TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

HIGHER DIPLOMA IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (KNEC)

FULL SYLLABUS PROGRAMME

PREPARED BY:MUCHEL’LE TOM PATRICK

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Reading List...............................................................................................................................3

1.0 Training And Development.........................................................................................41.1 Basic Terms In Training And Development.............................................................41.2 Training Policy........................................................................................................10

2.0 Training Development Needs Analysis....................................................................132.1 The Training Cycle/The Training Process..............................................................13

3.0 Developing And Implementing A Training Programme........................................223.1 Stage 1: Planning And Designing The Training Programme..................................223.2 Stage 2: Planning And Designing The Training Programme..................................253.3 Developing Training Resources................................................................................263.4 Training Techniques................................................................................................283.5 Stage 2: Planning And Designing The Training Programme..................................353.6 Stage 3: Training Programme Delivery...................................................................393.7 Stage 4: Evaluating Training...................................................................................39

4.0 The Psychology Of Adult Learning..........................................................................434.1 Theories Of Adult Learning....................................................................................434.2 Adult Learning Principles........................................................................................494.3 Group Dynamics In Adult Learning........................................................................524.4 Learning Styles........................................................................................................534.5 Learning And Organisations....................................................................................54

5.0 Management Development........................................................................................595.1 Development Needs.................................................................................................595.2 Responsibility For Management Development.......................................................605.3 The Role Of The Hr Specialist In Management Development...............................605.4 Approaches To Management Development............................................................615.5 The Management Development Process...................................................................625.6 Methods Used In Management Development............................................................635.7 Real-Life Management Development Methods.........................................................635.8 Other Management Training Methods.......................................................................645.9 Evaluation Of Management Development Activities.................................................65

6.0 Career Management..................................................................................................676.1 Objectives Of Career Management.........................................................................676.2 Integration Between Career Planning And Career Management............................686.3 Career Management Activities................................................................................696.4 Implementing Career Development........................................................................696.5 Career Counselling..................................................................................................706.6 Career Management Strategies..................................................................................706.7 Career Plateau..........................................................................................................726.8 Rehabilitating Ineffective Plateauees........................................................................726.9 The Career Stage Model..........................................................................................73

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7.0 Legislation Governing Training And Development In Kenya...............................76

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READING LIST.

Armstrong M and Long P., The Reality of Strategic Human Resource Management. (London, Institute of Personnel Management).

Armstrong M., Human Resource Management Practice . (London, Kogan Page Ltd)

Byars L.L., and Rue L. W: Human Resource Management . (Boston M.A. Irwin McGraw-Hill)

Cascio Wayne., Human Resource Management. (New Delhi, Tata McGraw-Hill)

Cole G. A. Personnel and Human Resource Management. (London, Continuum,)

Flippo Edwin; Personnel Management. (Boston M.A. Irwin McGraw-Hill)

Graham, H.T. and Bennett R: Human Resource Management. (London: Pitman Publishing Company).

Heneman, Schwab, Fossum, Dyer: Personnel/Human Resource Management . (Boston, Richard D. Irwin Inc)

Kandula R. Srinivas: Strategic Human Resource Development . (New Delhi, Prentice – Hall of India)

Milkovich G.T. and Boudreau J. W: Human Resource Management. (Boston MA, Irwin).

Nzuve S. N. M and Singh K. D., Introduction to Manpower Management . (Nairobi, Veena Exports Ltd,)

Saiyadain Mirza S: Human Resources Management. (New Delhi Tata McGraw – Hill Publishing Company).

Waweru E. M., Management of Human Resources in Kenya (Nairobi, Kenya Literature Bureau).

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1.0 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT.

1.1 Basic Terms in Training and Development

Introduction.

At the organizational level, enterprises need people with appropriate skills, abilities and experience. These qualities can be bought from outside the organization through recruitment, consultancy and subcontracting, or grown by training and developing existing employees.

This course unit focuses on the second approach to getting people with appropriate skills, abilities and experience.

The following terms are described in this document. Note that trainers, developers and educators vary among their own definitions of the terms.

InformationAt its most basic form, a piece of information about something is a "unit of awareness" about that object or subject. Other people also accept information as a form of realization from other forms of inquiry, e.g., intuition.

KnowledgeKnowledge is gleaned by organizing information. Typically, information evolves to knowledge by the learner's gaining context, perspective and scope about the information.

SkillsSkills are applying knowledge in an effective and efficient manner to get something done. One notices skills in an employee by their behaviors.

TaskA task is a typically defined as a unit of work, that is, a set of activities needed to produce some result, e.g., vacuuming a carpet, writing a memo, sorting the mail, etc. Complex positions in the organization may include a large number of tasks, which are sometimes referred to as functions.

JobA job is a collection of tasks and responsibilities that an employee is responsible to conduct. Jobs have titles.

RoleA role is the set of responsibilities or expected results associated with a job. A job usually includes several roles.

LearningTypically, learning is viewed as enhancing one's knowledge, understanding or skills. Some people see learning as enhancement to one's knowledge, awareness and skills. Some professionals view learning as enhancing one's capacity to perform. Some view learning as a way of being that includes strong value on receiving feedback and increasing understanding. It's important to note that learning is more than collecting information -- more than collecting unreferenced books on a shelf. Depending on the needs of the learner, knowledge is converted to skills, that is, the learner knows how to apply the knowledge to get something done. Ideally, the skills are applied to the most appropriate tasks and practices in the organization, thereby producing performance results needed by the organization.

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Continuous LearningSimply put, continuous learning is the ability to learn to learn. Learning need not be a linear event where a learner goes to a formal learning program, gains areas of knowledge and skills about a process, and then the learning ceases. If the learner can view life (including work) as a "learning program", then the learner can continue to learn from almost everything in life. As a result, the learner continues to expand his or her capacity for living, including working.

TrainingThis term is often interpreted as the activity when an expert and learner work together to effectively transfer information from the expert to the learner (to enhance a learner's knowledge, attitudes or skills) so the learner can better perform a current task or job.

Training is defined as "a process for developing individual skills and effectiveness. Rarely is it a process of organisation or group development. Individual effectiveness, in terms of skills, knowledge and attitude, is one of the essential building blocks towards achievement of the wider goal of improved organisational efficiency and effectiveness. The development of the individual and the organisation are therefore inextricably linked."

Training is also defined as a systematic process or changing the behaviour, knowledge and motivation of present employees to improve the match between employee characteristics and employment requirements.

EducationThis term seems to be the most general of the key terms in employee training. Some professionals view education as accomplishing a personal context and understanding of the world, so that one's life and work are substantially enhanced, e.g., "Go get an education." Others view the term as the learning required to accomplish a new task or job.

DevelopmentThis term is often viewed as a broad, ongoing multi-faceted set of activities (training activities among them) to bring someone or an organization up to another threshold of performance. This development often includes a wide variety of methods, e.g., orienting about a role, training in a wide variety of areas, ongoing training on the job, coaching, mentoring and forms of self-development. Some view development as a life-long goal and experience.

Employee Training and Development:Reasons and Benefits

As a brief review of terms, training involves an expert working with learners to transfer to them certain areas of knowledge or skills to improve in their current jobs. Development is a broad, ongoing multi-faceted set of activities (training activities among them) to bring someone or an organization up to another threshold of performance, often to perform some job or new role in the future.

We must distinguish between the training needs of the individual and those of the organization. Personal and corporate objectives must be reconciled. Individual employees frequently look for wide-ranging courses, which will help them in promotion. They will look to develop transferable skills, which are seen as valuable by other employers. In contrast, local management is more interested in training which improves performance on their present jobs, leading to improved output quality and productivity. In other words, employees seek training, which will make them more marketable, whereas organizations prefer training, which makes employees more productive.

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1.1.1 Typical Reasons for Employee Training and DevelopmentTraining and development can be initiated for a variety of reasons for an employee or group of employees, e.g.

1. When a performance appraisal indicates performance improvement is needed2. To "benchmark" the status of improvement so far in a performance improvement effort3. As part of an overall professional development program4. As part of succession planning to help an employee be eligible for a planned change in role in

the organization5. To "pilot", or test, the operation of a new performance management system6. To train about a specific topic.

1.1.2 General Benefits of Training and Development…

a) To the Task Increased Productivity. Task expertise Reduction of mistakes.

Standardization of work.

b) To the Team. (teamwork can be improved through)

Recruitment. Whether the labour market is in excess demand or excess supply training is important. During high employment, the need for a job is high and some applicants will not be as competent and experienced. They will need training.

Exchange: Training gives employees in different parts of the company, the ability to exchange views and ideas. This helps promote a common identity and may generate new solutions to work.

The Hawthorne Effect: Occurs when employees feel they have been selected for special attention. This may lead to higher production levels.

Ideas: Business ideas can be generated internally and be cost effective.

Reduced employee turnover

Enhanced company image, e.g., conducting ethics training (not a good reason for ethics training!)

Risk management, e.g., training about sexual harassment, diversity training

c) To the Individual Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees. Increased employee motivation. Increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain. Increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods. Increased innovation in strategies and products

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1.1.3 Training and Development Processes:

That is, one can take an informal approach to self-directed or "other-directed" learning. Similarly, one can take a formal approach to self-directed or "other-directed" learning.

The decision about what approach to take to training depends on several factors. Factors include the:

- Amount of funding available for training, - Specificity and complexity of the knowledge and skills needed,

- Timeliness of training needed, and

- Capacity and motivation of the learner.

Other-directed, formal training is typically more expensive than other approaches, but is often the most reliable to use for the learner to achieve the desired knowledge and skills in a timely fashion. Self-directed, informal learning can be very low-cost, however the learner should have the capability and motivation to pursue their own training. Training may take longer than other-directed forms.

Highly specific and routine tasks can often be trained without complete, formal approaches. On the other hand, highly complex and changing roles often require more complete and formal means of development, which can be very expensive as a result.

If training is needed right away, then other-directed training is often very useful, e.g., to sign up for a training course at a local university, college or training center. Or, a training professional can be brought in. Again, other-directed training is usually faster and more reliable, but more expensive.

Self-directed forms of training require that the learner be highly motivated and able to conceptualize their approach to training, particularly in formal training.

1.1.4 Informal and Formal Training and Development

Informal training and development is rather casual and incidental. Typically, there are no specified training goals as such, nor are their ways to evaluate if the training actually accomplished these goals or not. This type of training and development occurs so naturally that many people probably aren't aware that they're in a training experience at all. Probably the most prominent form of informal training is learning from experience on the job. Examples are informal discussions among employees about a certain topic, book discussion groups, and reading newspaper and journal articles about a topic. A more recent approach is sending employees to hear prominent speakers, sometimes affectionately called "the parade of stars".

Informal training is less effective than formal training if one should intentionally be learning a specific area of knowledge or skill in a timely fashion. Hardly any thought is put into what learning is to occur and whether that learning occurred or not. (However, this form of training often provides the deepest and richest learning because this form is what occurs naturally in life.)

Formal Training and Development

Formal training is based on some standard "form". Formal training might include:

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Declaring certain learning objectives (or an extent of knowledge, skills or abilities that will be reached by learners at the end of the training),

Using a variety of learning methods to reach the objectives and then

Applying some kind(s) of evaluation activities at the end of the training.

The methods and means of evaluation might closely associate with the learning objectives, or might not. For example, courses, seminars and workshops often have a form -- but it's arguable whether or not their training methods and evaluation methods actually assess whether the objectives have been met or not.

Formal, Systematic Training and Development

Systematic, formal training involves carefully proceeding through the following phases:

Assessing what knowledge, skills and /or abilities are needed by learners; Designing the training, including identifying learning goals and associated objectives, training

methods to reach the objectives, and means to carefully evaluate whether the objectives have been reached or not;

Developing the training methods and materials;

Implementing the training; and

Evaluating whether objectives have been reached or not, in addition to the quality of the training methods and materials themselves

A systematic approach is goal-oriented (hopefully, to produce results for the organization and/or learners), with the results of each phase being used by the next phase. Typically, each phase provides ongoing evaluation feedback to other phases in order to improve the overall system's process.

Note, again, that not all formal methods are systematic. Some courses, workshops, and other training sessions have goals, methods and evaluation, but they are not aligned, or even integrated. The methods, in total, do not guide the learner toward achieving the training goal. The evaluations are too often of how a learner feels about the learning experience, rather than of how well the learning experience achieved the goal of the training.

Self-Directed and "Other-Directed" Training

Self-directed training includes the learner making the decisions about what training and development experiences will occur and how. Self-directed training seems to be more popular of late. Note that one can pursue a self-directed approach to informal or formal training. For example, self-directed, informal training might include examples of informal training listed above (book discussion groups, etc.), as long as the learner chose the activities and topics themselves, either for professional or personal reasons. Self-directed, formal training includes the learner's selecting and carrying out their own learning goals, objectives, methods and means to verify that the goals were met.

Other-Directed Learning

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This form, of course, is where someone other than the learner drives what training activities will occur. Other-directed, informal training includes, e.g., supervisors sending employees to training about diversity, policies, sexual harassment in the workplace.

Other-directed, formal training includes where someone other than the learner specifies the training goals will be met in training, how those goals will be met and how evaluation will occur to verify that the goals were met. This form of learning is probably the most recognized because it includes the approach to learning as used in universities, colleges and training centers. This form of learning typically grants diplomas and certificates. Note that this form of training, although readily available in universities, etc., is usually somewhat "generic", that is, the program is geared to accommodate the needs of the most learners and not be customized to any one learner. Therefore, a learner may pay tuition fees to learn knowledge and skills that he or she may not really need.

Another form of "other-directed', formal training is employee development plans. The plans identify performance goals, how the goals will be reached, by when and who will verify their accomplishment.

"Other-directed', formal training can be highly effective for helping learners gain desired areas of knowledge and skills in a timely fashion. A drawback is that learners can become somewhat passive, counting on the "expert" to show them what they should be doing and when.

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1.2 TRAINING POLICY.

Training policy could be stated as:

"To provide cost-effective training for the Company which is clearly identified with, and is supportive of, current and future business requirements, to agreed standards and within

financial limits determined by the board."

But again many other alternative and equally viable policies could easily be established as part of your HRD strategy. These do need clarifying as they will drive objectives and the decision making process.

An HRD strategy should contain aims or preferably SMART based objectives. Put simply they are established to ensure that training and development:

helps to satisfy present and future company needs created by Organisational growth and change, accelerating business technology and increasing competition

is only used where it is the most effective and efficient means of needs satisfaction

Programmes are designed to achieve the maximum possible learning in the shortest possible time.

to ensure that training effectiveness is measured

Without SMART based objectives it is difficult to see how the training function can deliver the HRD strategy through working harmoniously with line management in the joint development of people.

We have already referred to the importance of senior management having a clear view of corporate strategy without which a HRD strategy cannot be developed.

The demands imposed on a company with this scenario will therefore require a HRD strategy to ensure that training support that takes account of:

1. Change occurring at an increasing pace in technology, information systems, attitudes to and behaviour at work etc.

2. A need to make and manage cost reductions. 3. A requirement for more professionalism in marketing and sales negotiation. 4. A need for more analytical and assertive business management. 5. A more flexible, aware and demanding work force. 6. More critical and selective customers. 7. An increasing diversification of the technology and human skills.

