilience

during the war.

niche Gap, hole

vacate

Leave

Clay will vacate the position on June 19.

Guests must vacate their rooms by 11:00.

intact

not broken, damaged, or spoiled:

Only the medieval tower had remained intact.

His reputation survived intact.

TPO 4

Reading 1 Prevalent- prairie- marsh- understory-

inhibit- meadow- browse- fair weather- decay- dormancy- hibernating- cedar- huckleberry- hemlock- alder- arboreal fodder- fluctuate- bemoan- in the same breath- elk- expedition- starvation- picturesquely- dot- extermination- plight- encroach- logging- annual- rebound- predator- cougar- lynx- profound- game

Prevalent

accepted, widespread

prevalent in/among etc

Solvent abuse is especially prevalent among younger teenagers.

the prevalent belief in astrology

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prairie Grassland, meadow, pasture, plain

marsh

Swamp, bog,swampland

باتلاق

The crane lives in marshy habitats.

understory

Undergrowth, under grass

A layer of vegetation beneath the main canopy of forest

inhibit

Restrict, constraint, hinder, impede, obstruct

An unhappy family life may inhibit children's learning.

Recording the meeting may inhibit people from expressing their real views.

meadow

Grassy land, grassy field, pasture, plain, prairie

browse

Look around, look through, peruse, graze

Jon was browsing through the photographs.

The trip allows you plenty of time for browsing around the shops.

tourists browsing the boutiques and souvenir stalls

Fair- weather

Untrustworthy, dishonest, false, disloyal, unreliable, unsafe

Fair-weather friend

decay Rot, break down, collapse, deteriorate,

corrosion,

to be slowly destroyed by a natural chemical process, or to make something do this

Most archaeological finds are broken, damaged, or decayed.

dormancy

Inaction, inactivity, inertia,

The seeds remain dormant until the spring.

a huge dormant volcano

hibernating

verb lie dormant; sleep through cold weather

cedar

سرو

huckleberry

a small dark-blue North American fruit that grows on a bush

hemlock

شوکران

alder

توسکا

arboreal fodder

علوفه درختی

fluctuate

Oscillate, vary, alternate, waver, keep changing

Prices were volatile, fluctuating between $20 and $40.

Insect populations fluctuate wildly from year to year.

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bemoan verb express sorrow

Complain, regret, mourn,

He was bemoaning the fact that lawyers charge so much.

in the same breath

used to say that someone has said two things at once that are so different from each other they cannot both be true:

immediately

He criticized the film, then predicted in the same breath that it would be a great success.

elk

گوزن شمالی

expedition

Journey, exploration, quest, tor, travel, trip

an expedition to the North Pole

another Everest expedition

a shopping expedition

a fishing expedition

starvation Hunger, famine, malnutrition

people dying of starvation

picturesquely

Beautiful, attractive, charming, colorful

a quiet fishing village with a picturesque harbour

a picturesque account of his trip to New York

dot if an area is dotted with things, there

are a lot of them there but they are spread far apart

be dotted with something

The lake was dotted with sailboats.

extermination Destruction, elimination, extinction,

eradication

Staff use the poison to exterminate moles and rabbits.

plight

Bad Condition, predicament, trouble, dilemma

the desperate plight of the flood victims

the country's economic plight

encroach

verb invade another's property, business

Intrude, trespass,

to gradually take more of someone's time, possessions, rights etc than you should

encroach on/upon

Bureaucratic power has encroached upon the freedom of the individual.

2 to gradually cover more and more land

encroach into

The fighting encroached further east.

—encroachment noun [uncountable and countable]

foreign encroachment

logging

Deforestation

the work of cutting down trees in a forest

annual Yearly, each year

The school trip has become an annual event.

The jazz festival is held annually in July.

TPO 1 – 30


rebound Revive, overcome, recover

Share prices rebounded today after last week's losses

predator

Hunter, killer

cougar

گربه وحشی یوزپلنگ امریکایی

lynx

Bobcat

سیاه گوش

profound

deep, philosophical, serious

having a strong influence or effect

profound effect/influence/impact/consequence etc

Tolstoy's experiences of war had a profound effect on his work.

The mother's behaviour has a profound impact on the developing child.

profound changes in society

game

wild animals, birds, and fish that are hunted for food, especially as a sport:

game birds

Reading 2

Bead- crude- excavate- inhabit- trapping- depict- spear- cattle- bovine- chip- tusk- horn- reindeer- shaft- figurine- fertility-

Bead

Stone

مهره

crude Cheap, clumsy, raw, approximate

a crude estimate of the population available for work

excavate

Uncover, unearth, dig up,

Schliemann excavated the ancient city of Troy.

to make a hole in the ground by digging up soil

inhabit

Dwell, populate, reside, live in

The woods are inhabited by many wild animals.

inhabited islands

trappings

things such as money, influence, possessions etc that are related to a particular type of person, job, or way of life

trappings of

the trappings of power

depict

Illustrate, describe, interpret

a book depicting life in pre-revolutionary Russia

The god is depicted as a bird with a human head.

spear

a pole with a sharp pointed blade at one end, used as a weapon in the past

نیزه

cattle

Herd

cows and bulls kept on a farm for their meat or milk:

herds of cattle

TPO 1 – 30


bovine relating to cows:

bovine diseases

chip a small piece of wood, stone, metal etc

that has been broken off something:

Wood chips covered the floor of the workshop.

tusk one of a pair of very long pointed

teeth, that stick out of the mouth of animals such as elephants

horn the hard pointed thing that grows,

usually in pairs, on the heads of animals such as cows and goats

reindeer گوزن شمالی

shaft

a long handle on a tool

Figurine

a small model of a person or animal used as a decoration

Doll

fertility

Potency, pregnancy, productivity

the ability of the land or soil to produce good crops

2MB the ability of a person, animal, or plant to produce babies, young animals, or seeds [≠ infertility]

Reading 3

Marine- accumulate- decompose- sediment- mud- droplet- squeeze- drill- derrick- dismantle- spout- gusher- adjacent- dye- hostile- slope- spillage-

collision- slick- platform- drift- ashore- foul- subside- barrier- adverse-

dismantle

Break up, destroy, demolish, disassemble, take apart

Chris dismantled the bike in five minutes.

spout

a sudden strong stream of liquid which comes out of somewhere very fast

gusher

a place in the ground where oil or water comes out very forcefully, so that a pump is not needed

Adjacent Next to, neighboring

We stayed in adjacent rooms.

the building adjacent to the library

dye

Pigment, color

hair dye

hostile Hateful, unfavorable, unfriendly,

inhospitable

The boy feels hostile towards his father.

his hostile attitude

slope شیب

Tilt

if you spill a liquid, or if it spills, it accidentally flows over the edge of a

container [↪ pour]:

Katie almost spilled her milk.

collision

Accident

TPO 1 – 30


The school bus was involved in a collision with a truck.

Two people were killed in a head-on collision

slick oil slick an area of oil on the

surface of water or on a road

platform

Floor, stage

the raised place beside a railway track where you get on and off a train in a station:

The Edinburgh train will depart from platform six.

2for speechesTBB a stage for people to stand on when they are making a speech, performing etc:

a small raised platform at one end of the room

drift to move slowly on water or in the air

Smoke drifted up from the jungle ahead of us.

ashore on or towards the shore of a lake,

river, sea etc [= onshore]

come/go ashore

Seals come ashore to breed.

Several dead birds had been washed ashore.

foul

to make something very dirty, especially with waste:

rivers and lakes fouled almost beyond recovery by pollutants

subside

Decrease

The pains in his head had subsided, but he still felt dizzy and sick

barrier Blockade, fence, obstacle

Problems with childcare remain the biggest barrier to women succeeding at work.

adverse Unfavorable, negative, unfriendly

They fear it could have an adverse effect on global financial markets.

Miller's campaign has received a good deal of adverse publicity.

squeeze

to press something firmly together with your fingers or hand:

She smiled as he squeezed her hand.

drill to make a hole in something using a

drill:


derrick a tall machine used for lifting heavy

weights, especially on ships

a tall tower built over an oil well, used to raise and lower the drill

جرثقیل دکل کشتی

sediment

Debris, trash, waste

solid substances that settle at the bottom of a liquid:


mud wet earth that has become soft and

sticky:

By the end of the game, all the kids were covered in mud.

The path beside the river was slippery with mud

TPO 1 – 30


droplet a very small drop of liquid

droplet of

tiny droplets of water

marine Aquatic

relating to the sea and the creatures that live there:

the enormous variety of marine life

the effects of oil pollution on marine mammals

marine biology

accumulate Gather, assemble, collect, expand,

hoard, pile up

Fat tends to accumulate around the hips and thighs.

It is unjust that a privileged few should continue to accumulate wealth.

decompose

Break down, decay, fall apart

TPO 5

Reading1 Notorious- deficient- serpentine-

deplete- pigment- stunt- slender- omit- harvest- interrupt- herbaceous- facilitate- suspend- mist- legume- pathogen- contaminate- toxic- excavation-

Notorious

famous or well-known for something bad [= infamous]:

Ill-famed

a notorious computer hacker

notorious cases of human rights abuses

notorious for

a judge notorious for his cruelty and corruption

deficient

adj imperfect, inadequate

Lacking

not containing or having enough of something:

Women who are dieting can become iron deficient.

deficient in

patients who were deficient in vitamin C

Serpentine winding like a snake: twisting, curved

the serpentine course of the river

2 complicated and difficult to understand:

a serpentine plot

Deplete

Diminish, lessen, reduce, use up, weaken

Salmon populations have been severely depleted.

the depletion of the ozone layer

Pigment Color, shade, dye,

Melanin is the dark brown pigment of the hair, skin and eyes.

The artist Sandy Lee uses natural pigments in her work.

Stunt to stop something or someone from

growing to their full size or developing properly:

Lack of sunlight will stunt the plant's growth.

Slender Thin, delicate, fragile, small

The company only has a slender hope of survival.

TPO 1 – 30


The Republicans won the election by a slender majority.

We had to make the most of our rather slender resources.

Omit

leave out, eliminate,

Please don't omit any details, no matter how trivial they may seem.

Lisa's name had been omitted from the list of honor students.

Harvest

Crop, result, output

the crops that have been gathered, or the amount and quality of the crops gathered

good/bumper harvest (=a lot of crops)

Plum growers are expecting a bumper harvest this year.

poor/bad harvest (=few crops)

Interrupt

Cut off, stop, discontinue,

Will you stop interrupting me!

Sorry to interrupt, but I need to ask you to come downstairs.

My studies were interrupted by the war.

Herbaceous

plants that are herbaceous have soft stems rather than hard stems made of wood

Facilitate Aid, ease, expedite,

to make it easier for a process or activity to happen:

Computers can be used to facilitate language learning.

Suspend

Hang from above, dangle, swing, stop

to officially stop something from continuing, especially for a short time:

Sales of the drug will be suspended until more tests are completed.

Talks between the two countries have now been suspended.

Mist

Fog

We could just see the outline of the house through the mist.

Next morning, the whole town was shrouded in mist (=covered in mist).

Legume a plant such as a bean plant that has

seeds in a pod (=a long thin case)

Pathogen

something that causes disease in your body

Contaminate

Pollute, make dirty

Drinking water supplies are believed to have been contaminated.

He claims the poster ads have 'contaminated Berlin's streets'.

Toxic

Poisonous

Toxic chemicals were spilled into the river.

Excavation

if a scientist or archaeologist excavates an area of land, they dig carefully to find ancient objects, bones etc:


TPO 1 – 30


Reading 2 Scatter- speculate- mutual- exclude-

deprecate- overwhelming- implement- prerequisite- outrigger- maritime- maroon- adrift- feat- deliberate- expedition- simulation- derive- undisputed-

Scatter Distribute

Scatter the onions over the fish.

The flowers fell and scattered on the ground.

Speculate Guess, hypothesize

Jones refused to speculate about what might happen.

Some analysts speculated that jobs will be lost.

Mutual Reciprocal, two-sided

Mutual respect is necessary for any partnership to work.

European nations can live together in a spirit of mutual trust.

I didn't like Dev, and the feeling seemed to be mutual.

The two men were a mutual admiration society, gushing about how much they were learning from each other.

Exclude ≠ include

to deliberately not include something

The press had been deliberately excluded from the event.

Sarah heard the other girls talking and laughing and felt excluded.

The judges decided to exclude evidence which had been unfairly attained.

Deprecate to strongly disapprove of or criticize

something

Overwhelming 1 having such a great effect on you

that you feel confused and do not know how to react:

an overwhelming sense of guilt

She felt an overwhelming desire to hit him.

She found the city quite overwhelming when she first arrived.

2 very large or greater, more important etc than any other:

There is overwhelming evidence that smoking damages your health.

An overwhelming majority of the members were against the idea.

The proposal has been given overwhelming support.

The British Air Force succeeded despite overwhelming odds against them.

Implement

Use, make use of, tool

We have decided to implement the committee's recommendations in full.

Prerequisite something that is necessary before

something else can happen or be done

prerequisite for/of/to

A reasonable proficiency in English is a prerequisite for the course.

Outrigger

a long piece of wood that is attached to the side of a boat, especially a canoe, to prevent it from turning over in the water

Maritime Marine

relating to the sea or ships [= marine]:

San Francisco has lost nearly all of its maritime industry.

TPO 1 – 30


2HEO near the sea:

the Canadian maritime provinces

Maroon

to be left in a place where there are no other people and where you cannot escape:

The car broke down and left us marooned in the middle of nowhere.

Adrift 1TTW a boat that is adrift is not

fastened to anything or controlled by anyone:

Several of the lifeboats were still afloat a month after being cast adrift.

2 someone who is adrift is confused about what to do in their life:

a young woman adrift in London

Feat

Challenge

They climbed the mountain in 28 days, a remarkable feat.

Deliberate Intentional, on purpose

a deliberate attempt to humiliate her

The attack on him was quite deliberate.

Expedition Trip, journey, travel,



Simulation the activity of producing conditions

which are similar to real ones, especially in order to test something, or the conditions that are produced:

a computer simulation used to train airline pilots

Derive to get something, especially an

advantage or a pleasant feeling, from something

derive something from something

Medically, we will derive great benefit from this technique.

derive pleasure/enjoyment etc

Many students derived enormous satisfaction from the course.

Undisputed

Unquestioned

1 known to be definitely true:

Doctors found undisputed evidence of nerve damage.

2 accepted by everyone

undisputed leader/champion/master etc

the undisputed world heavyweight champion

Reading 3

Relatively- distribution- descendant- assign- detritus- algae- mite- crab- niche-

Distribution Scatter

the act of sharing things among a large group of people in a planned way

distribution of

the distribution of aid supplies

2 [uncountable] when goods are supplied to shops and companies for them to sell:

a distribution center

Relatively

Fairly, almost, quite

The system is relatively easy to use.

E-commerce is a relatively recent phenomenon.

TPO 1 – 30


Descendant someone who is related to a person

who lived a long time ago, or to a family, group of people etc that existed

in the past [↪ ancestor]

somebody's descendants/the descendants of somebody

The coastal areas were occupied by the descendants of Greek colonists.

He was a direct descendant of Napoleon Bonaparte.

2 something that has developed from something else

descendant of

Quechua is a descendant of the Inca language.

Assign to give someone a particular job or

make them responsible for a particular person or thing

I've been assigned the task of looking after the new students.

Detritus pieces of waste that remain after

something has been broken up or used

Algae a very simple plant without stems or

leaves that grows in or near water

جلبک

Mite a very small creature that lives in

plants, carpets

Worm

Crab a sea animal with a hard shell, five

legs on each side, and two large

خرچنگ

Niche if you find your niche, you find a job or

activity that is very suitable for you:

Amanda soon found her niche at the club.

He's managed to create a niche for himself in local politics.

TPO 6

Reading 1 Dramatic- harness-abound- mill-textile-

exploit- condense- vacuum- reciprocate- illuminate- flicker- accustomed to- manufacture- starve- charcoal- blast- furnace- bellow- retain- monopoly- turnpike- terrain- flanged- haul- puff- liberate-

Dramatic

Sudden, striking, tense, powerful,

Computers have brought dramatic changes to the workplace.

Universities have suffered a dramatic drop in student numbers.

A serious accident can have a dramatic effect on your family's finances.

harness

to control and use the natural force or power of something:

We can harness the power of the wind to generate electricity.

abound verb exist in abundance

Thrive, proliferate

Rumours abound as to the reasons for his resignation.

Examples of this abound in her book.

Mill

a building containing a large machine for crushing grain into flour

اسیاب

Textile any type of woven cloth that is made in

large quantities, used especially by people in the business of making clothes etc:

TPO 1 – 30


Their main exports are textiles, especially silk and cotton.

نساجی

Exploit

Use

Abuse

Homeworkers can easily be exploited by employers.

The violence was blamed on thugs exploiting the situation.

The new TV companies are fully exploiting the potential of satellite transmission.

Condense

Abridge, shorten, compress,

This whole chapter could be condensed into a few paragraphs.

Vacuum Void, gap, emptiness

space that is completely empty of all gas, especially one from which all the air has been taken away

Her husband's death left a vacuum in her life.

Reciprocate

Retaliate,

to do or give something, because something similar has been done or given to you:

When he spoke I was expected to reciprocate with some remark of my own.

illuminate

Make light, make clear, brighten, highlight,

A single candle illuminated his face.

At night the canals are beautifully illuminated.

he report illuminated the difficult issues at the heart of science policy.

flicker Spark, glimmer, beam, gleam,

to burn or shine with an unsteady light that goes on and off quickly:

The overhead lights flickered momentarily.

if an emotion or expression flickers on someone's face or through their mind, it exists or is shown for only a short time

flicker across/through/on etc

A puzzled smile flickered across the woman's face.

Accustomed to

Used to

We were accustomed to working together.

Her eyes quickly became accustomed to the dark.

manufacture Build, produce, invent,

the company that manufactured the drug

manufactured goods

if the media can manufacture stories like this, who are we supposed to believe?

starve

to suffer or die because you do not have enough to eat:

Thousands of people will starve if food doesn't reach the city.

pictures of starving children

They'll either die from the cold or starve to death (=die from lack of food).

charcoal

a black substance made of burned wood that can be used as fuel:

cooking over a charcoal fire

TPO 1 – 30


blast Explosion

The first shot missed and blasted a hole in the far wall.

The plane was blasted out of the sky by a terrorist bomb.

to produce a lot of loud noise, especially music:

He was woken by the radio alarm clock blasting out rock music.

furnace

a large container for a very hot fire, used to produce power, heat, or liquid metal

2 a piece of equipment used to heat a building

bellow

to shout loudly in a deep voice [= yell]:

'That's your problem!' bellowed Hurley.

Tony was bellowing orders.

retain Preserve, maintain, keep

You have the right to retain possession of the goods.

The state wants to retain control of food imports.

A lot of information can be retained in your computer.

Limestone is known to retain moisture.

monopoly

Sth held or owned exclusively, cartel , ownership

They are demanding an end to the Communist Party's monopoly of power.

the state monopoly of television

انحصار امتیاز انحصاری

turnpike

Roadway, freeway, highway

Terrain Landscape, ground, land, province,

region, territory

a particular type of land:

rocky terrain

flange Rim, border,

the flat edge that stands out from an object such as a railway wheel, to keep it in the right position or strengthen it

haul

to pull something heavy with a continuous steady movement

haul something off/onto/out of etc something

She hauled her backpack onto her back.

the steam locomotive which hauled the train

I hauled the door shut behind me.

puff

to breathe quickly and with difficulty after the effort of running, carrying something heavy etc:

George puffed and panted and he tried to keep up

liberate

Detach, free, save, rescue

women's freedom to pursue careers liberated from childcare

the liberating power of education

A few days later, our armies liberated the city.

Reading 2

Rudimentary- roam- apprentice- reveal- meticulous- surround- distinguish- shale- strata- faunal- fauna- trilobite- ubiquitous- arthropod-

TPO 1 – 30


rudimentary Simple, basic, fundamental,

elementary, primitive,

Gradually, I acquired a rudimentary knowledge of music.

my rudimentary German

subsistence farming in its most rudimentary form

The classroom equipment is pretty rudimentary.

roam

Wander about, stray,

to walk or travel, usually for a long time, with no clear purpose or direction

[↪ wander]

The dogs are allowed to roam around.

Chickens and geese roam freely in the back yard.

You shouldn't let your children roam the streets

Apprentice

Pupil, learner of a trade

She works in the hairdresser's as an apprentice.

an apprentice electrician

reveal

Disclose, show, uncover, expose

He may be prosecuted for revealing secrets about the security agency.

a test that can reveal a teacher's hidden skills

meticulous

Precise, cautious, exact, fastidious,

He kept meticulous accounts.

Their planning and preparation were meticulous.

He cleaned the tools with meticulous care.

The book describes his journey in meticulous detail

surround Besiege, circle, hem in,

The field was surrounded by trees.

He glared at the people who surrounded the tent.

distinguish

Differentiate, discern, discriminate,

His attorney argued that Cope could not distinguish between right and wrong.

The factor that distinguishes this company from the competition is customer service.

shale

a smooth soft rock which breaks easily into thin flat pieces

strata a layer of rock or earth

a social class in a society:

people of different social strata

fauna Animal life, animal kingdom

all the animals living in a particular area or period in history

flora

all the plants that grow in a particular place or country: Tourism is damaging the flora and fauna (=plants and animals) of the island.

trilobite a type of fossil of a small sea

creature

ubiquitous

Omnipresent, ever- present, pervasive, universal

Coffee shops are ubiquitous these days.

TPO 1 – 30


arthropod Insect, bug

Reading 3 Infantile- amnesia- scanty- sibling-

sheer- account for- plausible- toddler- maturation- lobe- gist- compatible- critical- retrieve- mutual- exclude-

infantile

Childish, babyish

infantile jokes

amnesia Memory loss

scanty

Inadequate, meager, scant,

There is only scanty evidence of his involvement.

sibling

Sister or brother

sheer the sheer weight/size etc used to

emphasize that something is very heavy, large etc

the sheer weight/size etc of

The sheer size of the country makes communications difficult.

Account for

Give reason for, clarify, explain,

Recent pressure at work may account for his behavior.

Can you account for your movements on that night?

plausible

Reasonable, believable, rational

His story certainly sounds plausible.

a plausible explanation

toddler Baby

a very young child who is just learning to walk

maturation Development, evolution, progress

the period during which something grows and develops:

cell maturation

lobe

a round part of an organ in your body, especially in your brain or lungs

gist

Essence, summary, meaning, main idea

he gist of his argument is that full employment is impossible.

Don't worry about all the details as long as you get the gist (=understand the main meaning) of it.

compatible In harmony, adaptable,

Stephen's political views often weren't compatible with her own.

critical

Crucial

These talks are critical to the future of the peace process.

It is absolutely critical for us to know the truth.

Foreign trade is of critical importance to the economy.

retrieve

Get back

1 formal to find something and bring

it back [↪ recover]:

She bent down to retrieve her earring.

TPO 1 – 30


retrieve something from something

It took four days to retrieve all the bodies from the crash.

2TD technicalTD to get back information that has been stored in the memory of a computer:

The new version of the software automatically retrieves digital information.

3 retrieve a situation British English to make a situation satisfactory again after there has been a serious mistake or problem:

The general made one last desperate effort to retrieve the situation.

mutual

Shared, common


European nations can live together in a spirit of mutual trust.



exclude to deliberately not include something

[≠ include]:

a special diet that excludes dairy products

The judges decided to exclude evidence which had been unfairly

TPO 7

Reading 1 Objective- cruise- invertebrate- wipe

out- domelike- penetrate- drill- pebble- gypsum- fragment-peculiarity- basin- silt- strait- salinity- extermination- score- brine- precipitation- deluge- cascade- turbulent-

objective Aim, goal, intent

achieve/meet an objective accomplish an objective (=achieve an objective) have an objective set an objective (=decide what your objective is) main/primary/principal objective clear/specific objective career objectives business objective

He vowed to achieve certain objectives before the end of his presidency.

the best way to accomplish your objectives

The degree program has two main objectives.

Managers should set specific performance objectives for their teams.

The main objective was to improve children's knowledge of geography.

cruise Journey, voyage

a cruise around the world

2DLO a journey by boat for pleasure

invertebrate a living creature that does not have a

backbone

Wipe out

Erase, annihilate, kill, eliminate

TPO 1 – 30


domelike a round roof on a building

penetrate

Permeate, seep, enter, go through

bullets that penetrate thick armour plating

Sunlight barely penetrated the dirty windows.

drill

to make a hole in something using a drill:


drill into/through


pebble

a small smooth stone found especially on a beach or on the bottom of a river:

The beach was covered with smooth white pebbles.

gypsum سنگ گچ

fragment Particle, portion, bit, piece,

glass fragments

peculiarity

Abnormality, anomaly

a strange or unusual habit, quality etc:

Margaret regarded her mother's peculiarities with a fond tolerance.

basin a round container attached to the wall

in a bathroom, where you wash your hands and face [= sink]:

a wash basin

2DFU a large bowl-shaped container for liquids or food:

Fill the basin with the cake mixture.

silt Residue, sand, sediment

sand, mud, soil etc that is carried in water and then settles at a bend in a river, an entrance to a port etc

strait a narrow passage of water between

two areas of land, usually connecting two seas:

the Bering Strait

تنگه

salinity containing or consisting of salt:

saline solution

—salinity noun [uncountable]

extermination

Destruction, extinction

Staff use the poison to exterminate moles and rabbits.

score

Number

Great scores of animals

brine water which contains a lot of salt

and is used for preserving food:

fish pickled in brine

2 sea water

precipitation Rain, rainfall, snow, snowfall

deluge

a large amount of something such as letters or questions that someone gets at the same time [= flood]

deluge of

Viewers sent a deluge of complaints about the show.

TPO 1 – 30


cascade a small steep waterfall that is

one of several together

2 something that hangs down in large quantities

cascade of

Her hair fell over her shoulders in a cascade of curls.

turbulent

Unstable, violent, stormy

the dark turbulent waters of the river

He has had a turbulent political career.

Reading 2

cohesive- bond- monolithic- entity- military garrison- station(V)- province- obsession- territory- conquest- stark- march- legion- landsman- fertile- foster- virtue- devotion- thorough- predisposed- might- subtlety- disdain- sphere- caliber-

cohesive connected or related in a reasonable

way to form a whole:

a cohesive community

2 uniting people or things:

Historically, sport has been a cohesive force in international relations.

United, tenacious

bond something that unites two or more

people or groups, such as love, or a

shared interest or idea [↪ tie]

bond between

the emotional bond between mother and child

monolithic

a monolithic building is very large, solid, and impressive

2PG a monolithic organization, political system etc is very large and

powerful and difficult to change:

a monolithic movie company

entity

Body, being, thing

something that exists as a single and

complete unit [↪ being]:

The mind exists as a separate entity.

Good design brings a house and garden together as a single entity.

Military garrison

a group of soldiers living in a town or fort and defending it:

The garrison was called out when news of the enemy's advance was received.

a garrison town

2 the buildings where a garrison of soldiers live

station

to send someone in the military to a particular place for a period of time as part of their military duty [= post]:

I was stationed overseas at the time.

2 formal to move to a particular place and stand or sit there, especially in order to be able to do something quickly, or to cause someone to do this:

A security guard was stationed near the door.

province

Province [countable]SG one of the large areas into which some countries are divided, and which usually has its own local government:

a Chinese province

2 the provincesSG the parts of a country that are not near the capital

3 [singular] formal a subject that someone knows a lot about or

TPO 1 – 30


something that only they are responsible for

province of

Computers were once the exclusive province of scientists and mathematicians.

obsession

noun fixation; consumption with belief, desire

an extreme unhealthy interest in something or worry about something, which stops you from thinking about anything elseCOLLOCATIONS COLLOCATIONS

become an obsession unhealthy/dangerous obsession sexual obsession national/American/British etc obsession to the point of obsession border on/upon obsession (=be almost as bad as an obsession)

Gambling became an obsession, and he eventually lost everything.

obsession with

an unhealthy obsession with being thin

The current obsession with exam results is actually harming children's education.

The game pachinko became a national obsession.

He has an enthusiasm for art, to the point of obsession in my opinion.

She looked after him with a devotion bordering on obsession.

territory

land that is owned or controlled by a particular country, ruler, or military force:

Hong Kong became Chinese territory in 1997.

Area, colony, land, zone,

conquest the act of getting control of a country

by fighting:

the Norman Conquest (=the conquest of England by the Normans)

conquest of

the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire

Success, triumph, win

stark

very plain in appearance, with little or no colour or decoration:

In the cold dawn light, the castle looked stark and forbidding.

the stark beauty of New Mexico

Simple, bare

march if soldiers or other people march

somewhere, they walk there quickly with firm regular steps

legion a large group of soldiers, especially in

ancient Rome

2 literary a large number of people

fertile

Fruitful, rich, abundant,

fertile land or soil is able to produce good crops:

foster

to help a skill, feeling, idea etc develop over a period of time [= encourage, promote]:

The bishop helped foster the sense of a community embracing all classes.

virtue Honor, integrity,

moral goodness of character and behaviour [≠ vice]:

Women have often been used as symbols of virtue.

2 [countable] a particular good

TPO 1 – 30


quality in someone's character [≠ vice]:

Among her many virtues are loyalty, courage, and truthfulness.

devotion

the strong love that you show when you pay a lot of attention to someone or something

devotion to

Alanna has always shown intense devotion to her children.

2 [uncountable] the loyalty that you show towards a person, job etc,

especially by working hard [↪ dedication]

devotion to

the soldier's courage and devotion to duty

his integrity and devotion to his patients

3 [uncountable]RR strong religious feeling

thorough

Detailed, full, complete

The doctor gave him a thorough check-up.

a thorough and detailed biography

The police investigation was very thorough.

thorough notes of the meeting

predisposed

Willing, inclined, ready

genetically predisposed to gain weight

might great strength and power:

two individuals who took on the might of the English legal system

He swung the axe again with all his might.

subtlety he quality that something has when it

has been done in a clever or skilful way, with careful attention to small details:

The play lacks subtlety.

She argued her case with considerable subtlety.

ظرافت

disdain a complete lack of respect that you

show for someone or something because you think they are not important or good enough

with disdain

She watched me with disdain.

a look of complete disdain

Ridicule, arrogance, aversion, dislike, contempt,

sphere

1 a ball shape

2 a particular area of activity, work, knowledge etc

in ... sphere

television's increasing role in the political sphere

Caliber

the level of quality or ability that someone or something has achieved

of somebody's calibre

Where will we find another man of his calibre?

The school attracts a high calibre of student.

of high/the right etc calibre

The paintings were of the highest caliber.

Talent, competence, quality, ability

Reading 3

Millets- sorghum- diffuse- receptive- chariot- traverse- route- savannah- cavalry- innovation- thrive- profound- ingenious- furnace- flee- desiccation-

TPO 1 – 30


route a way from one place to another

route to/from

What's the best route to Cambridge?

savanna a large flat area of grassy land,

especially in Africa

cavalry the part of an army that fights on

horses, especially in the past:

The Black Prince led a cavalry charge against them.

Millets the small seeds of a plant similar to

grass, used as food

ارزن

sorghum ذرت خوشه ای

a type of grain that is grown in tropical areas

diffuse Spread, distribute, scatter

The pollutants diffuse into the soil.

receptive willing to consider new ideas or listen

to someone else's opinions:

You might find them in a more receptive mood tomorrow.

a receptive audience

receptive to

a workforce that is receptive to new ideas

welcoming, interested, open- minded

chariot

a vehicle with two wheels pulled by a horse, used in ancient times in battles and races

traverse to move across, over, or through

something, especially an area of land or water:

two minutes to traverse the park

Cross, roam, go over, pass over,

innovation a new idea, method, or invention

innovation in

recent innovations in English teaching

thrive to become very successful or very

strong and healthy:

plants that thrive in tropical rainforests

a business which managed to thrive during a recession

Shine, prosper, develop, succeed, grow, advance

profound

having a strong influence or effect

profound effect/influence/impact/consequence etc




2 showing strong, serious feelings [= deep]:

a profound sense of guilt

3 showing great knowledge and understanding [= deep]:

a profound question

Jenner is a profound thinker.

4 literaryMP deep or far below the surface of something [= deep]:

Her work touches something profound in the human psyche.

5 complete:

profound deafness

TPO 1 – 30


ingenious Imaginative, inventive, innovative,

creative

Many fish have ingenious ways of protecting their eggs from predators.

an ingenious device

2 someone who is ingenious is very good at inventing things or at thinking of new ideas

furnace

a large container for a very hot fire, used to produce power, heat, or liquid metal

2 a piece of equipment used to heat a building

flee to leave somewhere very quickly, in

order to escape from danger:

His attackers turned and fled.

Masaari spent six months in prison before fleeing the country.

desiccation the process of becoming completely

dry

TPO 8

Reading 1 Edifice- obsidian- pinpoint- ingenuity-

foresightedness- elite- eruption- circumstance- implicate- eliminate- predominant- flourish- exotic- prosperous- emerge- thrive- coerce-

edifice Monument, building, construction

Their head office was an imposing edifice.

obsidian a type of rock that looks like black

glass

pinpoint

Diagnose, identify, recognize

It's difficult to pinpoint the cause of the accident.

They need to pinpoint exactly what skills are necessary.

ingenuity Dexterity, skill, talent, inventiveness,

ability

Foresightedness Prudence, caution, carefulness,

precaution, wisdom

It was an example of the authorities' lack of foresight.

Luckily I'd had the foresight to get in plenty of food.

elite Best, first class, high- class person,

noble

the domination of power by a small political elite

a struggle for power within the ruling elite.

TPO 1 – 30


eruption Explosion, burst, outburst,

1 if fighting, violence, noise etc erupts, it starts suddenly [= break out]:

Violence erupted after police shot a student during the demonstration.

A political row erupted over the MP's comments.

2HEG if a volcano erupts, it explodes and sends smoke, fire, and rock into the sky

3 if a place or situation erupts, there is a sudden increase in activity or emotion

erupt into

They were angry to the point of erupting into riot.

Their conversations often erupted into squabbles.

4 erupt into laughter/shouting etc to suddenly start laughing, shouting etc:

He erupted into loud, desperate sobs.

5HBH if spots erupt on your body, they suddenly appear on your skin

—eruption /û"ršpÐÊn/ noun [uncountable and countable]

a volcanic eruption

the eruption of violence

circumstance

Case, situation, condition,

I can't imagine a circumstance in which I would be willing to steal.

Prisoners can only leave their cells under certain circumstances (=if particular conditions exist).

implicate

Imply, involve,

to show or suggest that someone is involved in a crime or dishonest act:

The allegations implicated Abe to such an extent he was forced to resign.

implicate somebody in something

Three police officers are implicated in

the cover-up.

eliminate

Dispose of, get rid of, remove

Fatty foods should be eliminated from the diet.

predominant

Dominant, main, prevailing

the predominant group in society

In this painting, the predominant colour is black.

exotic

Not native, not usual, peculiar, bizzare,

exotic birds

exotic places

flourish to develop well and be successful [=

thrive]:

The economy is booming and small businesses are flourishing.

2 [intransitive] to grow well and be very healthy [↪ thrive]:

Most plants will flourish in the rich deep soils here.

3 [transitive] to wave something in your hand in order to make people notice it:

She walked quickly to the desk, flourishing her cheque book

prosperous

Booming, thriving, flourishing, rich

a prosperous landowner

emerge Appear, come up, arise

The sun emerged from behind the clouds.

Eventually the truth emerged.

Later it emerged that the judge had employed an illegal immigrant.

TPO 1 – 30


thrive Flourish, prosper, develop, boom,

grow



coerce Force, compel,

The rebels coerced the villagers into hiding them from the army.

Reading 2 Paleontologist- demise- alteration-

shallow- frigid- buffer- retreat- torrid- cripple- cope with- fluctuation- appealing- abrupt- incorporate- meteor- asteroid- disruption- eradicate-

paleontologist

palaeontology [uncountable]

the study of fossils (=ancient bones, plants etc that have been preserved in rock)

—paleontologist noun [countable]

demise Collapse, failure, dying

the end of something that used to exist

demise of

the imminent demise (=happening soon) of the local newspaper

formal or law death:

the mystery surrounding Elena's untimely demise (=when death happens sooner than is normal or expect

alteration

Change, variation, revision

If you make alterations to the Windows setup, save the new settings before closing.

alteration in

Have you noticed any alteration in the patient's behaviour

shallow

Not deep

a shallow river

The lake is quite shallow.

the shallow end of the pool

frigid

Chilly, cold

the frigid air

buffer Safegaurd,

to reduce the bad effects of something:

Consumer spending is buffering the effects of the recession.

retreat Withdraw, move back

They were attacked and forced to retreat.

to move away from someone or something:

He saw her and retreated, too shy to speak to her

torrid

Very hot, scorching

the torrid desert sun

cripple Paralyze, disable,

old-fashioned someone who is unable to walk properly because their legs are damaged or injured - now

considered offensive [↪ disabled]

2 emotional cripple informal someone who cannot express their feelings to other people - used to show disapproval

TPO 1 – 30


Cope Handle, manage, deal with

Sometimes I find it hard to cope.

He coped quite well as manager while still captaining the team.

She feared she wouldn't be able to cope with two new babies.

Local authorities have to cope with the problems of homelessness.

fluctuation

Variation, change, vacillation,

the fluctuation in interest rates

Prices are subject to fluctuation.

appealing

Attractive

The city offers an appealing combination of sporting and cultural events.

It creates an atmosphere which visitors find so appealing.

abrupt

sudden and unexpected:

an abrupt change of plan

incorporate Include, insert,

We've incorporated many environmentally-friendly features into the design of the building.

Our original proposals were not incorporated in the new legislation.

meteor

a piece of rock or metal that travels through space, and makes a bright line in the night sky when it falls down towards the Earth:

Astronomers track large meteors using radar.

asteroid one of the many small planets

that move around the sun, especially between Mars and Jupiter

disruption Division, interruption, break

a situation in which something is prevented from continuing in its usual way:

The strike caused widespread disruption.

eradicate

Destroy, wipe out, erase, eliminate, annihilate,

We can eradicate this disease from the world.

an attempt to eradicate inflation

This problem has now been completely eradicated.

Reading 3

Twist- merge- relics- catastrophic- equator- onrushing- miniature- tide- tear- adorn- controversial- proponent- terrace- conceivably- recede- detractor-gully- astronomer- hint- permafrost-

twist Curl, spin, curve

He twisted his head slightly, and looked up at her.

She twisted her handkerchief into a knot.

merge Combine

The villages have grown and merged together over the years.

relic an old object or custom that reminds

people of the past or that has lived on

TPO 1 – 30


from a past time:

Roman relics found in a field

relic of

the books and photos, relics of Rob's university days

Everything in the house seemed old and untouched, like relics of an ancient time.

catastrophic

Tragic, fatal, disastrous

The Black Sea is facing ecological catastrophe as a result of pollution.

prevent/avert a catastrophe

Sudan requires food immediately to avert a humanitarian catastrophe.

2 [countable] an event which is very bad for the people involved [= disaster]

catastrophe for

If the contract is cancelled, it'll be a catastrophe for everyone concerned.

—catastrophic /;kætë"strãfûk< $ -"strä:-/ adjective:

a catastrophic fall in the price of rice

The failure of the talks could have catastrophic consequences

equator

استوا

onrushing Coming, approaching

a strong fast movement forward, or the sudden development of something

onrush of

the first onrush of the epidemic

—onrushing adjective:

the onrushing tide

miniature

Small, tiny

miniature roses

a miniature railway

He looked like a miniature version of his father.

tide the regular rising and falling of the

level of the sea

the tide is in/out (=the sea is at a high or low level)

Is the tide going out or coming in?

We went for a walk and got cut off by the tide.

tear

a drop of salty liquid that comes out of your eye when you are crying

adorn

Decorate

church walls adorned with religious paintings

controversial

Disputed, questionable, arguable, at issue

the controversial issue of welfare reform

a highly controversial (=very controversial) plan to flood the valley in order to build a dam

He is a controversial figure (=person who does controversial things) in the art world.

proponent Supporter, advocate

Steinem has always been a strong proponent of women's rights.

leading/main/major proponent

Dr George is one of the leading proponents of this view.

terrace

balcony, deck, patio, platform

Conceivably Maybe, perhaps

TPO 1 – 30


Conceivably, interest rates could rise very high indeed.

recede Withdraw, diminish, decrease

if something you can see or hear recedes, it gets further and further away until it disappears

recede into

footsteps receding into the distance

2 if a memory, feeling, or possibility recedes, it gradually goes away:

The pain in his head gradually receded.

3DN if water recedes, it moves back from an area that it was covering:

The flood waters finally began to recede in November.

4DCB if your hair recedes, you gradually lose the hair at the front of your head:

He was in his mid-forties, with a receding hairline.

detractor

Critic, derogator

someone who says bad things about someone or something, in order to make them seem less good than they really are

somebody's detractors

Even the President's detractors admit that the decision was the right one.

gully

a small narrow valley, usually formed by a lot of rain flowing down the side of a hill

a deep ditch

astronomer

a scientist who studies the stars and planets

hint Clue, suggestion, indication

There have been hints that he may take up coaching.

'Look, I can't tell you.' 'Oh, come on, give me a hint .'

hint about/as to

Miles had been dropping heavy hints about the cost of petrol.

I made it clear I wasn't interested in him, but he didn't take the hint.

permafrost

a layer of soil that is always frozen in countries where it is very cold

TPO9

Reading 1 Crumble- prior to- persuasive-

submerge- refuge- caribou- hospitable- impetus-

crumble Break up, fall into pieces

The old stonework was crumbling away.

crumbling colonial buildings

The Empire began to crumble during the 13th century.

our crumbling economy

Prior to

Before, preceding, previous

You do not need any prior knowledge of the subject.

Changes may not be made without the prior approval of the council.

Vegetarian meals are provided by prior agreement.

Some prior experience with the software is needed.

TPO 1 – 30


All the arrangements should be completed prior to your departure

persuasive

Cogent, compelling, convincing

a persuasive argument against capital punishment

submerge Dunk in liquid, drown, immerse, sink,

plunge

The tunnel entrance was submerged by rising sea water.

The submarine submerged.

refuge

Haven, sanctuary, hideout, hideaway, resort, protection, shelter

During the frequent air-raids, people took refuge in their cellars.

caribou

گوزن کانادایی

hospitable

friendly, welcoming, and generous to visitors [≠ inhospitable]:

The local people were very kind and hospitable.

2 used for describing an environment in which things can grow [≠ inhospitable]:

The Sahara is one of the world's least hospitable regions.

impetus

Stimulus, impulse, motivation, incentive,

The report may provide further impetus for reform.

The discovery gave fresh impetus to the research.

Reading 2 Interaction- justify- intellectual- paucity

of- void- abstraction- objective- utilitarian- tendency- evaluate- contribute- facilitate- compelling- inhibit- inconsistent- vague- vulnerable- apparent-

Interaction Interplay, cooperation

Price is determined through the interaction of demand and supply.

the complex interaction between mind and body

justify to give an acceptable explanation for

something that other people think is unreasonable:

Ministers must appear before parliament and justify their actions.

justify doing something

How can we justify spending so much money on arms?

justify yourself (=prove that what you are doing is reasonable)

I don't have to justify myself to you or anyone else.

intellectual

Smart, scholarly,

relating to the ability to understand things and think intelligently [↪ mental]

intellectual development/ability/activity etc

a job that requires considerable intellectual effort

2 an intellectual person is well-educated and interested in serious ideas and subjects such as science,

literature etc [↪ academic]:

Mark's very intellectual.

3 needing serious thought in order to be understood:

an intellectual film

TPO 1 – 30


paucity Lack, scarcity

a paucity of information

void Empty

Running the business helped to fill the void after his wife died.

The amusement park will fill a void in this town, which has little entertainment for children.

abstraction

a general idea about a type of situation, thing, or person rather than a specific example from real life:

He's always talking in abstractions.

2 [uncountable] when you do not notice what is happening around you because you are thinking carefully about something else:

She rocked the baby gently, gazing in abstraction at the flickering fire.

objective

Fair, impartial, unbiased

It's hard to give an objective opinion about your own children.

Scientists need to be objective when doing research.

the importance of a completely objective, independent press

utilitarian

Practical, functional

ugly utilitarian buildings

tendency Penchant, inclination

Greg's tendency to be critical made him unpopular with his co-workers.

The drug is effective but has a tendency to cause headaches.

There is an increasing tendency for women to have children later in life.

evaluate Judge, assess,

You should be able to evaluate your own work.

We need to evaluate the success of the campaign.

It can be difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of different treatments.

contribute

Donate, give, grant,

o give money, help, ideas etc to something that a lot of other people are also involved in

City employees cannot contribute to political campaigns.

facilitate Ease, expedite, simplify, speed

Computers can be used to facilitate language learning.

compelling

an argument etc that makes you feel certain that something is true or that you must do something about it:

Lucy had no compelling reason to go into town.

The court was presented with compelling evidence that she'd murdered her husband.

2 very interesting or exciting, so that you have to pay attention:

His life makes a compelling story.

inhibit

Restrict, prevent

An unhappy family life may inhibit children's learning.

Recording the meeting may inhibit people from expressing their real views.

inconsistent Incompatible, contradictory

TPO 1 – 30


two statements that are inconsistent cannot both be true [= contradictory; ≠ consistent]:

The accounts of the witnesses are inconsistent.

inconsistent with

His results are inconsistent with our data.

2 not right according to a particular set of principles or standards [≠ consistent]

inconsistent with

His conduct was inconsistent with what is expected of a Congressman.

vague

Ambiguous, unclear, obscure, nebulous, hazy

Julia was vague about where she had been and what she had been doing.

Larry had the vague feeling he'd done something embarrassing the night before.

vulnerable

Sensitive, susceptible, weak, expose, liable,

He took advantage of me when I was at my most vulnerable.

We work mainly with the elderly and other vulnerable groups.

Children are most vulnerable to abuse within their own home.

apparent

Possible, probable, supposed,

easy to notice [= obvious]

it is apparent (that)

It soon became apparent that we had a major problem.

it is apparent from something that

It is apparent from scientific studies that the drug has some fairly nasty side effects.

it is apparent to somebody that

It was apparent to everyone that he

was seriously ill.

The difference in quality was immediately apparent.

He left suddenly, for no apparent reason.

2 seeming to have a particular feeling or attitude, although this may not be true:

He did well in his exams, despite his apparent lack of interest in his work.

Reading 3

Blazing- drenching- harsh- barren- spore- breeze- flank- toehold- forbidding- symbiotic- alga- fungus- lichen- bowel- fern- moss- crevice- propagate- sheer- bloom- wrap- gossamer- dandelion- milkweed- dormant- buoyant- vicissitude- prolong- immersion- archipelago- encapsulate- stalk

blazing On fire, flaming

extremely hot:

a blazing August afternoon

2 full of strong emotions, especially anger:

He jumped to his feet in a blazing fury.

drenching

Wet

to make something or someone extremely wet:

In the early morning they had got drenched in the grass.

—drenching /"drentÐûÅ/ adjective:

drenching rain

harsh

Rough, bitter, hard, rigid, severe,

The hostages are being held in harsh conditions.

the harsh Canadian winters

a young girl suddenly exposed to the

TPO 1 – 30


harsh realities of life

His theory met with harsh criticism from colleagues.

the harsh measures taken against the protestors

'She's an idiot!' 'Aren't you being a bit harsh?'

a harsh, authoritarian regime

He had harsh words (=severe criticism) for the Government.

barren

Arid, infertile,

land or soil that is barren has no plants growing on it

Thousands of years ago the surface was barren desert.

spore a cell like a seed that is produced by

some plants such as mushrooms and can develop into a new plant

breeze

a gentle wind:

flowers waving in the breeze

flank the side of a hill, mountain, or very

large building

toehold your first involvement in a particular

activity, from which you can develop and become stronger

toehold in

The company has gained a toehold in the competitive computer market.

جای پا نفوذ

forbidding

Frightening, menacing, sinister, ominous, threatening

We sailed past the island's rather dark

and forbidding cliffs.

His face was forbidding, even hostile.

symbiotic a symbiotic relationship is one in which

the people, organizations, or living things involved depend on each other

Interdependent

alga جلبک خزه

fungus قارچ

lichen گلسنگ

bowel the system of tubes inside your body

where food is made into solid waste material and through which it passes

out of your body [↪ intestine]

move/empty/open your bowels (=get rid of solid waste from your body)

2 [singular]HBH one part of this system of tubes:

cancer of the bowel

fern

سرخس

moss خزه

crevice a narrow crack in the surface of

something, especially in rock:

small creatures that hide in crevices in the rock

propagate Breed, reproduce, proliferate, multiply

The group launched a website to propagate its ideas.

Propagate your plants in fresh soil.

TPO 1 – 30


sheer the sheer weight/size etc used to

emphasize that something is very heavy, large etc



bloom

Blossom, flower,

if a plant or a flower blooms, its flowers appear or open

2 to become happier, healthier, or more successful in a way that is very noticeable:

She was blooming the last time I saw her.

wrap

to put paper or cloth over something to cover it

wrap something in something

The present was beautifully wrapped in gold paper.

gossamer the light silky thread which spiders

leave on grass and bushes

dandelion

قاصدک

milkweed a common North American plant that

produces a bitter white substance when its stem is broken

dormant Inactive, sleeping, inert, latent, passive

The seeds remain dormant until the spring.

a huge dormant volcano

Buoyant happy and confident:

Phil was in buoyant mood.

2BF buoyant prices etc tend to rise:

a buoyant economy

3 able to float or keep things floating:

Cork is very buoyant.

Vicissitude

Change

the continuous changes and problems that affect a situation or someone's life

vicissitudes of

the vicissitudes of married life

Prolong

Extend, delay,

to deliberately make something such as a feeling or activity last longer [= lengthen]:

I was trying to think of some way to prolong the conversation.

immersion

the action of immersing something in liquid, or the state of being immersed

immersion in

his near-fatal immersion in the icy Atlantic ocean

2 [uncountable] the fact of being completely involved in something you are doing

immersion in

my immersion in black music and culture

archipelago

a group of small islands

مجمع الجزایر

encapsulate

Encase

to express or show something in a

TPO 1 – 30


short way [= sum up]:

The words of the song neatly encapsulate the mood of the country at that time.

encapsulate something in something

Her whole philosophy can be encapsulated in this one sentence.

2 to completely cover something with something else, especially in order to prevent a substance getting out

encapsulate something in something

The leaking fuel rods will be encapsulated in lead.

stalk

ساقه

TPO 10

Reading 1 pottery- civilization- despite- long

Lasting- porcelain- status- ceramics-vary- dynasty-Era – fall into – earthenware- stoneware – ware – vessel – majority – Glaze – Kiln – evolve – delineate – ornament – embrace – lead – tomb – temple – motif – slip – intrinsic – far reaching – impact – instigate – cobalt – ore – muted- stimulate – notably – adapt – spout – whereas – merely - adornment – dragon – phoenix – empress – pomegranate – fertility – bless – emblem – pine tree- crane – secular – imperial - commission

Pottery

[uncountable]

1 objects made out of baked clay:

Native American pottery

ظروف سفالی

2 the activity of making pots, dishes out of clay:

a pottery class

Civilization 1 a society that is well organized and

developed, used especially about a particular society in a particular place or at a particular time [↪ civilized]:modern American civilization

civilization of the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome

2 [uncountable] all the societies in the world considered as a whole:

the dawn of civilization (=the

beginning of civilization)

Despite In spite of

Regardless of

Not withstanding

Even though

She went to Spain despite the fact that her doctor had told her to rest.

Long-Lasting continuing for a long time [≠ short-

lived]:

Enduring, abiding

The impact of divorce on children can be long-lasting.

long-lasting effect/result

Porcelain [uncountable]

1 a hard shiny white substance that is used for making expensive plates, cups etc [↪ china]:

porcelain vase

چینی

2 plates, cups etc made of this

TPO 1 – 30


Status 1 position, condition [↪ standing]:

documents have no legal status in Britain.

2 social or professional rank or position

Doctors have traditionally enjoyed high social status.

3 respect and importance that someone or something is given [= prestige]:

the status given to education

Cermaics 1 the art of making pots, bowls, tiles

etc, by shaping pieces of clay and baking them until they are hard

2 things that are made this way:

an exhibition of ceramics

—ceramic adjective: ceramic tiles

vary if several things of the same type vary,

they are all different from each other [= differ] Cooking times may vary slightly, depending on your oven.

Dynasty 1 a family of kings or other rulers

whose parents, grandparents etc have ruled the country for many years:

Habsburg dynasty ruled in Austria from 1278 to 1918.

سلسله پادشاهی

2 a period of time when a particular family ruled a country or area

Era a period of time in history that is

known for a particular event, or for particular qualities

We live in an era of instant communication.

His death marked the end of an era.

Fall into belong to a group or type of things

Many illnesses fall into the category of stress-related illnesses.

Earthenware

an earthenware pot, bowl etc is made of very hard baked clay

سفالی، گلی

Stoneware pots, bowls etc that are made from a

special hard clay

ظروف سفالین سنگ نما

ware

1 things made of a particular material, especially for use in the home:

silverware (=silver spoons, knives etc)

2 things used in a particular place for the preparation or serving of food:

ovenware (=dishes for use in the oven)

Vessel 1a ship or large boat:

a fishing vessel

2 a container for holding liquids

Majority most of the people or things in a group

[≠ minority]

The majority of students find it quite hard to live on the amount of money they get.

great/vast/overwhelming majority of something

Glaze to cover plates, cups etc made of clay

with a thin liquid that gives them a shiny surface

صیقل کردن

Shine, Luster

Glazed surfaces

TPO 1 – 30


Kiln a special oven for baking clay pots,

bricks etc

هکور

Evolve Change gradually

Develop

Progress

The group gradually evolved into a political party.

Delineate Describe

outline

The document delineates your rights and your obligations.

Embrace Include

Encircle

Enfold

This course embraces several different aspects of psychology.

Ornament a small object that you keep in your

house because it is beautiful rather than useful:

decoration , accessory

a shelf covered with books and ornaments

Lead

a soft heavy grey metal that melts easily and is poisonous, used to cover roofs, or in the past, for water pipes. It is a chemical element: symbol Pb

Lead- glazed tomb

Tomb

a stone structure above or below the ground where a dead person is buried:

مقبره

the family tomb

Temple a building where people go to worship,

in the Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh, and Mormon religions

Motif a small picture or pattern used to

decorate something plain:

Pattern, Design, Idea

a white T-shirt with a blue fish motif

Slip

(noun)

a mixture of clay and water that is used for decorating pots

Intrinsic Basic

inborn

inherent

innate

built-in

intrinsic nature/quality/value/property of something

Far-reaching having a great influence or effect

far-reaching reforms/proposals/changes

far-reaching implications/impact/effects

Tourism has had far-reaching effects on the island's culture.

Impact the effect or influence

major/significant/profound etc impact

! Do not say 'cause an impact' on something. Say “have an impact” on something.

Instigate

1 to make a process start, especially one relating to law or politics:

Charles instigated a programme of

TPO 1 – 30


reforms.

Cause, Fire up

2 to persuade someone do something bad or violent:

He accused union leaders of instigating the disturbances.

Cobalt a shiny silver-white metal that is often

combined with other metals or used to give a blue colour to substances such as glass. It is a chemical element: symbol Co

Ore

rock or earth from which metal can be obtained

iron ore

veins of rich ore

muted

a muted colour or light is soft and gentle, not bright

muted pinks and blues

Stimulate provoke

arouse

Motivate

Her interest in art was stimulated by her father.

the President's plan to stimulate economic growth

Notably especially, in particular

Some early doctors, notably Hippocrates, thought that diet was important.

in a way that is clearly different, important, or unusual

Notably absent from his statement was any hint of an apology.

Adapt to gradually change your behaviour

and attitudes in order to be successful in a new situation

flowers which are well adapted to harsh winters

The ability to adapt is a definite asset in this job.

Spout

a small pipe on the side of a container that you pour liquid out through

Whereas used to say that although something is

true of one thing, it is not true of another:

While

The old system was fairly complicated whereas the new system is really very simple.

Merely

Only

Just

We're merely good friends.