A HRD strategy to achieve specified aims or SMART objectives could utilise a number of principal levels of attention, for example:

Level 1)

Assisting in defining the training needs of individuals required to fill all jobs successfully. Designing programmes of training and development that ensure people are available and have the necessary skills, knowledge and attitude to fill all jobs successfully.

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Level 2)

Assisting in identifying training needs resulting from new investment programmes and new practices and procedures.

Designing and providing training programmes to increase the competence of the workforce.

Level 3)

Recruiting and training a cadre of people sufficient in number and ability to meet the company's prime short and long term resourcing needs.

Level 4)

Extending open-learning and self-development facilities to encourage and enable employees to enhance their training and education programmes.

HRD strategy - for effective resource utilization

HRD strategy - to meet organisational requirements

Training can and must make a significant contribution towards securing both individual and organization objectives.

Training must be supported by and, wherever possible, involve line management.

Every manager has a prime responsibility to develop his/her subordinates.

Every manager, potential manager and employee must receive the training required to perform his/her job effectively.

Training must deliver real tangible and measurable results.

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APPROACHES TO TRAINING. The analytical approach.Is a careful survey of organisational training needs, followed by detailed analysis of knowledge, skills and attitudes required for each job. the method is logical and applicable where what is to be done must be closely defined and likely to remain constant over a period of time.

The competency/Competence ApproachThis is based on cluster of what makes up successful management. These are the competencies and can be used as the basis for management development. Success is dependent on identifying critical competencies. The competencies may be found in Mintzberg’s ten roles common to managers under the titles; Interpersonal role, informational role and divisional roles. From this can be identified the following competencies; peer skills, leadership skills, conflict resolution skills, information-processing, decision making, resource allocation, entrepreneurial and skills of introspection.

The problem-solving approachThis puts emphasis as its starting point on the main problems and issues facing the organisation and training may be viewed as a tool to equip employees to overcome the difficulties being experienced.

The continuous development approachDevelopment can be continuous only if it itself-directed, because it necessitates the ability to learn from everyday experience as well as from any formal training provided.

The learning organisationA learning organisation is seen as one which facilitates the learning and development of its employees but is itself in a constant process of transition and change.

Strategic human – resource managementThis links the management of human resources directly with organisational efficiency and competitiveness. Training and development is a tool to be used in the effort o obtain maximum organisational performance. Training become integrated into the business plan and responsibility for implementing it left to the management. Focus is firmly on the outcomes.

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2.0 TRAINING DEVELOPMENT NEEDS ANALYSIS

2.1 THE TRAINING CYCLE/THE TRAINING PROCESS

A training cycle is the process of training that is undertaken scientifically to fulfill training objectives. The processes in the training cycle make up what is also termed as a systematic training process or INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN (ISD).

Definitions.

1. Systematic training is training which is specifically designed to meet defined needs. It is planned and provided by people who know how to train and evaluate the impact of training.

2. I.S.D. is a research based methodology approach that brings the learner from a state of not being able to perform a certain task or skill, to that state of being able to perform it.

Training programmes are developed based on the systematic training methodology. ISD is based on the premise that learning should not occur in a haphazard manner, but should be developed in accordance with orderly processes and have outcomes that can be measured.

Besides ISD, other traditional systematic training approaches include; performance based training (PBT) and Criterion Reference Instruction (CRI).

A systematic approach to training is characterized by an orderly process for gathering and analysing collective and individual performance requirements, and by the ability to respond to identify training needs.

ISD is often called SAT (system approach to training) or ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implement, Evaluated).

Systematic training is based on a simple four-stage model expressed as follows: -

1. Define training needs

2. Decide the sort of training required to fulfil these needs.

3. Use trained trainers to plan & implement training.

4. Follow-up & evaluate training.

This can be represented graphically as shown below in what is known as the training cycle.

2.1.1 THE TRAINING CYCLE

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Identify Training Needs

Evaluate Training

Outcomes

Plan and Design Training

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Figure: THE TRAINING CYCLE

2.2 STAGE ONE: IDENTIFYING TRAINING NEEDS

A needs assessment is a systematic exploration of the way things are and the way they should be. It is associated with organizational and/or individual performance.

Needs assessment is a systematic analysis of the specific training activities the organization requires to achieve its objectives. This is so because an organization should commit it resources only to those training activities that can best help in achieving its objectives. Training needs analysis is concerned with defining the gap between what is happening and what should happen i.e. gap between “what is” and “what ought to be”

WHY CONDUCT A TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT.

1. To determine what training is relevant to your employees’ jobs

2. To determine what training will improve the performance

3. To determine what training will make a difference

4. To distinguish training needs from organizational problems

5. To link improved job performance with the organization goals and bottom line

TRAINING GAPS

A training need occurs generally where; the job or its setting changes; individuals change their jobs or performance deficiencies exist in an existing job. The difference between ‘what is’ and ‘what ought’ to be is the training gap.

There are a number of gaps.

i) Performance Gap (learning needed to meet performance standards for a current task or job).

ii) Growth Gap (learning needed to achieve career goals)

iii) Opportunity Gap (Learning needed to qualify for an identified new job or role.

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Deliver Training

Corporate or functional Results

Knowledge & Skillspossessed

Actual performance of individuals

Corporate or functional standards

Knowledge & SkillsRequired

Targets or standards of performance

What is Training Gap What should be

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Training Gaps are realized from an analysis of the: -

a) Organization – Business & HR Plans, Training Surveysb) Job, Task and knowledge skill abilityc) Personal

a) ORGANISATION ANALYSISThis involves examining the organizations broad direction and needs to determine how training fits in. The learning organization (Key to competitiveness, flexibility and rising standards of living is an example)

Organizational level needs are in three categories.

Organizational Maintenance – aims to ensure a steady supply of critical skills e.g. Employment planning, succession planning. Skill imbalances may trigger a need for training to prepare individuals to move to new job assignments or take redesigned roles.

Organizational Efficiency – Pursuit for more profit, reduced labour cost, quality of output and other measures might signal gaps that training can help to close.

Organizational Culture – refers to the value system or philosophy of the organization. Examining this factor can identify areas where training can help clarify or gain acceptance of organizational values among employees.

JOB, TASK & KNOWLEDGE –SKILL ABILITYJob analysis, job descriptions and specifications offer a valuable source of information on potential training needs.

PERSON ANALYSISThis calls for examining individual characteristics to determine whether they match those needed to accomplish organization and individual objectives. Such areas include employee performance.

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FIGURE: TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS AREAS & METHODS

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CORPORATE GROUP INDIVIDUAL

ANALYSIS OF

STRATEGIC PLANS

ANALYSIS OF

HUMAN RESOURCE

PLANS

TRAINING SURVEYS

PERFORMANCE &

DEVELOPMENT REVIEWS

JOB AND ROLE

ANALYSIS

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STEPS IN CONDUCTING A NEEDS ASSESSMENT

STEP 1:PERFORM A GAP ANALYSISEntails checking the actual performance of our organization and our people against existing standards or to set new standards. It looks at the difference between the current situation and the desired or necessary situation.

STEP II:IDENTIFYING PRIORITIES & IMPORTANCEThe list of gaps identified above must then be examined in view of their importance to our organizational goals, realities and constraints. Determine if the needs are real, are they worth addressing and how urgent and important are they in view of the organizational needs and requirements. Such considerations would include:- cost effectiveness, legal mandates, executive pressure, population and customers.

STEP III:IDENTIFYING CAUSES OF PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS AND/OR OPPORTUNITIESAfter prioritising & focusing on critical organizational & personal needs, one must identify specific areas and opportunities in the organization.

STEP IV:IDENTIFYING POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS & GROWTH OPPORTUNITIESSome training & interventions may be needed if sufficient importance is attached to moving our people and their performance into new directions.

In some instances however, training is not a solution to the problems identified. Organizational development activities may provide solutions when the problem is not based on a lack of knowledge but on systematic change.

Such interventions may include strategic planning, organizational restructuring performance management and/or effective team building.

SITUATIONS THAT DEMAND TRAINING1. New Recruits to the company2. Transferees3. Promotions4. New Plant & Equipment5. New Procedures6. New Standards, rules & practices7. New relationships & Authority8. Maintenance standards9. Maintenance of Management skills & standards10. Retirement and Redundancy.

TRAINING OPPORTUNITY GENERATORS

1. Basic manpower maintenance2. Development schemes3. Corporate goals4. Corporate & functional objectives5. Efficiency studies

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6. Environmental changes

TECHNIQUES FOR INVESTIGATING ORGANISATIONAL & PERSONAL NEEDS

It is advisable to do this using multiple methods of needs assessment. Do not rely on one method. It is important to get a complete picture from many sources and viewpoints.

Needs Assessment techniques include:

1. Direct observation2. Questionnaires/surveys e.g. Attitude surveys3. Consultation with persons in key positions, and/or with specific knowledge4. Review of relevant literature/document examination5. Interviews6. self analysis7. co-counselling8. Focus Groups9. Tests10. Records and Report studies (diaries are analysed)11. Work samples

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Briefly explain how a HR specialist will arrive at training needs using the various needs assessment techniques.

What are the merits and demerits of each needs assessment technique?

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3.0 DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING A TRAINING PROGRAMME

THE TRAINING CYCLE

3.1 Stage 1: Planning and Designing the Training Programme

Having established a need for training, we must then begin planning and designing the programme. We must first set objectives for that training. Clear objectives will help us to choose the best way of meeting the need and to evaluate the results.

During the planning and design phase (which is usually closely integrated with the development phase), trainers work from learning goals to Design a training system that learners and trainers can implement to meet the learning goals. This phase also typically includes identifying learning objectives (which culminate in reaching the learning goals), needed facilities, necessary funding, course content, lessons and the sequence of lessons. The various training media are selected, e.g., instructor-led, computer-based, World Wide Web-based, self-directed, interactive and computer-based, or multi-media. Course content is often piloted during the development phase, or initially tested, to ensure the content is understandable. Therefore, this design phase can also include identifying evaluation criteria to evaluate if course content is understandable by learners. This phase insures the systematic development of the training program. This process is driven by the products of the analysis phase and ends in a model or blueprint of the training program for future development.

This model or blueprint will contain five key outputs:

Entry behaviors Learning objectives

Learning steps (performance steps)

Performance test

Structure and sequence program outline

The entry behaviors describe what a learner must know before entering into the training program. Just as a college requires certain standards to be met in order to enroll, a training program requires a base level of Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes (KSA’s).

The learning objectives tell what tasks the learners need to be able to perform, the learning steps tell how to perform the tasks, while the performance test tells how well the tasks must be met.

Finally, the learning objectives are sequenced in an orderly fashion that provides the best opportunity for learning, e.g., arranging the learning objective from easy to hard or in the order they are performed on the job.

DEFINITION OF OBJECTIVES.

In the analysis phase, you discovered what needs to be trained. In this phase, writing clear learning objectives answers the question, "What will the learners be able to do when they finish the training program?" Of all the activities within the ISD process, this is one of the most critical steps. Without well constructed learning objectives, instructors don't know what is to be taught, learners don't know what they are supposed to learn, and managers don't know what they are investing their training

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dollars in. Learning objectives form the basis for what is to be learned, how well it is to be performed, and under what conditions it is to be performed.

A learning objective is a statement of what the learners will be expected to do once they have completed a specified course of instruction. It prescribes the conditions, behavior (action), and standard of task performance for the training setting. The objective is sometimes referred to as performance or behavioral objectives. For example, knowledge is a state of mind which cannot be directly measured. This requires an indirect method of evaluation, that of observing behavior or performance.

Objectives are defined as “criterion behaviour” i.e. the standards or changes of behaviour on the job to be achieved if training is to be regarded as successful.

Learning Objectives tell what tasks the learners need to be able to perform in order to succeed at the work activity training addresses. 

A. Types of Objectives

Intermediate (in the training sessions) Terminal (on job)

Also, there is a difference between goals and objectives. Goals describe a learning outcome in general, for example, "the learner will successfully complete the supervisor course, before moving on to the leadership course." Notice that this is so general that it provides no guidance about how to achieve it. On the other hand, an objective is a specific statement of instructional intent which attempts to change knowledge, skills or attitudes as a result of a learning experience, for example, "the learner will use Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs when deciding upon motivators."

Specific terminal learning objectives must be developed for each of the tasks selected in the learning program. A terminal learning objective is at the highest level of learning (SKA) appropriate to the human performance requirements a student will accomplish. 

Each terminal learning objective is analyzed to determine if it needs one or more enabling learning objectives, that is, if it needs to be broken down into smaller, more manageable objectives. An enabling learning objective measures an element of the terminal learning objective.

A learning objective has three main parts:

Observable Action (task) This describes the observable performance or behaviour. An action means a verb must be in the statement, for example "type a letter" or "lift a load." Each objective covers one behaviour; hence, only one verb should be present. If there are many behaviours or the behaviours are complicated, then the objective should be broken down into one or more enabling learning objectives that supports the main terminal learning objective. 

At Least One Measurable Criterion (standard) This states the level of acceptable performance of the task in terms of quantity, quality, time limitations, etc. This will answer any question such as "How many?" "How fast?" or "How well?". For example "At least 5 will be produced", "Within 10 minutes", "Without error". There can be more than one measurable criterion. Do not fall into the trap of putting in a time constraint because you

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think there should be a time limit or you cannot easily find another measurable criterion. Use a time limit only if required under the normal working standards.

Conditions of performance (usually condition) Describes the actual conditions under which the task will occur or be observed. Also, it identifies the tools, procedures, materials, aids, or facilities to be used in performing the task. This is best expressed with a prepositional phase such as "without reference to a manual" or "by checking a chart".

Form of Objectives (ideal)  "At the end of this unit, the trainee will [observable action (verb) (content)]  [measurable criteria]  [conditions of performance] 

EXAMPLE:    At the end of Unit Two, the trainee will be able to distinguish statements reflecting interests from statements reflecting interests from statements reflecting positions with 80% accuracy during initial negotiating sessions.

Example 1: Write a customer reply letter with no spelling mistakes by using a word processor. Observable Action: Write a customer reply letter Measurable Criteria: with no spelling mistakes

Conditions of Performance: using a word processor

Using the Correct Verb

The type of verb that is used in the task statement, determines the level or of learning (or degree of difficulty) that must be achieved. For example, being able to criticize a process shows a much more complex behavior than simply being able to identify a process.

In the world of training and development, the acronym SMART is widely used. Good learning objectives are SMART:

Specific

Measurable

Achievable

Realistic

Timely

Objectives must be specific.  Use behavioral/action verbs such as … (Terms like know, understand, or appreciate are NOT behavioral.)

Objectives must be trainee-centered.

Omit directions, instructions in phrasing objectives. Good objectives can be measured!

Good objectives refer to the conditions in which behavior occurs.

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THE TRAINING CYCLE

3.2 Stage 2: Planning and Designing the Training Programme

INTRODUCTIONIn the last handout, it was indicated that the second part of the training cycle also involves, apart from identification of the learning objectives, the specifying of the needed facilities, sourcing for funds, course content, lessons and lesson sequence.