Adornment

Embellishment

Decoration

Dragon a large imaginary animal that has

wings and a long tail and can breathe out fire

اژدها

Phoenix

a magic bird that is born from a fire, according to ancient stories

سیمرغ

Empress a female ruler of an empire, or the wife

of an emperor

TPO 1 – 30


Pomegranate انار

Fertility 1 the ability of the land or soil to

produce good crops

2 the ability of a person, animal, or plant to produce babies, young animals, or seeds [≠ infertility]

Bliss perfect happiness or enjoyment

six months of wedded bliss

I didn't have to get up till 11 - it was sheer bliss.

Emblem 1 a picture, shape, or object that is

used to represent a country,

organization [↪ logo]

The national emblem of Canada is a maple leaf.

2 something that represents an idea, principle, or situation

Expensive cars are seen as an emblem of success.

Pine tree درخت کاج

Crane

جرثقیل

Secular not connected with or controlled by a

church or other religious authority

secular education

our modern secular society

Imperial

relating to an empire or to the person who rules it

Britain's imperial expansion in the 19th century

یسلطنت

Commission formally ask someone to write an

official report, a work of art etc

The report was commissioned by the Welsh Office.

Reading 2

Constitute – millennia- undergo – intervention- immensely- accord – interpret- oppose – ambient – infer – proxy – embed – glacier – nonetheless – intriguing – striking – erratic – deliberation – solar - invoke

Constitute

1 to be considered to be something

The rise in crime constitutes a threat to society.

2 if several people or things constitute something, they are the parts that form it:

We must redefine what constitutes a family.

Millennia The plural form of millenium (a period

of 1000 years)

people who have inhabited this land for millennia

Undergo if you undergo a change, an

unpleasant experience etc, it happens to you or is done to you

The country has undergone massive changes recently.

He has been released from prison to undergo medical treatment in the United States.

Intervention the act of becoming involved in an

argument, fight, or other difficult situation in order to change what

TPO 1 – 30


happens

interference

government intervention to regulate prices

Immensely Greatly

Extremely

Very much

We enjoyed the play immensely

Accord

of somebody's/something's own accord

without being asked or forced to do something

He decided to go of his own accord.

The door seemed to move of its own accord.

Interpret 1 translate

They spoke good Spanish, and promised to interpret for me.

2 believe that something has a particular

His refusal to work late was interpreted as a lack of commitment to the company.

3 to explain the meaning of something:Freud's attempts to interpret the meaning of dreams

Oppose

Disagree

Dispute

Congress is continuing to oppose the President's healthcare budget.

Ambient

ambient temperature/light / climate etc means the temperature etc of the surrounding area

Infer form an opinion that something is

probably true because of information that you have

A lot can be inferred from these statistics.

From the evidence we can infer that the victim knew her killer.

Proxy if you do something by proxy, you

arrange for someone else to do it for you

You can vote by proxy.

2 someone who you choose to represent you, especially to vote for youproxy fora husband acting as proxy for his wife

3 something used to represent something else that you want to measure

Embed Eclose

Be put into something

A piece of glass was embedded in her hand

Glacier a large mass of ice which moves

slowly down a mountain valley

Nonetheless in spite of

Nevertheless

The region was extremely beautiful. Nonetheless Gerard could not imagine spending the rest of his life there.

The paintings are complex, but have plenty of appeal nonetheless.

Intriguing something that is intriguing is very

interesting because it is strange, mysterious, or unexpected:

The magazine carries an intriguing

TPO 1 – 30


mixture of high fashion, gossip and racing.

Striking Noticeable

Unusual and interesting to be easily noticed


Erratic something that is erratic does not

follow any pattern or plan but happens in a way that is not regular

arbitrary, irregular, inconsistent

His breathing was becoming erratic.

his erratic behaviour

Deliberation

1 careful consideration or discussion of something:

After much deliberation, first prize was awarded to Derek Murray.

2 if you speak or move with deliberation, you speak or move slowly and carefully

Solar 1 relating to the sun [↪ lunar]

a solar eclipse

2 using the power of the sun's light and heat

solar energy

Invoke Call upon

if you invoke a law, rule etc, you say that you are doing something because the law allows or forces you to

to officially ask a person or organization to do something

The UN threatened to invoke economic sanctions if the talks were broken off.

Reading 3 Lift – Medieval – Key – rural –

expense – fen – reclaim – surplus – merchant - plentiful – ravages – peasant – spin – weave – linen – scant – remuneration – meager – rye – smelt – marshal – promissory note – credit - equivalent – guilder – authorize – contribute – loan – infusion – stem – finance – joint stock – cooperation - permanent

lift

Move upward

Ascend

The lumber was lifted by crane and dropped into the truck.

Medieval connected with the Middle Ages (=the

period between about AD 1100 and 1500)

These spices were first brought to Italy from the East in medieval times.

a medieval castle

یقرون وسط

Key

Very important

Principal

Chief

key factor/points/questions etc

The President makes all the key decisions on foreign policy.

key role/player/figure etc (=one with a lot of influence on a result)

The show has been hit by the departure of key personnel

Rural happening in or relating to the

countryside, not the city [≠ urban

rural bus routes

TPO 1 – 30


Expense the amount of money that you spend

on something

legal/medical/living/travel etc expenses (=the money that you spend for a particular purpose)

at great/considerable/vast expense

Conference rooms were equipped at great expense.

Fen Also fenland

an area of low flat wet land, especially in Eastern England

Reclaim

1 to get back an amount of money that you have paid [= claim back]

You may be entitled to reclaim some tax.

2 to make an area of desert, wet land etc suitable for farming or building

This land will be reclaimed for a new airport.

—reclamation noun [uncountable]land reclamation

Surplus

Excess

Spare

Leftover

Any surplus can be trimmed away.

Merchant

coal/timber etc merchant

someone whose job is to buy and sell things

He had a job with a coal merchant.

بازرگان

Plentiful

Abundant

Ample

a plentiful supply of food

Ravages the ravages of something

the damage caused by something

a building that has survived the ravages of time

the ravages of war

Peasant a poor farmer who owns or rents a

small amount of land, either in past times or in poor countries

Most villagers are peasant farmers.

Spin Past tense = Spun

to make cotton, wool etc into thread by twisting it

Weave

Past tense = Wove

to make cloth, a carpet, a basket etc by crossing threads or thin pieces under and over each other by hand or on a loom:

hand-woven scarves

Only a few of the women still weave.

traditional basket weaving

Linen cloth made from the flax plant, used to

make high quality clothes, home decorations etc:

a linen jacket

کتان

Scant

Not enough

Meager

Insufficient

The story has received scant attention in the press.

They produce goods with scant regard for quality.

TPO 1 – 30


Remuneration (fml) the pay you give someone for

something they have done for you

high rates of remuneration

Meager a meager amount of food, money etc

is too small and is much less than you need

a meager diet of bread and beans

meager income/earnings/wages etc

He supplements his meager income by working on Saturdays.

a school with meager resources

Rye a type of grain that is used for making

bread

rye bread

Smelt

to melt a rock that contains metal in order to remove the metal

Marshal 1 to organize your thoughts, ideas etc

so that they are clear, effective, or easy to understand

marshal your thoughts/arguments etc

2 to control or organize a large group

Ginny marshalled her guests in a better position.

Promissory Note a document promising to pay money

before a particular date

سفته

Credit an arrangement with a shop, bank etc

that allows you to buy something and pay for it later

Most new cars are bought on credit.

stores offering interest-free credit (=credit with no interest

charges)

What's the credit limit on your Visa card?

credit facilities (=the opportunity to buy something on credit)

Equivalent Same, similar, comparable

having the same value, purpose, job etc as a person or thing of a different kind

a qualification which is equivalent to a degree

I had no dollars, but offered him an equivalent amount of sterling.

Guilder the standard unit of money used in the

Netherlands before the Euro

Authorize Empower

to give official permission for something

an authorized biography

Napoleon III authorized Haussmann to rebuild Paris.

Contribute 1 to give money, help, ideas etc to

something that a lot of other people are also involved in

The volunteers contribute their own time to the project.

2 to help to make something happen

Stress is a contributing factor in many illnesses.

Loan an amount of money that you borrow

from a bank etc.

وام

I had to take out a loan to buy my car.

It'll be years before we've paid off the loan.

I'll get a bank loan if necessary.

TPO 1 – 30


The average home loan is now almost triple what it was at the beginning of the Eighties.

An interest-free loan fund is available for students

Infusion the act of putting a new feeling or

quality into something

Further education badly needs the infusion of more resources.

Stem stem from something = to develop

as a result of something else

His headaches stemmed from vision problems

Finance Verb

provide money, especially a lot of money, to pay for something [= fund]

The concerts are financed by the Arts Council.

Joint Stock joint-stock company is a company

that is owned by all the people with shares in it

Cooperation Collaboration

political co-operation with Britain

A study was undertaken in co-operation with oil companies.

co-operation between industry and higher education

Permanent Constant

Lasting

Enduring

Perpetual

[≠ temporary]


TPO 11

Reading 1 Vital – elite- adopt – distinctive –

favorable – statuary – statue – renaissance – frontal - context – rigid – cult – manifest – recipient – ritual – divine – decease – enclose- shrine – monumental – pylon – pillar - carve – peg – core – wax – deity – depict – generic – static – pose – grind – grain – pot - squat

vital

Crucial

Decisive

Integral

Essential

It is vital to be honest with your spouse.

Elite an elite group contains the best, most

skilled or most experienced people or members of a larger group

an elite group of artists

elite universities

Adopt

adopt an approach/policy/attitude etc

to start to deal with or think about something in a particular way

The courts were asked to adopt a more flexible approach to young offenders.

to formally approve a proposal, amendment etc, especially by voting

Congress finally adopted the law after a two-year debate.

Distinctive Different

Unique

TPO 1 – 30


a rock band with a distinctive sound

Favorable a favorable report, opinion, or reaction

shows that you think that someone or something is good or that you agree with them

The response has been overwhelmingly favorable.

2 suitable and likely to make something happen or succeed

a financial environment that is favorable to job creation

Statuary (Formal) statues

a fine collection of Greek statuary

Statue

an image of a person or animal that is made in solid material such as stone or metal and is usually

large[↪ sculpture]

Churchill's statue stands outside the parliament building.

A bronze statue was erected in his honour.

Renaissance the Renaissance

the period of time in Europe between 14th and 17th centuries, when art, literature, philosophy, and scientific ideas became very important and a lot of new art etc was produced

Frontal at or relating to the front part of

something

the frontal armour of the new tanks

context Background

Framework

Environment

Condition

These incidents are best understood in the broader context of developments in rural society

Rigid Stiff

Strict

Severe

[≠ flexible]

rigid and authoritarian methods of education

She maintained rigid control over her emotional life.

Cult 1 an extreme religious group that is

not part of an established religion

2 a fashionable belief, idea, or attitude that influences people's lives

Diet, exercise ... It's all part of this cult of self-improvement.

Manifest Show, Exhibit

Appear

The shareholders have manifested their intention to sell the shares.

His illness began to manifest itself at around this time

Recipient someone who receives something

the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize

Ritual (adj)

1 done as part of a rite or ritual

ritual dances

2 done in a fixed and expected way, but without real meaning or sincerity

The police issued the usual ritual apology.

Divine coming from or relating to God or a

god

TPO 1 – 30


Divine intervention/providence/revelation

divine power

divine love عشق الهی

Decease Death

Demise

On your decease, the house passes to your wife.

Enclose to surround something, especially with

a fence or wall, in order to make it separate

The pool area is enclosed by a six-foot wall.

an enclosed area

Shrine

a place that is connected with a holy event or holy person, and that people visit to prays

his pilgrimage to the shrine of St John

Monumental 1 a monumental achievement, piece of

work, etc is very important and is usually based on many years of work

a monumental contribution to the field of medicine

2 [only before noun] relating to a monument or built as a monument

a monumental arch

Pylon a tall metal structure that supports

wires carrying electricity

تیر چراغ برق

Pillar a tall upright round post used as a

support for a roof or bridge

Eight massive stone pillars supported the roof.

Carve make an object or pattern by cutting a

piece of wood or stone [↪ carving]

carve something out of/from something

a statue carved from a single block of marble

carved wooden chairs

Peg a short piece of wood, metal, or plastic

that is attached to a wall or fits into a hole, used especially to hang things on or to fasten things

a table fitted together with pegs

a pattern made with coloured pegs on a board

Core Center

The most important part

The core of the book focuses on the period between 1660 and 1857.

Wax

a solid substance made of fat or oil and used to make candles, polish etc:

wax crayons

Deity

a god or goddess

the deities of ancient Greece

Depict

Portray

Describe

Illustrate

a book depicting life in pre-revolutionary Russia

depict somebody/something as something

TPO 1 – 30


Generic General

relating to a whole group of things rather than to one thing

generic term/name (for something)

Fine Arts is a generic term for subjects such as painting, music and sculpture.

Static

Motionless

Immobile

Changeless

Stationary

[≠ dynamic]

Economists predict that house prices will remain static for a long period.

Pose the position in which someone stands

or sits, especially in a painting, photograph etc

in a pose

a painting of the Duchess in a dramatic pose

Ann struck a pose (=stood or sat in a particular position) and smiled for the camera.

Grind past tense and past participle ground

Crush

Pulverize

freshly ground pepper

Meat grinder چرخ گوشت

Grain

1 food

a) [uncountable] the seeds of crops such as corn, wheat, or rice that are gathered for use as food, or these crops themselves

Last year's grain harvest was the biggest ever.

b) [countable] a single seed of corn, wheat etc:

grains of rice

2 small piece

[countable] a single very small piece of a substance such as sand or salt

a grain of sand

Pot a container used for cooking which is

round, deep, and usually made of metal

There was a big pot of soup on the stove

Squat to sit with your knees bent under you

and your bottom just off the ground, balancing on your feet

squat down

He squatted down beside the little girl.

Reading 2 Orientation – navigation – perplex –

migration – flutter – starling – overcast – surmise – apparent – preposterous – revolve – compensate – precise – planetarium – dome – cue – coastline - sonar

Orientation

1 the type of activity or subject that a person or organization seems most interested in and gives most attention to

orientation towards/to

The company needs to develop a stronger orientation towards marketing its products.

How can we get students to adopt a serious orientation to learning?

2 the angle or position of an object, or the direction in which it is facing

Navigation 1 the science or job of planning which

way you need to go when you are travelling from one place to another

TPO 1 – 30


compasses and other instruments of navigation

2 when someone sails a ship along a river or other area of water

Navigation becomes more difficult further up the river.

Perplex

Puzzle

Confuse

Mix up

Her symptoms perplexed the doctors.

Migration

1 when large numbers of people go to live in another area or country, especially in order to find work

2 when birds or animals travel regularly from one part of the world to another

migratory

involved in or relating to migration

migratory birds

Flutter 1 if a bird or insect flutters, or if it

flutters its wings, it flies by moving its wings lightly up and down

A small bird fluttered past the window.

2 to make small gentle movements in the air

The flag fluttered in the light breeze.

Starling

a common bird with shiny black feathers that lives especially in cities

Overcast

dark with clouds

a chilly overcast day

The sky was overcast and a light rain began to fall.

Surmise Formal

to guess that something is true, using the information you know already

surmise that

When he came in, he didn't look up, so she surmised that he was in a bad mood.

—surmise noun

Charles was glad to have his surmise confirmed.

apparent Obvious

Discernible

It soon became apparent that we had a major problem.

It is apparent from scientific studies that the drug has some fairly nasty side effects.

He left suddenly, for no apparent reason.

Preposterous completely unreasonable or silly

absurd

Unbelievable

The whole idea sounds absolutely preposterous!

Revolve Rotate

Turn

Whirl

The wheel began to revolve.

The restaurant slowly revolves, giving excellent views of the city.

Using graphics software, you can revolve the image on the screen

Compensate 1 replace or balance the effect of

something bad

Because my left eye is so weak, my right eye has to work harder to compensate.

TPO 1 – 30


compensate for

Her intelligence more than compensates for her lack of experience.

2 pay someone money because they have suffered injury, loss, or damage

compensate somebody for something

The firm will compensate workers for their loss of earnings.

Precise Exact

Accurate

It was difficult to get precise information.

'She's a lot older than you, isn't she?' 'Fifteen years, to be precise.'

Planetarium

a building where lights on a curved ceiling show the movements of planets and stars

Dome

1 a round roof on a building

2 a shape or building like a ball cut in half

Cue

an action or event that is a signal for something else to happen

cue for

Our success was the cue for other companies to press ahead with new investment.

somebody's cue to do something

I think that's my cue to explain why I'm here.

Coastline

the land on the edge of the coast, especially the shape of this land as seen from the air

California's rugged coastline

a beautiful stretch of coastline

along/around the coastline

the sandy hills along the coastline of New England

Sonar equipment on a ship or submarine that

uses sound waves to find out the position of objects under the water

Reading 3 Beg – impose – nestling – cheep –

peep – hawk – swallow – warbler – species – conceal – derive – worthwhile – offspring – feed – intensity – deprived – robin - vigorous

Beg

Ask (for money/food/HELP …)

She begged and pleaded with them until they finally agreed.

The children begged to come with us.

The old man went from door to door begging for food.

if a dog begs, it sits up with its front legs off the ground

Impose Set

Place

Force

impose something on somebody/something

parents who impose their own moral values on their children

The court can impose a fine.

Nestling a very young bird that cannot leave its

nest because it is not yet able to fly

Cheep if a young bird cheeps, it makes a

weak, high noise

chicks cheeping for food

—cheep noun [countable]

TPO 1 – 30


Peep a short high sound, like the sound a

mouse or a young bird makes

the peep of a chick

loud peeps from the smoke alarm

Hawk

a large bird that hunts and eats small birds and animals

Swallow a small black and white bird that

comes to northern countries in the summer

Warbler a bird that can make musical sounds

Species species plural species [countable]

a group of animals or plants whose members are similar and can breed together to produce young animals or plants

Seven species of birds of prey have been observed.

pandas and other endangered species (=ones that may soon no longer exist)

Conceal Hide

Disguise

The shadows concealed her as she crept up to the house.

a concealed weapon

She was taking drugs and trying to conceal it from me

Derive Gain / Acquire

derive something from something


derive pleasure/enjoyment etc


Worthwhile if something is worthwhile, it is

important or useful, or you gain something from it:

He wanted to do a worthwhile job.

We decided to give the money to a worthwhile cause (=one that helps people).

it is worthwhile to do something

I thought it was worthwhile to clarify the matter.

it is worthwhile doing something

It wasn't worthwhile continuing with the project.

Offspring 1 someone's child or children - often

used humorously

a young mother trying to control her offspring

2 an animal's baby or babies

a lion and its offspring

Feed give nourishment to a baby , an

animal, plants , …

Supply

Have you fed the cat?

They were fed well on her mother's home cooking.

Feed the tomatoes once a week.

Intensity 1 the quality of being felt very strongly

or having a strong effect

The intensity of the hurricane was frightening.

2 the quality of being serious and having very strong feelings or opinions

He spoke with great intensity.

3 [technical ] the strength of something such as light or sound

an instrument which measures light intensity

TPO 1 – 30


Deprived not having the things that are

necessary for a comfortable or happy life

Deprived children tend to do less well at school.

deprived areas/neighbourhoods etc (=where a lot of deprived people live)

our deprived inner cities

Robin 1 a small European bird with a red

breast and brown back

2 a North American bird like a European robin, but larger

Vigorous

Energetic

Dynamic

Spirited

Your dog needs at least 20 minutes of vigorous exercise every day.

Vigorous efforts are being made to find a solution to the problem.

TPO 12

Reading 1 Stencil – dominant – assist – befit –

engraving - rib – Neolithic – yew – preserve – Alpine – spiral – flake – crescent – cortex – criterion – preferential – cerebral - asymmetrical

Stencil

1 a piece of plastic, metal, or paper in which designs or letters have been cut out, that you put over a surface and paint over, so that the design is left on the surface

2 a design made on something using a stencil

Dominant

Superior

Controlling

Predominant

غالب

Japan became dominant in the mass market during the 1980s.

its dominant position within the group

Assist

Help

Aid

assist (somebody) with/in something

You will be employed to assist in the development of new equipment.

Befit to be proper or suitable for someone

or something

As befits a castle of such national importance, there are many stories connected with its history.

TPO 1 – 30


Engraving 1 a picture made by cutting a design

into metal, putting ink on the metal, and then printing it

2 the skill of engraving things

حکاکی

Rib one of the 12 pairs of curved bones

that surround your chest

She was taken to hospital with a broken arm and ribs.

He was punched and kicked in the ribs.

Neolithic relating to the last period of the Stone

Age, about 10,000 years ago, when people began to live together in small groups and make stone tools and weapons

a Neolithic burial ground

Yew a tree with dark green leaves and red

berries, or the wood of this tree

درخت سرخ دار

Preserve 1 to save something or someone from

being harmed or

destroyed[↪ preservation]

We must encourage the planting of new trees and preserve our existing woodlands.

2 to make something continue without changing

the responsibility of the police to preserve the peace

3 to store food for a long time after treating it so that it will not decay

black olives preserved in brine

Alpine relating to the Alps (=a mountain range

in central Europe) or to mountains in

general

breathtaking alpine scenery

alpine flowers

alpine skiing

Spiral to move in a continuous curve that

gets nearer to or further from its central point as it goes round

spiral to/around etc

The damaged plane spiralled to the ground.

Flake a small thin piece that breaks away

easily from something else

flake of

flakes of snow

chocolate flakes

Crescent

a curved shape that is wider in the middle and pointed at the ends

هلالی شکل

a small crescent of pastry topped with cheese

a crescent moon

Cortex

the outer layer of an organ in your body, especially your brain

Criterion

a standard that you use to judge something or make a decision about something

the criteria we use to select candidates

a universal set of criteria for diagnosing patients

meet/satisfy/fulfil criteria

To qualify for a grant, students must satisfy certain criteria.

TPO 1 – 30


Preferential preferential treatment, rates etc are

deliberately different in order to give an advantage to particular people

preferential credit terms for reliable borrowers

Cerebral

1 medical relating to or affecting your brain

a cerebral haemorrhage (=bleeding in the brain)

2 having or involving complicated ideas rather than strong emotions

a cerebral film

Asymmetrical

1 having two sides that are different in shape [≠ symmetrical]

asymmetrical patterns

2 formal not equal [≠ symmetrical]

Reading 2

Transition – So far – Regard – watershed – paradox – modest – accompaniment – elaborate – aural – craft – premier – overshadow – startling – synchronize - invariably – neglect – off the mark – revitalize – rough – prohibitive – triumph - swift

Transition

Change

Shift

Transformation

Metamorphosis

transition from something to something

the smooth transition from full-time work to full retirement

Making the transition from youth to adulthood can be very painful.

a society that is in transition (=changing)

So far Until now

Thus far

Her political career so far had remained unblemished.

Regard

Consider

to think about someone or something in a particular way

regard somebody/something as something

Paul seemed to regard sex as sinful and immoral.

Edith was widely regarded as (=considered by many people to be)eccentric.

His work is highly regarded (=regarded as very good) by art experts.

Watershed

an event or time when important changes happen in history or in your life[= turning point]

The 1932 election represented a watershed in American politics.

watershed decision/case etc

a watershed case on pension rights

Paradox Contradiction

It's a paradox that in such a rich country there can be so much poverty.

Modest 1 not proud

someone who is modest does not want to talk about their abilities or achievements [≠ immodest, boastful]

modest about

You're too modest! You've been a huge help to us.

2 not big

not very great, big, or expensive

TPO 1 – 30


She had saved a modest amount of money.

The new service proved a modest success.

a modest house with a small garden

his modest ambitions

Accompaniment music that is played in the

background at the same time as another instrument or singer that plays or sings the main tune

piano/orchestral/organ/guitar etc accompaniment

He plays folk music with guitar accompaniment.

to the accompaniment of something

An elderly man puffed on a trumpet to the accompaniment of drums and piano.

Elaborate Intricate

Complicated

Carefully planned

pure silks embroidered with elaborate patterns

a very elaborate telecommunications network

Aural relating to the sense of hearing, or

someone's ability to understand sounds

an aural stimulus

Craft to make something using a special

skill, especially with your hands

Each doll is crafted individually by specialists.

a hand-crafted silver cigar case

Premiere the first public performance of a film,

play, or piece of music

Rossini's work had its premiere at the Paris Opera.

a movie premiere

the play's world premiere (=the first performance in the world)

Overshadow 1 to make someone or something else

seem less important

Her interest in politics began to overshadow her desire to be a poet.

The achievement of the men's team was overshadowed by the continuing success of the women's team.

2 to make an occasion or period of time less enjoyable by making people feel sad or worried

The threat of war overshadowed the summer of 1939.

3 if a tall building, mountain etc overshadows a place, it is very close to it and much taller than it

a dark valley overshadowed by towering peaks

Startling Astounding

Surprising

Paddy's words had a startling effect on the children.

a startling discovery

Synchronize to happen at exactly the same time, or

to arrange for two or more actions to happen at exactly the same time

synchronize something with something

Businesses must synchronize their production choices with consumer choices.

—synchronization noun [uncountable]

invariably Always

It invariably rains when I go there.

TPO 1 – 30


The security guards were invariably ex-servicemen.

Neglect

Disregard

fail to look after someone or something properly

Many of these ideas have been neglected by modern historians.

The police officer was accused of neglecting his duty (=not doing everything he should).

Off the mark Inaccurate

Not correct

The evaluation was off the mark.

Revitalize

to put new strength or power into

something [↪ revive]

They hope to revitalize the neighborhood by providing better housing.

a revitalizing massage

Rough

1not smooth

having an uneven surface [≠ smooth]

Her hands were rough from hard work.

the rough terrain at the base of the mountains.

2not exact

not exact, not containing many details, or not in a final form [= approximate]

Could you give me a rough idea what time you'll be home?

a rough estimate of the cost

3problems/difficulties

a rough period is one in which you have a lot of problems or difficulties [= tough]

Prohibitive 1 prohibitive costs are so high that

they prevent people from buying or doing something

The cost of land in Tokyo is prohibitive.

2 Restrictive , a prohibitive rule prevents people from doing things

prohibitive regulations

Triumph 1 an important victory or success after

a difficult struggle

Winning the championship is a great personal triumph.

the triumph over hardship

2 a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction that you get from victory or success

a shout of triumph

Swift Very fast

Rapid

Speedy

My letter received a swift reply.

She shot a swift glance at Paul.

A swift runner

She wiped her tears away in one swift movement.

Reading 3 Flat – depression – arid – sustain – slit

– inhabitant – discharge – intervention – irrigate – limestone – massif – conglomerate – seep – leak - saline

Flat

an area of land that is at a low level, especially near water

mud flats

فلات

Depression a part of a surface that is lower than

the other parts

TPO 1 – 30


depressions in the ground

تو رفتگی زمین

Arid Barren

arid land or an arid climate is very dry because it has very little rain

Water from the Great Lakes is pumped to arid regions.

Sustain

Maintain

Preserve

Keep up

She found it difficult to sustain the children's interest.

He was incapable of sustaining close relationships with women.

Slit

a long straight narrow cut or hole

light shining through a slit in the door

a skirt with a slit up the side

شکاف

Inhabitant Dweller

one of the people who live in a particular place

a city of six million inhabitants

Discharge

to send out gas, liquid, smoke etc, or to allow it to escape

discharge something into something

Sewage is discharged directly into the sea.

discharge into

Rainwater collects here and then discharges into the river Kennett.

Intervention

the act of becoming involved in an argument, fight, or other difficult

situation in order to change what happens

government intervention to regulate prices

Irrigate

1 to supply land or crops with water

The water in Lake Powell is used to irrigate the area.

irrigated land/farms/crops

2 technical to wash a wound with a flow of liquid

—irrigation noun [uncountable]

major irrigation projects

آبیاری کردن

Limestone a type of rock that contains calcium

سنگ آهک

Massif

a group of mountains forming one large solid shape

Conglomerate

a rock consisting of different sizes of stones held together by clay

Seep 1 to flow slowly through small holes or

spaces

seep into/through/down etc

Blood seeped down his leg.

2 to move or spread gradually

seep away/into/through etc

His tension was seeping away.

Leak if a container, pipe, roof etc leaks, or if

it leaks gas, liquid etc, there is a small hole or crack in it that lets gas or liquid flow through

The roof is leaking.

A tanker is leaking oil off the coast of Scotland.

TPO 1 – 30


Saline containing or consisting of salt

Salty

saline solution

شور -نمکین

TPO 13

Reading 1

Companionship Friendship, accompaniment,

togetherness

when you are with someone you enjoy being with, and are not alone:

When Stan died, I missed his companionship.

Endowing Bestow, donate,

1 to make someone or something have a particular quality, or to believe that they have it:

Her resistance to the Nationalists endowed her with legendary status.

2 be endowed with something to naturally have a good feature or quality:

She was endowed with good looks.

3 to give someone something

Distinguish Tell the difference, differentiate,

discriminate, recognize, identify

His attorney argued that Cope could not distinguish between right and wrong.

The factor that distinguishes this company from the competition is customer service.

Cohesive United, adhesive, tenacious



Predominate Be the most important, dominate,

govern, manage, outweigh

Pine trees predominate in this area of forest.

In this type of case, the rights of the parent predominate.

Entail Require, result in, involve, necessitate

A new computer system entails a lot of re-training.

Some foreign travel is entailed in the job.

The journey will entail changing trains twice.

Impersonal Cold, unfriendly, indifferent

Business letters do not have to be impersonal and formal.

Sometimes she seems a very impersonal, even unkind, mother.

I hate staying in hotels; they're so impersonal.

a formal and impersonal style of management

Gripe Complaint, objection, ache

Joe came in griping about how cold it was.

Mill

Move around

if a lot of people mill around, they move around a place in different directions without any particular purpose:

TPO 1 – 30


Crowds of students were milling around in the street.

There were a lot of people milling around the entrance.

Disperse

Distribute, scatter, spread

Police used tear gas to disperse the crowd.

The clouds dispersed as quickly as they had gathered.

Subtle Nice, quiet, delicate,

not easy to notice or understand unless you pay careful attention [≠ obvious]:

The pictures are similar, but there are subtle differences between them.

The warning signs of the disease are so subtle that they are often ignored.

I think we need a more subtle approach.

a subtle plan

Interlocking Interlink, intertwine

if two or more things interlock, or if they are interlocked, they fit firmly together:

a puzzle with 500 interlocking pieces

Deviate Stay from normal path, diverge, differ

The plane had to deviate from its normal flight path.

Detract Draw away

to make something seem less good:

One mistake is not going to detract from your achievement.

Shun Avoid, ignore,

a shy woman who shunned publicity

Victims of the disease found themselves shunned by society.

Dispense

Allocate, allot, distribute, give

Villagers dispensed tea to visitors.

a machine for dispensing cash

Ostracize

Exile, banish, exclude, expel, shun,

She was afraid that if she spoke up her colleagues would ostracize her.

He was ostracized by the other students.

Proximity Closeness, adjacency, nearness

We chose the house for its proximity to the school

the proximity of the Bahamas to the States

Here the rich and the poor live in close proximity (=very near to each other).

rapport

Understanding, empathy, sympathy, relationship

rapport with/between

He had an excellent rapport with his patients.

establish/build up/develop (a) rapport

He built up a good rapport with the children.

Reading 2

Lunar

Moony, related to moon

studies of the lunar surface

a lunar eclipse

TPO 1 – 30


Cues Hint, suggestion, clue, signal

Our success was the cue for other companies to press ahead with new investment.

I think that's my cue to explain why I'm here.

Fungus a simple type of plant that has no

leaves or flowers and that grows on plants or other surfaces. mushrooms and mould are both fungi.

قارچ

Intentional

Deliberate, on purpose

I did trip him, but it wasn't intentional.

Orbit to travel in a curved path around a

much larger object such as the Earth, the sun etc:

The satellite orbits the Earth every 48 hours.

Attest Affirm, vouch for, demonstrate,

indicate, show, verify

Luxurious furnishings attested to the wealth of the owner.

Crayfish shellfish

a small animal like a lobster that lives in rivers and streams, or the meat from this animal

Crab خرچنگ

Persistent

Determined, insistent, resolute, tenacious, continuous

persistent rumours

persistent headaches

a persistent problem

persistent rain

If she hadn't been so persistent she might not have gotten the job.

persistent efforts

Persistent offenders (=people who often break the law) face a prison sentence.

Deprived Keep away or take away sth wanted or

needed, strip,

to prevent someone from having something, especially something that they need or should have:

A lot of these children have been deprived of a normal home life.

محروم کردن

Circadian relating to a period of 24 hours, used

especially when talking about changes in people's bodies:

the body's circadian rhythm

Precision Exactness, rigor, attention, care,

The work was carried out with military precision (=the work was done in a carefully planned and exact way).

Disorienting confused and not understanding what

is happening around you

2 confused about where you are or which direction you should go:

When he emerged into the street, he was completely disoriented.

Drift change

a drift towards longer working hours

Squirrels سنجاب

TPO 1 – 30


Burst explosion

a burst in the water pipe

a short sudden effort or increase in activity

burst of

The van gave a sudden burst of speed.

b) a short sudden and usually loud sound

Pigeon کبوتر

Compass

an instrument that shows directions and has a needle that always points north:

a map and compass

قطب نما

interrupt

Bother, interfere, break, cut, halt

My studies were interrupted by the war.

sustain

Keep up, maintain

She found it difficult to sustain the children's interest.

He was incapable of sustaining close relationships with women.

the policies necessary to sustain economic growth

Reading 3

Neonate

Infant, baby

Stimuli Provocation, encouragement,

incentive, motivation, stimulus

Tax cuts provided the stimulus which the slow economy needed.

stimulus to

The discovery of oil acted as a stimulus to industrial development.

Potent Effective, powerful, forceful, strong,

robust, vigorous, influential

potent drugs

a potent symbol of oppression

Advertising is a potent force in showing smoking as a socially acceptable habit.

A good company pension scheme remains a potent weapon for attracting staff.

2 powerful and effective:

The treaty requires them to get rid of their most potent weapons.

Perception

Understanding, idea, knowledge, notion

children's perceptions of the world

the public perception of the government's performance

Prior to Before, previous

You do not need any prior knowledge of the subject.

Changes may not be made without the prior approval of the council.

Vegetarian meals are provided by prior agreement.

Some prior experience with the software is needed.

Blinking Flash, sparkle

to shut and open your eyes quickly:

I blinked as I came out into the sunlight.

if lights blink, they shine unsteadily or go on and off quickly:

TPO 1 – 30


The light on your answering machine is blinking.

Respiration breathing

Elicit Draw out, extract,

When her knock elicited no response, she opened the door and peeped in.

elicit something from somebody

The test uses pictures to elicit words from the child.

verbalize

Articulate, express, converse, say

Urge your child to verbalize his feelings.

assess

Evaluate, determine, judge

a report to assess the impact of advertising on children

The technique is being tried in classrooms to assess what effects it may have

Many of the adults were assessed as having learning difficulties.

devise

Design ,concoct, invent, make, create

She devised a method for quicker communications between offices.

apparatus

Equipment, device, means

Astronauts have special breathing apparatus.

The tax will require a massive administrative apparatus.

The state apparatus has become corrupt.

the apparatus of government

pacifier a rubber object that you give a baby to

suck so that it does not cry

vogue Fashion

Short skirts are very much in vogue just now.

Suntanning first came into vogue in the mid-1930s.

olfactory

Odorous, aromatic,

connected with the sense of smell:

the olfactory cells in the nose

TPO 14

Reading 1

Accuse Allege, blame, charge, indict

to say that you believe someone is guilty of a crime or of doing something bad

accuse somebody of (doing) something

He was accused of murder.

Smith accused her of lying.

The professor stands accused of (=has been accused of) stealing his student's ideas and publishing them.

offset

Compensate, balance,

Cuts in prices for milk, butter, and cheese will be offset by direct payments to farmers.

offset something against something

TPO 1 – 30


He was able to offset his travel expenses against tax.

Outlook

Point of view, perspective, vision

He's got a good outlook on life.

Exercise will improve your looks and your outlook.

verify

Confirm, validate,

A computer program verifies that the system is working.

American forces will remain to verify compliance with the treaty.

2 to state that something is true [= confirm]:

His statement was verified by several witnesses.

Commission 1 [countable] a group of people

who have been given the official job of finding out about something or controlling something:

The Government set up a commission to investigate allegations of police violence.

commission on

the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution

2 [uncountable and countable] an extra amount of money that is paid to a person or organization according to the value of the goods they have sold or the services they have provided:

The dealer takes a 20% commission on the sales he makes.

Exaggeration

Overstatement, embellishment, hyperbole,

a statement or way of saying something that makes something seem better, larger etc than it really is:

It would be an exaggeration to say that

we were close friends.

It is no exaggeration to say that everyone will be affected by the new policy.

The situation can be described, without exaggeration, as disastrous.

Ill-equipped Unfit, inadequate, inappropriate

not having the necessary equipment or skills for a particular situation or activity

ill-equipped to do something

The rebels were ill-equipped to cope with Western weapons and forces.

ill-equipped for

Their army is ill-equipped for modern warfare.

Counterbalance Counteract, offset

to have an equal and opposite effect to something such as a change, feeling etc:

Riskier investments tend to be counterbalanced by high rewards.

conflate Merge, amalgamate, unite

to combine two or more things to form a single new thing:

He conflates two images from Kipling's short stories in the film.

blend Composite, mix, combine

a story that blends fact and legend

Blend the sugar, eggs, and flour.

credible Believable, conceivable,

He was unable to give a credible explanation for his behaviour.

Her excuse was barely credible.

TPO 1 – 30


Disclaimer repudiation

a statement that you are not responsible for or involved with something, or that you do not know about it - used especially in advertising or legal agreements

Adept

Adroit, deft, skilled, skillful

Melissa quickly became adept at predicting his moods.

Silas proved adept in the art of avoiding potholes in the road.

I'm afraid she's also an adept liar.

Attribute Feature, characteristic, trait

What attributes should a good manager possess?

Endorse Support, authorize, advocate, approve,

confirm,

The Prime Minister is unlikely to endorse this view.

Reading 2

Equatorial Tropic, tropical,

near the equator:

equatorial rainforests

equatorial weather is very hot and wet:

an equatorial climate

استوایی

Karst

Karst topography is a geological formation shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock

Peninsula a piece of land almost completely

surrounded by water but joined to a large area of land:

the Korean peninsula

Presumably Likely, probably, supposedly

It's raining, which presumably means that your football match will be cancelled.

exhaust Use up

to use all of something [= use up]:

We are in danger of exhausting the world's oil supply.

Having exhausted all other possibilities, I asked Jan to look after the baby

Porous Penetrable, permeable, pervious,

porous material, soil

cenote a natural pit, or sinkhole

Limestone

سنگ اهک

prolong Continue, extend, perpetuate,

lengthen

I was trying to think of some way to prolong the conversation.

Sealed

Secured, closed, fixed

a sealed container

مهر و موم شده

Terrain Land, ground, territory, region

a particular type of land:

rocky terrain

TPO 1 – 30


Excavate Dig up, scrape, unearth,


Leak Opening, seepage,

a small hole that lets liquid or gas flow into or out of something:

There is a leak in the ceiling.

The boat had sprung a leak (=a hole had appeared in it).

Plastering to put a wet, usually sticky substance

all over a surface so that it is thickly covered

to completely cover a surface with something, especially large pieces of paper, pictures etc

plaster something with something

The windows were plastered with notices.

The news of the wedding was plastered all over the papers (=was the main story in the newspapers).

گچ اندود کردن

Reservoir

Repository, basin, container, lake, pond, pool,

a lake, especially an artificial one, where water is stored before it is supplied to people's houses

2 a large amount of something that is available and has not yet been used

reservoir of

She found she had reservoirs of unexpected strength.

Catchment

the area that a river or lake gets water from

Basin an area of land that is lower at the

centre than at the edges, especially one from which water runs down into a river:

the Amazon basin

Reading 3

Profound Intellectual, thoughtful, deep,

philosophical,




Pastoralist

Shepherd, herdsman, herder,

چوپان

Archaeology

the study of ancient societies by examining what remains of their buildings, graves, tools etc

Distinctive

Different, unique,


Millennium a period of 1000 years:

people who have inhabited this land for millennia

Warfare

Battle, armed conflict

the realities of modern warfare

Striking Extraordinary, eye-catching,

fascinating, noticeable

TPO 1 – 30


a dark man with striking features


Carnivore

an animal that eats flesh

someone who eats meat vs. vegetarian

Exploit to treat someone unfairly by asking

them to do things for you, but giving them very little in return - used to show disapproval:


2 to try to get as much as you can out of a situation, sometimes unfairly:


3 to use something fully and effectively:


breed

if animals breed, they mate in order to have babies:

Eagles breed during the cooler months of the year.

2 [transitive]TAHB to keep animals or plants in order to produce babies or new plants, especially ones with particular qualities:

These dogs were originally bred in Scotland to round up sheep.

Necessity

Need, essentiality, requirement

She saw books as a necessity, not a luxury.

A car is an absolute necessity if you live in the country.

the basic/bare necessities

A lot of families cannot even afford to buy the basic necessities of life.

Nomadist Migrant, wanderer,

a member of a tribe that travels from place to place instead of living in one place all the time, usually in order to find grass for their animals

Territory Domain, region, area, district, terrain


The plane was flying over enemy territory.

Linguistic related to language, words, or

linguistics:

a child's linguistic development

Ancestral Familial, tribal, related to previous

family

Expansionism

when a country or group increases the amount of land or power that they have - used especially to show disapproval:

military expansionism

Forage to go around searching for food or

other supplies

forage for

People are being forced to forage for food and fuel.

In the summer, the goats forage freely (=in any place they want to go).

Hereditary Genetic, inherited

1HBM a quality or illness that is

TPO 1 – 30


hereditary is passed from a parent to a

child before the child is born [↪ genetic]

2 a hereditary position, rank, or title can be passed from an older to a younger person in the same family, usually when the older one dies:

Hierarchy

Order, ranking

a system of organization in which people or things are divided into levels of importance:

a rigid social hierarchy

She worked her way up through the corporate hierarchy to become president.

2 the most important and powerful members of an organization:

the church hierarchy

سلسله مراتب

TPO15

Reading 1

Turtle لاک پشت

Chilly

Cold, icy, frosty

a chilly November morning

Reptile

a type of animal, such as a snake or lizard, whose body temperature changes according to the temperature around it, and that usually lays eggs to have babies

خزنده

Contradiction Disagreement, conflict, dispute,

paradox

a difference between two statements, beliefs, or ideas about something that means they cannot both be true:

apparent contradictions in the defendant's testimony

contradiction between

a contradiction between the government's ideas and its actual policy

Feat

Achievement, accomplishment,

They climbed the mountain in 28 days, a remarkable feat.

the woman who performed the feat of sailing around the world alone

Bask Lie in sunlight, sunbathe

Tenerife was basking in afternoon sunshine as they arrived.

Lizards were basking in the morning sun.

Proportionate

Appropriately, correspondingly, accordingly,

The punishment should be proportionate to the crime.

Bulk Size, largeness, volume

The bulk of consumers are based in towns.

the great bulk of a building

The dough will rise until it is double in bulk.

sheer

the sheer weight/size etc used to emphasize that something is very heavy, large etc

TPO 1 – 30




Gigantothermy is a phenomenon with significance in

biology and paleontology, whereby large, bulky ectothermic animals are more easily able to maintain a constant, relatively high body temperature

insulate Protect, shield

to cover or protect something with a material that stops electricity, sound, heat etc from getting in or out

insulate something from/against something

Pipes may need insulating against the cold.

an insulated attic

Blubber

the fat of sea animals, especially whales

Equivalent

Same, similar, equal, identical



Beneath

Below, underneath

The dolphins disappeared beneath the waves.

Jo enjoyed feeling the warm sand beneath her feet.

He was standing on the bridge looking at the river beneath.

Some roofs collapsed beneath the weight of (=unable to support the weight of) so much snow.

Flipper a flat part on the body of some large

sea animals such as seals, that they use for swimming

Blade Cutting tool

the flat cutting part of a tool or weapon

[↪ edge]

blade of

The blade of the knife flashed in the moonlight.

a razor blade

Compromising

Vessels 1 formal a ship or large boat:

a fishing vessel

2 technical a vein in your body:

a burst blood vessel

3 old use a container for holding liquids

Gull

a large common black and white sea bird that lives near the sea [= seagull]

Floe an area of ice floating in the sea, that

has broken off from a larger mass

Hatchlings

a hatchling is a newly hatched(f an egg hatches, or if it is hatched, it breaks, letting the young bird, insect etc come out) fish, amphibian, reptile, or bird

Immense

Huge, enormous

People who travel by rail still read an

TPO 1 – 30


immense amount.

Regular visits from a social worker can be of immense value to old people living alone.

Reading 2

Interval Break, pause,

He left the room, returning after a short interval with a message.

Permian The Permian is a geologic period and

system which extends from 298.9 ± 0.2 to 252.2 ± 0.5. It is the last period of the Paleozoic Era, following the Carboniferous Period and preceding the Triassic Period of the Mesozoic

Perished feeling very cold:

I wish I'd brought a jacket - I'm perished!

Fad something that people like or do for a

short time, or that is fashionable for a short time:

Interest in organic food is not a fad, it's here to stay.

Simultaneous Concurrent, happening at the same

time

Up to twenty users can have simultaneous access to the system.

The speeches will be broadcast live, with simultaneous translation (=immediate translation, as the person is speaking) into English.

Paleontology the study of fossils (=ancient

bones, plants etc that have been preserved in rock)

Drastic Severe, extreme, harsh

drastic cuts in government spending

Drastic changes are needed if environmental catastrophe is to be avoided.

Recur

Happen again, reappear,

There is a danger that the disease may recur.

Love is a recurring theme in the book.

Deflect

Divert

if someone or something deflects something that is moving, or if it deflects, it turns in a different direction:

He deflected the blow with his forearm.

2 [transitive] to do something to stop people paying attention to you, criticizing you etc

deflect something (away) from something

his attempts to deflect attention away from his private life

The committee is seeking to deflect criticism by blaming me.

Devastate Demolish, destroy

Rob was devastated by the news of her death.

The city centre was devastated by the bomb.

Asteroid

one of the many small planets that move around the sun, especially between Mars and Jupiter

TPO 1 – 30


Collide Slam, bang, hit

A car and a van collided on the motorway.

Two trains collided head-on (=when they were moving directly towards each other).

Spew eject

to flow out of something quickly in large quantities, or to make something flow out in this way:

Factory chimneys spewed fumes out into the sky.

Debris

Litter, waste, remains,

the pieces of something that are left after it has been destroyed in an accident, explosion etc:

She was hit by flying debris from the blast.

Starvation Hunger, famine, deprivation

people dying of starvation

Herbivore

an animal that only eats plants

Sedimentary made of the solid substances that

settle at the bottom of the sea, rivers, lakes etc:

sedimentary rock

sedimentary deposits

Boundary Border, edge, line

The Mississippi River forms a natural boundary between Iowa and Illinois.

National boundaries are becoming increasingly meaningless in the global economy.

We would need their agreement to build outside the city boundary.

The stream curves round to mark the boundary of his property.

Anomaly Abnormality, oddity, deviation,

irregularity

In those days, a woman professor was still an anomaly.

Crater a round hole in the ground made

by something that has fallen on it or by an explosion:

craters on the moon's surface

2 THE the round open top of a volcano

Quartz a hard mineral substance that is used

in making electronic watches and clocks:

quartz crystals

a quartz watch

Reading 3

Glacier a large mass of ice which moves


یخچال طبیعی

Accumulate Compile, hoard, gather, amass

It is unjust that a privileged few should continue to accumulate wealth.

hexagonal Six-sided

Lessen Lower, reduce, decrease, diminish,

dwindle,

Exercise lessens the risk of heart disease.

TPO 1 – 30


Granule Grain, corn

a small hard piece of something:

coffee granules

Firn a type of snow that has been left over

from past seasons and has been recrystallized

flake

a small thin piece that breaks away easily from something else

flake of

flakes of snow

chocolate flakes

outward external

The economy and outward appearance of the area have changed considerably.

His clenched fist was the only outward sign of his anger.

Precipitation

Rain, rainfall, snow, snowfall

Exceed surpass

to be more than a particular number or amount:

Working hours must not exceed 42 hours a week.

His performance exceeded our expectations.

2SCC to go beyond what rules or laws say you are allowed to do:

He was fined for exceeding the speed limit.

The riot police had exceeded their authority.

Evaporate if a liquid evaporates, or if heat

evaporates it, it changes into a gas:

Most of the water had evaporated.

The sun evaporates moisture on the leaves.

Calving

breaking off of chunks of ice at the edge of a glacier

Chunks 1 a large thick piece of something

that does not have an even shape:

ice chunks

chunk of

a chunk of bread

2 a large part or amount of something:

The rent takes a large chunk out of my monthly salary.

chunk of

A huge chunk of the audience got up and left before the end of the show.

Surplus

Extra, excess

a surplus of crude oil

Deceive Mislead, fool, cheat,

to make someone believe something

that is not true [= trick; ↪ deception]:

He had been deceived by a young man claiming to be the son of a millionaire.

deceive somebody into doing something

He tried to deceive the public into thinking the war could still be won.

deceive somebody about something

I wouldn't deceive you about anything as important as this.

Static

Motionless, fixed, immobile, stagnant, stationary

TPO 1 – 30


Economists predict that house prices will remain static for a long period.

Thereby

By that, through, with, so

with the result that something else happens

thereby doing something

He became a citizen in 1978, thereby gaining the right to vote.

Engulf Absorb, overwhelm, encompass,

if an unpleasant feeling engulfs you, you feel it very strongly:

despair so great it threatened to engulf him

2 to completely surround or cover something:

The building was engulfed in flames.

TPO16

Reading 1

mainstay Chief support, backbone, bulwark,

an important part of something that makes it possible for it to work properly or continue to exist:

Agriculture is still the mainstay of the country's economy.

b) someone who does most of the important work for a group or organization:

She was the mainstay of the team.

Negotiate discuss

to discuss something in order to reach an agreement, especially in business or politics

negotiate with

The government refuses to negotiate with terrorists.

sandstone ماسه سنگ

ore سنگ معدن

jade سنگ یشمی

shepherd someone whose job is to take care of

sheep

Obsidian

a type of rock that looks like black glass

Expedition Journey, tour, travel, trip



a shopping expedition

a fishing expedition

Artisan someone who does skilled work,

making things with their hands [= craftsman]

Piecework

work for which you are paid according to the number of things you produce rather than the number of hours that you spend working:

bargaining over piecework rates

Tutelage Guidance, teaching, care,

apprenticeship, coaching, protection

You can attend embroidery classes under the tutelage of Jocelyn James

parental tutelage

TPO 1 – 30


Blur to become difficult to see or to make

something difficult to see, because the edges are not clear:

The street lights were blurred by the fog.

Many of the details in the picture are blurred.

2 to be unable to see clearly:

Tears blurred her eyes.

His vision was blurred.

Labor Work, activity, job

The garage charges £30 an hour for labour.

Many women do hard manual labour (=work with their hands).

Workers withdrew their labour (=protested by stopping work) for twenty-four hours.

multiplicity a large number or great variety of

things

multiplicity of

the multiplicity of courses available to language students

Guild

Association, fellowship, federation

the Women's Guild

Kinship

Family relation, affinity,

The sense of kinship between the two men is surprising.

He felt a kinship with the only other American on the base.

Mutual

Shared, common, bilateral,


European nations can live together in

a spirit of mutual trust.



Egalitarian Democratic, equal

an egalitarian society

Tribal Familial, ancestral

a tribal dance

tribal cultures

Quasi

like something else or trying to be something else:

a quasi-scientific approach

a quasi-governmental organization

Flourish

to develop well and be successful [= thrive]:


2 [intransitive] to grow well and be very healthy [↪ thrive]:


Laissez-faire

the principle that the government should allow the economy or private businesses to develop without any state control or influence:

the policy of laissez-faire

Consensus

General agreement, unity

There is a consensus among teachers that children should have a broad understanding of the world.

TPO 1 – 30


The EU Council of Finance Ministers failed to reach a consensus on the pace of integration.

the current consensus of opinion

The general consensus was that technology was a good thing.

the consensus politics of the fifties

peculiar

Unique, distinctive, distinct

strange, unfamiliar, or a little surprising:

There was a peculiar smell in the kitchen.

Something peculiar is going on.

It seems very peculiar that no one noticed Kay had gone.

bond

something that unites two or more people or groups, such as love, or a

shared interest or idea [↪ tie]

bond between

the emotional bond between mother and child

bond with

the United States' special bond with Britain

bond of

lifelong bonds of friendship

aristocratic

Privileged, noble,

an aristocratic family

ethic

Moral principle, virtue, morality

The old ethic of hard work has given way to a new ethic of instant gratification.

Mercantile Concerning business, marketing,

commercial,

mercantile law

Stance Position, posture, stand, viewpoint

What is your stance on environmental issues?

The President has adopted a tough stance on terrorism.

Circumstance Condition, situation

The Soviet Union had been forced by circumstances to sign a pact with Nazi Germany.


Regulation Managing, organization,

an official rule or order:

There seem to be so many rules and regulations these days.

new regulations on imports

regulations governing the safety of toys

Merchant trader

someone whose job is to buy and sell

Entrepreneurial someone who starts a new business

or arranges business deals in order to make money, often in a way that involves financial risks

Figurative Not literal, symbolic, allegorical,

metaphoric

They have a taste - figuratively speaking - for excitement.

populous Crowded, populated

Hong Kong is one of the most populous areas in the world.

TPO 1 – 30


fragile Weak, delicate, feeble, frail

the country's fragile economy

Relations between the two countries are in a fragile state.

the party's fragile unity

Pastures

Grass, meadow

large areas of rough upland pasture

the lush pastures of the southern counties

Wholly

Completely, entirely, fully, thoroughly, utterly

a wholly satisfactory solution

The report claimed that the disaster was wholly unavoidable.

Intrinsic

Basic, inborn, inherent, innate,

Flexibility is intrinsic to creative management.

Monetary

Financial, fiscal, budgetary

the government's tight monetary policy

objects of little monetary value

Erode

Deteriorate, wear away, corrode

1SG if the weather erodes rock or soil, or if rock or soil erodes, its surface is gradually destroyed:

The cliffs are being constantly eroded by heavy seas.

The rocks have gradually eroded away.

2 to gradually reduce something such as someone's power or confidence:

Our personal freedom is being gradually eroded away.

Repeated exam failure had eroded her confidence.

Circumvent

Avoid, bypass, evade,

The company opened an account abroad, in order to circumvent the tax laws.

Prowl

if an animal prowls, it moves around an area quietly, especially because it is hunting another animal

Barren

Arid, desolate, infertile,

Thousands of years ago the surface was barren desert.

Peripheral

Minor, incidental

a diplomat who had a peripheral role in the negotiations

Her involvement in the case was peripheral.

Repudiate

Reject, break with, disavow,

He repudiated all offers of friendship.

Reading 2

Monumental Impressive, overwhelming, huge,

important

a monumental contribution to the field of medicine

Charles Darwin's monumental study, 'The Origin of Species'

Interplay Transaction, exchange, interaction

the interplay of ideas

interplay between

TPO 1 – 30


the interplay between military and civilian populations

Alkali

a substance that forms a chemical salt when combined with an acid

قلیا

Forerunner

Herald, precursor

omeone or something that existed before something similar that developed or came later

forerunner of

Babbage's engine was the forerunner of the modern computer.

Farsighted

Perceptive, wise, shrewd, prudent

far-sighted investments

a far-sighted politician

Arsenic

a very poisonous chemical substance that is sometimes used to kill rats, insects, and weeds

Iodine

a dark blue chemical substance that is used on wounds to prevent infection.

ید

Analogous to

similar

The report's findings are analogous with our own.

Designate Name, label

to choose someone or something for a particular job or purpose

be designated something

The lake was recently designated a conservation area.

designate something as/for something

Funds were designated for projects in low-income areas.

designate somebody to do something

She has been designated to take over the position of treasurer.

2 to represent or refer to something using a particular sign, name etc:

Buildings are designated by red squares on the map.

Correspondence

Agreement, harmony

There was no correspondence between the historical facts and Johnson's account of them.

Spectrum

a complete range of opinions, people, situations etc, going from one extreme to its opposite

spectrum of

the ethnic spectrum of America

across the spectrum

The bill drew support from across the political spectrum.

broad/wide/full etc spectrum

a broad spectrum of environmental groups

The two articles here represent opposite ends of the spectrum.