This level of the training cycle also involves establishing conditions conducive to learning, choosing the content for the training programme and choosing how training will be delivered and who will deliver it.

For training to be successful, the following must be considered during this planning and design stage.

I. The budget

II. Nominating the people to be trained

III. Gathering the necessary facilities – teaching and learning aids

IV. Deciding on who will deliver the training

V. Venue for training

VI. Date for training

VII. Content of the training programme

VIII. Length of training programme

IX. Method for training

X. Responsibility for training – which manager will be responsible for the training.

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Exercise: Assume you have just acquired a new job as a Training Manager of a leading manufacturing Company. You have been instructed to prepare a training budget for its line managers. These will be trained in Employee Relations skills. Briefly explain how you will go about preparing a budget for this course.

3.3 Developing Training Resources

The Teaching and Learning Aids.Well-chosen training aids, or instructional materials, can enhance the effectiveness of the training/learning process. The training aids can:

Add variety to the learning process, thereby helping maintain involvement and motivation. Benefit those learners whose learning styles responds better to one type of approach than

another. Provide certain stimuli not available without their use. Encourage interaction Act as a valuable lesson plan to the trainer, facilitating planning and preparation before the

training session.

The advantages can only be realized in practice if the aids are chosen and used paying due regard to:

Their relevance: to the objective for which they were created and to the learner’s level of understanding.

The objectives of training. The characteristics of the learners. The characteristics of the various aids available How the aids will be integrated with other facets of training.

Teaching aid can be classified into a number of broad categories namely; Printed materials - all texts, handouts and the likes. Non-projected materials – visual display materials e.g. photographic prints, posters, flipcharts

and marker boards. Still projected materials – Overhead projector transparencies, slides and microfilms. Video materials – video tape, video disc, broadcast TV and film. Audio Materials – Audiotape, record, compact disc and broadcast radio. Computer-based materials – Multi-media training kits.

The following are examples of teaching and learning aids that are used in training.

A. Visual aidsi) Flat surface visual aids.

Include the Blackboard ,Whiteboard, flipcharts, maps, overhead projector, Epidiascope, slide projector.

The Overhead Projector.One of the most versatile training aids for mass instruction and for small groups.

Strengths. Simple to use, versatile, relatively cheap, clean and quiet. Can show pre-pared materials Can be used to reveal or build information. Information is generally better understood and retained Can make presentations more lively, immediate and effective.

Weaknesses.

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Can too easily be used in ways which hinder, rather than aid, learning. Needs an electricity supply and suitable screen. Can become monotonous if used extensively.

Paper-Based MaterialThese are almost universal in their use in training within mass, group and individual instruction. They include; handouts, textbooks, charts, maps, diagrams and so on.

Advantages. Simple to use, versatile, relatively cheap, clean and quiet. Provides information that can be taken away. Can show pre-prepared materials. Can be used in a wide variety of ways to support mass, group and individual instruction. Can be used to encourage interaction. Allows large amounts of information to be disseminated quickly. Can be used to support a majority of the other training aids.

ii) 3D Visual Aids-Plant and animal displays

B. Sound aids-Loudspeaker system-Tape recorder-CD player (Record Player)

C. Multimedia-Film projector-Video and television-Computer _ leading to computer based training (CBT)-Video conferencing facilities-Web conferencing facilities (web based training)-Teleconferencing facilities

D. Others-Workbooks and manuals-Satellite and broadcast television

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NOTE.

The type of teaching and learning aid to use depends on the content of the lesson, the teaching skills of the instructor and size of group among other factors.

It is important to note here that the student is expected to understand the advantages and disadvantages of each teaching and learning aid.

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3.4 Training Techniques.

Once you have decided who will receive the training, established conditions for learning and decided what it is you plan to teach, you must then decide how to deliver the training.

To choose the training method (or combination of methods) that best fits a given situation, first define carefully what you wish to teach. To be useful, the method should meet the minimum conditions needed for effective learning to take place. The training method should:

Motivate the trainee to improve his or her performance. Clearly illustrate desired skills. Allow the trainee to participate actively. Provide an opportunity for practice. Provide timely feedback on the trainee’s performance. Provide some means for reinforcement while the trainee learns. Be structured from simple to complex tasks. Be adaptable to specific problems. Encourage positive transfer from the training to the job

There are a variety of training techniques available for you to choose from. These can be divided into on the job and off the job techniques: -

1) On the job techniques (OJT): practiced on a day-to-day basis or part of a specially tailored training programme. They include; demonstration, coaching, job rotation, planned experience and mentoring.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ON-JOB-TRAINING

Advantagesi) Less costly since it uses normal equipment in normal surroundingsii) Learning takes place on the actual equipment to be used.iii) Trainee does not have to adjust after training since the work environment is same

one used for training.

Disadvantages

i) Instructor may be a poor teacher and may not have enough time for the studentii) If there is a payment by results scheme it may discourage the instructor from

training as this delays his/her work and the learner from learning properlyiii) Trainee may be exposed to bad habits and bad methodsiv) A large amount of spoilt work and scrap material may be producedv) Valuable equipment may get damagedvi) Training takes place under production conditions that may be noisy, smoky,

confusing.vii) It exposes the learner to comments from other workers, which may affect

learning.

2) Off the job techniques – used in formal training courses away from the place of work. They include lectures, talks, discussions, the discovery method, case study, role play simulation, group exercises, team building, distance learning, assignments, projects, guided reading, computer based training, interactive video and video.

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Advantages of on-job training

i) As the training is given by a special instructor it should be of a higher qualityii) Special equipment, simplified if necessary, can be usediii) Trainees can learn the job in planned stages, using special exercises to enable

him/her to master the difficult parts.iv) In the long term, it may be a cheap way of training due to the high quality and

standard of training.v) It is free from the pressures of payment by results scheme, noise, danger or

publicityvi) The trainee can learn the correct methods from onsetvii) Trainee does not damage any equipment or produce scrap or waste.

Disadvantages of on-job trainingi) There may be higher costs – for separate premises, equipment and instructors.ii) Transfer of learning may be difficult – from training equipment to actual

equipment, from learning environment to work environment.

There is a massive range of training methods. The most commonly used methods include: -

Lectures simulationsGroup discussions coaching mentoringCase studies outdoor trainingQuestionnaires management gamesRole-play planned readingDemonstration and practice visits and tours.In tray exercises Computer aided instructionVideo films GamesHandouts programmed instructionOn the job training Apprenticeships

We shall now proceed on to see how some of these methods above may be used in training. We shall only look at the most common used.

1. Technology-Based Learning

Common methods of learning via technology include:

Basic pc-based programs Interactive video – using a computer in conjunction with a VCR

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A number of factors determine the choice of one training method over another. These factors include: -1) Finance2) Time available3) Trainer skills4) Accommodation and equipment5) Trainee characteristics

Web-based training programs

The forms of training with technology are almost unlimited. A trainer also gets more of the learner's involvement than in any other environment and trainees have the benefit of learning at their own pace.

2. Simulators

Simulators are used to imitate real work experiences.

Most simulators are very expensive but for certain jobs, like learning to fly a 747, they are indispensable. Astronauts also train extensively using simulators to imitate the challenges and micro-gravity experienced on a space mission.

Instead of letting a trainee immediately start work, he/she may be asked to simulate the job using materials or documents. This programme attempts to copy the essential characteristics of real-world situation that learner’s experiences transfer back to their work. E.g. the training of pilots.

Simulation based training gives a potential for transfer of skills learnt to the work situation, has high participant involvement, and provides instant feedback.However simulations are expensive to develop, very labour intensive and must be constructed carefully to replicate the actual work environment.

3. On-the-job training

Jumping right into work from day one can sometimes be the most effective type of training.

This technique is also known as “sitting next to Nellie”

On-the-job training gives employees motivation to start the job. Some reports indicate that people learn more efficiently if they learn hands-on, rather than listening to an instructor. However, this method might not be for everyone, as it could be very stressful.

4. Coaching

Coaching gives employees a chance to receive training one-on-one from an experienced professional. This usually takes place after another more formal process has taken place to expand on what trainees have already learned.

Coaching gives trainees the chance to ask questions and receive thorough and honest answers – something they might not receive in a classroom with a group of people.

Demonstration followed by practice and feedback is a most common feature of coaching. It involves formal regular sessions where the manager explains the job, asks the trainee questions to test his/her knowledge and often exercises general supervision to ensure correct use of the knowledge. Instruction is immediate, direct, in expensive, convenient and allows for two-way communication.

Success in coaching depends on the instructor’s ability to coach. An incompetent instruct will transmit incorrect working methods. Coaching is wasted if the trainee fails to pay attention at critical moments.

5. Mentoring

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Is the continuing, personal support of a learner by someone who is not his/her boss. It is an informal process whereby an older, move experienced member of an organization. Counsels a younger colleague about the way the organization works.

Mentors are usually experienced works. It is based on counselling and supports learners and helps them to develop their own approach and solutions to problems.

Potential benefits include:- enhanced employee motivation, job performance and organizational culture. However at timers a mentor and mentee may not get on, or the mentor may not be keen to handle the mentee. The mentor may have bad attitudes towards the organization. Also the mentee might consider the mentor to be insufficiently well qualified to undertake the job.

6. Job Rotation

Involves encouraging jobholders to move from one job to another in the same grade. If offers new skills, helps flexibility of work & can freshen stale motivation. It broadens ones experience and offers new challenges.

7. Lectures

Lectures usually take place in a classroom-format.

It seems the only advantage to a lecture is the ability to get a huge amount of information to a lot of people in a short amount of time. It has been said to be the least effective of all training methods. In many cases, lectures contain no form of interaction from the trainer to the trainee and can be quite boring.

Lectures might take place where a number of trainees in the same kind of work get lectures on a series of subjects from a senior employee. Trainees may also attend lectures outside the company. The knowledge they learn may be general, and less specific to the company’s needs.

Lectures are transmissions of predetermined sets of facts and opinions within a controlled environment. Only about 25% of content is retained and trainees may lack motivation to learn among trainees.

Effectiveness of formal lecturers depends on perceived relevance, ability of the lecturer, the care with which the lectures are prepared and the extent to which the trainees are encouraged to participate in the lesson.

8. Programmed Learning

Consists of a carefully ordered sequence of units or frames arranged so that the trainee masters each unit before proceeding to the next. It is individual instruction, each trainee working at his/her own pace, and can be presented as a teaching book, teaching machine etc

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? Exercise.What are the advantages and disadvantages of using job rotation methods in training?

Each part contains a question to test whether the learner has learned or understood the part. If the answer is correct, the learner moves to the next part.

Advantages:- Learn at own pace- Training can be decentralized – material sent to learner instead of learner coming to

school- Most learners find it interesting- Quicker than other methods of knowledge training.

Disadvantages- Experience to produce- Not appropriate in skills training or where some discussion and flexibility is desired –

literacy criticism

9. Group Discussions & Tutorials

These most likely take place in a classroom where a group of people discusses issues.

For example, if an unfamiliar program is to be implemented, a group discussion on the new program would allow employees to ask questions and provide ideas on how the program would work best.

A better form of training than lectures, it allows all trainees to discuss issues concerning the new program. It also enables every attendee to voice different ideas and bounce them off one another.

10. Role Playing

Role-playing allows employees to act out issues that could occur in the workplace. Key skills often touched upon are negotiating and teamwork.

A role-play could take place between two people simulating an issue that could arise in the workplace. This could occur with a group of people split into pairs, or whereby two people role-play in front of the classroom.

Role-playing can be effective in connecting theory and practice, but may not be popular with people who don’t feel comfortable performing in front of a group of people.

11. Management Games

Management games simulate real-life issues faced in the workplace. They attract all types of trainees including active, practical and reflective employees.

Some examples of management games could include:

Computer simulations of business situations that managers ‘play’. Board games that simulate a business situation. Games surrounding thought and creativity – to help managers find creative ways to solve

problems in the workplace, or to implement innovative ideas.

12. Outdoor training

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A nice break from regular classroom or computer-based training, the usual purpose of outdoor training is to develop teamwork skills.

Some examples include:

Wilderness or adventure training – participants live outdoors and engage in activities like whitewater rafting, sailing, and mountain climbing.

Low-impact programming – equipment can include simple props or a permanently installed "low ropes" course.

High-impact programming – could include navigating a 40-foot "high ropes" course, rock climbing, or rappelling.

Outgoing and active participants may get the most out of this form of training. One risk trainers might encounter is distraction, or people who don’t like outdoor activities.

13. Films & Videos

Films and videos can be used on their own or in conjunction with other training methods.

To be truly effective, training films and videos should be geared towards a specific objective. Only if they are produced effectively, will they keep the trainees attention. They are also effective in stimulating discussion on specific issues after the film or video is finished.

Films and videos are good training tools, but have some of the same disadvantages as a lecture – i.e., no interaction from the trainees.

A few risks to think about – showing a film or video from an outside source may not touch on issues directly affecting a specific company. Trainees may find the information very interesting but irrelevant to their position in the company.

Some trainers like to show videos as a break from another training method, i.e. as a break from a lecture instead of a coffee break.

This is not a good idea for two reasons. One: after a long lecture, trainees will usually want a break from any training material, so a training film wouldn’t be too popular. Two: using films and videos solely for the purpose of a break could get expensive.

14. Case Studies

Case studies provide trainees with a chance to analyze and discuss real workplace issues. They develop analytical and problem-solving skills, and provide practical illustrations of principle or theory. They can also build a strong sense of teamwork as teams struggle together to make sense of a case.

15. Planned Reading

Basically planned reading is pre-stage preparation to more formal methods of training. Some trainees need to grasp specific issues before heading into the classroom or the team-building session.

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Planned reading will provide employees with a better idea of what the issues are, giving them a chance to think of any questions beforehand.

TRAINING FOR NEW EMPLOYEE

16. Apprenticeships

Here the apprentice commits to a period of training and learning that involves both formal classroom learning and practical on the job experience. Periods vary between 1 to 5 years.

Apprenticeships are associated with manual craft skills.

17. Induction

This is given to new recruits in an organization those moving or those being promoted to a new post. The elements in a systematic induction package include:-

Basic facts about the organization Recruits department/work area Recruits job Housekeeping & safety Training and development opportunities Basic conditions of employment

OTHER TECHNIQUES

18. Computer based training, CBT

This techniques uses a computer to present materials assess learner responses, provide appropriate feedback and make decisions about what should be presented next, often based on the pattern of the learners response.

Learners find CBT interesting and it is very instructional. Learners are able to learn at their own pace. Learning occurs faster here than in instructor led training.

However, self-discipline is necessary to complete all exercises from beginning to end

Conclusion

Many avenues exist to train employees. The key is to match the training method to the situation. Assess each training method implemented in the organization and get feedback from trainees to see if they learned anything. Then take the results from the most popular and most effective methods to design a specific training program.

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THE TRAINING CYCLE

3.5 Stage 2: Planning and Designing the Training Programme

Conditions for Effective Learning.