Postulate Suppose, hypothesize, posit, theorize

It has been postulated that the condition is inherited.

Successive

Following, subsequent,

The team has had five successive victories.

Successive governments have tried to deal with this issue.

TPO 1 – 30


Reading 3

Hub Center, core

Birmingham is at the hub of Britain's motorway network.

the commercial hub of the region

Asteroid

one of the many small planets that move around the sun, especially between Mars and Jupiter

Comet

an object in space like a bright ball with a long tail, that moves around the sun:

Halley's comet

Meteor a piece of rock or metal that travels

through space, and makes a bright line in the night sky when it falls down towards the Earth:


a meteor shower (=a lot of meteors that fall down towards the Earth at the same time)

Gravitational related to or resulting from the force of

gravity:

the Moon's gravitational field

the gravitational pull of the moon

Elliptical Oval- shaped

Kepler published his discovery of the elliptical orbits of planets in 1609.

elliptical speech or writing is difficult to understand because more is meant than is actually said:

The language is often elliptical and ambiguous.

Terrestrial earthly

Markedly

Distinctly, remarkably, noticeably, obviously

Johnson and Rivera have markedly different leadership styles.

Ammonia

1 a clear liquid with a strong bad smell that is used for cleaning or in cleaning products

2 a poisonous gas with a strong bad smell that is used in making many chemicals, fertilizers etc

Meager

Small, inadequate, poor, scant

a meagre diet of bread and beans

He supplements his meager income by working on Saturdays.

a school with meagre resources

Velocity Pace, speed, acceleration

the velocity of light

The speedboat reached a velocity of 120 mph.

a high velocity bullet

Infinitesimal

small, microscopic, minuscule

infinitesimal changes in temperature

Astronomer a scientist who studies the stars and

planets

Primordial

Earliest, primitive, primeval

the primordial seas

TPO 1 – 30


Condense Abridge, shorten, curtail

The gaseous metal is cooled and condenses into liquid zinc.

This whole chapter could be condensed into a few paragraphs.

void

an empty area of space where nothing exists:

She looked over the cliff into the void.

TPO17

Reading 1

Impetus Motivation, incentive, stimulus

The report may provide further impetus for reform.

The discovery gave fresh impetus to the research.

Maritime Marine, aquatic,

San Francisco has lost nearly all of its maritime industry.

Galley a kitchen on a ship:

The fire extinguishers are stored in the galley.

2SHTTW a long low Greek or Roman ship with sails which was rowed by slaves in the past

Oar a long pole with a wide flat blade at

one end, used for rowing a boat [↪ paddle]

Hull the main part of a ship that goes in the

water

Caravel A caravel is a small, highly

maneuverable sailing ship developed in the 15th century by the Portuguese to explore along the West African coast

cargo the goods that are being carried in a

ship or plane [= freight]

cargo of

A ship carrying a cargo of oil has run aground.

a cargo plane

thrust a sudden strong movement in which

you push something forward:

He jumped back to avoid another thrust of the knife.

2 [singular] the main meaning or aim of what someone is saying or doing

thrust of

the main thrust of the government's education policy

Lateen Triangular sail that was of decisive

importance to medieval navigation.

Maneuver to move or turn skilfully or to move or

turn something skilfully, especially something large and heavy:

She managed to manoeuvre expertly into the parking space.

Astrolabe An astrolabe 1] is an elaborate

inclinometer, historically used by astronomers, navigators, and astrologers

TPO 1 – 30


Latitude the distance north or south of the

equator (=the imaginary line around the middle of the world), measured in degrees

Longitude the distance east or west of a

particular meridian (=imaginary line along the Earth's surface from the North Pole to the South Pole), measured in degrees

Compass an instrument that shows directions

and has a needle that always points north:

a map and compass

Obliterate

Destroy, erase, eliminate,

to cover something completely so that it cannot be seen:

Then the fog came down, obliterating everything.

Hiroshima was nearly obliterated by the atomic bomb

Refine Clarify, purify

Car makers are constantly refining their designs.

Normative Standardizing, normalizing

describing or establishing a set of rules or standards of behaviour:

normative guidelines for senators

Reading 2

Conspicuous Obvious, apparent, evident, visible,

noticeable

The notice must be displayed in a conspicuous place.

a bird with conspicuous white markings

I felt very conspicuous in my red coat.

Amphibian animals such as frogs that can live

both on land and in water

Toad a small animal that looks like a large

frog and lives mostly on land

Chameleon a lizard that can change its colour

to match the colours around it

Aggression Attack, assault, invasion,

Television violence can encourage aggression in children.

Mate

if animals mate, they have sex to produce babies

mate with

It's quite common for male birds to mate with several females.

Spectacular

Wonderful, impressive, marvelous

a mountainous area with spectacular scenery

a spectacular success

Plumage the feathers covering a bird's body:

the parrot's brilliant blue plumage

Penetrate Pierce, crack, drill, enter, infiltrate,

permeate,

bullets that penetrate thick armour plating

Sunlight barely penetrated the dirty windows.

TPO 1 – 30


Canopy the leaves and branches of trees, that

make a kind of roof in a forest:

the forest canopy

Scrublands an area of land that is covered with

low bushes

Courtship the period of time during which a man

and woman have a romantic relationship before marrying

2 [uncountable] special behaviour used by animals to attract each other for sex:

Inflate Increase, augment, boost,

The numbers of people involved have been grossly inflated by the media

Hotels ften inflate prices at particular times of the year.

Costs were inflating.

Sac a part inside a plant or animal that is

shaped like a bag and contains liquid or air

Fling o throw something somewhere using a

lot of force

fling something into something

He flung the box into the river.

People cheered and flung their hats into the air.

Pendulous Dangling, pending, suspended,

hanging

Apparatus Device, equipment

Astronauts have special breathing apparatus.

Piercing a sound that is piercing is high, sharp,

and unpleasant:

He grinned and let out a piercing whistle.

a piercing scream

Rhinoceros a large heavy African or Asian animal

with thick skin and either one or two horns on its nose

کرگدن

Hornbill a tropical bird with a very large beak

Gibbons

a small animal like a monkey, with long arms and no tail, that lives in trees in Asia

Impediment

Obstruction, hindrance, burden, obstacle,

a physical problem that makes speaking, hearing, or moving difficult:

a speech impediment

2 a situation or event that makes it difficult or impossible for someone or something to succeed or make progress

impediment to

War is one of the greatest impediments to human progress.

Obstruct

Hinder, inhibit, prevent, restrict

A small aircraft was obstructing the runway.

The column obstructed our view of the stage.

he group is trying to obstruct the peace process.

He was fined for obstructing the work of the police.

TPO 1 – 30


Ritual Ceremony, tradition,

the importance of religion and ritual in our lives

The lady of the house performs the sacred ritual of lighting two candles.

Reading 3

Symbiotic Cooperative, interdependent

a symbiotic relationship is one in which the people, organizations, or living things involved depend on each other

Parasite a plant or animal that lives on or in

another plant or animal and gets food from it

Commensalism In ecology, commensalism is a class of

relationship between two organisms where one organism benefits without affecting the other.

Mutualism Mutualism is the way two organisms of

different species exist in a relationship in which each individual benefits

Derive Acquire, get,



This word is derived from Latin.

patterns of behaviour that derive from basic beliefs

Tapeworm a long flat worm that lives in the

bowels of humans and other animals and can make them ill

Vertebrate a living creature that has a

backbone

Overrun Invade, swamp,

if unwanted things or people overrun a place, they spread over it in great numbers

be overrun by/with something

a tiny island overrun by tourists

The house was overrun with mice

Expanse

a very large area of water, sky, land etc

expanse of

an expanse of blue sky

vast/wide/large etc expanse

the vast expanse of the ocean

Deliberate Intentional, on purpose

a deliberate attempt to humiliate her

The attack on him was quite deliberate.

Mosquito

پشه

Offspring Child, baby

someone's child or children - often used humorously:

a young mother trying to control her offspring

2 an animal's baby or babies:

a lion and its offspring

Genotype the genetic nature of one type of

living thing

TPO 1 – 30


Strain a type of animal, plant, or disease

strain of

different strains of wheat

a new strain of the flu virus

Inadvertently Recklessly, heedlessly, carelessly

Viruses can be spread inadvertently by email users.

Robinson's name was inadvertently omitted from the list.

Graze

if an animal grazes, or if you graze it, it eats grass that is growing

graze on

Groups of cattle were grazing on the rich grass.

fields where they used to graze their sheep

Hinder

Prevent, block, obstruct

His career has been hindered by injury.

policies that will hinder rather than help families

! Do not confuse hinder and prevent even though they have similar meanings. Hinder means to make the progress or development of something slow down or stop. Prevent means to make it impossible for someone to do something: His poor health prevented him from going to work (NOT His poor health hindered him from going to work).

Legume

a plant such as a bean plant that has seeds in a pod (=a long thin case)

بنشن

Pollinate to give a flower or plant pollen so that

it can produce seeds:

flowers pollinated by bees

گرده افشانی

Horn the hard pointed thing that grows,

usually in pairs, on the heads of animals such as cows and goats

Acacia

اقاقیا

Genus

Sort, type, kind

one of the groups into which scientists divide animals or plants, in which the animals or plants are closely related but cannot produce babies together. A genus includes fewer members than a family and more members than a species.

Thorn a sharp point that grows on the stem

of a plant such as a rose

خار

TPO 1 – 30


TPO18

Reading 1

Lag Move slowly, delay

She stopped to wait for Ian who was lagging behind.

Britain is lagging behind the rest of Europe.

Moderate Temperate, balanced, mild, modest

Even moderate amounts of alcohol can be dangerous.

a moderate degree of success

a student of moderate ability

Moderate exercise, such as walking, is recommended.

Bake the pie for 30 minutes in a moderate oven.

moderate to strong winds

niche if you find your niche, you find a job or

activity that is very suitable for you:

Amanda soon found her niche at the club.

He's managed to create a niche for himself in local politics.

2 [singular]BB an opportunity to sell a product or service to a particular group of people who have similar needs, interests etc

Implication

Association, meaning, significance

a suggestion that is not made directly but that people are expected to

understand or accept [↪ imply]:

They are called 'Supertrams', the implication being that (=which is meant to suggest that) they are more advanced than earlier models.

Harbor an area of water next to the land

where the water is calm, so that ships are safe when they are inside it:

as they sailed into Portsmouth Harbour

Abolish Terminate, abrogate

to officially end a law, system etc, especially one that has existed for a long time:

Slavery was abolished in the US in the 19th century.

strait

a narrow passage of water between two areas of land, usually connecting two seas:

the Bering Strait

تنگه

Corruption

Dishonesty, crime, extortion, fraud

dishonest, illegal, or immoral behaviour, especially from someone with power:

officials charged with bribery and corruption

The investigation uncovered widespread corruption within the police force.

Grandiose

Grand, noble

grandiose plans sound very important or impressive, but are not practical

grandiose scheme/plan/idea etc

grandiose schemes of urban renewal

Peasant a poor farmer who owns or rents a

small amount of land, either in past times or in poor countries:

Most villagers are peasant farmers.

TPO 1 – 30


Orientation Direction, location

the type of activity or subject that a person or organization seems most interested in and gives most attention to

orientation towards/to

The company needs to develop a stronger orientation towards marketing its products.

How can we get students to adopt a serious orientation to learning?

Contribute Donate, give, grand

The volunteers contribute their own time to the project.

Stake out

to say publicly that you think you have a right to have or own something

stake (out) a claim to

Both countries staked a claim to the islands.

Fluctuation Variation, change

the fluctuation in interest rates

Prices are subject to fluctuation.

notorious Infamous, popular

famous or well-known for something bad [= infamous]:



notorious for


Prosperity

Affluence, success, welfare, well- being

when people have money and

everything that is needed for a good life:

a time of economic prosperity

prosperity of

the future prosperity of the country

Pork the meat from pigs

Reading 2

Yawn to open your mouth wide and breathe

in deeply because you are tired or bored:

Alan stretched and yawned.

Reverse to change something, such as a

decision, judgment, or process so that it is the opposite of what it was before

reverse a decision/verdict/policy etc

The decision was reversed on appeal.

reverse a trend/process/decline etc

More changes are required to reverse the trend towards centralized power.

Flaw Imperfection, defect, fault, weakness

a flaw in the software

A design flaw (=a mistake or weakness in the way something was made) caused the engine to explode.

Trigger Cause to happen, prompt, set off

The assassination triggered off a wave of rioting.

Certain forms of mental illness can be triggered by food allergies.

hiccup a sudden repeated stopping of the

breath, usually caused by eating or drinking too fast

Don't drink so fast - you'll get hiccups.

سکسکه

TPO 1 – 30


suppress Repress, withhold, restrain

to stop people from opposing the government, especially by using force:

The uprising was ruthlessly suppressed.

if important information or opinions are suppressed, people are prevented from knowing about them, even if they have a right to know:

The police were accused of suppressing evidence.

Fetus

baby or young animal before it is born [↪ embryo

Amniotic fluid While in the womb, the baby floats in

the amniotic fluid

secrete if a part of an animal or plant secretes

a liquid substance, it produces it:

The toad's skin secretes a deadly poison.

Congenital

Inborn

a congenital medical condition or disease has affected someone since they were born:

congenital abnormalities

a congenital defect

Skeptical Suspicious, dubious, doubtful,

I'm extremely sceptical about what I read in the press.

Environmental groups are sceptical of the government's claims.

Empirical

Factual, experimental, observed,

empirical evidence

anecdotal consisting of short stories based on

someone's personal experience:

His findings are based on anecdotal evidence rather than serious research.

Impending Forthcoming, approaching, imminent,

an impending event or situation, especially an unpleasant one, is going to happen very soon

impending danger/doom/death/disaster etc

She had a sense of impending disaster.

impending changes in government legislation

Incongruous Absurd, bizarre, contradictory,

inconsistent, not in harmony

strange, unexpected, or unsuitable in a particular situation:

The new theatre looks utterly incongruous in its setting.

Inflate Expand, enlarge,

The numbers of people involved have been grossly inflated by the media.

Hotels often inflate prices at particular times of the year.

Costs were inflating.

Precede to happen or exist before something or

someone, or to come before

something else in a series [↪ preceding]:

a type of cloud that precedes rain

Lunch will be preceded by a short speech from the chairman.

2 to go somewhere before someone else:

The guard preceded them down the corridor.

TPO 1 – 30


Reading 3

Discharge to send out gas, liquid, smoke etc, or

to allow it to escape

discharge something into something


Pellet a small ball of a substance:

food pellets for rabbits

2 a small ball of metal made to be fired from a gun:

shotgun pellets

collision Accident

The school bus was involved in a collision with a truck.

Two people were killed in a head-on collision (=between two vehicles that are moving directly towards each other) on highway 218.

Illuminate

Make light, brighten, highlight

to make a light shine on something, or to fill a place with light:

A single candle illuminated his face.

At night the canals are beautifully illuminated.

Flagpole a tall pole on which a flag hangs [=

flagstaff]

initiate Begin, start, commence,

They have decided to initiate legal proceedings against the newspaper.

Intellectuals have initiated a debate on terrorism.

surge Rush

to suddenly move very quickly in a particular direction

surge forward/through etc

The taxi surged forward.

The crowd surged through the gates.

strike

Heat hard, beat, collide, crash, smack

She fell heavily, striking her head against the side of the boat.

A snowball struck him on the back of the head.

Several cars were struck by falling trees.

The last rays of the setting sun struck the garden windows.

! In spoken and ordinary written English it is much more usual to use hit.

Forked

having one end divided into two or more parts:

Snakes have forked tongues.

TPO 1 – 30


TPO19

Reading 1

Troops Army, military, soldiers in an organized

group

Both countries agreed to withdraw their troops.

Johnson took the popular step of sending in American troops.

Camp a place where people stay in tents,

shelters etc for a short time, usually in the mountains, a forest etc:

Let's go back to camp - it's getting dark.

a camp near Lake Ellen Wilson

Fortification

Barricade, fortress,

towers, walls etc built around a place in order to protect it or defend it:

a site of ancient fortifications dating from about 500 B.C.

Assess Evaluate, determine, judge,

a report to assess the impact of advertising on children

The technique is being tried in classrooms to assess what effects it may have.

Uneven not equal or equally balanced:

an uneven distribution of resources

Incorporate

Include, combine, mix, assimilate, integrate

We've incorporated many

environmentally-friendly features into the design of the building.

Our original proposals were not incorporated in the new legislation.

Empire

a group of countries that are all controlled by one ruler or government:

the Roman empire

station

Headquarter, base,

a small military establishment:

an isolated naval station

a building or place that is a centre for a particular kind of service or activity:

a police station

a fire station

Imposition

the introduction of something such as a rule, punishment, tax etc

imposition of

the imposition of martial law

2 [countable usually singular] formal something that someone expects or asks you to do for them, which is not convenient for you:

I know it's an imposition, but could I use your bathroom?

Requisition Demand, request,

if someone in authority, especially the army, requisitions a building, vehicle, or food, they officially demand to have it during an emergency such as a war [= commandeer]:

The building was requisitioned as a military hospital for the duration of the war.

territory Domain,

land that is owned or controlled by a

TPO 1 – 30


particular country, ruler, or military force:


Fort

Fortification, stronghold, camp, castle, fortress, station

a strong building or group of buildings used by soldiers or an army for defending an important place

rob

Steal, deprive, strip

to take away an important quality, ability etc from someone or something:

The illness robbed him of a normal childhood.

Stunt

to stop something or someone from growing to their full size or developing properly:

Lack of sunlight will stunt the plant's growth.

Disaffection Resentment, antipathy, animosity,

dissatisfaction,

the disaffected youth from poor neighborhoods

Suppress

Restrain, subdue, prevent, stop

to stop people from opposing the government, especially by using force:

The uprising was ruthlessly suppressed.

if important information or opinions are suppressed, people are prevented from knowing about them, even if they have a right to know:

The police were accused of suppressing evidence.

sow Plant, grow

past tense sowed, past participle sown or sowed

These fields used to be sown with oats.

rebellion

Disobedience, revolution

an organized attempt to change the government or leader of a country,

using violence [↪ coup, revolution]:

an armed rebellion

rebellion against

a rebellion against the military regime

in rebellion

The Bretons rose in rebellion against the King.

substantial

Important, extraordinary, considerable

We have the support of a substantial number of parents.

a substantial salary

a substantial breakfast

The document requires substantial changes.

Campaign

to lead or take part in a series of actions intended to achieve a particular social or political result

campaign for/against

a group campaigning against the destruction of the rainforests

Friction

disagreement, angry feelings, or unfriendliness between people [= tension]

cause/create friction

Having my mother living with us causes friction at home.

friction between

the usual frictions between parents

TPO 1 – 30


and their teenage children

friction with

His independent attitude was a constant source of friction with his boss.

engage Employ, hire

to be doing or to become involved in an activity

engage in/on/upon

Only 10% of American adults engage in regular exercise.

The two parties engaged upon an escalating political struggle.

Mr Armstrong was engaged in prayer.

Kilns a special oven for baking clay pots,

bricks etc

Infrastructure Foundation, framework, base,

Some countries lack a suitable economic infrastructure.

a $65 billion investment package in education, health care and infrastructure

Thrive Prosper, develop, flourish, secceed



fulfill if you fulfil a hope, wish, or aim, you

achieve the thing that you hoped for, wished for etc:

Visiting Disneyland has fulfilled a boyhood dream.

Being deaf hasn't stopped Karen fulfilling her ambition to be a hairdresser.

It was then that the organization finally began to fulfill the hopes of its

founders.

fulfil an aim/a goal/an objective

an analysis of how different countries are attempting to fulfill their political goals

Entwine to twist two things together or to wind

one thing around another:

They walked together with their arms entwined.

2 be entwined (with something) to be closely connected with something in a complicated way:

Our views of leadership are entwined with ideas of heroism.

Entitled to to give someone the official right to do

or have something

be entitled to (do) something

Full-time employees are entitled to receive health insurance.

entitle somebody to something

Membership entitles you to the monthly journal.

Settlement a group of houses and buildings where

people live, especially in a place where few people have lived before:

The railway stations created new settlements.

an early Iron Age settlement

4new area/places [uncountable]SA when a lot of people move to a place in order to live there, especially in a place where not many people have lived before

settlement of

the settlement of the American West

auxiliary Supplementary, ancillary, extra

an auxiliary nurse

auxiliary staff

TPO 1 – 30


an auxiliary power supply

auxiliary equipment

recruit

to find new people to work in a company, join an organization, do a job etc:

We're having difficulty recruiting enough qualified staff.

Many government officials were recruited from private industry.

2 [intransitive and transitive]PM to get people to join the army,

navy etc [↪ conscript]:

Most of the men in the village were recruited that day.

hereditary

Genetic, inherited, inborn,

a quality or illness that is hereditary is passed from a parent to a child before

the child is born [↪ genetic]

2 British EnglishSSF a hereditary position, rank, or title can be passed from an older to a younger person in the same family, usually when the older one dies:

Regiments

a large group of soldiers

a large number of people, animals, or things

regiment of

a regiment of ants

Province District, zone, region, territory

Computers were once the exclusive province of scientists and mathematicians.

Cosmopolitan

a cosmopolitan place has people from many different parts of the world - use this to show approval:

a vibrant, cosmopolitan city

a lively hotel with a cosmopolitan atmosphere

2 a cosmopolitan person, belief, opinion etc shows a wide experience of different people and places:

Brigitta has such a cosmopolitan outlook on life.

Frontier the border of a country

frontier between/with

Lille is close to the frontier between France and Belgium.

on/at the frontier

Troops established a road block on the frontier.

frontier town/area/post etc (=a town etc on a frontier)

Garrisons

a group of soldiers living in a town or fort and defending it:

The garrison was called out when news of the enemy's advance was received.

a garrison town

2 the buildings where a garrison of soldiers live

Presumably Likely, supposedly, probably,

apparently

It's raining, which presumably means that your football match will be cancelled.

Circumstances Situation, condition, case, status

The Soviet Union had been forced by circumstances to sign a pact with Nazi Germany.


Prisoners can only leave their cells under certain circumstances (=if

TPO 1 – 30


particular conditions exist).

He was found dead in suspicious circumstances (=in a way that makes you think something illegal has happened).

Unless there are extenuating circumstances (=reasons which make it reasonable to break a rule), all students must be present on the day of the exam.

Self-Sustaining Independent, self- centered,

خودگردان

Reading 2

Succession Series, sequence,

She won the championship four times in succession.

He fired two shots in quick succession.

Climax Top, zenith, turning point, apex,

the climax of his naval career

a thrilling climax to the game

The festival reaches its climax with the traditional boat-burning ceremony.

Eruption Explosion, burst, break out, outburst,

outbreak

Violence erupted after police shot a student during the demonstration.

A political row erupted over the MP's comments.

Volcanic eruption

Invade Attack, penetrate,

to enter a country, town, or area using military force, in order to take control of it:

The Romans invaded Britain 2000

years ago.

Herbaceous plants that are herbaceous have soft

stems rather than hard stems made of wood

Shrub Bush

درختچه بوته

Substantiate Back up, confirm, verify, corroborate,

Katzen offered little evidence to substantiate his claims.

Trend Flow, current, direction, movement,

tendency

Lately there has been a trend towards hiring younger, cheaper employees.

trend in

recent trends in education

The current trend is towards more part-time employment.

the general trend towards the centralization of political power

A disturbing trend is that victims of violence are getting younger.

The growing trend is for single mothers to bring up children by themselves.

Even so, the underlying trend is positive.

national and international economic trends

the downward trend in the price of gold

Successive presidents have tried to reverse this trend, but without success.

Exposure [uncountable] when someone is in

a situation where they are not protected from something dangerous or unpleasant

TPO 1 – 30


exposure to

Prolonged exposure to the sun can cause skin cancer.

2truth [uncountable] the action of showing the truth about someone or something, especially when it is bad

exposure of

the exposure of his underground political activity

Precipitation rain, snow etc that falls on the ground,

or the amount of rain, snow etc that falls

Equilibrium Balance, evenness, stability

The government is anxious not to upset the economic equilibrium.

Misleading Deceptive, confusing, ambiguous

likely to make someone believe something that is not true:

The article was misleading, and the newspaper has apologized.

Metaphor استعاره

Legitimately fair or reasonable:

That's a perfectly legitimate question.

Most scientists believe it is legitimate to use animals in medical research.

2 acceptable or allowed by law:

Their business operations are perfectly legitimate.

Biome a type of environment that is described

according to the typical weather conditions and plants that exist there

Flora Vegetable life, vegetation, plants

Tourism is damaging the flora and fauna (=plants and animals) of the island.

Fauna Animal world

all the animals living in a particular area or period in history

Spruce صنوبر

Moose گوزن شمالی

Cohesion Coherence, adhesion, union

if there is cohesion among a group of people, a set of ideas etc, all the parts or members of it are connected or related in a reasonable way to form a whole:

a sense of community and social cohesion

habitat

Residence, dwelling, environment,

the natural home of a plant or animal:

watching monkeys in their natural habitat

The grassland is an important habitat for many wild flowers.

Locality

Environment, habitat

a small area of a country, city etc [= area]:

weather reports from several different localities

in the locality

Both sea fishing and fresh water angling are available in the locality.

TPO 1 – 30


Reading 3

Glaciers a large mass of ice which moves


یخچال طبیعی

Erosion Deterioration, destruction, wearing

away,

the process by which rock or soil is gradually destroyed by wind, rain, or the sea:

the problem of soil erosion

the erosion of the coastline

2 the process by which something is gradually reduced or destroyed

erosion of

the gradual erosion of our civil liberties

Sedimentation the natural process by which small

pieces of rock, earth etc settle at the bottom of the sea etc and form a solid layer

Accumulation Gathering, pile, mass,

the accumulation of data

Moraine

ridge

a mass of earth or pieces of rock moved along by a glacier and left in a line at the bottom of it

Heterogeneous

miscellaneous, dissimilar, diverse, mixed

consisting of parts or members that are very different from each other [≠ homogeneous]:

a heterogeneous collection of buildings

Accurate Detailed, precise, careful, exact

The brochure tries to give a fair and accurate description of each hotel.

The evidence she gave to the court was not strictly accurate (=not exactly accurate).

It is difficult to get accurate figures on population numbers.

Epoch

a period of history [= era]:

the Victorian epoch

The king's death marked the end of an epoch.

the beginning of a new epoch

Corresponding equivalent, matching,

Sales are up 10% on the corresponding period last year.

Retreat to move away from the enemy after

being defeated in battle [≠ advance]:

The rebels retreated to the mountains.

They were attacked and forced to retreat.

2move back written

a) to move away from someone or something:

He saw her and retreated, too shy to speak to her.

Shrinkage

Reduction, decrease,

the act of shrinking, or the amount that something shrinks:

Pollution led to a shrinkage of grasslands.

Withdraw to stop taking part in an activity,

belonging to an organization etc, or to make someone do this

TPO 1 – 30


withdraw from

A knee injury forced her to withdraw from the competition.

calls for Britain to withdraw from the European Union

withdraw something/somebody from something

Parents have the right to withdraw their children from religious education lessons if they wish.

to stop giving support or money to someone or something, especially as the result of an official decision:

One of the minority parties had withdrawn its support for Chancellor Kohl.

Union members will vote on whether to withdraw their labour (=stop working).

a government decision to withdraw funding

drift

a large pile of snow or sand that has been blown by the wind

drift of

The road is blocked with massive drifts of snow.

a snow drift

terminal

final, deadly

a terminal illness cannot be cured, and causes death:

terminal cancer

interval

the period of time between two events, activities etc:

He left the room, returning after a short interval with a message.

interval between

The interval between arrest and trial can be up to six months.

modify Alter, change, customize

to make small changes to something in order to improve it and make it more suitable or effective [= adapt]:

The feedback will be used to modify the course for next year.

The regulations can only be modified by a special committee.

oceanography the scientific study of the ocean

—oceanographer noun [countable]

TPO20

Reading 1

Livestock animals such as cows and sheep that

are kept on a farm

Cultivation

Horticulture, farming, gardening

the preparation and use of land for growing crops:

soil cultivation

under cultivation

These fields have been under cultivation (=used for growing crops) for years.

2TAC the planting and growing of plants and crops:

Terraces for rice cultivation covered the hillsides.

cultivation of

the cultivation of tobacco

Commodity Product, goods, property

a product that is bought and sold:

TPO 1 – 30


agricultural commodities

Commodity prices fell sharply.

wheat

the grain that bread is made from, or the plant that it grows on:

a field of wheat

گندم

spectacular

wonderful, impressive, astounding, astonishing, dazzling

a mountainous area with spectacular scenery

a spectacular success

peak

Top, apex, zenith, highest point

The British Empire was at its peak in the mid 19th century.

Sales this month have reached a new peak.

Most athletes reach their peak in their mid 20s.

He's past his peak as a tennis player.

Oil production is down from its peak of two years ago.

artisan

Craftsperson,

someone who does skilled work, making things with their hands

Uproot

Destroy, annihilate, eradicate, exterminate

to make someone leave their home for a new place, especially when this is difficult or upsetting:

He rejected the idea of uprooting himself and moving to America.

Thereafter Consequently, after that, following,

10,000 men had volunteered by the end of September; thereafter, approximately 1,000 men enlisted each month.

Sophie was born in France, but shortly thereafter her family moved to the United States.

tie

a strong relationship between people, groups, or countries

close/strong ties

the importance of strong family ties

tie between/with

close ties between the two countries

economic/diplomatic/personal etc ties

Japan's strong economic ties with Taiwan

Stratified

having different social classes:

a stratified society

2HEG having several layers of earth, rock etc:

stratified rock

Inherit

gain as possession from someone's death

to receive money, property etc from someone after they have died

inherit something from somebody

He inherited a fortune from his grandmother.

inherited wealth

rigid Stiff, strict, severe,

rigid methods, systems etc are very strict and difficult to change [≠ flexible]:

rigid and authoritarian methods of education

2 someone who behaves in a rigid

TPO 1 – 30


way is very unwilling to change their ideas or behaviour [≠ flexible]:

rigid adherence to old-fashioned ideas

She maintained rigid control over her emotional and sexual life.

3 stiff and not moving or bending [≠ flexible]:

rigid plastic

Inveterate

long-standing, established, lifelong

inveterate liar/smoker/womanizer etc someone who lies a lot, smokes a lot etc and cannot stop

2 inveterate fondness/distrust/hatred etc an attitude or feeling that you have had for a long time and cannot change

ambitious

determined to be successful, rich, powerful etc:

Alfred was intensely ambitious, obsessed with the idea of becoming rich.

ambitious for

mothers who are highly ambitious for their children (=who want their children to be successful)

Nomadic

Itinerant, wandering, pastoral, migrant

a member of a tribe that travels from place to place instead of living in one place all the time, usually in order to find grass for their animals

Fringe Border, edge, verge,

on the fringes (of something)

a) not completely belonging to or accepted by a group of people who share the same job, activities etc:

a small group on the fringes of the art world

b) also on the fringe at the part of something that is farthest from the

centre [= on the edge of something]:

Nina remained on the fringe of the crowd.

Alluvial

made of soil left by rivers, lakes, floods etc:

alluvial flood plains

رسوبی

Fecund Productive, fruitful,

able to produce many children, young animals, or crops [= fertile]

Fecund soil

loam good quality soil consisting of sand,

clay, and decayed plants

prairie

a wide open area of fairly flat land in North America which is covered in grass or wheat

tempting

Alluring, inviting, enticing, attractive, seductive, charming,

a tempting job offer

That pie looks tempting.

Plague to cause pain, suffering, or trouble to

someone, especially for a long period of time

be plagued by/with something

He was plagued by eye troubles.

Financial problems continued to plague the company.

depletion Reduction, deficiency

the depletion of the ozone layer

Salmon populations have been severely depleted.

TPO 1 – 30


Proliferation a sudden increase in the amount or

number of something

proliferation of

the proliferation of global media networks

2 [uncountable]HB the very fast growth of new parts of a living thing, such as cells

negotiate Bargain, discuss, haggle,

to discuss something in order to reach an agreement, especially in business or politics

negotiate with

The government refuses to negotiate with terrorists.

negotiate an agreement/contract etc

Union leaders have negotiated an agreement for a shorter working week.

His first aim is to get the warring parties back to the negotiating table (=discussing something).

Surplus

Extra, excess, spare

Any surplus can be trimmed away.

surplus of

a surplus of crude oil

bulky Huge, heavy, ponderous, cumbersome

a bulky parcel

Andrew is a bulky man.

Presage

to be a sign that something is going to happen, especially something bad:

The large number of moderate earthquakes that have occurred recently could presage a larger quake soon.

Turnpikes Highway, roadway, freeway,

expressway

a large road for fast traffic that drivers have to pay to use:

the New Jersey Turnpike

Supersede if a new idea, product, or method

supersedes another one, it becomes used instead because it is more modern or effective [= replace]:

Their map has since been superseded by photographic atlases.

freight

Goods, load, shipment,

We'll send your personal belongings by air freight and your furniture by sea freight.

Span

to include all of a period of time:

a career which spanned nearly 60 years

2 to include all of a particular space or area:

The Mongol Empire spanned much of Central Asia.

Reading 2

Momentous Important, serious, crucial,

a momentous decision

Momentous events are taking place in the US.

His colleagues all recognized that this was a momentous occasion.

one of the most momentous days in British sport

sparse very few and scattered

existing only in small amounts:

TPO 1 – 30


his sparse brown hair

rural areas with sparse population

Forage

to go around searching for food or other supplies

forage for

People are being forced to forage for food and fuel.

In the summer, the goats forage freely (=in any place they want to go).

2 to search for something with your hands in a bag, drawer etc [= ferret around]

forage around/through/among etc

She foraged around in her purse and produced her ticket

Pollen a fine powder produced by flowers,

which is carried by the wind or by insects to other flowers of the same type, making them produce seeds

گرده

Foothills

one of the smaller hills below a group of high mountains:

the foothills of the Himalayas

Sedentary

Inactive, motionless,

health problems caused by our sedentary lifestyles

2 technical a sedentary group of people tend always to live in the same place:

a sedentary people living north of the Danube

Flourish

to develop well and be successful [= thrive]:


2 [intransitive] to grow well and be

very healthy [↪ thrive]:


exploit 1 to treat someone unfairly by

asking them to do things for you, but giving them very little in return - used to show disapproval:


2 to try to get as much as you can out of a situation, sometimes unfairly:


3 to use something fully and effectively:


4 to develop and use minerals, forests, oil etc for business or industry:

the urgent need to exploit the resources of the Irish Sea

slope

a piece of ground or a surface that slopes:

a steep slope

a gentle (=not steep) slope

She looked back up the grassy slope.

شیب سطح شیب دار

Gazelle

a type of small deer, which jumps very gracefully and has large beautiful eyes

غزال

Lowlands

an area of land that is lower than the

land around it [↪ highlands]:

the Scottish lowlands

—lowland adjective [only before noun]

TPO 1 – 30


a wild lowland landscape

lowland farmers

Seashell

the empty shell of a small sea creature:

jewelry made out of seashells

صدف

exotic

not native or usual; mysterious

something that is exotic seems unusual and interesting because it is related to a foreign country - use this to show approval:

exotic birds

exotic places

artifact

an object such as a tool, weapon etc that was made in the past and is historically important:

ancient Egyptian artefacts

Obsidian

a type of rock that looks like black glass

Afar

from afar from a long distance away:

I saw him from afar.

flotation

a time when shares in a company are made available for people to buy for the first time:

The company has decided to postpone its flotation on the stock market.

2 flotation chamber/compartment etcT a container filled with air or gas, fixed to something to make it float

the process of separating small particles of various materials by

treatment with chemicals in water in order to make some particles adhere to air bubbles and rise to the surface for removal while others remain in the water.

Cramped

Congested, overcrowded, small, tiny

The kitchen was small and cramped.

a cramped apartment

The troops slept in cramped conditions with up to 20 in a single room.

pit

a hole in the ground, especially one made by digging:

The female digs a pit in which to lay the eggs.

a five-foot deep pit

dwell

Live in, reside, inhabit,

They dwelt in the forest.

damp

Wet, humid

Wipe the leather with a damp cloth.

a cold, damp day

Permanent

Constant, lasting, enduring,

continuing to exist for a long time or for all the time in the future [≠ temporary]:

He gave up a permanent job in order to freelance.

a permanent change in your eating habits


Miller soon became a permanent fixture (=someone or something that is always there) on the team.

TPO 1 – 30


subsist to stay alive when you only have small

amounts of food or money [= survive]

subsist on

We had to subsist on bread and water.

Old people often have to subsist on very low incomes.

Elaborate

Detailed, intricate, complicated,

pure silks embroidered with elaborate patterns

2 carefully planned and organized in great detail:

a very elaborate telecommunications network

Clan Tribe, family

1 a large group of families that often share the same name:

the Campbell clan

warring clans

2 informal a very large family:

The whole clan will be here over Christmas.

Descent your family origins, especially your

nationality or relationship to someone important who lived a long time ago

of Russian/Italian etc descent

young men and women of Asian descent

descent from

The emperor claimed descent from David.

Excavation if a scientist or archaeologist

excavates an area of land, they dig carefully to find ancient objects, bones etc:


Botanist someone whose job is to make

scientific studies of wild plants

Pistachio پسته

Vicinity Neighborhood, proximity,

in the area around a particular place:

The stolen car was found in the vicinity of the station.

There used to be a mill in the vicinity.

disperse Distribute, scatter,

Police used tear gas to disperse the crowd.

The clouds dispersed as quickly as they had gathered.

Abruptly

Short, suddenly, unexpectedly

an abrupt change of plan

Herd to make animals move together in a

group:

It was Thomas's duty to herd the cows.

Domesticated

Tame, trained

domesticated animals are able to work for people or live with them as pets

Einkorn wild species of wheat

Pulses A pulse, sometimes called a "grain

legume", is an annual leguminous crop yielding from one to twelve seeds of variable size, shape, and color within a pod

TPO 1 – 30


close-knit a close-knit group of people is one in

which everyone knows each other well and gives each other support when they need it:

a close-knit community

telltale

Revealing, informative, meaningful, evidential

telltale signs/marks etc signs etc that clearly show something has happened or exists, often something that is a secret:

They examined the child carefully, looking for telltale signs of abuse.

Abrasion an area on the surface of your skin

that has been injured by being rubbed against something hard:

She was treated for cuts and abrasions.

خراش ساییدگی

tether

to tie an animal to a post so that it can only move around within a limited area

bind

to tie someone so that they cannot move or escape:

They bound my arms and legs with rope.

testify

Vouch for, give testimony,

to make a formal statement of what is true, especially in a court of law:

Mr Molto has agreed to testify at the trial.

testify against

Later, the witness who had testified against Muawad withdrew his allegation.

Reading 3

Preservation maintenance, protection, conservation,

care, security

Eliot campaigned for the preservation of London's churches.

We are working for the preservation of the environment.

the preservation of our cultural heritage

methods of food preservation

Scavengers Hunter

if an animal scavenges, it eats anything that it can find:

Pigs scavenged among the rubbish.

scavenge for

rats scavenging for food

2 if someone scavenges, they search through things that other people do not want for food or useful objects:

There are people who live in the dump and scavenge garbage for a living.

scavenge for

Women were scavenging for old furniture.

—scavenger noun [countable]

Foxes and other scavengers go through the dustbins.

Invertebrate a living creature that does not have a

backbone

Spines

ستون فقرات

decay to be slowly destroyed by a natural

chemical process, or to make

something do this [↪ rot]:

Her body was already starting to

TPO 1 – 30


decay.

Most archaeological finds are broken, damaged, or decayed.

decaying organic matter

2 [intransitive] if buildings, structures, or areas decay, their condition gradually becomes worse:

Hundreds of historic buildings are being allowed to decay.

Britain's decaying inner cities

particle

a very small piece of something:

dust particles

particle of

tiny particles of soil

Terrestrial

relating to the Earth rather than to the moon or other planets

immerse Submerge in liquid, bathe,

Immerse your foot in ice cold water to reduce the swelling.

Tar

a black substance, thick and sticky when hot but hard when cold, used especially for making road surfaces قیر

Quicksand

1 wet sand that is dangerous because you sink down into it if you try to walk on it

2 a bad situation that keeps getting worse, and that you cannot escape from

Engulf

if an unpleasant feeling engulfs you, you feel it very strongly:

despair so great it threatened to engulf him

2 to completely surround or cover something:

The building was engulfed in flames.

Ash the soft grey powder that remains after

something has been burned:

cigarette ash

The house burnt to ashes.

petrification In geology, petrifaction or petrification

is the process by which organic material is converted into stone through the replacement of the original material and the filling of the original pore spaces with minerals

Literally

Word for word, exactly, precisely

The name of the cheese is Dolcelatte, literally meaning 'sweet milk'.

I said I felt like quitting, but I didn't mean it literally (=I did not mean exactly what I said)!

Clam snail

حلزون

Dissolution

the act of formally ending a parliament,

business, or marriage [↪ dissolve]:

The president announced the dissolution of the National Assembly.

2 the act of breaking up an organization, institution etc so that it no longer exists:

the dissolution of the monasteries

3 the process by which something gradually becomes weaker and disappears:

the eventual dissolution of class barriers

TPO 1 – 30


Ornamentation decoration on an object that makes it

look attractive:

a bronze plate with gold ornamentation

Prospect Outlook

the possibility that something will happen

prospect of doing something

I see no prospect of things improving here.

There is every prospect (=a strong possibility) of the weather remaining dry this week.

prospect for

There are good prospects for growth in the retail sector.

prospect that

There's a real prospect that England will not qualify for the World Cup.

volatile Explosive, changeable,

an increasingly volatile political situation

the highly volatile stock and bond markets

2 someone who is volatile can suddenly become angry or violent

constituent

Component, part

one of the substances or things that combine to form something

constituent of

Sodium is one of the constituents of salt.

silhouette

a dark image, shadow, or shape that you see against a light background

silhouette of

a dark silhouette of domes and minarets

silhouette against

Soon the bombers would return, black silhouettes against a pale sky.

in silhouette

The old windmill stood out in silhouette.

2 [uncountable and countable] a drawing of something or someone, often from the side, showing a black shape against a light background:

silhouette pictures of snowmen and reindeer

in silhouette

a picture of Mozart in silhouette

نیمرخ نقاشی سیاه یکدست

Slabs

a thick flat piece of a hard material such as stone:

a concrete slab

paving slabs

slab of

They used a slab of concrete as a lid.

roc in ancient Eastern stories, a bird of

great size and strength which, in the story of Sindbad the Sailor, carried Sindbad out of the valley of diamonds

سیمرغ

tentacle one of the long thin parts of a sea

creature such as an octopus which it uses for holding things

Viscera

the large organs inside your body, such as your heart, lungs, and stomach

احشا

oozing if a thick liquid oozes from something

or if something oozes a thick liquid,

TPO 1 – 30


that liquid flows from it very slowly

ooze from/out of/through

The ice cream was melting and oozing out of its wrapper.

A cut on his cheek was still oozing blood.

shale a smooth soft rock which breaks easily

into thin flat pieces

Lethal Deadly, killing, mortal, fatal

a lethal dose of heroin

a lethal weapon

death by lethal injection

a lethal cocktail of drink and pills

lethal to

These chemicals are lethal to fish.

bubble a ball of air or gas in liquid:

When water boils, bubbles rise to the surface.

soap bubbles

She was blowing bubbles in her milk with a straw.

silt

sand, mud, soil etc that is carried in water and then settles at a bend in a river, an entrance to a port etc

Superb

Excellent, great, best

extremely good [= excellent]:

The food was superb.

superb weather

Iridescent

showing colours that seem to change in different lights:

small iridescent blue flies

رنگین کمانی

Intact Flawless, perfect, untouched

Only the medieval tower had remained intact.

His reputation survived intact.

TPO21

Reading 1

Geothermal relating to or coming from the heat

inside the earth:

a geothermal energy plant

plate Tectonics the study of the forming and

movement of the large sheets of rock that form the surface of the Earth

Pumped Push out, draw out,

The fire department is still pumping floodwater out of the cellars.

We were able to pump clean water from several of the wells.

reservoir Repository, Tank, storage, source,

container

a lake, especially an artificial one, where water is stored before it is supplied to people's houses

2 a large amount of something that is available and has not yet been used

reservoir of

She found she had reservoirs of unexpected strength.

Fractures

Break, rupture, crack

TPO 1 – 30


if a bone or other hard substance fractures, or if it is fractured, it breaks or cracks:

The immense pressure causes the rock to fracture.

He fractured his right leg during training.

Molten

Melted

molten metal or rock has been made into a liquid by being heated to a very high temperature:

molten iron

seep Permeate, ooze

1 to flow slowly through small holes or spaces






drill

to make a hole in something using a drill:


drill into/through


harness

to control and use the natural force or power of something:

We can harness the power of the wind to generate electricity

Reading 2

Equatorial استوایی

Oscillate Vacillate,

1 formalT to keep changing between two extreme amounts or limits:

The stock market is oscillating wildly at the moment.

oscillate between

His income oscillated between £1500 and £2000 a month.

2 formal to keep changing between one feeling or attitude and another

oscillate between

Her attitude towards me oscillated between friendship and hostility.

3 to move backwards and forwards in a regular way:

The needle on the dial began to oscillate.

Brusquely abruptly

Cognitive Psychological, mental,

related to the process of knowing, understanding, and learning something:

cognitive psychology

Fluidity Facility, fluency

a situation that is fluid is likely to change

2 fluid movements are smooth, relaxed, and graceful:

a loose, fluid style of dancing

Sophisticated having a lot of experience of life, and

good judgment about socially important things such as art, fashion etc:

a sophisticated, witty American

Clarissa's hair was swept up into a sophisticated style.

TPO 1 – 30


2 a sophisticated machine, system, method etc is very well designed and very advanced, and often works in a complicated way:

sophisticated software

a highly sophisticated weapons system

Possess

Own, have

Different workers possess different skills.

He no longer possessed the power to frighten her.

Neither of them possessed a credit card.

Campbell was found guilty of possessing heroin.

Dilemma Crisis, predicament, impasse,

I'm in a dilemma about this job offer.

This placed Robert Kennedy in a dilemma.

Many women are faced with the dilemma of choosing between work and family commitments.

emergence

Rise, evolution, appearance

1 when something begins to be known or noticed

emergence of

the emergence of Japan as a world leader

2 when someone or something comes out of a difficult experience

emergence from

the company's emergence from bankruptcy

Anthropomorphism

the belief that animals or objects have the same feelings and qualities as humans

2RR technical the belief that God can appear in a human or animal form

Totemism Totemism is a system of belief in which

each human is thought to have a spiritual connection or a kinship with another physical being, such as an animal or plant

Manipulate

1 to make someone think and behave exactly as you want them to, by skilfully deceiving or influencing them:

He was one of those men who manipulated people.

You have the constant feeling you are being manipulated.

manipulate somebody into (doing) something

The thought that any parent would manipulate their child into seeking fame just appalled me.

2 to work skilfully with information, systems etc to achieve the result that you want:

software designed to store and manipulate data

You can integrate text with graphics and manipulate graphic images.

3 medicalMH to move and press bones or muscles to remove pain in them

4 to use skill in moving or handling something:

The workmen manipulated some knobs and levers.

Pastoralism

Pastoralism is the branch of agriculture concerned with the raising of livestock

TPO 1 – 30


Horticulture Cultivation, gardening, farming

the practice or science of growing

flowers, fruit and vegetables [↪ gardening, agriculture]

Illiterate

Uneducated

someone who is illiterate has not learned to read or write

2 badly written, in an uneducated way:

It was an illiterate letter, full of mistakes.

Contention Argument, controversy

Her main contention is that doctors should do more to encourage healthy eating.

The issue of hunting is a source of contention.

Reading 3

Intrigue

if something intrigues you, it interests you a lot because it seems strange or mysterious:

Other people's houses always intrigued her.

2 [intransitive] formal to make secret plans to harm someone or make them lose their position of power

intrigue against

While King Richard was abroad, the barons had been intriguing against him.

Ample

sufficient

more than enough [= sufficient; ≠ insufficient]

ample time/evidence/opportunity

You'll have ample time for questions

later.

There is ample evidence that climate patterns are changing.

ample room/space etc

She found ample room for her things in the wardrobe.

Lengthy Extended, long,

continuing for a long time, often too long [≠ brief]:

A lengthy period of training is required.

An accident is causing some lengthy delays.

a lengthy report

Represent

to officially speak or take action for another person or group of people:

Mr Kobayashi was chosen to represent the company at the conference.

to be a sign or mark that means something [= stand for]:

Brown areas represent deserts on the map.

to be a symbol of something [= symbolize]:

He hated the school and everything it represented.

Narrative

a description of events in a story, especially in a novel:

At several points in the narrative the two stories cross.

2 [uncountable] the process or skill of telling a story

—narrative adjective:

a narrative poem

narrative structure

recount

Tell, depict, narrate

to tell someone a story or describe a

TPO 1 – 30


series of events

recount how/what

Alan recounted how he and Joyce had met.

fairly

Rather, somewhat

The house had a fairly large garden.

She speaks English fairly well.

The instructions seem fairly straightforward.

cohesive

United, adhesive, close-knit, tenacious, connected



blossom

if trees blossom, they produce flowers:

The apple trees are just beginning to blossom.

2 also blossom out to become happier, more beautiful, more successful etc:

Pete's blossomed out in his new school.

blossom into

The idea blossomed into a successful mail order business.

radical

Fundamental, basic

a radical change or difference is very big and important:

They are proposing radical changes to the way the company is run.

a radical reform of the tax system

There are radical differences between the two organizations.

elaborate to give more details or new information

about something:

He said he had new evidence, but refused to elaborate any further.

elaborate on

McDonald refused to elaborate on his reasons for resigning.

foundation

Base, infrastructure

It took the builders three weeks to lay the foundations.

The earthquake shook the foundations of the house.

intertwine

if two situations, ideas etc are intertwined, they are closely related to each other

be closely/inextricably intertwined

The problems of crime and unemployment are closely intertwined.

2 if two things intertwine, or if they are intertwined, they are twisted together

intertwine with

a necklace of rubies intertwined with pearls

TPO 1 – 30


TPO22

Reading 1

Spartina commonly known as cordgrass or

cord-grass, is a genus of 14 species of grasses in the family Poaceae

Deciduous deciduous trees lose their leaves in

winter [≠ evergreen]

Perennial

continuing or existing for a long time, or happening again and again:

Lack of resources has been a perennial problem since the beginning.

Teddy bears are a perennial favorite with children.

2HBP a plant that is perennial

lives for more than two years [↪ annual]

Dominant Superior, prevalent, principal

The dominant male gorilla is the largest in the group.

Japan became dominant in the mass market during the 1980s.

its dominant position within the group

Marsh

an area of low flat ground that is always wet and soft [↪ bog, swamp]

—marshy adjective:

The crane lives in marshy habitats.

لجن زار باتلاق مرداب

Intertidal zone The intertidal zone, also known as the

foreshore and seashore and sometimes referred to as the littoral zone, is the area that is above water at low tide and under water at high tide

Wetland an area of land that is partly covered

with water, or is wet most of the time

Seaweed a plant that grows in the sea

Shrimp a small sea creature that you can eat,

which has ten legs and a soft shell

میگو

Fiddler crab نوعی خرچنگ

Snails حلزون

Digest to change food that you have just

eaten into substances that your body can use:

Most babies can digest a wide range of food easily.

Excrete secrete

to get rid of waste material from your body through your bowels, your skin etc

Sparrow گنجشک

Rodent any small animal of the type that has

long sharp front teeth, such as a rat or a rabbit

جونده

TPO 1 – 30


Exceedingly Very, exceptionally, enormously,

extremely, excessively

Thank you. You've been exceedingly kind.

Stem

the long thin part of a plant, from which leaves, flowers, or fruit grow [= stalk]

ساقه

Germinate if a seed germinates, or if it is

germinated, it begins to grow [= sprout]

2 [intransitive] if an idea, feeling etc germinates, it begins to develop:

The idea of setting up his own company began to germinate in his mind.

Salinity

Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water.

Sediment

solid substances that settle at the bottom of a liquid:


Component Part, element, constituent

one of several parts that together make up a whole machine, system etc [= constituent]:

companies that make electronic components for computer products

component of

each component of their work

key/major/important etc component

Exercise is one of the key components of a healthy lifestyle.

Estuary the wide part of a river where it goes

into the sea:

the Thames estuary

Stabilizer

a chemical that helps something such as a food to stay in the same state, for example to prevent it from separating into different liquids

2TT a piece of equipment that helps make something such as a plane or ship steady

Nursery

a place where plants and trees are grown and sold

Substrate

In biology, a substrate is the surface on which a plant or animal lives

Elevation a height above the level of the sea

elevation of

The road climbs steadily to an elevation of 1400 feet.

Oysters

صدف خوراکی

Tidal relating to the regular rising and falling

of the sea:

tidal currents

Mudflat an area of muddy land that is covered

by the sea when it comes up at high tide and uncovered when it goes down at low tide

2 American English the muddy bottom of a dry lake

TPO 1 – 30


Inhospitable Unfriendly, unfavorable, hostile

an inhospitable place is difficult to live or stay in because the weather conditions are unpleasant or there is no shelter:

an inhospitable climate

He trekked across some of the most inhospitable terrain in the world.

2 an inhospitable person does not welcome visitors in a friendly way

inhospitable to

Some governments are inhospitable to aid workers.

Waterfowl

a wild bird that swims and lives near water:

the varied waterfowl of North America

Hamper

to make it difficult for someone to do something:

She tried to run, but was hampered by her heavy suitcase.

An attempt to rescue the men has been hampered by bad weather.

Interfere

Meddle, intervene, prevent, hamper, hinder,

My daughter-in-law said that I was interfering, but I was only trying to help.

interfere in

It's not the church's job to interfere in politics.

Anxiety can interfere with children's performance at school.

Recreation an activity that you do for pleasure or

amusement [↪ hobby, pastime, leisure]:

His only recreations are drinking beer and watching football.

the provision of recreation facilities (=places or equipment for people to use to enjoy themselves)

Waterfronts the part of a town or an area of land

next to the sea, a river etc:

The hotel is down on the waterfront.

Meadow a field with wild grass and flowers

Dredge

to remove mud or sand from the bottom of a river, harbour etc, or to search for something by doing this:

They dredged for oysters.

Herbicide a substance used to kill unwanted

plants

Cobblestone a small round stone set in the ground,

especially in the past, to make a hard surface for a road

سنگ فرش

smother cover

to completely cover the whole surface of something with something else, often in a way that seems unnecessary or unpleasant

smother something with/in something

noodles smothered in garlic sauce

mow

to cut grass using a machine:

It's time to mow the lawn again.

TPO 1 – 30


Reading 2

Obscure Enigmatic, ambiguous, cryptic, cloudy,

shadowy, vague

obscure legal phrases

For some obscure reason, the group is very popular.

Pinhole

a very small hole in something, especially one made by a pin

Authenticity

Genuineness,

the quality of being real or true

authenticity of

Archaeological evidence may help to establish the authenticity of the statue.

Obsolete Antiquated, out of date, archaic, no

longer in use

obsolete weapons

computer hardware that quickly became obsolete

Will computers render (=make) books obsolete?

Privileged having advantages because of your

wealth, social position etc [≠ underprivileged]:

Students from a privileged background have an advantage at university.

Only the privileged few can afford private education.

Prolific Fruitful, productive, rich,

a prolific artist, writer etc produces many works of art, books etc:

Handel's prolific output of opera

2 a prolific sports player produces a lot of runs, goals etc:

the most prolific goalscorer this decade

3 an animal or plant that is prolific produces many babies or many other plants

4 existing in large numbers:

the prolific bird life

Destiny the things that will happen to someone

in the future, especially those that cannot be changed or controlled [= fate]

somebody's destiny

Nancy wondered whether it was her destiny to live in England and marry Melvyn.

Successor someone who takes a job or position

previously held by someone else [↪ predecessor]:

His successor died after only 15 months in office.

I'm sure she will be a worthy successor (=someone who is very good and deserves to be someone's successor).

successor to

her successor to the post

successor as

Sloan will be Barrett's successor as treasurer.

2 formal a machine, system etc that exists after another one in a process of development:

the transistor's successor, the microchip

Reluctant Unwilling,

slow and unwilling:

She gave a reluctant smile.

reluctant to do something

Maddox was reluctant to talk about it.