Introduction

So far we have seen examples of teaching and learning aids and some training techniques that are important for learning to occur. We shall now proceed and establish the important supportive conditions for learning. Effective training causes learning to occur.

Learning is defined as a permanent change in knowledge, skills, beliefs, attitudes or behaviors.

Before training ever takes place, certain preconditions must exist for learning to occur. Designing training programmes requires establishing these preconditions. These preconditions are contained in the Conditions for learning theory as put forward by Robert Gagne1.

The learning theory suggests that there are 10 main conditions required before learning can take place effectively. These are: -

1. Individuals Must Be Motivated To Learn. They should be aware that their present level of knowledge, skill or competence, or their existing attitude or behaviour needs to be improved if they are to perform their work to their own and to others’ satisfaction. Even the most able trainees will not learn well unless they are motivated to learn. The motivation theory on compensation is important for training to occur. Factors affecting trainee motivation include; goal setting, reinforcement and expectancies.

Goal setting models argue that individuals’ conscious goals or intentions regulate their behaviour. The instructor’s job therefore is to get the trainees to internalize the training objectives of the programme. Learning objectives should be conveyed at the onset and at various strategic points throughout the training. Goals should be difficult enough to challenge the trainees and allow them to derive satisfaction from achievement, but not so difficult as to be unattainable.

Reinforcement theory states that the frequency of a given behaviour is influenced by its consequences. Reinforcement needs to be administered as soon after the desired behaviour occurs.

Expectance theory holds that people are motivated to choose a behaviour alternative that is most likely to have desired consequences. The trainee must believe that improved skills or knowledge lead to valued outcomes – increased pay, promotion or self-esteem. The trainee must believe that participation in training will lead to improved skills and knowledge and to valued outcomes.

Trainees must be told of the exact outcomes to expect after training for the programme to be successful.

2. Standards of Performance. The learners should set these. Learners must have clearly defined targets and standards, which they find acceptable and can use to judge their own progress.

3. Learners should have Guidance. They need a sense of direction and feedback on how they are fairing on with the training.

4. Learners must gain satisfaction from learning . Learning must be a satisfying activity to every learner. It must be satisfying to one or more of the learners needs.

1 Utilizing his research and findings as a developer of training and testing programs for the military during World War II, Robert Gagné turned his attention to school learning and developed this theory.

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5. Learning is an active not passive process. Learners need to be actively involved with their trainer, their fellow trainees and the subject matter of the training programme. For maximum learning, active practice of the skill to be acquired is necessary. Practice until the skill can be performed successfully several times.

6. Appropriate Techniques should be used. These must be used according to the needs of the job, the individual and the group.

7. Learning methods must be varied. The use of a variety of techniques, as long as they are equally appropriate helps learning by maintaining the interest of the learner.

8. Reinforcement. The learner must receive reinforcement of correct behaviour.

9. Time must be allowed to absorb the learning. Learning requires time to assimilate, test and accept. The training programme should allow this.

10. It must be recognised that there are different levels of learning and these need different methods and take different times.

According to Gagne, there are 3 major components to the conditions of learning theory:

The capabilities or varieties of learning (intellectual skills, cognitive skills and strategies, verbal information, attitude and motor skills).

Internal conditions for Learning. (The learners internal states – prior knowledge, motivation, attitudes and his/her cognitive processes – the ways in which the learner interacts with the environment)

The external conditions of learning. Learning takes place at all times, because learners are constantly engaging with their environment.

For learning to occur, knowledge of the results is very important. Feedback must occur close to the actions that cause the outcomes, so learners can associate their actions with outcomes. Feedback should be accurate.

Retention. For training to be used, it must be retained long enough to be applied in actual work situations.

Transfer between training and the job. Learning exhibited during training must be transferred and used in the actual work situation. Transfer is affected by the training design, the trainee characteristics and the work environment. Active resistance or resentment at the work situation can also prevent transfer. Top management commitment to training and its transfer to the job can help minimise these problems.

INSTRUCTIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND INSTRUCTORS.

The characteristics of the instructional environment and the instructors also do affect the effectiveness of training.

Instructional environment.

The environment can be designed around nine basic events:

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? In what ways can you possibly reinforce learning through positive

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1. Gaining attention2. Informing learners of objectives3. Stimulating recall prerequisites4. Presenting the training stimulus material5. Providing learning guidance6. Eliciting performance – asking for a problem solution7. Providing feedback8. Assessing performance9. Enhancing retention and transfer

Instructor preparation.

1. Publicise the programme

2. Inform everyone about the time, place and arrangements

3. Arrange the facilities

4. Check the physical requirements – seats, food, supplies

5. Secure necessary equipment and ensure it is in working condition

6. Establish training objectives

7. Study the lesson plan, anticipate responses, prepare experiences, examples and stories

8. Develop personal enthusiasm for the topic.

ACCELERATED LEARNING.

This is a new approach to training environment that emphasizes such principles as: -

Being positive and accepting

Providing a natural and comfortable setting

Exalting the trainee

Reducing trainee anxiety and stresses

Being supportive of trainees and trainers

Using multiple learning approaches

Allowing for different learning styles, speeds and needs rather than focusing everyone in the same way.

Making learning fun

Emphasizing group based learning

Presenting material using pictures and words.

THE LEARNING ORGANIZATION.

A learning organization is one, which lives and breathes knowledge acquisition and skill development - the ultimate extension of 'learning on the job'. it describes the bringing together of people to achieve some objective in conditions where they are all searching, all the time, for ways of doing whatever needs to be done in a better way. Learning organisations are continuously looking at the details of their action to see if they have worked out.

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Characteristics of a learning organization

1. Learning approaches to strategy. Organisational policy and strategy and their implementation, evaluation and improvement, are consciously structured as a learning process.

2. Participative policymaking. Participation and identification are encouraged in debating policy and strategy. Differences are accepted, disagreements aired, conflicts tolerated and worked with in order to reach decisions.

3. Informating. Information systems 'informate' as well as automate. Systems allow staff to question operating assumptions and seek information in order to learn about the organization’s goals, norms and processes.

4. Formative accounting and control. Management systems for accounting, budgeting and reporting are organised in such a way that they assist learning from the consequences of decisions.

5. Internal exchange. All departments and internal units view themselves as customers and suppliers, constantly in dialogue with each other.

6. Reward flexibility. Assumptions which underlie reward systems should be made public and alternatives investigated.

7. Enabling structures. The organisation needs to give space and headroom to meet present needs and respond to future changes.

8. Boundary workers as environmental scanners. Employees with external contacts - for example, sales representatives and delivery agents - function as environmental scanners, collecting negative and positive to pass on to other staff.

9. Inter-company working. Information is deliberately shared so as to learn jointly with significant others outside the organisation, such as key customers and suppliers.

10. Learning climate. Organisational culture and management style encourages experimentation, in order to learn from successes and failures.

11. Self-development for all. Resources and facilities are accessible to everyone in order to encourage self-development

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? It is very important to capture the learner’s interest throughout the training session. Assume you are handling a group of 25 senior executives of your organisation and are taking them through a 4-day management development session. In what ways will you be able to capture and retain their attention during these 4 days of training?

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THE TRAINING CYCLE

3.6 Stage 3: Training Programme Delivery.

Who provides the training?On the job training can be provided by managers, team leaders, colleagues or mentors (fellow employees who are given a particular responsibility to guide, advice and generally look after trainees).

Off the job training may be provided by members of the training department, external education providers and training establishments or training providers.

Conducting Training Programmes.Training courses should continually be monitored to ensure they are proceeding according to plan and agreed budget. All training should be evaluated after the event to check on the extent to which it is delivering the required results.

Responsibility for Training.Responsibility for training rests on managers and individuals who must ensure it takes place. A company’s training function is in some occasions the responsibility of the company trainer, who acts as an internal consultant. The following are some activities found in the training functions of some organisations.

Developing training strategies that support the achievement of business strategies.

Analysing and identifying corporate and occupational training needs.

Developing proposals on how these needs should be satisfied.

Preparing plans and budgets for training activities

Identifying external training resources, selecting external training providers, specifying what is required from them and ensuring that their delivery of training meets the specification.

Advising on external training courses for individuals or groups.

Organizing internal courses and training programmes

Training managers, supervisors and mentors in their training responsibilities.

Providing help and guidance to individuals in the preparation and implementation of personal development plans.

Monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of training in the organisation.

3.7 Stage 4: Evaluating Training.

Training programmes must be evaluated to assess their effectiveness in producing the learning outcomes specified in the objectives and to indicate where improvements or changes are required to make the training even more effective.

Evaluation is one item discussed and decided upon during the planning and design stage in of a training programme.

Evaluation is defined as ‘any attempt to obtain information (feedback) on the effects of a training programme and to assess the value of the training in the light of this information’ evaluation is the

comparison of objectives with outcomes to see how far training has achieved its purpose.

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Evaluate What and Why?

Evaluation looks at the following aspects: -

A particular training course – its effectiveness The trainees

The trainers

A certain set of training materials

Training in general

What about efficiency - how much time does the training consume? Can it be shortened?

What does it cost? Whatever it costs, is it worth it?

Figure 1  - The Structure of the Training Evaluation Problem

 Using the diagram in Figure 1 as a framework, we can identify five basic points at which we might take measurements, conduct assessments, or reach judgments about training. These five points are indicated in the diagram by the numerals 1 through 5:

1. Before Training 2. During Training 3. After Training or Before Entry (Re-entry) 4. In The Workplace 5. Upon Exiting The Workplace

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The four elements of Kirkpatrick's framework, also shown in Figure 1, are defined below using Kirkpatrick's original definitions.

1. Reactions. "Reaction may best be defined as how well the trainees liked a particular training program." Reactions are typically measured at the end of training -- at Point 3 in Figure 1.   However, that is a summative or end-of-course assessment and reactions are also measured during the training, even if only informally in terms of the instructor's perceptions.

2. Learning. "What principles, facts, and techniques were understood and absorbed by the conferees?" What the trainees know or can do can be measured during and at the end of training but, in order to say that this knowledge or skill resulted from the training, the trainees' entering knowledge or skills levels must also be known or measured. Evaluating learning, then, requires measurements at Points 1, 2 and 3 -- before, during and after training

3. Behaviour. Changes in on-the-job behaviour. Clearly, any evaluation of changes in on-the-job behaviour must occur in the workplace itself -- at Point 4 in Figure 1. It should be kept in mind, however, that behaviour changes are acquired in training and they then transfer (or don't transfer) to the work place. It is deemed useful, therefore, to assess behaviour changes at the end of training and in the workplace.  Indeed, the origins of human performance technology can be traced to early investigations of disparities between behaviour changes realized in training and those realized on the job. 

4. Results. Kirkpatrick did not offer a formal definition for this element of his framework either. Instead, he relied on a range of examples to make clear his meaning. Those examples are herewith repeated. "Reduction of costs; reduction of turnover and absenteeism; reduction of grievances; increase in quality and quantity or production; or improved morale which, it is hoped, will lead to some of the previously stated results." These factors are also measurable in the workplace -- at Point 4 in Figure 1.

The first three stages center on the trainees; their reactions, their learning, and changes in their behavior. The fourth element shifts to a concern with organizational payoffs or business results.

Measures of reaction and learning are concerned with the outcomes of the training programme and are termed Internal Criteria. Measures of behaviour and results indicate the impact of training on the job environment are referred to as External Criteria.

Basic Suggestions for Evaluating TrainingTypically, evaluators look for validity, accuracy and reliability in their evaluations. Training and development activities can be evaluated; before, during and after the activities. Consider the following very basic suggestions:

a) Before Implementation Phase (Formative Evaluation)

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Perspective On Evaluating Training

Evaluation is often looked at from four different levels listed below

1. Reaction - What does the learner feel about the training?

2. Learning - What facts, knowledge, etc., did the learner gain?

3. Behaviours - What skills did the learner develop, that is, what new information is the learner using on the job?

4. Results or effectiveness - What results occurred, that is, did the learner apply the new skills to the necessary tasks in the organization and, if so, what results were achieved?

1. Will the selected training and development methods really result in the employee's learning the knowledge and skills needed to perform the task or carry out the role? Have other employee's used the methods and been successful?

2. Consider applying the methods to a highly skilled employee. Ask the employee of their impressions of the methods.

3. Do the methods conform to the employee's preferences and learning styles? Have the employee briefly review the methods, e.g., documentation, overheads, etc. Does the employee experience any difficulties understanding the methods?

b) During Implementation of Training

1. Ask the employee how they're doing. Do they understand what's being said?

2. Periodically conduct a short test, e.g., have the employee explain the main points of what was just described to him, e.g., in the lecture.

3. Is the employee enthusiastically taking part in the activities? Is he or she coming late and leaving early? It's surprising how often learners will leave a course or workshop and immediately complain that it was a complete waste of their time. Ask the employee to rate the activities from 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest rating. If the employee gives a rating of anything less than 5, have the employee describe what could be done to get a 5.

c) After Completion of the Training (summative evaluation)

1. Give him or her a test before and after the training and development, and compare the results?

2. Interview him or her before and after, and compare results?

3. Watch him ore her perform the task or conduct the role?

4. Assign an expert evaluator from inside or outside the organization to evaluate the learner's knowledge and skills?

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a. What is summative and formative evaluation?b. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of

Summative evaluation Formative evaluation.

c. What are some of the aspects looked at during evaluation?

4.0 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADULT LEARNING.

Specific Objectives of the Topic.

At the end of the topic the trainee will be able to: -

a) Discuss theories of adult learningb) Apply appropriate conditions for effective adult learningc) Explain the importance of group dynamics in adult learning.

Definition of Terms.

Learning: is concerned within increase in knowledge or a higher degree of an existing skill. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. Learning can be defined as the act, process, or experience of gaining knowledge or skills.

Development: It involves those activities that prepare an employee for future responsibilities.

Self-directed learning focuses on the process by which adults take control of their own learning, in particular how they set their own learning goals, locate appropriate resources, decide on which learning methods to use and evaluate their progress.

4.1 THEORIES OF ADULT LEARNING.

There are many different theories of how people learn. What follows is a variety of them, and it is useful to consider their application to how your trainees learn and also how you teach in educational programs. It is interesting to think about your own particular way of learning and to recognise that everyone does not learn the way you do.

1. Andragogy 2. Reinforcement theory

3. Experiential Learning

4. Information Processing Theory

5. Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) model

6. Cognitive theory

7. Cybernetics and information

1. ANDRAGOGY

Knowles' theory of Andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning. He emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Adult learning programs must accommodate this fundamental aspect.

Then they should be treated as adults. He taught that adult learning was special in a number of ways. For example:

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Adult learners bring a great deal of experience to the learning environment. Educators can use this as a resource.

Adults expect to have a high degree of influence on what they are to be educated for, and how they are to be educated.

The active participation of learners should be encouraged in designing and implementing educational programs.

Adults need to be able to see applications for new learning. Adult learners expect to have a high degree of influence on how learning will be evaluated.

Adults expect their responses to be acted upon when asked for feedback on the progress of the program.

Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning:

(1) Adults need to know why they need to learn something

(2) Adults need to learn experientially,

(3) Adults approach learning as problem-solving, and Adults are relevancy oriented (problem centered Adults are practical and problem-solvers

(4) Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.

(5) Adults are autonomous and self-directed

(6) Adults are goal oriented

(7) Adults have accumulated life experiences

Andragogy means that instruction for adults needs to focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Strategies such as case studies, role-playing, simulations, and self-evaluations are most useful. Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or resource rather than lecturer or grader.

Andragogy applies to any form of adult learning and has been used extensively in the design of organizational training programs (especially for "soft skill" domains such as management development).

There is a need to explain why specific things are being taught (e.g., certain commands, functions, operations, etc.)

Instruction should be task-oriented instead of memorization -- learning activities should be in the context of common tasks to be performed.

Instruction should take into account the wide range of different backgrounds of learners; learning materials and activities should allow for different levels/types of previous experience with computers.

Since adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to discover things for themselves, providing guidance and help when mistakes are made.

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2. REINFORCEMENT THEORY

The behaviourist school of psychology, notably by B.F. Skinner earlier this century, developed this theory. Skinner believed that behaviour is a function of its consequences. The learner will repeat the desired behaviour if positive reinforcement (a pleasant consequence) follows the behaviour.

Positive reinforcement, or 'rewards' can include verbal reinforcement such as 'Thats great' or 'You're certainly on the right track' through to more tangible rewards such as a certificate at the end of the course or promotion to a higher level in an organisation.

Negative reinforcement also strengthens behaviour and refers to a situation when a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a consequence of the bahaviour. Punishment, on the other hand, weakens behaviour because a negative condition is introduced or experienced as a consequence of the behaviour and teaches the individual not to repeat the behaviour, which was negatively reinforced. A set of conditions is created which are designed to eliminate behaviour. Punishment is widely used in everyday life although it only works for a short time and often only when the punishing agency is present.

3. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

This involves a four-stage learning process with a model that is often referred to in describing experiential learning. The process can begin at any of the stages and is continuous, i.e. there is no limit to the number of cycles you can make in a learning situation. This theory asserts that without reflection we would simply continue to repeat our mistakes. The experiential learning cycle:

People learn in four ways with the likelihood of developing one mode of learning more than another. As shown above, learning is:

Through concrete experience Through observation and reflection Through abstract conceptualisation Through active experimentation

Adult education is seen as "a continuing process of evaluating experiences". The belief that adult teaching should be grounded in adults' experiences, and that these experiences represent a valuable resource, is currently cited as crucial. Almost every textbook on adult education practice affirms the importance of experiential methods such as games, simulations, case studies, psychodrama and role-play.

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Qualities of experiential learning: Personal involvement; Learner-initiated; Evaluated by learner; and, Pervasive effects on learner.

Experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. All human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning. This includes:

1. Setting a positive climate for learning; 2. Clarifying the purposes of the learner(s); 3. Organizing and making available learning resources; 4. Balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning; 5. Sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.

Learning is facilitated when:

The student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction;

It is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems; and,

Self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing progress or success.

Also to be emphasized is the importance of learning to learn and an openness to change.

Example

A person interested in becoming rich might seek out books or classes on economics, investment, great financiers, banking, etc. Such an individual would perceive (and learn) any information provided on this subject in a much different fashion than a person who is assigned a reading or class.

Principles

1. Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to the personal interests of the student;

2. Learning which is threatening to the self (e.g., new attitudes or perspectives) are more easily assimilated when external threats are at a minimum;

4. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

George A. Miller has provided two theoretical ideas that are fundamental to cognitive psychology and the information-processing framework.

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The first concept is "chunking" and the capacity of short-term memory. This is the idea that short-term memory can only hold 5-9 chunks of information, where a chunk is any meaningful unit. A chunk could refer to digits, words, chess positions, or people's faces. The concept of chunking and the limited capacity of short-term memory became a basic element of all subsequent theories of memory.

The second concept is TOTE (Test-Operate-Test-Exit). It is suggested that TOTE should replace the stimulus-response as the basic unit of behavior. In a TOTE unit, a goal is tested to see if it has been achieved and if not an operation is performed to achieve the goal; this cycle of test-operate is repeated until the goal is eventually achieved or abandoned.

Scope/Application:

Information processing theory has become a general theory of human cognition; the phenomenon of chunking has been verified at all levels of cognitive processing.

The classic example of a TOTE is a plan for hammering a nail. The Exit Test is whether the nail is flush with the surface. If the nail sticks up, then the hammer is tested to see if it is up (otherwise it is raised) and the hammer is allowed to hit the nail.

Principles:

A. Short-term memory (or attention span) is limited to seven chunks of information. B. Planning (in the form of TOTE units) is a fundamental cognitive process.

C. Behavior is hierarchically organized (e.g., chunks, TOTE units).

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULTS AS LEARNERS (CAL) MODEL

The CAL model consists of two classes of variables:

Personal characteristics Situational characteristics.

Personal characteristics include: aging, life phases, and developmental stages. These three dimensions have different characteristics as far as lifelong learning is concerned. Aging results in the deterioration of certain sensory-motor abilities (e.g., eyesight, hearing, reaction time) while intelligence abilities (e.g., decision-making skills, reasoning, vocabulary) tend to improve. Life phases

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and developmental stages (e.g., marriage, job changes, retirement) involve a series of plateaus and transitions, which may or may not be directly related to age.

Situational characteristics consist of part-time versus full-time learning, and voluntary versus compulsory learning. The administration of learning (i.e., schedules, locations, procedures) is strongly affected by the first variable; the second pertains to the self-directed, problem-centered nature of most adult learning.

Scope/Application:

The CAL model is intended to provide guidelines for adult education programs. There is no known research to support the model.

6. COGNITIVE THEORY.This describes the way in which people learn to recognise and define problems and experiment to find solutions.

If, according, to this theory, people can discover things for themselves, they are likely to retain the skill and knowledge and use it when required. The cognitive theory is the basis for discovery; self managed learning or “do-it-yourself’ process. It provides the rationale for workshop, participative and case study training and these help people to won solutions, rather than something they have been forced to accept by the trainer.

7. CYBERNETICS AND INFORMATION THEORIES.These suggest feedback can control people’s performance in the same way that a thermostat controls a heating system. A learner reacts to cues of stimuli, which, if they are established by means of skills, can be used as the basis for training programmes. If a task can be divided into a number of small parts, each with its own cue or stimuli, the learning of each part can be accelerated by ensuring that trainees concentrate on one easily assimilated piece at a time.

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4.2 ADULT LEARNING PRINCIPLES

Adult learning theories assert the following principles on learning. To them learning adults learn well when the following happen:

i) Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

ii) Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities.

iii) Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life.

iv) Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented.

v) Adult learning programs should capitalize on the experience of participants.

vi) Adult learning programs should adapt to the aging limitations of the participants.

vii) Adults should be challenged to move to increasingly advanced stages of personal development.

viii) Adults should have as much choice as possible in the availability and organization of learning programs.

ix) Working to address a current, real-world problem

x) They are highly vest in solving the current problem

xi) They actually apply new materials and information and

xii) Exchange ongoing feedback around their experiences

In addition, adults often learn best from experience, rather than from extensive note taking and memorization.

What Motivates Adult Learners?

Adults typically, have different motivations for learning than children.

To make or maintain social relationships To meet external expectations--the boss says you have to upgrade skill X to keep your job Learn to better serve others -- managers often learn basic First Aid to protect their employees Professional advancement Escape or stimulation Pure interest

Instructors should be aware of the possible motivations behind their students' enrollment. Then they can better shape the instructional materials.

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What Are the Barriers to Adult Learning?

Adults have different barriers than children on their way to learning. Some of these potential barriers might include:

Many other responsibilities (families, careers, social commitments) Lack of time Lack of money Lack of child care Scheduling problems Transportation problems Insufficient confidence Having to learn, if told by boss, but not interested or ready

THE LEARNING CURVE AND PLATEAU.Graphs showing the relationship between performance and training are called learning curves. There are two types of curves: for easy tasks and for difficult tasks. They are interpreted in the learner’s ability or motivation.

Productivity

Training time (weeks)

Productivity

Training time (weeks)

Productivity

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Learning curve – easy task

Learning curve – difficult task

Learning curve showing plateau

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Training time (weeks)

The horizontal part of the curve is called the learning plateau. It is found where the learners appear to mark time, due to tiredness, boredom or a difficult area of learning.

The learning plateau has been explained as follows: -

1. The trainee is temporarily discouraged by the increasing difficulty of the task; he/she has lost motivation

2. The trainee has acquired some incorrect responses during the first part of the learning programme, which he/she must lose if further progress is to be made.

3. The trainee wishes to look back at the material learned so far and discover its significance.

4. In the case of manual training, the task may include some difficult perceptions or stimulus-response associations.

When a plateau occurs, ensure you reinforce the learning. You may remove the plateau by carefully analysing the learning material and a method devised which anticipates the learner’s difficulties instead of leaving the individual to solve them. Skills analysis before training is undertaken helps eliminate this problem.

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4.3 Group Dynamics in Adult Learning.

Motivation and Learning Styles

Adults engage in continual education for various reasons. Our unique motivations help us stay focused and stick with a topic until we solve the current problem and gather enough information to complete our current task.

There are three subgroups to categorize motivational styles.

1. Goal-oriented learners use education to accomplish clear-cut objectives.

2. Activity-oriented (social) learners take part mainly because of the social contact.

3. Learning-oriented learners seek knowledge for its own sake. Such learners are avid readers and have been since childhood.... and they choose jobs and make other decisions in life in terms of the potential for growth, which they offer.

Adults learn because of a) An increase in self-esteem, b) A sense of pleasing and impressing others, and c) Certain pleasures or satisfactions.

Recognizing the learner’s unique motivational styles can also help us identify the types of educational products and problems that will satisfy our needs. For instance, self-study programs are not going to motivate `activity-oriented' learners unless the program contains some element of interaction. The more social the situation the better.

As certain things motivate, others discourage. Few things are more de-motivating than fear. Learning is, after all, a very emotional process. We must see, feel, and do. Fear, anxiety, and anger are emotional factors that negatively affect learning.

Also, who likes learning something boring? If we don't care about a topic, we're less likely to stick with it and continue to learn. Even when we're interested in learning a topic, we're sometimes more motivated to play with the equipment or to daydream. We can get easily distracted from the task at hand and become more motivated to do something else perhaps not on task.

The big issues are relevancy and immediacy. Information has to be relevant to our current wants and needs, and it must feel useful to us.

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4.4 Learning Styles

DefinitionThis approach to learning emphasizes the fact that individuals perceive and process information in very different ways. This implies that how much individuals learn has more to do with whether the educational experience is geared toward their particular style of learning than whether or not they are "smart." In fact, educators should not ask, "Is this student smart?" but rather "How is this student smart?"

DiscussionThe concept of learning styles is rooted in the classification of psychological types. The learning styles theory is based on research demonstrating that, as the result of heredity, upbringing, and current environmental demands, different individuals have a tendency to both perceive and process information differently.

The different ways of doing so are generally classified as:

1. Concrete and abstract perceivers--Concrete perceivers absorb information through direct experience, by doing, acting, sensing, and feeling. Abstract perceivers, however, take in information through analysis, observation, and thinking.

2. Active and reflective processors--Active processors make sense of an experience by immediately using the new information. Reflective processors make sense of an experience by reflecting on and thinking about it.

Instructors and trainers must place emphasis on intuition, feeling, sensing, and imagination, in addition to the traditional skills of analysis, reason, and sequential problem solving.

Instruction: Teachers should design their instruction methods to connect with all four learning styles, using various combinations of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation. Instructors can introduce a wide variety of experiential elements into the classroom, such as sound, music, visuals, movement, experience, and even talking.

Assessment: Teachers should employ a variety of assessment techniques, focusing on the development of "whole brain" capacity and each of the different learning styles.

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4.5 Learning and Organisations

The term “Learning Organization” is applied to companies operating in turbulent environments that require transformation in working methods and which in order to facilitate the introduction of new systems train and develop their employees on a continuous basis. A “learning organization” is one that continually improves by rapidly creating and refining the capabilities required for future success. A learning organization is one that is continually expanding to create its future. It is an organization, which facilitates the learning of all its members and continually transforms itself. Such an organization is skilled at creating, acquiring and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behaviour to reflect new knowledge and insights.

Learning organizations are good at doing the following:-

1. Systematic problem solving which rests on the philosophy and methods of the quality movement. Such relies on the scientific method rather than guesswork, insists on data rather than assumptions and uses simple statistical tools e.g. histograms, cause and effect diagrams etc

2. Experimentation – systematic search for and testing of new knowledge. Continuous improvement programmes Kaizen are an important feature in a learning organization. Kaizen system is a form of quality circle based on a cycle of “planning, doing, checking & action.

3. Learning from past experience – learning organization review their success and failures, assess them systematically and record the lessons learned in a way that employees find open and accessible. This is termed the Santayana principle.

4. Learning from others – this involves looking outside one’s immediate environment to gain a new perspective. This process has been called sis “steal ideas shamelessly” Another acceptable word is benchmarking – a disciplined process of identifying best practice organisation and analysing the extent to which what they are doing can be transferred, with suitable modifications, to one’s own environment.

5. Transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently throughout the organization by sending people with new expertise, or by education & training programmes.

A learning organization is characterized by the following:

a) Shared Vision – enabling the organization to identify, respond to and benefit from future opportunities

b) Enabling structure – facilitates learning

c) Supportive Culture – encourages challenges to the status quo and questioning of assumptions and established ways of doing things.

d) Empowering management – managers genuinely believe that devolved decision-making and better team working result in improved performance.

e) Motivated workforce – wants to learn continuously.

f) Enhanced learning – processes & policies exist to encourage learning.

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SINGLE –LOOP & DOUBLE- LOOP LEARNINGSingle-Loop learning (SLL) is the learning necessary for an employee to be able to apply existing methods to the completion of a job. SLL involves the setting of standards and the investigation of deviations from targets. Double-loop learning challenges and redefines the basic requirement of the job and how it should be undertaken. DLL means questioning whether the standards and objectives are appropriate in the first instance.

SLL organizations define the “governing variables i.e. what they expect to achieve in terms of targets and standards; they then monitor and review achievements, and take corrective action as necessary, thus completing the loop-DLL occurs when the monitoring process initiates action to redefine the governing variables to meet the new situation, which may be imposed by the external environment.

SLL is appropriate for routine, repetitive issues. DLL is more relevant for complex, non-programmable issues. DLL questions why the problem occurred in the first place, and tackles its root cause rather than simply addressing its surface symptoms, as happens as SLL.

Creating a learning organization is difficult, for a number of reasons:

a) Employees at all levels within the organization must want to learn. Establishment of a learning organization is a bottom-up process that may not fit in with the culture of a pre-existing bureaucratic and hierarchical system.

b) Inadequate information gathering and internal communication systems.c) Organisational politics that might impede widespread acceptance of the idea.d) Top management might not be genuinely committed to the idea.e) Certain employees may be unable to learn.f) Implementation requires careful planning.