—reluctantly adverb:

Reluctantly, he agreed.

TPO 1 – 30


Compromised to reach an agreement in which

everyone involved accepts less that what they wanted at first:

She admitted that she was unable to compromise.

compromise with

His work-mates demanded that he never compromise with the bosses.

compromise on

The new regime was prepared to compromise on the oil dispute.

2 [transitive] to do something which is against your principles and which therefore seems dishonest or shameful

compromise your principles/standards/integrity etc

As soon as you compromise your principles you are lost.

compromise yourself

She had already compromised herself by accepting his invitation.

Crop

to cut someone's hair short:

Stella's had her hair closely cropped.

2TCP [transitive] to cut a part off a photograph or picture so that it is a particular size or shape

Trim

to make something look neater by cutting small pieces off it:

Pete was trimming the lawn around the roses.

I have my hair trimmed every six weeks.

trim something away/off

Trim away any excess glue with a knife.

2reduce to reduce a number, amount, or the size of something:

We need to trim costs by £500m.

The bill would trim the number of immigrants to the US.

trim something from/off something

The company trimmed £46,000 from its advertising budget.

duplicate to copy something exactly:

New copies of the form can be duplicated from a master copy.

The video was duplicated illegally.

2 to repeat something in exactly the same way:

We don't want staff to duplicate each other's work.

equivalent

Same, similar, identical



etch

to cut lines on a metal plate, piece of glass, stone etc to form a picture or words

etch on

a gravestone with three names etched on it

A laser is used to etch a pattern in the smooth surface of the disc.

engraving

a picture made by cutting a design into metal, putting ink on the metal, and then printing it

multitude

a very large number of people or things:

I had never seen such a multitude of stars before.

a multitude of possible interpretations

TPO 1 – 30


emulsion a mixture of liquids that do not

completely combine, such as oil and water

2 technicalTCP the substance on the surface of photographic film or paper that makes it react to light

candid

telling the truth, even when the truth may be unpleasant or embarrassing [= frank]

candid about

She was quite candid about the difficulties the government is having.

candid with

He was remarkably candid with me.

It struck me as an unusually candid confession for a politician.

Reading 3

Meteor a piece of rock or metal that travels

through space, and makes a bright line in the night sky when it falls down towards the Earth:


a meteor shower (=a lot of meteors that fall down towards the Earth at the same time)

Plummet Fall, collapse, crash,

Profits plummeted from £49 million to £11 million.

House prices have plummeted down.

2 to fall suddenly and quickly from a very high place [= plunge]:

The plane plummeted towards the earth.

Fragment Particle, part, piece

a small piece of something that has broken off or that comes from something larger:

glass fragments

fragment of

fragments of broken pottery

Specimen

Example, sample

a small amount or piece that is taken from something, so that it can be tested or examined:

a blood specimen

specimen of

a specimen of rock

Crust a thin hard dry layer on the surface of

something:

A hard gray crust had formed on the bottom of the tea kettle.

the hard outer layer of the Earth:

deep within the Earth's crust

Reveal Show, display, indicate

He may be prosecuted for revealing secrets about the security agency.

a test that can reveal a teacher's hidden skills

reveal (that)

He revealed that he had been in prison twice before.

reveal yourself (as/to be something)

The violinist revealed himself as a talented interpreter of classical music.

Assortment a mixture of different things or of

various kinds of the same thing

assortment of

a wide assortment of friends

an odd assortment of knives and forks

TPO 1 – 30


Distinctive Different, unique


Spherical having the shape of a sphere [= round]

Embed

to put something firmly and deeply into something else, or to be put into something in this way

be embedded in something

A piece of glass was embedded in her hand.

Nebula

a mass of gas and dust among the stars, which often appears as a bright cloud in the sky at night

Interstellar happening or existing between the

stars

Chondrite Chondrites are stony meteorites that

have not been modified due to melting or differentiation of the parent body

Allusion Hint, reference

The committee made no allusion to the former President in its report.

Eliot's poetry is full of biblical allusions.

In his poetry we find many allusions to the human body.

Spheres a ball shape

Enigma Mystery, puzzle, riddle,

The neighbors regarded him as something of an enigma.

Perplexing Puzzling, baffling, complicated,

Shea's symptoms perplexed the doctors.

a perplexing problem

Condensation small drops of water that are formed

when steam or warm air touches a cold surface:

There was a lot of condensation on the windows.

2 [uncountable] technicalHP when a gas becomes a liquid

Pristine Clean, pure, untouched

The car has been restored to pristine condition.

a pristine white shirt

pristine African rainforest

Aggregate

to be a particular amount when added together:

Sheila's earnings from all sources aggregated £100,000.

2 [intransitive,transitive usually passive] to put different amounts, pieces of information etc together to form a group or a total

aggregate with

A wife's income is no longer aggregated with that of her husband.

Composition the way in which something is made

up of different parts, things, or

members [↪ compose]

composition of

The composition of the group that is studied depends on the interests of the researcher.

Some minerals have complex chemical compositions.

TPO 1 – 30


Distill to make a liquid such as water or

alcohol more pure by heating it so that it becomes a gas and then letting it cool. Drinks such as whisky are made this way:

distilled water

2 to remove a chemical substance from a plant, for example by heating or pressing it

refractory

Resistant

deliberately not obeying someone in authority and being difficult to deal with or control [= unruly]

2 medical a refractory disease or illness is hard to treat or cure

sludge

soft thick mud, especially at the bottom of a liquid

lump

a small piece of something solid, without a particular shape:

Strain the custard to remove lumps.

lump of

Melt a lump of butter in your frying-pan.

2 a small hard swollen area that sticks out from someone's skin or grows in their body, usually because of an illness:

You should never ignore a breast lump.

TPO23

Reading 1

Sewage Waste, garbage

the mixture of waste from the human body and used water that is carried away from houses by pipes under the ground:

Chlorine is used in sewage treatment.

The factory secretly dumped millions of gallons of raw sewage (=that had not been treated) into the Ohio River.

Surpass Exceed,

to be even better or greater than someone or something else:

He had surpassed all our expectations.

The number of multiple births has surpassed 100,000 for the first time.

Configuration Shape, form, structure

the configuration of pistons in an engine

Metropolis a very large city that is the most

important city in a country or area:

The city has become a huge, bustling metropolis.

Skyscraper

a very tall modern city building

Impenetrable Impervious, close,

impossible to get through, see through, or get into:

The trees formed a dark and

TPO 1 – 30


impenetrable barrier.

the impenetrable blackness of the night

2 very difficult or impossible to understand:

impenetrable legal jargon

Intensity the quality of being felt very strongly or

having a strong effect:

The intensity of the hurricane was frightening.

2 [uncountable] the quality of being serious and having very strong feelings or opinions:

He spoke with great intensity.

3 [uncountable and countable] technical the strength of something such as light or sound:

an instrument which measures light intensity

insulate

Protect, shield,

to cover or protect something with a material that stops electricity, sound, heat etc from getting in or out

insulate something from/against something

Pipes may need insulating against the cold.

an insulated attic

dome

a round roof on a building

a shape or building like a ball cut in half

peculiarity

something that is a feature of only one particular place, person, situation etc

peculiarity of

The lack of a written constitution is a peculiarity of the British political system.

2 [countable] a strange or unusual habit, quality etc:

Margaret regarded her mother's peculiarities with a fond tolerance.

3 [uncountable] the quality of being strange or unfamiliar

peculiarity of

She was well aware of the peculiarity of her own situation.

moisture

Dampness, wetness

small amounts of water that are present in the air, in a substance, or on a surface:

Plants use their roots to absorb moisture from the soil.

Your skin's moisture content varies according to weather conditions.

turbulence

Agitation, disturbance

irregular and violent movements of air or water that are caused by the wind

2 a political or emotional situation that is very confused:

A period of political turbulence followed the civil war.

Reading 2

Fodder food for farm animals

علوفه

Flax کتان الیاف کتان

Madder

روناس

Turnip

شلغم

TPO 1 – 30


Sector Area, subdivision, part, zone, district

the agricultural sector of the economy

public/private sector (=business controlled by the government or by private companies)

Legendary

Famous, well known

very famous and admired:

Lonnie Johnson, the legendary blues guitarist

Her singing was legendary.

Reclamation

to get back an amount of money that you have paid [= claim back]:

You may be entitled to reclaim some tax.

2TBTA to make an area of desert, wet land etc suitable for farming or building:

This land will be reclaimed for a new airport.

3 to get back something that you have lost or that has been taken away from you:

I want to reclaim the championship that I lost in 1999.

4TI to obtain useful products from waste material [↪ recycle]:

You can reclaim old boards and use them as shelves.

Drain to make the water or liquid in

something flow away:


drain something from something

Brad drained all the oil from the engine.

Can you drain the spaghetti, please (=pour away the water from the pan)?

Merchant trader

He had a job with an Edinburgh wine merchant.

Astonishing Surprising, startling, impressive,

an astonishing decision

their astonishing success

livestock animals such as cows and sheep that

are kept on a farm

husbandry farming:

animal husbandry

yield to produce crops, profits etc:

Each of these oilfields could yield billions of barrels of oil.

The tourist industry yielded an estimated $2.25 billion for the state last year.

These investments should yield a reasonable return.

windmill a building or structure with parts that

turn around in the wind, used for producing electrical power or crushing grainاسیاب بادی

lease a legal agreement which allows you to

use a building, car etc for a period of time, in return for rent

They took out a lease on a seven-acre field.

The landlord refused to renew his lease.

The 99-year lease expired in 1999.

Do you understand all the terms of the lease?

TPO 1 – 30


Reading 3

Discern to notice or understand something by

thinking about it carefully

discern what/where/why etc

Officials were keen to discern how much public support there was.

2 to be able to see something by looking carefully [= perceive]:

We could just discern a town in the distance.

Incomprehensible

difficult or impossible to understand:

legal documents full of incomprehensible jargon

I find your attitude quite incomprehensible.

incomprehensible to

His accent made his speech incomprehensible to me.

Motif

Pattern, subject, idea

The theme of creation is a recurrent motif in Celtic mythology.

2 a small picture or pattern used to decorate something plain:

a white T-shirt with a blue fish motif

Peck Bite, tap, dig

if a bird pecks something or pecks at something, it makes quick repeated movements with its beak to try to eat part of it, make a hole in it etc

Antiquity ancient times

in antiquity

The common household fork was nearly unknown in antiquity.

2 [uncountable] the state of being very old:

a building of great antiquity

3 [countable usually plural] a building or object made in ancient times:

a collection of Roman antiquities

Predetermined

decided or arranged before something happens, so that it does not happen by chance

predetermined level/limit/amount etc

a predetermined level of spending

—predetermine verb [transitive]

The colour of your eyes is predetermined by the colours of your parents' eyes.

indigenous Native, inborn, domestic

Blueberries are indigenous to America.

the many indigenous cultures which existed in Siberia

concentric

having the same centre [↪ eccentric]:

concentric circles

figurative

Not literal, symbolic, descriptive, metaphoric

He's my son, in the figurative sense of the word.

iconography

the way that a particular people, religious or political group etc represent ideas in pictures or images:

Native American iconography

TPO 1 – 30


TPO24

Reading 1

Seep Leak, ooze, permeate

to flow slowly through small holes or spaces






Outflow when money, goods etc leave a bank,

country etc

outflow of

the outflow of capital from the developed countries

2 the flow of water or air from something

outflow of

an outflow of gas escaping from the main duct

the outflow valve

Gauge to measure or calculate something by

using a particular instrument or method:

The thermostat will gauge the temperature and control the heat.

Conversely Contrary, reverse, opposite, against

American consumers prefer white eggs; conversely, British buyers like brown eggs.

Residence the state of living in a place [=

residency]:

Rome was his main place of residence.

Demonstrate Display, show, exhibit,

The study demonstrates the link between poverty and malnutrition.

demonstrate that

Hitchcock's films demonstrate that a British filmmaker could learn from Hollywood.

Extent Range, degree, intensity

We all to some extent remember the good times and forget the bad.

I do agree with him to an extent

Per Annum for each year:

a salary of $40,000 per annum

Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration is the sum of

evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean surface to the atmosphere

Renewal

Rebirth, revival

when an activity, situation, or process begins again after a period when it had stopped

renewal of

a renewal of the recent conflict

Spring is a time of renewal.

spring a place where water comes up

naturally from the ground:

spring water

There are several hot springs in the area.

discharge

Send out

Hospitals now tend to discharge patients earlier than in the past.

TPO 1 – 30


The judge discharged the jury.


pond

a small area of fresh water that is smaller than a lake, that is either natural or artificially made

Reading 2

Respiration breathing

the process of breathing

Sigh

to breathe in and out making a long sound, especially because you are bored, disappointed, tired etc:

'Well, there's nothing we can do about it now,' she sighed.

آه کشیدن

Overriding Most important, main, paramount

more important than anything else:

a question of overriding importance

Their overriding concern is with efficient crime control.

Cessation

Ending, stop, stoppage, pause

a cessation of hostilities (=when the fighting stops in a war)

Inhale to breathe in air, smoke, or gas [≠

exhale]:

It is dangerous to inhale ammonia fumes.

Myra lit another cigarette and inhaled deeply (=breathed in a lot of smoke).

Collapse Fall down, fail, decrease

if a building, wall etc collapses, it falls down suddenly, usually because it is weak or damaged:

Uncle Ted's chair collapsed under his weight.

The roof had collapsed long ago.

2illness/injury [intransitive] to suddenly fall down or become unconscious because you are ill or weak:

He collapsed with a heart attack while he was dancing.

Marion's legs collapsed under her.

Congestion blockage

Considerable Abundant, large, noticeable

We've saved a considerable amount of money.

Michael has already spent considerable time in Barcelona.

issues of considerable importance

The series has aroused considerable interest.

Irritants Annoyance, bother, trouble, burden

something that keeps annoying you over a period of time:

Low flying aircraft are a constant irritant in this area.

2MI a substance that can make a part of your body painful and sore:

a skin irritant

Rib one of the 12 pairs of curved bones

that surround your chest:

She was taken to hospital with a broken arm and ribs.

He was punched and kicked in the ribs.

دنده

TPO 1 – 30


contraction the process of becoming smaller or

narrower:

the contraction of metal as it cools

Wax and wane

wax and wane to increase and decrease over time:

Interest in the show has waxed and waned.

Reading 3

Pueblos a small town, especially in the south

west U.S.

Traumatic Scary, shocking

His son's death was the most traumatic event in Stan's life.

Communal shared by a group of people or

animals, especially a group who live together:

a communal bathroom

2 involving people from many different races, religions, or language groups:

the worst communal violence in two years

3 relating or belonging to all the people living in a particular community:

crops grown on communal land

Arable Farmable, cultivable

relating to growing crops:

arable farming

arable land (=land that is suitable for growing crops)

Terrace a row of houses that are joined to each

other, or a street with one of these rows in it

2place you can sitTBB a flat outdoor area next to a building or on a roof, where you can sit outside to eat, relax etc

Infringing

Violate, intrude, trespass,

to do something that is against a law or someone's legal rights:

A backup copy of a computer program does not infringe copyright.

to limit someone's freedom in some way:

Some students argued that the rule infringed on their right to free speech.

Accustomed

to be familiar with something and accept it as normal:

We were accustomed to working together.

become/grow/get accustomed to something

Her eyes quickly became accustomed to the dark.

! In spoken English, it is more usual to say be/get used to (doing) something you’ll soon get used to the hot climate.

hygienic

Clean, healthful, sterile, wholesome,

An inspector ensures that food is prepared in hygienic conditions.

culminate

End up, wind up

A series of events for teachers and students will culminate in a Shakespeare festival next year.

TPO 1 – 30


prompt to make someone decide to do

something

prompt somebody to do something

What prompted you to buy that suit?

2 [transitive] to make people say or do something as a reaction:

The decision prompted an outcry among prominent US campaigners.

Onset

the onset of something the beginning of something, especially something bad:

the onset of winter

contend

Compete, fight,

to compete against someone in order to gain something

contend for

Three armed groups are contending for power.

Inevitably, fights break out between the members of contending groups.

2 [transitive] to argue or state that something is true

contend (that)

Some astronomers contend that the universe may be younger than previously thought.

patchy

Uneven, not consistent

happening or existing in some areas but not in others:

patchy fog

2 not complete enough to be useful:

His knowledge of French remained pretty patchy.

There is only patchy evidence of the animal's existence.

3 especially British English good in some parts but bad in others:

I thought the performance was patchy.

Ally Partner, friend, helper,

a country that agrees to help or support another country in a war:

a meeting of the European allies

2 the Allies the group of countries including Britain and the US that fought together in the First and Second World Wars

3 someone who helps and supports you when other people are trying to oppose you:

Ridley was one of the Queen's closest allies.

a staunch ally (=very close ally) of President Soares

a network of political allies

She knew she had found an ally in Ted.

4 something that helps you succeed in a difficult situation:

Exercise is an important ally in your campaign to lose weight.

TPO 25

Reading 1 Crater – bulge – Olympus – mere –

plate – Martian - crust – intermittent – prominent – mariner – pit – obliterate – boulder - splash

Crater 1 a round hole in the ground made by

something that has fallen on it or by an explosion

craters on the moon's surface

2 the round open top of a volcano

دهانه آتشفشان

Bulge 1 a curved mass on the surface of

something, usually caused by something under or inside it

The gun made a bulge under his

TPO 1 – 30


jacket.

2 a sudden temporary increase in the amount or level of something

a bulge in the birthrate

Olympus also Mount Olympus

a mountain in northern Greece, the highest mountain in Greece. In Greek mythology, it was the place where the gods lived

Mere 1 used to emphasize how small or

unimportant something or someone is He's a mere child.

It can't be a mere coincidence that they left at the same time.

2 used to emphasize that something which is small or not extreme has a big effect or is important

The mere thought of food made her feel sick.

The mere fact that the talks are continuing is a positive sign.

Plate

one of the very large sheets of rock that form the surface of the Earth

Martian

an imaginary creature from the planet Mars

—Martian adjective

Crust the hard outer layer of the Earth

deep within the Earth's crust

Intermittent Sporadic

Irregular

stopping and starting often and for short periods

The weather forecast is for sun, with intermittent showers.

Prominent 1 important a prominent Russian scientist

play a prominent part/role (in something)

The World Cup will have a prominent place on the agenda.

2 something that is in a prominent place is easily seen

prominent place/position

The statue was in a prominent position outside the railway station.

Mariner literary a sailor

Pit

to put small marks or holes in the surface of something

be pitted with something

The whole street was pitted with potholes.

Obliterate

1 to destroy something completely so that nothing remains

Hiroshima was nearly obliterated by the atomic bomb.

2 to remove a thought, feeling, or memory from someone's mind

Nothing could obliterate the memory of those tragic events.

3 to cover something completely so that it cannot be seen

Then the fog came down, obliterating everything.

TPO 1 – 30


Boulder

a large round piece of rock

Splash 1 if a liquid splashes, it hits or falls on something and makes a noise

splash against/on/over

The ocean splashed against the pier.

2 also splash about/around to make water fly up in the air with a loud noise by hitting it or by moving around in it

The children were splashing about in the pool.

Reading 2 Decline – resurgence – intermediary –

row – shipyard – foothill – unrest – monopoly – outclass – emigrate - noble

Decline Dwindling Lessening

There has been a decline in the size of families.

rapid/sharp/steep/dramatic decline

a rapid decline in unemployment

steady/gradual/long-term decline

The island's population initially numbered 180, but there was a gradual decline until only 40 people were left.

fall/go etc into decline

The port fell into decline (=became less important and less busy) in the 1950s.

Resurgence the reappearance and growth of

something that was common in the past

resurgence of

There has been a resurgence of

interest in religion over the last ten years.

resurgence in

a resurgence in the popularity of 60s music

Intermediary

a person or organization that tries to help two other people or groups to

agree with each other [↪ go-between] Jackson acted as an intermediary

between the two parties.

—intermediary adjective

an intermediary role in the talks

Row

to make a boat move across water using oars

row away/towards/across

She rowed across the lake.

Jenny used to row at college (=as a sport).

—row noun

Why don't we go for a row?

—rower noun [countable]

Shipyard

a place where ships are built or repaired

Foothill

one of the smaller hills below a group of high mountains

the foothills of the Himalayas

Unrest

a political situation in which people protest or behave violently

There is growing unrest throughout the country.

political/social/industrial etc unrest

The protests were the biggest show of social unrest since the government came to power.

TPO 1 – 30


Monopoly 1 if a company or government has a

monopoly of a business or political activity, it has complete control of it so that other organizations cannot compete with it

امتیاز انحصاری

They are demanding an end to the Communist Party's monopoly of power.

the state monopoly of television

For years Bell Telephone had a monopoly on telephone services in the US.

Outclass

to be or do something much better than someone or something else

He won his next race, completely outclassing his rivals.

Emigrate

to leave your own country in order to

live in another country [↪ immigrate]

emigrate to/from

He emigrated to Australia as a young man.

Noble

a member of the highest social class with a title such as 'Duke' or 'Countess'

Reading 3

Evolutionary – adaptation – starch – habitat- subject – desolate – inhospitable – terrestrial – pioneer – nutrient – stiffen – Embryo - pollen

Evolutionary

1 relating to the way in which plants and animals develop and change gradually over a long period of time

تکاملی

the evolutionary development of birds

2 relating to the way in which ideas or situations gradually change and develop over a long period of time

He is in favour of gradual, evolutionary social change.

Adaptation

the process of changing something to make it suitable for a new situation

adaptation to

adaptation to the environment

Starch

a substance which provides your body with energy and is found in foods such as grain, rice, and potatoes, or a food that contains this substance [= carbohydrate]

He eats a lot of starch.

Avoid fatty foods and starches.

Habitat

the natural home of a plant or animal

watching monkeys in their natural habitat

The grassland is an important habitat for many wild flowers.

Subject

subject somebody/something to something

to force someone or something to experience something very unpleasant, especially over a long time

Police subjected him to hours of questioning.

subject somebody to an ordeal/abuse/harassment

Barker subjected his victim to awful abuse

TPO 1 – 30


Desolate a place that is desolate is empty and

looks sad because there are no people there

a desolate landscape

Inhospitable an inhospitable place is difficult to live

or stay in because the weather conditions are unpleasant or there is no shelter

an inhospitable climate

He trekked across some of the most inhospitable terrain in the world.

Terrestrial

relating to the Earth rather than to the moon or other

Pioneer

to be the first person to do, invent or use something

The new cancer treatment was pioneered in the early eighties by Dr Sylvia Bannerjee.

Nutrient

a chemical or food that provides what is needed for plants or animals to live and grow

The plant absorbs nutrients from the soil.

—nutrient adjective

Stiffen

1 if you stiffen, your body suddenly becomes firm, straight, or still because you feel angry or anxious [≠ relax]

He touched her, and she stiffened.

2 to become stronger, more severe, or more determined, or to make something do this

Their opposition only stiffened my resolve.

3 to make material stiff so that it will

not bend easily

Embryo 1 an animal or human that has not yet

been born, and has just begun to

develop [↪ foetus]

2 in embryo

at a very early stage of development

The system already exists in embryo.

Pollen

a fine powder produced by flowers, which is carried by the wind or by insects to other flowers of the same type, making them produce seeds

گرده

TPO 26

Reading 1

Prominence – viable – shaft – spin – coke - refined – instrumental – finished – boom – revolutionize – in turn – implication – freight – initiate – entrenched – keep pace with - entrepreneur

Prominence 1 the fact of being important and well-

known

prominence of

the prominence of pressure groups as political forces

come to/rise to/achieve prominence (as something)

She first came to prominence as an artist in 1989.

2 give something prominence/give prominence to something

to treat something as specially important

Every newspaper gave prominence to the success of England's cricketers.

TPO 1 – 30


Viable Reasonable, Practicable, Feasible,

Applicable

a viable idea, plan, or method can work successfully

viable alternative/proposition/option etc

The committee came forward with one viable solution.

economically/commercially/financially viable

Will a hotel here be financially viable?

Shaft

a thin long piece of metal in an engine or machine that turns and passes on power or movement to another part of the machine

a drive shaft

Spin

1 turn around

The plane's propellers were spinning.

She grabbed Norm's arm and spun him around to face her.

2 to make cotton, wool etc into thread by twisting it

3 if a spider or insect spins a web or cocoon, it produces thread to make it

Coke

a solid black substance produced from coal and burned to provide heat

Refined

1 a substance that is refined has been made pure by an industrial

process [↪ raw, crude; ≠ unrefined]

refined sugar/oil/petroleum

2 a method or process that is refined has been improved to make it more

effective [↪ sophisticated]

Laser surgery has become much more refined over the last decade.

Instrumental be instrumental in (doing) something

(Formal) to be important in making something happen

He was instrumental in developing links with European organizations.

Finished

fully and properly made or completed

It took a long time to do, but the finished product was worth it.

Boom

increase in business

[≠ slump]

The boom has created job opportunities.

a sudden boom in the housing market

The economy went from boom to bust (=from increasing to decreasing) very quickly.

Revolutionize

Transform

to completely change the way people do something or think about something

New technology is going to revolutionize everything we do.

My teacher’s trainings revolutionized my life.

In turn

1) as a result of something

Interest rates were cut and, in turn, share prices rose.

2) one after the other, especially in a particular order

Each of us in turn had to describe how alcohol had affected our lives.

Implication

1 a possible future effect or result of an action, event, decision etc

What are the implications of these

TPO 1 – 30


proposals?

This election has profound implications for the future of U.S. democracy.

practical/financial/political etc implications

2 a suggestion that is not made directly but that people are expected to

understand or accept [↪ imply]

The law bans organized protests and, by implication, any form of opposition.

Freight

goods that are carried by ship, train, or aircraft, and the system of moving these goods

freight services

We'll send your personal belongings by air freight and your furniture by sea freight.

Initiate

Start

Commence

Trigger

They have decided to initiate legal proceedings against the newspaper.

Intellectuals have initiated a debate on terrorism.

Entrenched

strongly established and not likely to change - often used to show disapproval

entrenched in

Ageism is entrenched in our society.

entrenched attitudes/positions/interests etc

a deeply entrenched belief in male superiority

—entrench verb [transitive]

Keep pace with

keep pace (with something/somebody)

to change or increase as fast as something else, or to move as fast as someone else

Salaries have not always kept pace with inflation.

The supply of materials cannot keep pace with demand.

Slow down! I can't keep pace with you.

Entrepreneur

someone who starts a new business or arranges business deals in order to make money, often in a way that involves financial risks

Reading 2

Intolerable – Tissue – texture – topography - perennial – dwarf – annual – ephemeral – counter – wilt – taproot – assure – palm tree – mesquite - spring – margin – prolonged – torpor – spell – morphology - ostrich – plumage - convection

Intolerable Unendurable

Unbearable

Unaccepted

too difficult, bad, annoying etc for you to accept or deal with [≠ tolerable]

'This is intolerable!' exclaimed Sir Rufus.

The pain had become intolerable.

intolerable burden/strain/pressure

Caring for an elderly relative can become an intolerable burden.

Tissue

the material forming animal or plant cells

lung/brain etc tissue

Texture the way a surface or material feels

when you touch it, especially how smooth or rough it is

TPO 1 – 30


smooth/silky/rough etc texture

the smooth texture of silk

a designer who experiments with different colours and textures

Topography

1 the science of describing an area of land, or making maps of it

2 [+ of] the shape of an area of land, including its hills, valleys etc

—topographer noun

—topographical adjective

Perennial a plant that lives for more than two

years

Dwarf to be so big that other things are made

to seem very small

The cathedral is dwarfed by the surrounding skyscrapers.

Annual

a plant that lives for one year or season

Ephemeral

existing or popular for only a short time

Fashion is by nature ephemeral.

Counter

1 to say something in order to try to prove that what someone said was not true or as a reply to something

counter an argument/an allegation/a criticism etc

He was determined to counter the bribery allegations.

2 to do something in order to prevent something bad from happening or to reduce its bad effects

Exercise helps to counter the effects of stress.

Wilt if a plant wilts, it bends over because it

is too dry or old [↪ droop]

پژمرده شدن گیاه

Taproot

the large main root of a plant, from which smaller roots grow

assure

to make something certain to happen or to be achieved [= ensure]

Excellent reviews have assured the film's success.

assure somebody (of) something

A win on Saturday will assure them of promotion to Division One.