SELF MANAGED LEARNINGSelf-managed or self-directed learning means that individuals take responsibility for satisfying their own learning needs to improve performance, to support the achievement of career aspirations, or to enhance their employability, within and beyond their present organization. Encouraged self-managed learning is that people learn and retain more if they find things out for themselves. But they may still need to be helped to identify what they should look for.

Four-stage Approach to Self-Managed Learning1. Self-assessment

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Define Expectations

Take Action

Monitor & ReviewDecide on Corrective

Action as necessary

Redefine expectations as necessary (DLL)

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2. Diagnosis3. Action Planning4. Monitoring & Review

1. Self-Assessment – based on analysis by individuals of their work and life situation.

2. Diagnosis – derived from the analysis of learning needs and priorities.

3. Action planning to identify objectives, help and hindrances, resources required (including people) and time scales.

4. Monitoring and Review to assess progress in achieving action plans.

Self-Managed learning can be carried out as follows:-- Identify the individuals learning styles- Review how far their learning is encouraged or restricted by their learning style.- Review their core learning skills and consider how to use them effectively.- Review the work and other experiences- Look for potential helpers in the self-development process:- Managers, colleagues, trainers or mentors.- Draw up learning objectives and a plan of action – a personal development plan

or learning contract.- Set aside some time each day to answer the question “What did you learn today?”

The organization can encourage self-managed learning by ensuring that learners:

1. Define for themselves, with whatever guidance they may require, what they need to know to perform their job effectively;

2. Are given guidance on where they can get the material or information that will help them to learn;

3. Prepare a learning plan & programme as part of a learning contract.

4. Prepare a personal development plan.

PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING (PDP).This is carried out by individuals with guidance, encouragement & help from their managers as required. A personal development plan sets out the action people propose to take to learn and to develop them. They take responsibility for formulating and implementing the plan but they may receive support from the organization and their managers in doing so.

Personal development planning aims to promote learning and to provide people with the knowledge and portfolio of transferable skills that will help to progress their careers.

The Overall ProcessPersonal development plans can be created as an outcome of a development or assessment centre. The most common approach is to include personal development planning as a key part of performance and development management processes. The 4 stages in preparing a personal development plan are: -

1. Assess current situation2. Set goals

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3. Plan action4. Implement

Identifying Development Needs and WantsDevelopment needs and wants are identified in performance management processes by individuals, on their own or working in conjunction with their managers. This will include reviewing performance against agreed plans and assessing competence requirements and the capacity of people to achieve them.

Individuals can make their own assessment of their personal development needs to get more satisfaction from their work, to advance their careers and to increase their employability.

Set GoalsSet goals under such headings as; improving performance in the current job, improving or acquiring skills, extending relevant knowledge, developing specified areas of competence, moving across or upwards in the organization, preparing for changes in the current role.

Development needs can be met using a wide variety of activities. Such activities include:-

- Seeing what others do (Best practice)- Project work- Adopting a role model (Mentor)- Involvement in other work areas- Planned use of internal training media (interactive video programmes/ learning

library)- Input to policy formulation- Increased professionalism on the job- Involvement in the community- Coaching Others- Training Courses- Guided reading- Special assignments- Action learning- Distance learning

The action plan sets out what needs to be done and how it will be done under headings Development needs Outcomes expected (learning objectives) Development activities to meet the needs

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Assess Current Position

Set GoalsImplement

Plan Action

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Responsibility for development – what individuals will do and what support they will require from their manager, the HR department or other people.

Timing – when the learning activity is expected to start & be completed. Outcome what development activities have taken place and how effective were.

Responsibility for Personal Development PlanningIndividuals are primarily responsible for progressing the plan and for ensuring that they play their part in implementing it. However, people will need encouragement, guidance and support.

Managers, team leaders and individuals all need to learn about personal development planning. They should be involved in deciding how the planning process will work and what their roles will be. The benefits to them should be understood and accepted.

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? You have been appointed the HR manager of an

organisation that deals with the manufacture of television parts for a major TV set manufacturer. Your employees must consistently receive training to enable them keep up with the cutting edge of technology. Explain the kind of organisational support structures you will have to put into place to facilitate fulfilment of organisational and individual learning

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5.0 MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.At the end of the lesson, the trainee should be able to: -

a) Explain the meaning and importance of management development.b) Discuss the basis of management development.c) Develop the organisation’s programmes for management development.d) Coordinate implementation of management development programmese) Evaluate approaches to management development.

DEFINITION.

Management development is…

i) Any attempt to improve current or future management performance by imparting knowledge, changing attitudes or increasing skills.

ii) A systematic process of development of effective managers at all levels to meet the requirements of an organisation, involving an analysis of present and future management requirements, assessing the existing and potential skills of managers and devising the best means for their development to meet these requirements.

iii) Management development is concerned with developing the experience, attitudes and skills necessary to become or remain an effective manager.

iv) Management development is providing learning and development opportunities, which will increase the capacity of managers to make a significant contribution to achievement organisational goals.

Management development contributes to business success by helping the organisation to grow the managers it needs for present and future requirements, it improves the manager’s performance, gives them development opportunities and provides for management succession. In particular it aims to: -

a) Ensure that managers understand what is expected of them.b) Identify managers with potential and encouraging them to prepare and implement

personal development plans.c) Provide for management succession, creating a system to keep this under review.

Management development includes: -i) Human resource planning to assess the demand for managersii) Appraisal of manager’s present abilities.iii) Appropriate development needs.

5.1 DEVELOPMENT NEEDS.

These can be divided into 3 categories;

1. Knowledge required to perform a managers job in the company concerning:i) Background of company, its organisation and practices.

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ii) Company resources availableiii) Company technologyiv) Specialist management techniques e.g. operational research.v) Relevant lawvi) General, social and economic environment

2. Planning, analytical and creative skills which include:i) Recognizing objectives and putting them in order of importance.ii) Assessing the value of available resources e.g. human, material, technological and financial.iii) Formulating and administering plans, delegating as necessary.iv) Discerning and solving day-to-day management problems.

3. Social skills (interpersonal or interactive skills) important because managers may easily spend so much of their time working with and trying to influence others. They include:i) Communication upwards, downwards and laterally.ii) Co-ordination within a department or between departments.iii) Motivation of subordinates.iv) Awareness of others needs, attitudes and perceptions.

5.2 RESPONSIBILITY FOR MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT.

Management development is not a separate activity to be handed over to a specialist and forgotten or ignored. The success of management development depends upon the degree to which all levels of management are committed to it. It is a prerogative of both the organisation and the individual to facilitate management development. But the primary responsibility rests with the individual, his abilities, and his efforts. But the individuals need encouragement, guidance and opportunities provided by their managers and the organisation. The company must provide conditions favourable for faster growth. These conditions are very mush part of the environment and organisational climate of the company and the management style of the chief executive.

Managers must also take the main responsibility for their own development through personal development plans.

5.3 THE ROLE OF THE HR SPECIALIST IN MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT.

Management development should be seen as part of business strategy. All levels of management must therefore be committed to it. Development of their staff must be recognised as a natural and essential part of the manager’s job, and a key criteria under which their performance will be judged. However, HR specialists still must play the following roles:

1) Interpret the needs of the business and advice on how the management development strategies can play their part in meeting these needs.

2) Make proposals on formal and informal approaches to management development.

3) Develop in conjunction with line management a competency framework, which can be used as the basis for management development.

4) Provide guidance to managers on how to carry out their developmental activities.

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5) Provide help and encouragement to managers in preparing and pursuing their personal development plans.

6) Provide the learning materials managers need to achieve their learning objectives.

7) Act as mentors or tutors to individual managers or groups of managers as required.

8) Advice on the use and choice of external management education programmes.

9) Facilitate action-learning projects.

10) Plan and conduct development centres.

11) Plan and conduct formal learning events with the help of external providers as required.

5.4 APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT.

There are two approaches to management development; formal approaches and the informal approaches.

a) Formal approaches to management development.

The formal approaches to management development include;

i) Development on the job through coaching, counselling, monitoring and feedback by managers on a continuous basis.

ii) Development through work experience – job rotation, job enlargement, taking part in project teams or task groups, action learning and secondment outside the organisation.

iii) Formal training by means of internal or external courses.

iv) Structured self-development by following self managed learning programmes agreed as a personal development plan.

b) Informal approaches to management development

These make use of the learning experiences that managers meet during the course of their every day work. Managers learn every time they are confronted with an unusual problem, an unfamiliar task or a move to a different job. This is the most powerful form of learning. This is experiential learning and is an effective tool for managers. They absorb unconsciously and by some process of osmosis the lessons from their experience.

Ordinary people find it difficult, however, to do this sort of learning. This is where semi-informal approaches can be used, to encourage and help managers to learn more effectively. These approaches include;

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a) Emphasizing self-assessment and the identification of development needs by getting managers to assess their own performance against agreed objectives.

b) Getting managers to produce their own personal development plans or self –managed learning programmes.

c) Encouraging managers to discuss their own problems and opportunities with their bosses, colleagues and mentors.

5.5 THE MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS.

For management development to be successful, it must have the full support of the organisation’s top executives. Management development should be designed, conducted and evaluated on the basis of the objectives of the organisation, the needs of the individual managers to be developed and the anticipated changes in the organisation’s management team. The process of management development is as seen below.

Determining the Net Requirements.Organisational objectives are important in determining the organisations requirements for managers. For instance, a rapid expansion programme would call for new managers at all levels.

Management Inventory and Succession Plan.A management inventory (a skills inventory) provides certain types of information about an organisation’s current management team. Information contained includes; present position, length of service, retirement date, education and past performance evaluations.

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ORGANISATION

AL OBJECTIVES

MANAGEMENT

INVENTORY AND

CHANGES IN THE

MANAGEMENT NET MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS

Quality & quantity of managers needed

NEEDS ASSESSMENT

MANAGEMENT

DEVELOPMENT

MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

EVALUATION OF PROGRAMMES

A management inventory can be used to develop a management succession plan, also called a replacement chart or schedule. Such a schedule records potential successors for each manager within the organisation. Such a plan lists the positions and potential replacements, length of service, retirement data, past performance evaluations and salary.

Changes in Management.Certain changes in the management team can be estimated fairly accurate and easily while other changes are not so easily determined. Retirement, transfers and promotion can be predicted as compared to deaths, resignations and discharges.

Needs AssessmentFour methods exist to determine management development needs; a training needs survey, competence studies, task analysis and performance analysis.

5.6 METHODS USED IN MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT.

Some of the more frequently used methods of management development include;

1) Understudy assignments.2) Coaching.3) Experience4) Job rotation5) Special projects and committee assignments6) Classroom training

- Lectures- Case studies- Role play- In-basket technique- Programmed and computer assisted instruction.- Business games.

7) University and professional association seminars8) Junior boards9) Action learning10) Training companies11) Outdoor management training.

5.7 REAL-LIFE MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT METHODS.

These include the following;

1) PROJECTS- These are special assignments given to managers who must enquire into a company problem, make recommendations and sometimes put them into practice.

2) JUNIOR BOARDS- in which a group of young managers is given decisions of fairly low importance to make which have been delegated to the group by the main board.

3) ACTION LEARNING- in which a manager takes over a different job and through doing it learns a new set of management skills. The manager must analyse the problems associated with a job, formulate a solution, implement the solution (under the guidance of an experienced superior) and monitor its consequences.

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4) TRAINING COMPANIES- usually small subsidiaries of a large group, which are intended to trade profitably, yet give opportunities for younger managers to develop their skills in a somewhat protected environment.

5) COACHING- is often used and is frequently successful, but sometimes the experienced manager who is coaching may make decisions so automatically that either he/she does not realize they have been made or cannot explain the reasons for them. In coaching experienced managers advise and guide trainees in solving managerial problems. Coaching should allow the trainees to develop their own approaches to management with the counsel of a more experienced manager.

One advantage of coaching is that trainees get practical experience and see the results of their decisions. However, a danger is posed in that the coach may neglect training responsibilities or pass on inappropriate management practices. The coach’s expertise and experience are critical for coaching.

6) OUTDOOR MANAGEMENT TRAINING- this assumes that the qualities needed for successful management may be cultivated through short management development courses e.g. Rock climbing, canoeing, orienteering, outward bound training. Such activities are said to enhance participant’s abilities to plan, organise, create and manage teams, control others and control certainty.

7) UNDERSTUDY ASSIGNMENTS- these are used to develop an individual’s capabilities to

fill a specific job. An individual who will eventually be given a particular job works for the incumbent. The advantage of such a system is that the heir realizes the purpose of the training and can learn in a practical and realistic situation without being directly responsible for operating results. On the disadvantage, the understudy learns bad as well as the good practices of the incumbent. Understudy assignments maintained over a long period do become expensive.

5.8 OTHER MANAGEMENT TRAINING METHODS

8) IN-TRAY/IN-BASKET TECHNIQUE – the trainee is asked to deal with a batch of miscellaneous documents, which he/she is supposed to find in each day’s in-tray. Decisions of various kinds have to be made though not of course actually put into effect. After this, a review takes place where the trainer discusses with the trainee the decisions taken. It is used in management training and as means of selecting managers, though the exercise is difficult to score objectively.

9) BUSINESS GAMES – in which tow or more teams attempt, for example, to market an imaginary product using the information supplied to them. Effects of their decisions are evaluated and feedback given to the teams.

10) EXPERIENCE – many organisations use development through experience. Here individuals are promoted into management jobs and allowed to learn on their own from their daily experiences. The individual, in an attempt to perform a specific job, may recognise the need for management development and look for a means of satisfying it. However, such employees may commit serious mistakes.

11) SPECIAL PROJECTS AND COMMITTEE ASSIGNMENTS – special projects require the trainee to learn about a particular subject. Committee assignments can be used if the organisation has regularly constituted or ad hoc committees. Here the individual works with the committee on its regularly assigned duties and responsibilities.

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12) PROGRAMMED AND COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION – requires the trainee to read material on a particular subject and answer questions about the material. Correct answers allow the trainee to move on to more advanced or new material. If the answers are incorrect, the trainee is required to reread the material and answer additional questions. The material in programmed instruction is presented either in text form or on computer video displays.

13) ASSESSMENT CENTRE – is a method in which various personality traits of trainees are evaluated by trained observers based on the trainee’s performance in specially chosen exercises. Assessment centres are used for making decisions on promoting, evaluating and training managerial personnel.

14) UNIVERSITY AND PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION SEMINARS – This is offered on both credit and non-credit courses intended to help meet the management needs of various organisations. These offerings range from courses in principles of supervision to advanced executive management programmes.

5.9 EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES.

Four alternatives exist for evaluation of management development activities:

ALTERNATIVE I: are the trainees happy with the course?

ALTERNATIVE II: Does the training course teach the concepts?

ALTERNATIVE III: Are the concepts used on the job?

ALTERNATIVE IV: Does the application of the concepts

Positively affect the organisation?

COMPETENCY-BASED MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENTThis may concentrate on a limited number of core competencies which the organisation has decided will be an essential part of the equipment of their managers if they are going to take the organisation forward in line with its strategic plans.