Palm tree

palm tree a tropical tree which grows near beaches or in deserts, with a long straight trunk and large pointed leaves at the top

coconut palms

Mesquite

an American tree or bush, or the wood from it that is used to give food a special taste when cooking on a barbecue

Spring

a place where water comes up naturally from the ground

چشمه

spring water

There are several hot springs in the area.

Margin

1 the empty space at the side of a page

Someone had scribbled a note in the margin.

TPO 1 – 30


Use double spacing and wide margins to leave room for comments.

حاشیه

2 an additional amount of something such as time, money, or space that you include in order to make sure that you are successful in achieving something

It'll take about 30 minutes to dry but I'd allow a safety margin of, say, another 10 minutes.

Prolonged

continuing for a long time

prolonged exposure to the sun

a prolonged period of time

Torpor

(formal)

Lethargy, sloth

a state of being not active because you are lazy or sleepy

She tried to rouse him from the torpor into which he had sunk.

Spell

a period of a particular kind of activity, weather, illness etc, usually a short period

spell of

a spell of bad luck

cold/wet/dry spell

Water the young plants carefully during dry spells.

a day of sunny spells and scattered showers

He began to suffer from dizzy spells.

Morphology

1 the study of the morphemes of a language and of the way in which they are joined together to make

words [↪ syntax]

2 the scientific study of the form and structure of animals and plants

3 the structure of an object or system or the way it was formed

—morphological adjective

the morphological features of cells

Ostrich

شترمرغ

Plumage

the feathers covering a bird's body

the parrot's brilliant blue plumage

Convection

Convection is the process by which heat travels through air, water, and other gases and liquids

انتقال گرما

Reading 3

Patron – sovereign – mercy – biblical – clamor – script – incise – stylus – wedge – theology – tablet - sledge – mount – copper – tin - saw- scythe

Patron

1 someone who supports the activities of an organization, for example by giving money

a wealthy patron

patron of

a patron of the arts

2 a famous person who is officially involved with an organization, such as acharity, and whose name is used to help advertise it

Sovereign

(noun) formal a king or queen

(adjective)

1 having the highest power in a country

sovereign power/control

2 a sovereign country or state is independent and governs itself

TPO 1 – 30


Biblical relating to or written in the Bible

The disease dates back to biblical times.

biblical story/text/reference

the biblical story of Noah

Clamor

1 a very loud noise made by a large group of people or animals

غوغا

He shouted over the rising clamor of voices.

2 the expression of feelings of anger and shock by a large number of people - used especially in news reports

Trouillot disregarded the growing public clamor for her resignation.

Mercy

at the mercy of somebody/something

unable to do anything to protect yourself from someone or something

After the boat's motor failed, they were at the mercy of the weather.

She was completely at his mercy.

Script

(formal)

writing done by hand

a diary entry written in neat black script

دست نوشته

کتیبه

Incise

to cut a pattern, word etc into something, using a sharp instrument

an inscription incised in stone

حجاری ، کنده کاری کردن

Stylus a thing shaped like a pen, used for

writing on wax, making marks on metal, writing on a special computer screen etc

قلم حکاکی

Wedge

1 a piece of wood, metal etc that has one thick edge and one pointed edge and is used especially for keeping a door open or for splitting wood

2 a piece of food shaped like a wedge

Garnish with lemon wedges.

wedge of

a wedge of cheese

Theology

1 the study of religion and religious ideas and beliefs

He studied theology at college.

الهیات

2 a particular system of religious beliefs and ideas

According to Muslim theology there is only one God.

Tablet

a flat piece of stone or clay with words cut into it, for example above someone's grave

لوح، صفحه

Sledge

a small vehicle used for sliding over snow, often used by children or in

some sports [↪ sleigh]

Mount

1 organize

mount a campaign/challenge/search etc

Friends of the Earth are mounting a

TPO 1 – 30


campaign to monitor the illegal logging of trees.

Guerrillas have mounted an attack on the capital.

2 increase

Tension here is mounting, as we await the final result.

3 To get on a horse/bicycle

[≠ dismount]

He mounted his horse and rode on.

4go up a step or stairs

He mounted the stairs and looked around him slowly.

Copper

مس

Tin

قلع Saw

اره Scythe

داس

TPO 27

Reading 1

Craft – Mesopotamia – escalate – notorious – commute – mold – rim – bevel – scoop – seal – legible – lump - bolt

Craft a job or activity in which you make

things with your hands, and that you

usually need skill to do [↪ handicraft]

traditional rural crafts

Mesopotamia

بین النهرین

Escalate 1 if fighting, violence, or a bad

situation escalates, or if someone escalates it, it becomes much worse

escalate into

Her fear was escalating into panic.

2 to become higher or increase, or to make something do this

The costs were escalating alarmingly.

—escalation noun

a rapid escalation in value

Notorious

famous or well-known for something bad [= infamous]



notorious for


Commute the journey to work every day

My morning commute takes 45 minutes.

Mold

قالب

Rim

1 the outside edge of something circular

rim of

the rim of a glass

plates with a gold band around the rim

2 gold-rimmed/red-rimmed etc

with a gold, red etc rim

gold-rimmed spectacles

TPO 1 – 30


Bevel 1 a sloping edge or surface, usually

along the edge of a piece of wood or glass

2 a tool for making this kind of edge or surface

—bevelled adjective

bevelled glass

Scoop

1 to pick something up or remove it using a scoop or a spoon, or your curved hand

Cut the tomato in half and scoop out the seeds with a teaspoon.

2 to be the first newspaper to print an important news report

Time and again we have scooped our rivals.

Seal

a piece of wax, paper, wire etc that you have to break in order to open a container, document etc

Legible

written or printed clearly enough for you to read [≠ illegible]

خوانا

Her handwriting was so tiny it was barely legible.

Lump

a small piece of something solid, without a particular shape

Strain the custard to remove lumps.

lump of

Melt a lump of butter in your frying-pan.

Bolt

پیچ

Reading 2 Crust – Plate tectonics – uneventful –

interior – coral - instructive – erode – plume – hot spot – backtrack

Crust پوسته

Plate tectonics

the study of the forming and movement of the large sheets of rock that form the surface of the Earth

Uneventful

Monotonous

Dull

An uneventful job

Interior

inside or indoors [≠ exterior]

The interior walls are all painted white.

Coral

مرجان

Instructive Informative

Providing useful information

He provided an instructive answer.

Erode

Wear down

فرسایش یافتن

The cliffs are being constantly eroded by heavy seas.

The rocks have gradually eroded away.

Plume

1 a cloud of smoke, dust etc which rises up into the air

plume of smoke/dust/gas/spray etc

A black plume of smoke rose above the city.

TPO 1 – 30


Hot spot 1 a place where there is a lot of heat

or radiation Many microwaves heat unevenly,

leading to hot spots in the milk.

2 a place that is popular for entertainment or a particular activity

They played regularly at legendary hot spots such as the UFO Club.

3 a place where there is likely to be fighting or a particular problem

The report identified eight pollution hot spots.

4 a place where a fire can spread from

Backtrack 1 to change an opinion or promise that

you gave so that it is not as strong as

it was earlier [↪ backpedal]

backtrack on

The President is backtracking on his promise to increase healthcare spending.

2 to return by the same way that you came

We had to backtrack about a mile.

Reading 3 Willow – twig – shoe – roughly –

bivalve – monopolize - standpoint

Willow

درخت بید

Twig

شاخه کوچک

Shoe

نعل اسب

Roughly

Crudely

Approximately

There were roughly 200 people there.

Roughly speaking, I'd say we need about $500.

Bivalve

any sea animal that has two shells joined together

bivalve molluscs

Monopolize

1 to have complete control over something so that other people cannot share it or take part in it

The company has monopolized the soft drinks market.

He monopolized the conversation all evening.

2 to use a lot of someone's time or attention

Virtually all her time and energy is now monopolized by the children.

Standpoint

Point of view

a way of thinking about people, situations, ideas etc

from a theoretical/political/economic etc standpoint

Let's look at the questions from an economic standpoint.

a discussion of marriage from the standpoint of women

TPO 28

Reading 1 Potable – extract – term – tortuous -

impermeable – igneous – coating - intersect

Potable potable water is safe to drink

TPO 1 – 30


Extract Remove

Pull out

Oils are extracted from the plants.

You'll have to have that tooth extracted.

Term

to use a particular word or expression to name or describe something

This condition is sometimes termed RSI, or repetitive strain injury.

Roosevelt termed himself and his policies 'liberal'.

These developments are loosely termed 'advanced manufacturing techniques'.

Tortuous

1 a tortuous path, stream, road etc has a lot of bends in it and is therefore difficult to travel along

a tortuous path over the mountains to Kandahar

پر پیچ و خم

2 complicated and long and therefore confusing

The book begins with a long, tortuous introduction.

Impermeable

not allowing liquids or gases to pass through [≠ permeable]

No paint is impermeable to water vapour.

Igneous

igneous rocks are formed from lava (=hot liquid rock)

Coating

Layer

coating of

a fine coating of dust

The tent has a waterproof coating on both sides.

Intersect

1 if two lines or roads intersect, they meet or go across each other

2 to divide an area with several lines, roads etc

The plain is intersected by a network of canals.

Reading 2

Pastoral – albeit – undergo – Antelope – Ox – herd – beast – at will – confined – inbreeding – tame – juxtapose – intimate – adze – bow and arrow – endeavor - deteriorate

Pastoral

1 relating to the duties of a priest, minister etc towards the members of their religious group

his pastoral work among the congregation

2 literary typical of the simple peaceful life in the country

a charming pastoral scene

Pastoralist :

a sheep or cattle farmer.

Albeit

Although

Even though

Notwithstanding

He accepted the job, albeit with some hesitation.

Chris went with her, albeit reluctantly.

Undergo

if you undergo a change, an unpleasant experience etc, it happens to you or is done to you

The country has undergone massive changes recently.

TPO 1 – 30


He has been released from prison to undergo medical treatment in the United States.

She has been undergoing tests since Monday.

Teachers should be expected to undergo mid-career training and development.

Antelope

بز کوهی

Ox

plural oxen [countable]

1 a bull whose sex organs have been removed, often used for working on farms

2 a large cow or bull

Herd

a group of animals of one kind that

live and feed together[↪ flock]

گله

herd of

a herd of cattle

herds of elephants

Herder : گله دار

Beast an animal, especially a large or

dangerous one

At will

whenever you want and in whatever way you want

He can't just fire people at will, can he?

Confined

1 be confined to somebody/something

to exist in or affect only a particular place or group

The risk of infection is confined to

medical personnel.

2 a confined space or area is one that is very small

It wasn't easy to sleep in such a confined space.

Inbreeding

when children, animals, or plants are produced from closely related members of the same family

He was born with a rare bone disease, probably the result of aristocratic inbreeding.

Tame

2 to train a wild animal to obey you and not to attack people [= domesticate]

The Asian elephant can be tamed and trained.

Juxtapose

to put things together, especially things that are not normally together, in order to compare them or to make something new

juxtapose something with something

a style of decor that juxtaposes antiques with modern furniture

Intimate

intimate knowledge of something:

very detailed knowledge of something as a result of careful study or a lot of experience

his intimate knowledge of the coal industry

Adze

تیشه نجاری

Bow and Arrow

تیر و کمان

TPO 1 – 30


Endeavor an attempt to do something new or

difficult

scientific/creative etc endeavor

an outstanding example of

human endeavor

endeavor to do something

Despite our best endeavors, we couldn't start the car.

Deteriorate

1 to become worse

Ethel's health has deteriorated.

America's deteriorating economy

2 deteriorate into something

to develop into a bad or worse situation

The argument deteriorated into a fight.

Reading 3

Buck – rub – scrape – conspicuous – strip – bark – combat – sniff – lick – scent – gland – olfactory – synchronize – induce - urinate

Buck

a male rabbit, deer, and some other male animals

Rub

to rub something or massage someone for a short time

مالیدن Rub (v)

Give the table a good rub with a damp cloth.

Scrape

a mark or slight injury caused by rubbing against a rough surface [= graze]

I came away from the accident with only cuts and scrapes.

Conspicuous Obvious

Very easy to notice

Apparent

Discernible

The notice must be displayed in a conspicuous place.

a bird with conspicuous white markings

I felt very conspicuous in my red coat.

Strip

to remove something that is covering the surface of something else

Strip the beds and wash the sheets.

strip something off/from something

We need to strip the wallpaper off the walls first.

strip something of something

Tall windows stripped of curtains

Bark

the outer covering of a tree

Combat

Battle

Conflict

Fight

We flew over 200 combat missions.

training in unarmed combat (=fighting without weapons)

Sniff

when you breathe in air noisily through your nose, for example in order to smell something, because you have a cold, or in order to show your disapproval

a sniff of disapproval

She gave a loud sniff.

Lick when you move your tongue across

the surface of something

Can I have a lick of your ice cream?

TPO 1 – 30


Scent a pleasant smell that something

has [= fragrance]

a yellow rose with a lovely scent

scent of

the sweet scent of ripe fruit

بو

رایحه

Gland

غده

Olfactory

connected with the sense of smell

the olfactory cells in the nose

Synchronize

to happen at exactly the same time, or to arrange for two or more actions to happen at exactly the same time

synchronize something with something

Businesses must synchronize their production choices with consumer choices.

Induce

1 to persuade someone to do something, especially something that does not seem wise

induce somebody to do something

Nothing would induce me to vote for him again.

2 to cause a particular physical condition

Patients with eating disorders may use drugs to induce vomiting.

Urinate

to get rid of urine from your body

TPO 29

Reading 1 Shatter – blemish – brittle – fragile –

stack – elusive – shard – dump – entirely - substantial – gigantic – afield – humble - farmstead

Shatter

to break suddenly into very small

pieces, or to make something break in this way

shatter into

The plate hit the floor, and shattered into tiny bits.

The explosion shattered the building.

Blemish

a small mark, especially a mark on someone's skin or on the surface of an object, that spoils its appearance

Flaw

Brittle

hard but easily broken

شکننده

The branches were dry and brittle.

Joanna was diagnosed as having brittle bones.

Fragile

easily broken or damaged [= delicate; ≠ strong]

fragile bones

Be careful with that vase - it's very fragile.

Stack

1 a neat pile of things [↪ heap]

stack of

a stack of papers

stacks of dirty dishes

TPO 1 – 30


2 a chimney

3 the stacks

[plural] the rows of shelves in a library where the books are kept

Elusive

1 an elusive person or animal is difficult to find or not often seen

She managed to get an interview with that elusive man.

2 an elusive result is difficult to achieve

She enjoys a firm reputation in this country but wider international success has been elusive.

3 an elusive idea or quality is difficult to understand

For me, the poem has an elusive quality.

Shard shard also sherd [countable]

a sharp piece of broken glass, metal etc

shard of

a shard of pottery

Dump 1 a place where unwanted waste is

taken and left

an underground nuclear waste dump

a dump site

2 a place where military supplies are stored, or the supplies themselves

There has been a series of explosions in an ammunition dump.

3 a place that is unpleasant to live in because it is dirty, ugly, untidy etc

' What a dump,' she added as they entered the village.

Entirely

Completely and in every possible way

Our situation is entirely different.

The ridge consists entirely of volcanic rock.

Her reasons were not entirely clear.

Substantial Large in amount

Considerable

Significant

We have the support of a substantial number of parents.

a substantial salary

The document requires substantial changes.

Gigantic

extremely big [= huge]

a gigantic skyscraper

Afield

far/further/farthest afield

far away, especially from home

They were exporting as far afield as Alexandria.

students who come from further afield

Humble

having a low social class or position

He started his career as a humble peanut farmer.

Farmstead

a farmhouse and the buildings around it

Reading 2

Mechanism – indigenous – Herbivore – rodent – Pliocene – Isthmus – graphically – regulate

Mechanism

1 a system or a way of behaving that helps a living thing to avoid or protect itself from something difficult or dangerous

defence/control/survival mechanism

When a person is ill, the body's natural defence mechanisms come into

TPO 1 – 30


operation.

2 the way that something works

mechanism of

the mechanism of the brain

Indigenous

indigenous people or things have always been in the place where they are, rather than being brought there from somewhere else [= native]

indigenous to

Blueberries are indigenous to America.

the many indigenous cultures which existed in Siberia

Herbivore

an animal that only eats plants

Rodent

جوندگان ، مانند خرگوش

Pliocene

belonging to the period in the Earth's history that started about 5 million years ago and continued about 3 million years

Isthmus

a narrow piece of land with water on both sides, that connects two larger areas of land:

the Isthmus of Panama

Graphically

if you describe something graphically, you describe it very clearly with a lot of detail [= vividly]

Regulate

1 to control an activity or process, especially by rules

strict rules regulating the use of

chemicals in food

2 to make a machine or your body work at a particular speed, temperature etc

People sweat to regulate their body heat.

Reading 3

Harness – waterwheel – grind – by no means – application – in principle – Kinetic Energy – take over – obsolete – hydro – patent – supersede - power station – plant – renewable energy

Harness

to control and use the natural force or power of something

Utilize

We can harness the power of the wind to generate electricity.

Waterwheel

a large wheel that is turned by water and is used to drive machinery

چرخ چاه

Grind 1 a) to break something such as corn

or coffee beans into small pieces or powder, either in a machine or between two hard surfaces

freshly ground pepper

b) American English to cut food, especially raw meat, into very small pieces by putting it through a machine [= mince ]

ground beef

2 press

He ground out his cigarette on the window ledge.

By no means Not at all

It is by no means certain that the game will take place.

She's not a bad kid, by any means.

TPO 1 – 30


Application (noun) Use

The application of waterpower

In principle

a) if something is possible in principle, there is no good reason why it should not happen, but it has not actually happened yet

In principle, the new software should make the accounting system a lot simpler.

b) if you agree to something in principle, you agree about a general plan or idea but have not yet considered the details

The government has agreed in principle to a referendum.

Kinetic Energy

انرژی جنبشی

Take over

to take control of something [↪ takeover]take something ↔ over

His only reason for investing in the company was to take it over.

Ruth moved into our apartment and promptly took over.

Obsolete

no longer useful, because something newer and better has been invented[↪ out-of-date]:obsolete weapons

computer hardware that quickly became obsolete

Will computers render (=make) books obsolete?

Hydro 1 relating to water, or using water

hydroelectricity (=produced by water power)

hydrotherapy (=treatment of disease

using water)

2 relating to hydrogen, or containing it

Hydrocarbons

Patent

to obtain a special document giving you the right to make or sell a new invention or product

Supersede

if a new idea, product, or method supersedes another one, it becomes used instead because it is more modern or effective [= replace]

Their map has since been superseded by photographic atlases.

Power Station

نیروگاه برق

Plant

کارخانه

Renewable Energy

انرژی تجدیدپذیر

TPO 30

Reading 1 In any case – leap – primate –

considerable – outweigh - rat – enrich – maze – dim – synapse – Cerebellum – stalk – pounce – comparative - courtship – submissive – countless – peer – aggression – delineate – wag – tail - potentially

In any case

whatever happens or happened

I don't see why I couldn't do it. In any case, I'm going to try.

TPO 1 – 30


He's too young to come and in any case I want him to spend the time with Mom.

Leap

to jump high into the air or to jump in order to land in a different place

She leapt over the fence.

The smaller animals can easily leap from tree to tree.

b) literary to jump over something

Brenda leaped the gate and ran across the field.

Primate

a member of the group of animals that includes humans and monkeys

Considerable

Noticeable

Marked

Significant

Substantial

Considerable costs

Outweigh

to be more important or valuable than something else

The benefits of the scheme outweigh the disadvantages.

Rat

موش صحرایی

Enrich

to improve the quality of something, especially by adding things to it

Add fertilizer to enrich the soil.

Education can greatly enrich your life.

≠ impoverish

Maze 1 a complicated and confusing

arrangement of streets, roads etc

I was led through a maze of corridors.

2 a large number of rules, instructions etc which are complicated and difficult to understand

a maze of new laws

3 a specially designed system of paths, often in a park or public garden, which is difficult to find your way through

We got completely lost in the maze.

the famous Hampton Court maze

4 a children's game on paper in which you try to draw a line through a complicated group of lines without crossing any of them

Dim

dark fairly dark or not giving much light, so

that you cannot see well[≠ bright]

in the dim light of the early dawn

a dim glow

Synapse the place where nerve cells meet,

especially in the brain

—synaptic adjective

Cerebellum

مخچه

Stalk to follow a person or animal quietly in

order to catch and attack or kill

them [↪ shadow]

a tiger stalking its prey

We know the rapist stalks his victims at night.

Pounce

to suddenly move forward and attack someone or something, after waiting to attack them

TPO 1 – 30


The cat was hiding in the bushes, ready to pounce.

pounce on

Kevin pounced on Liam and started hitting him.

Comparative

Relative

After a lifetime of poverty, his last few years were spent in comparable comfort.

She didn't want to leave the comparative safety of the shelter.

Courtship

special behavior used by animals to attract each other for sex

courtship rituals

Courtship and mating in animals

Submissive

always willing to obey someone and never disagreeing with them, even if they are unkind to you [≠ assertive]

In those days women were expected to be quiet and submissive.

Countless

too many to be counted

a famous film clip which has been shown countless times

Peer

your peers are the people who are the same age as you, or who have the same type of job, social class etc

American children did less well in math than their peers in Japan.

Staff members are trained by their peers.

Aggression

angry or threatening behavior or feelings that often result in fighting

Television violence can encourage aggression in children.

aggression towards

Our dogs have never shown aggression towards other dogs.

Delineate

1 to describe or draw something carefully so that people can understand it

The document delineates your rights and your obligations.

2 to make the borders between two areas very clear:

The boundaries of these areas should be clearly delineated.

Wag

if a dog wags its tail, or if its tail wags, the dog moves its tail many times from one side to the other

Tail

دم حیوان

Potentially

Possibly

Likely

something that is potentially dangerous, useful etc is not dangerous etc now, but may become so in the future

a potentially dangerous situation

Reading 2

Pace – enliven – increment – all but – obscure – innumerable – comforting – posit – locality - compelling – clam – jerky – uneven – conceive – occasionally - exhaustive

Pace The speed at which something

happens The pace of Evolutionary change

TPO 1 – 30


Enliven to make something more interesting Humour can help enliven a dull

subject.

Increment

a regular increase in the amount of money someone is paid

a salary of £18,000, with annual increments of 2.5%

All but

Almost completely

Changes are all but invisible over the short time.

Obscure

1 to make something difficult to know or understand

Recent successes have obscured the fact that the company is still in trouble.

2 to prevent something from being seen or heard clearly

The view was obscured by mist.

Innumerable very many, or too many to be counted

[= countless]

She's served on innumerable committees.

Comforting

Reassuring

Making you feel less worried

His voice was strangely comforting.

Posit

to suggest that a particular idea should be accepted as a fact

posit that

He posited that each planet moved in a perfect circle.

Locality a small area of a country, city

etc [= area]

weather reports from several different localities

in the locality

Both sea fishing and fresh water angling are available in the locality.

Compelling

Persuasive

1 compelling reason/argument/case etc

an argument etc that makes you feel certain that something is true or that you must do something about it

The court was presented with compelling evidence that she'd murdered her husband.

2 very interesting or exciting, so that you have to pay attention

His life makes a compelling story.

Clam

a shellfish you can eat that has a shell in two parts that open up

clam chowder (=a type of soup)

Jerky

jerky movements are rough, with many starts and stops [≠ smooth]

His skin was dry and hot, his breathing rapid and jerky.

The bus came to a jerky halt.

Uneven 1 not smooth, flat, or level

She walked back carefully over the uneven ground.

2 not regular

His breathing had become uneven.

3 not equal or equally balanced

an uneven distribution of resources

4 good in some parts and bad in others

an uneven performance

TPO 1 – 30


Conceive to imagine a particular situation or to

think about something in a particular way

(cannot) conceive of (doing) something

Many people can't conceive of a dinner without meat or fish.

conceive that

He could not conceive that anything really serious could be worrying his friend.

conceive what/why/how etc

I can hardly conceive what it must be like here in winter.

conceive of something/somebody as something

Language may be conceived of as a process which arises from social interaction.

Occasionally

Once in a while Sometimes, but not regularly , not

often

Occasionally Alice would look up from her books.

We only see each other very occasionally (=rarely).

Exhaustive extremely thorough and complete

an exhaustive investigation

The list is by no means exhaustive.

Reading 3

Collective – ration – compatible – authoritative – discrepancy – discord – strife – drive out – ironically – undermine - Equinox – reckon – municipal – spoil – pilgrimage – sacred – relic – ingenuity – relentless - pioneer

Collective shared or made by every member of a

group or society

a collective decision made by all board members

our collective responsibility for the environment

Ration 1 to control the supply of something

because there is not enough Fuel was rationed during the war.

2 to allow someone only a small amount of something

the need to ration health care resources

diets which ration fat

ration somebody/something to somethin

He rationed himself to 4 cigarettes a day.

I try to ration the children's television viewing to an hour a day.

Compatible

1 if two pieces of computer equipment are compatible, they can be used together, especially when they are made by different

companies[↪ compatibility]

The new software is IBM compatible (=can be used with IBM computers).

2 able to exist or be used together without causing

problems [↪ compatibility]

Stephen's political views often weren't compatible with her own.

3 two people that are compatible are able to have a good relationship because they have similar opinions or interests

TPO 1 – 30


authoritative 1 Official

2 an authoritative book, account etc is respected because the person who wrote it knows a lot about the subject

the most authoritative work on English surnames

3 behaving or speaking in a confident, determined way that makes people respect and obey you

He has a commanding presence and an authoritative voice.

Discrepancy

a difference between two amounts, details, reports etc that should be the same

discrepancy in

Police found discrepancies in the two men's reports.

discrepancy between

There is a large discrepancy between the ideal image of motherhood and the reality.

Discord

1 disagreement or arguing between people

marital discord

discord within NATO

Strife

trouble between two or more people or groups [= conflict]

ethnic/religious/civil etc strife

a time of political strife

Drive out

1 to force someone or something to leave

Downtown stores are being driven out by crime.

2 written to make something stop existing

As we went forward, our fear was

driven out by horror.

Ironically

1 used when talking about a situation in which the opposite of what you expected happens or is true

Ironically, his cold got better on the last day of his holiday.

2 in a way that shows you really mean the opposite of what you are saying

'Oh, no problem!' said Terry, ironically.

Undermine

to gradually make someone or something less strong or effective

economic policies that threaten to undermine the health care system

undermine somebody's confidence/authority/position/credibility etcThe constant criticism was beginning to undermine her confidence.

Equinox

one of the two times in a year when night and day are of equal length

the spring equinox

Reckon

(spoken)

to think or suppose something

reckon (that)Do you reckon he'll agree to see us?

The police reckon that whoever killed Dad was with him earlier that day.

'There's nothing we can do about it.' 'You reckon (=used to express doubt or disagreement)?'

Municipal relating to or belonging to the

government of a town or city

the municipal waste dump

municipal elections

TPO 1 – 30


Spoil

things taken by an army from a defeated enemy, or things taken by thieves

the spoils of war/victory etc

Pilgrimage

1 a journey to a holy place for religious reasons

make a pilgrimage/go on (a) pilgrimage

the chance to go on pilgrimage to Mecca

2 a journey to a place connected with someone or something famous

Presley's home has become a place of pilgrimage.

Sacred relating to a god or religion

a sacred vow

the miraculous powers of sacred relics

Certain animals were considered sacred.

sacred to

The land is sacred to these tribesmen.

Relic 1 an old object or custom that reminds people of the past or that has lived on from a past time

Roman relics found in a field

relic of

the books and photos, relics of Rob's university days

Everything in the house seemed old and untouched, like relics of an ancient time.

Ingenuity

Skill at inventing things and thinking of new ideas

Relentless

1 strict, cruel, or determined, without ever stopping

her relentless determination to succeed

a regime that was relentless in its persecution of dissidents

2 something bad that is relentless continues without ever stopping or getting less severe [= endless]

the relentless crying of a small baby

a family facing relentless financial problems

Pioneer 1 someone who is important in the

early development of something, and whose work or ideas are later developed by other people

pioneer of

John Whitney was a pioneer of computer animation.

He was a pioneer in the field of biotechnology.

2 one of the first people to travel to a new country or area and begin living there, farming etc

the early pioneers of the Dakota territory

Documents

TPO 1 – 30