Examples.a) Strategic capability – to understand the changing business environment, competitive

challenges and the strengths and weaknesses of their organisation.

b) Change management capability – to identify change needs, plan change programmes and persuade others to participate willingly in implementation of change.

c) Team management capability – to get diverse groups of people from different disciplines to work well together.

d) Relationship management capability – to network effectively with others, to share information and pool resources to achieve common objectives.

e) International management capability – to be capable of managing across international frontiers working well with people of other nationalities.

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ARGUMENTS AGAINST MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT.

1) Academic management training has few practical applications, for encouraging technical specialization rather than the overall ability to lead.

2) Creates unrealistic job and career expectations among junior managerial employees.

3) The environments of training are artificial and too remote from real life managerial situations to be of practical value. Most aspects of management can only be learned by doing.

4) The dimensions of managerial competence encompass a vast range of tasks, so that it is not possible to devise courses that comprehensively cover the entire management field.

5) Individuals enter management in so many different ways and from such varied backgrounds that no single programme of study can meet the highly specified needs of each participant.

6) Management is a fast changing subject, so that the contents of any management-training course could quickly become out of date.

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6.0 CAREER MANAGEMENT.

Specific objectives.At the end of this topic the trainee should be able to: -

a) State the meaning and importance of career management.b) Explain the objectives of career management.c) Discuss the issues of career management.d) Explain the process of career management.e) Carry out career counselling and mentoringf) Implement the organisation’s career management programme.

INTRODUCTION.Not long ago, individuals joined an organisation and often stayed with it for their entire working career. But this is no more. Nowadays, the average 20-year-old employee is expected to change jobs approximately six or seven times during his lifetime. Increased employee mobility and related environmental factors have made career development increasingly important for today’s organisation.

DEFINITION.Career development is an ongoing, formalized effort by an organisation that focuses on developing and enriching the organisation’s human resources in light of both the employee’s and the organisation’s needs.

Career management consists of the processes of career planning and management succession. Career planning shapes the progression of individuals within an organisation in accordance with assessments of organisational needs and the performance, potential and preferences of individual members of the enterprise.

6.1 Objectives of Career management.

Career management has three overall aims:1. To ensure that the organisation’s needs for management succession are satisfied.2. To provide employees of potential with a sequence of training and experience that will equip

them for whatever level of responsibility that they have the ability to reach.3. To give individuals with potential the guidance and encouragement they need if they are to

fulfil their potential and achieve a successful career.

Career management is the process through which organisation’s select, assess, assign and develop employees to provide a pool of qualified people to meet future needs.

Career development encompasses career management and career planning. Career planning is the process through which individual employees identify and implement steps to attain career goals. Career planning is a process by which an individual formulates career goals and develops a plan for reaching those goals.

From the organisation’s viewpoint, career development has three major objectives: -

a) To meet the immediate and future human resource needs of the organisation on a timely basis.b) To better inform the organisation and the individual about potential career paths within the

organisation.

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c) To utilize existing human resource programmes to the fullest by integrating the activities that select, assign, develop, and manage individual careers with the organisation’s plans.

Career development looks at individual careers from the viewpoint of the organisation, whereas, career planning looks at careers from the eyes of individual employees.

WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT?Successful career development requires action from 3 sources; the organisation, the employee and the employee’s immediate manager.

ORGANISATION’S RESPONSIBILITIES. The organisation is the entity that has primary responsibility for ensuring that career development takes place. The organisation has the responsibility to develop and communicate career options within the organisation to the employee. The organisation should advise an employee on possible career paths to achieve the employee’s career goals.

The organisation should promote the conditions and create the environment that will facilitate the development of individual career plans by the employees.

EMPLOYEE’S RESPONSIBILITIES.The primary responsibility for preparing individual career plans rests with the individual employees. Career planning has to come from the individual who knows what he really wants out of a career. The individual must find time to develop a sound career plan. The organisation may help by providing trained specialists to encourage and guide the employee.

MANAGER’S RESPONSIBILITIES.The manager should facilitate the development of a subordinate’s career. The manager should serve as a catalyst and sounding board. He should show an employee how to go about the process and then help the employee evaluate the conclusions.

6.2 INTEGRATION BETWEEN CAREER PLANNING AND CAREER MANAGEMENT.

CAREER PLANNING ACTIVITIES.a) EMPLOYEE’S RESPONSIBILITY

- Self assess abilities, interests and needs.- Analyse career options.- Decide on development objectives and needs- Preferences to manager- Map out mutually agreeable action plans with manager- Pursue agreed-on action plan.

b) MANAGER’S RESPONSIBILITY- Act as a catalyst; sensitize employee to the development planning process.- Assess employee’s expressed objectives and perceived development needs. Find out

how realistic they are.- Counsel employee and develop mutually agreeable plans.- Follow-up and update employee’s plans as appropriate.

c) ORGANISATION’S RESPONSIBILITY- Provide career planning model, resources, counselling and information needed for

individualized career planning.

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- Provide training in career development planning to managers and employees and career counselling to managers.

- Provide skills training programmes and on-the-job development experience opportunities.

6.3 CAREER MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES.

a) EMPLOYEE’S RESPONSIBILITY- Provide accurate information to management as needed regarding skills, work

experiences, interest and career aspirations.

b) MANAGER’S RESPONSIBILITY- Validate information provided by employees.- Provide information about vacant job positions for which the manager is responsible.

c) ORGANISATION’S RESPONSIBILITY- Provide information system and process to accommodate manager’s decision-making

needs.- Organise and update all information.- Ensure effective usage of all information.

Advantages to organisation’s of having employees who are pursuing careers (rather than holding ad hoc jobs).

i) Individuals might be motivated to work hard in order to further their careers.ii) Worker’s loyalties to their occupations and/or employing organisations might be

enhanced.iii) Employees have definite career targets at which to aim.iv) Employee’s competence will increase systematically over time.v) Management succession schemes can be drafted more easily.vi) Career planning can be directly related to the firm’s performance appraisal and

management by objectives.

Advantages to individuals of following a careeri) Feeling of security resulting from the likelihood his job opportunities will increase as the

person’s career progresses.ii) Enhanced self-awareness resulting from being forced to analyse personal SWOT and the

career options available.iii) Acquisition of useful experience as the employee selects jobs in organisations,

departments, divisions that will best promote his career.iv) Having a tangible long-term objective.

6.4 IMPLEMENTING CAREER DEVELOPMENT.

Successful implementation of a career development programme involves 4 basic steps at individual level:

1. An assessment by the individual of his abilities interests and career goals.2. An assessment by the organisation of the individual’s abilities and potentials.3. Communication of career options and opportunities within the organisation.4. Career counselling to set realistic goals and plans for their accomplishment.

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INDIVIDUAL ASSESSMENT.This assessment should be based on reality. For the individual, this involves identifying personal strengths, not only the individual’s developed abilities but also the financial resources available.

ASSESSMENT BY THE ORGANISATION.This is mostly done through the performance appraisal process. The assessment center can also give very useful information. Other potential sources include; personnel records reflecting such information as education and previous work experience.

The HR manager and the individual’s immediate manager, who serves as a mentor, should do assessment of an individual.

COMMUNICATING CAREER OPTIONS.To set realistic career goals, an individual must know the options and opportunities that are available. The organisation can do several things to facilitate such awareness. Posting and advertising job vacancies, clearly identifying possible paths of advancement within the organisation (can be done through the performance appraisal process) are helpful methods. Another good method is to share human resource planning forecasts with employees.

6.5 CAREER COUNSELLING.

This is an activity that may be performed by an employee’s immediate manager, a HR specialist or a combination of the two.

6.6 CAREER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Where organisations have active Career Management practices in place, they can expect to experience a reduction in employee turnover; heightened employee motivation; improved employee satisfaction; and more effective succession planning.

Three key areas that need to be considered in implementing Career Management strategies:

1. Implementation of supportive Career Management practices.

Organizations’ Career Management practices can be either active or passive. Active strategies (such as career workshops and employee training) are implemented for the express purpose of Career Management, and passive strategies incorporate a number of organizational practices (such as regular performance reviews and provision of key performance indicators) that, by default, promote employees’ Career Management.

The six most successful Career Management practices used within organizations included:

Placing clear expectations on employees so that they know what is expected of them throughout their careers with the organization

Giving employees the opportunity to transfer to other office locations, both domestically and internationally

Providing a clear and thorough succession plan to employees Encouraging performance through rewards and recognition Giving employees the time and resources they need to consider short- and long-term career

goals

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Encouraging employees to continually assess their skills and career direction

2. Elimination of barriers to employees’ career advancement.In addition to looking at the implementation of effective Career Management strategies, organizations need to assess whether there are any internal barriers to employees’ career advancement. In fact, the removal of any barriers to career advancement can be as significant to reducing employee turnover as the implementation of Career Management strategies.

Generally, these barriers fall into ‘clusters’, including:

Lack of time, budgets and resources for employees to plan their careers and to undertake training and development

Rigid job specifications, lack of leadership support for Career Management and a short-term focus

Lack of career opportunities and pathways within the organization for employees

Organizations must eliminate as many barriers to career advancement as possible to ensure that employees have the best possible chance to look for opportunities within their organization.

3. Adapting Career Management strategies to suit the organization’s size and structure

It is important that an organization’s Career Management strategies reflect its dynamics, size and structure. For example, while large organizations tend to have more support mechanisms for employees, they often present a higher number of barriers to career advancement. Small organizations, on the other hand, rarely implement extensive Career Management strategies, usually as a result of lack of resources, however, they also tend to present the least number of barriers to career advancement.

As organizations consider their Career Management practices and strategies, these factors must be weighed-up in the decision to ensure that whatever the strategy is, it is suitable to the organization.

CAREER PATHING.This is a technique that addresses the specifics of progressing from one job to another in the organisation. It is a sequence of developmental activities involving informal and formal education, training and job experiences that help make an individual capable of holding more advanced jobs.

Basic Steps of Career Pathing.

1. Determine or reconfirm the abilities and end behaviours of the target job.2. Secure employee background data and review fro accuracy and

completeness.3. Undertake a needs analysis comparison that jointly views the individual

and the targeted job.4. Reconcile employee career desires, developmental needs and targeted job

requirements with those of organisational career management.5. Develop individual training work and educational needs using a time-

activity orientation.6. Blueprint career paths activities.

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Reviewing Career Progress.Individual careers rarely go exactly according to plan. The environment changes, personal desires change and other things happen. The individual must periodically review both the career plan and the situation, and make adjustments so that career development continues.

6.7 CAREER PLATEAU.

This is defined as the point in a career where the likelihood of additional hierarchical promotion is low. It occurs when an employee reaches a position from which he is not likely to be promoted further. Plateaued employees are those who reach their promotional ceiling long before they retire. The four principal career categories of employees are:

Learners. Individuals with high potential for advancement who are performing below standard e.g. new trainees.

Stars. Individuals presently doing some outstanding work and having a high potential for continued advancement; these are people on fast track career paths.

Solid citizens. Individuals whose present performance is satisfactory but whose chance for future advancement is small. They make the bulk of employees in a firm.

Deadwood. Individuals whose present performance has fallen to an unsatisfactory level – they have little potential for advancement.

The following action can aid in managing the plateauing process.

1. Prevent plateauees from becoming ineffective (prevent a problem from occurring)

2. Integrate relevant career-related information systems (Improve monitoring so that emerging problems are detected early)

3. Manage ineffective plateauees and frustrated employees effectively.

6.8 REHABILITATING INEFFECTIVE PLATEAUEES.

1. Provide alternative means of recognition – assignment to a task force, special assignments, participation in brainstorming sessions, representation of the organisation to others, training of new employees.

2. Develop new ways to make their current jobs more satisfying – some possibilities here include relating employees performance to total organisational goals and creating competition in the job

3. Effect revitalization through reassignment – implement systematic job switching to positions at the same level, that require many of, but not necessary, the exact same skills and experiences as the present job.

4. Utilize reality-based self-development programmes – assign plateauees to development programmes that can help them perform better in their present jobs.

5. Change managerial attitudes towards Plateaued employees – some managers usually give up and neglect plateaued employees and this only helps compound the problem.

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6.9 THE CAREER STAGE MODEL

Most individuals pass through stages of careers in a logical progression. The establishment stage is the entry stage in which individuals learn the job and the discipline, and begin to fit into the organization. The advancement stage is typically the high achievement phase in which people focus on their competence. In the maintenance stage, individuals attempt to maintain productivity while evaluating progress toward career goals. The withdrawal stage involves the process of retirement or possible career change. These stages correlate with other maturity and life changes.

i. THE ESTABLISHMENT STAGE

The establishment stage involves beginning a career as a newcomer to an organization. Newcomers depend on others for information on what is expected in the job and in the organization.

A. Psychological ContractsDuring the establishment stage, a psychological contract, or implicit agreement, between an individual and an organization is developed that specifies what each is expected to give and receive in the relationship.

B. The Stress of SocializationThe most likely stressor during the anticipatory socialization stage is ambiguity about the job and the organization. During the encounter stage, the demands of the job and the shock of reality create the majority of stress. Stress often arises from the need to control job demands during the change and adjustment stage.

C. Easing the Transition from Outsider to Insider

1. Individual ActionsSeeking support from co-workers and networking with other newcomers can help reduce stress.

2. Organizational ActionsOrganizations should provide early opportunities for newcomer success, provide encouragement and feedback, and explicitly tie rewards to performance.

ii. THE ADVANCEMENT STAGEA. Career Paths and Career LaddersThe traditional analogy for the advancement stage is one of climbing the corporate ladder. The career path is a sequence of job experiences that an employee moves along during his or her career. A career ladder is a structured series of job positions through which an individual progresses in an organization. With the restructuring of many large, well-known companies, the career ladder may no longer be as salient as it once was. This can be an additional socialization stressor for those expecting a fast track career.

B. Finding a MentorA mentor is an individual who provides guidance, coaching, counselling, and friendship to a protégé. Some organizations have mentor programs that pass employees upward as they reach certain stages of development. Other organizations form multicultural mentor groups, so that diversity will be firmly ingrained in their interactions. Most mentor relationships progress through a series of stages that include initiation, cultivation, separation, and redefinition.

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C. Dual-Career PartnershipsAnother new element in the work—life combination is the increase of dual-career partnerships. A dual-career partnership is a relationship in which both people have important career roles. Dual-career relationships have stresses of competition, organizational loyalty, and location selection to contend with throughout their organizational affiliations.

D. Work—Home ConflictsWork—home conflicts increase when the adults in a relationship both work. The U.S. culture has mixed role expectations for women. Other countries, such as Japan, have a more pronounced set of expectations for working women. Organizations are increasingly considering providing benefits for the working couple to encourage them to remain with the organization.

One of the solutions for work—home conflicts may be a flexible work schedule. Flexible work schedules allow employees discretion in setting their working hours in order to accommodate personal concerns. Another consideration related to the work—home conflict is the increase in needs for eldercare. The sandwich generation is responsible for caring for both children and elderly parents. An increasing number of organizations are providing employees with eldercare to assist them in caring for elderly parents and/or other elderly relatives.

iii. THE MAINTENANCE STAGEThe wide range of options that exists during this stage has helped individuals through potential midlife transitions and burnout. One of the options being considered in corporations is the concept of sabbaticals: a time for rejuvenation and revival.

A. Sustaining PerformanceMost individuals in the maintenance stage reach a career plateau, a point in one’s career at which the probability of moving further up the hierarchy is low. Keeping work stimulating and continued appreciation of contributions are keys to maintaining employees’ productivity during this stage.

B. Becoming a MentorMentoring gives individuals in this stage an opportunity to contribute to the development of newer and younger employees by sharing their wisdom, knowledge, and experience with those employees. Mentoring programs can be either formal or informal.

iv. THE WITHDRAWAL STAGE

During the withdrawal stage, workers begin to plan seriously for and initiate their transition to retirement. Actions may include scaling back on hours, switching to part-time work, or even changing careers. Workers in this stage still have much to contribute because of their extensive experience, strong work ethic, and loyalty.

A. Planning for ChangeB. Retirement

Career Management Course Activities

Please Attempt All These Questions. Where Reference Material Has Been Used Please Quote The Book Using The Standard Reference Writing Style.

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1. Careers: What is a career? What is career management? What is the process of career management? Can you give examples of environmental influences on your career?

2. What are some of the key issues with careers? How are these relevant for your career? What is adaptability, and why is it important in today’s workforce and for career management? What are the eight dimensions of adaptability?

3. Compare and contras the various career management models. What are their similarities and differences? Can you give examples of each stage in each model? What are the common stages of career development?

4. What are the employees’, managers, and company’s roles in career management? Who ultimately has responsibility for career management?

5. What are the characteristics of a successful career management initiative?

6. What is organizational socialization? Why is it important? What are the steps of socialization, what are their similarities and differences, and can you give examples of each?

7. What are the characteristics of good socialization programs, and why are they necessary?

8. What are dual career concerns? Why are they so common and important today? What are the characteristics of successful dual career couples?

9. What is a career plateau? Compare and contrast the different types of career plateaus. Give examples of each.

10. Why are work family issues so critical in today’s world? What is meant by the statement that flexibility is the major issue surrounding work family issues? What types of flexibility are important? What types of conflict are present in work family issues—describe and give examples of each. How could one reduce work family conflict? What are the pros and cons of working at home?

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7.0 LEGISLATION GOVERNING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA.

THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING ACT

CHAPTER 237

Government of Kenya, The Industrial Training Act Chapter 237, (Government Printer, Nairobi), Revised Edition 1983

Specific Objectives

At the end of the topic, the trainee should be able to: -

a) Explain the provisions of the Industrial Training Act.

b) Apply the provisions of the Act to practical situations.

IntroductionThe Act has 32 sections2. These notes will attempt to highlight the main aspects in the Act.

The following is a summary of the main features or requirements of the Act.

An Apprentice

The Act defines an apprentice as a person who is bound by a written contract to serve an employer for a determined period of not less than four years, or such lesser period as the council shall determine under section (2) of sec. 20 with a view to acquiring knowledge, including theory and practice, of a trade in which the employer is reciprocally bound to instruct that person (p.3)

An Indentured Learner

Means a person, other than an apprentice, who is bund by a written contract to serve an employer for a determined period less than four years with a view to acquiring knowledge of trade in which the employer is reciprocally bound to instruct that person (p.3)

The Act also goes on to define a “minor” as a person under the age of 15 years (p3). The Act stipulates that there shall be a Director, and such members of Deputy Directors and Assistant Directors of Industrial training. (p.4). Te Act also talks of a National Industrial Training Council consisting of a chairman and not less that 18 other members (6 representing employers; 6 representing employees and 6 chosen to represent other interests), all appointed by the Minister. (p.4).

No person shall be appointed as a member if he:-

a) Is insolvent b) Is of unsounded mindc) Has been sentenced by a court for a term of 6 months or more within the preceding 5 years

(p5)

The Minister may revoke the appointment of a member subject to conditions (a), (b) and (c) above and also if the member is incapacitated physically or mentally, has been absent for 3 consecutive meetings of the council or is unfit or unable to discharge his functions. (p.5. Section 3, sub-sec II).

2 It is recommended that each student acquire a copy of the Act for learning purposes.

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DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL

(Section 5, pgs 6-7)1. Secure the greatest possible improvement in the quality and efficiency of the training of

personnel engaged in industry.

2. Ensure an adequate supply of properly trained manpower at all levels in industry.

3. Share the cost of all industrial training undertaken in pursuance of the Act as evenly as possible between employers.

d) Advice the Minister from time to time concerning the institution, review and maintenance of a system of holding tests, the granting of certificates and making of reports.

e) Investigate any dispute or other matter arising out of a contract of apprenticeship or indentured learnership.

f) Perform such duties and functions in regard to any other matter concerning apprenticeship or indentured learnership.

g) Investigate and make recommendations to the Minister on any matters connected with the Act.

TRAINING LEVIES

(Section 5B, p.8)

The Minister may make a training levy order for the purpose of giving effect to proposals submitted by the Council and approved by him. Such an order may provide for the amendment of a previous training levy order and make different provisions in relation to different classes or description or employer.

The order may contain provisions as to the evidence by which a person’s liability to the levy may be established. A sum equal to 5% is to be added to any amount that has not been paid n within the time prescribed.

Disbursement of the Training Levy Funds

(Section 5C, pgs. 8-9)

All money, collected as training levy, shall be payable into a Training Levy Fund. The Director. On the advice of he Council, may make payments out of the fund for any of the following purposes: -

a) Payment of maintenance and travelling allowances to persons attending training courses.

b) Making of grants or loans to persons proving courses to training facilities.

c) Making of fees to persons providing further education in respect of persons who receive it in association with their training.

d) Reimbursement of an employer for all or part of his training costs including fees, instruction costs, material costs and wages of apprentices/indentured learners while attending training courses.

e) Payment of sitting allowances and travelling, accommodation and entertainment expenses for committee and sub-committee members on duty.

f) Payment of examiners fees for setting, moderating, invigilating and marking tests for learners and their travel and accommodation expenses.

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g) Payment of honoraria to instructors for conducting evening courses.

h) Other expenditure related to training and approved by the Minister.

In cases where the Council or Director withholds approval for payment of any money, the case will be referred to the Minister whose ruling will be final.

Permission to Employ Apprentices or Indentured Learners

To employ such a learner one must first obtain the written permission of the director; which shall specify the maximum number of learners one may employ at any given time. For the permission to be granted, the director must be satisfied that the establishment offers reasonable opportunities for the proper training of the learners. One shall be guilty of an offence if:

- Employs a learner without first obtaining the written permission of the director to employ

- Employs learners in excess of the maximum number allowed in the written permission obtained (section 6 and 7, pages 10 and 11)

Requirements for One to Become a Learner (Section 8 Pages 11)

- Must have attained the apparent age of 15 years.- Has completed any period of compulsory education required by Law.- Has in the case of a trade or occupation in respect of which a scheme has been made,

the qualifications prescribed under the scheme.- Hs been certified fit as provided in Section 10 (Having been medically examined, at

the expense of the employer, by a medical practitioner and a medical certificate issued.

Registration of Contracts (Section II)Every contract of Apprenticeship or indentured learnership must be in he prescribed form, or where no form has been prescribed, in a form approved by the Director. An employer entering into such a contract shall within 14 days lodge with the Director, for registration.

- The contract- A duplicate copy- A further copy for filing by the Director- The medical certificate (Section 10)

A contract is not binding unless it is registered by the Director. The Director may refuse to register a contract if:-

- In his opinion, it is not in the interest of the learner.- It is not made in accordance with the provisions of a scheme- He may in coming to a decision see that the learner’s prospects of obtaining

employment after expiry of contract in that particular occupation are slim.

The Act allows for the transfer of the rights and obligations under a contract of learning, with the consent of the learner and with the Directors approval, from one employer to another. The Director

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may withhold his approval if in his opinion the transfer is not in the interests of the learner. (Section 12, p.13). No transfer of the rights and obligations of an employer shall take place until the instrument of transfer:-

- Is in writing - Is signed by the employer transferring the rights and obligations, the employer

receiving these right and obligations and the learner (or in case of a minor, signed by the guardian parent, or if not available the DO or labour officer).

- Is registered by the Director as earlier prescribed.

Termination & Extension of ContractsSection 13, p.14-15 A contract of learning may be terminated or extended:-

a) By mutual agreement of the partiesb) By the Director at the instance of any party and if he is satisfied it’s expedient to do so.c) By the Director at the instance of the Council.

A notice of one month for termination or extension shall be given by the employer to the Director. The Director shall only exercise his powers in (b) above after listening to both parties.

A person who induces or attempts to induce a learner to quit the service of his employer, and who is bound by a contract, shall be guilty of an offence. (Section 14, p.15)

Probation

The first 6 months of every contract of learning shall be a period of probation, during and at the expiry of which the contract may be terminated by either party. (Section 15 (i), p.15)

Suspension

If a learner, bound by a contract, commits a serious breach of the terms of the contract, the employer may suspend him. This shall be reported Director within 3 days, and the Director will investigate the matter, set aside or confirm the suspension, or vary the terms of the suspension. (Section 16, p.15).

Whether or not a complaint has been lodged by the employer, he Director may order suspension, pending investigate and shall report his action to the Council.

Where the Director sets aside suspension of a learner, the employer shall pay to the learner all such wages as may have been withheld during the period of suspension. Failure by the employer to report suspension of learner makes him guilty of an offence. (Section 16 (4&5) p.16)

Records To Be Kept By the EmployerRecords kept by an employer on learners will include:-

- Remuneration paid- Time worked- Every learner- Any other particulars (Section 17(i), p.16)

The records shall be kept in a manner prescribed by the Director. Such records must be retained by the employer for a period of 3 years after the last entry in the record.

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Limitations in Regard to Method of Payment & OvertimeWages of the learner shall not be based upon the quantity of work done, or overtime for a learner under 17 years of age (section 18 pages 16)

An employer shall on successful completion of a contract, make out a certificate of apprenticeship or indentured learnership in the prescribed form and manner and submit to the director for counter signature and later give if to the apprentice (section 19 pages 16 – 17).If an employer fails to give a certificate himself. Failure to give a certificate or giving one which is untrue makes one guilty of an offence

TRAINING SCHEMESSECTION 21 PAGES 17 – 19

The director after consulting the council may make a scheme or schemes for regulating the training of apprentices or indentured learners in any trade or occupation. A scheme may in respect of any trade or occupation. A scheme may in respect of any trade or occupation to which it relates, specify: -

a. The qualifications, including age and educational standard required for the learners in that trade or occupation

b. Period of apprenticeship or indentured learnership (not exceeding 7 years for apprentices and les than 4 years for indentured learnership)

c. The practical training which employers shall provide for the learners in their employment.

d. The theoretical training which employers shall provide for the learners, at the expense of the employer, and the manner in which such training shall be provided.

e. The proficiency tests or examinations, which the learners in that trade or occupation shall undergo from time to time.

f. Maximum number of ordinary working hours the learners in that trade or occupation may be required to work during any week, day and the day, hours or intervals when they will not be required to work.

g. Maximum period of overtime the learners will be permitted to work in any given day or week.

h. Minimum number of paid holidays to be allowed to the learners during any year.

i. The remuneration and other conditions which shall apply in respect of any period during which the leaner is unable by reason of any condition to render service to his employer during ordinary working hours.

j. Any other matter which in the opinion of the Director is necessary for the effective operation of the scheme.

A scheme may be amended by a subsequent scheme or by an order made by the director on advice of the council.

Procedure for Making of Schemes

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Before making a scheme the director shall publish once in the Gazette and twice (with interval of between 7 – 14 days) between each publication in a newspaper published and circulated in Kenya, a notice of his intention to make a scheme specifying a place where copies of a draft may be inspected. (Section 22 pages 19).

An objection made shall in writing and will state the specific grounds for objection and the deletions, additions or modifications to the scheme. These should be done within 30 days from the date of publication of the notice.

The director after expiring of the 30 days will consider the issues raised and may withdraw the draft scheme or make the scheme as it is in the draft or make the scheme subject to deletions, additions or modifications suggested.

Where the director makes a scheme, he shall publish a notice of intention to make the scheme specifying a place where copies of the scheme may be inspected.

Supervision of the Apprentices or Indentured Learners

(Section 22A Pages 20 – 21)

Every employer of apprentices or indentured learners shall appoint by name form among employee: -

a) A person responsible for supervising generally the learners under this Act

b) At every premise or worksite, where learners are regularly employed for a period of not less than 3 months an apprentice or indentured learner master, who shall be responsible for the day to day guidance of the learners in matters concerning the trade or occupation.

The director may not approve the appointment of the apprentice / indentured learner master he deems not competent and may specify the kind of training to be given to the master before the appointment is re-approved.

Where 25 or more learners are employed at any premise or worksite the master shall devote the whole of his time during normal working hours to learner guidance. Where the number is less than 25, the master shall devote that proportion of his time to learner guidance.

Appointment of an Inspector

The minister, by notice in the Gazette, ma, appoint nay person appointed to the public service as a senior training office or levy inspector, to be an inspector for all or any purposes of the Act (section 23) p.21

Powers of the Inspector

An inspector may: -

a. At any time, enter premises in which he believes a learner is or has within the previous 6 months been employed and take with him and interpreter or other assistant or a police officer

b. Examine any person whom he finds on the premises entered whom he believes ahs been employment within the proceeding 6 months and require him to be examined

c. Require any learner to appear before him at a time and place fixed by the inspector and question the learner

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d. Require the production or delivery of any records required to be kept under this Act or any document relating to the business of any person whom the inspector has reason to believe is or was within the last 6 months the employer of a learner

e. Examine and make extracts from and copies of nay such documents provided

Failure to comply or obstruction of the inspector makes one guilty of an offence. The inspector seeking to exercise his powers and one being required to do so shall produce written evidence of his appointment.

Penalties

Section 28, pages 23

A person who commits an offence under this Act of which no penalty is provided shall be liable to a fine not exceeding Ksh. 6,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 6 months or both.

RULES

Section 29, pages 23The minister may make rules for carrying into effect this Act. The following maybe some of the rules.

a) Form of a contract of learning

b) Manner in which educational standards or birth may be proved

c) Nature of returns which employers may be required to furnish to the director and period within which such returns should be made

d) Procedure for registration and transfer of contracts and notification of the expiry or termination of contracts

e) Form and manner in which certificates of learning are to be issued by employers

f) Form and manner in which tests to assess ones skills be conducted

g) Form of certificate reports and other documentary evidence to be granted by the employer

h) All or any matter which by this Act are required and permitted

ExemptionsSection 30 pages 24The director with approval from the council may in the case of a particular contract exempt any person form any provisions of this Act or any rule made in a scheme.

The director with approval of the council may withdraw such exemption.

This Act shall bind the government

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ASSIGNMENT

What is the difference between an Apprentice and an Indentured Learner?

In what ways can the Director of the D.I.T ensure proper training of learners in an organisation?

In what ways can the Director of the D.I.T use the training levy to enhance training in the country?

Under what circumstances will an employer be said to have taken into his employment a learner unlawfully?

What is a Training Scheme and how important is it to an organisation?

What is the role of the Inspector in the D.I.T?

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