Training - pages.erau.edupages.erau.edu/~rogersr/as471/manuals/1stUpset.pdf · All Nippon Airways Co., Ltd. Allied Pilots Association Aloha Airlines, Inc. American Airlines, Inc

Videos

TrainingAid

A.M. Carter Associates

(Institute for Simulation & Training)

Air Transport Association

Airbus Industrie

Air Lines Pilots Association

Alaska Airlines, Inc.

All Nippon Airways Co., Ltd.

Allied Pilots Association

Aloha Airlines, Inc.

American Airlines, Inc.

American Trans Air, Inc.

Ansett Australia

Bombardier Aerospace Training Center

(Regional Jet Training Center)

British Airways

Calspan Corporation

Cathay Pacific Airways Limited

Cayman Airways, Ltd.

Civil Aviation House

Continental Airlines, Inc.

Delta Air Lines, Inc.

Deutsche Lufthansa AG

Federal Aviation Administration

FlightSafety International

International Air Transport Association

Japan Airlines Co., Ltd.

Midwest Express Airlines, Inc.

National Transportation Safety Board

Northwest Airlines, Inc.

SAS Flight Academy

Southwest Airlines

The Boeing Company

Trans World Airlines, Inc.

United Air Lines, Inc.

US Airways, Inc.

Main Table of Contents

Videos

Main Table of Contents

i

Airplane Upset Recovery Training AidTable of Contents

Section Page

Reference .............................................................................................................................................. vUnits of Measurement .......................................................................................................... vAcronyms ............................................................................................................................. vGlossary .............................................................................................................................. vii

1 Overview for Management................................................................................................ 1.11.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1.11.1 General Goal and Objectives ............................................................................................ 1.21.2 Documentation Overview ................................................................................................. 1.21.3 Industry Participants .......................................................................................................... 1.21.4 Resource Utilization .......................................................................................................... 1.31.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 1.3

2 Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery .......................................................................... 2.12.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 2.12.1 Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 2.12.2 Definition of Airplane Upset ............................................................................................. 2.12.3 The Situation ..................................................................................................................... 2.22.4 Causes of Airplane Upsets ................................................................................................ 2.22.4.1 Environmentally Induced Airplane Upsets ....................................................................... 2.32.4.1.1 Turbulence ......................................................................................................................... 2.32.4.1.1.1 Clear Air Turbulence ......................................................................................................... 2.42.4.1.1.2 Mountain Wave ................................................................................................................. 2.42.4.1.1.3 Windshear .......................................................................................................................... 2.42.4.1.1.4 Thunderstorms ................................................................................................................... 2.42.4.1.1.5 Microbursts ........................................................................................................................ 2.62.4.1.2 Wake Turbulence .............................................................................................................. 2.62.4.1.3 Airplane Icing .................................................................................................................... 2.82.4.2 Systems-Anomalies-Induced Airplane Upsets ................................................................. 2.82.4.2.1 Flight Instruments.............................................................................................................. 2.92.4.2.2 Autoflight Systems ............................................................................................................ 2.92.4.2.3 Flight Control and Other Anomalies ................................................................................. 2.92.4.3 Pilot-Induced Airplane Upsets .......................................................................................... 2.92.4.3.1 Instrument Cross-Check ..................................................................................................2.102.4.3.2 Adjusting Attitude and Power ......................................................................................... 2.102.4.3.3 Inattention ........................................................................................................................ 2.102.4.3.4 Distraction From Primary Cockpit Duties ...................................................................... 2.102.4.3.5 Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation .................................................................................... 2.102.4.3.6 Pilot Incapacitation .......................................................................................................... 2.112.4.3.7 Improper Use of Airplane Automation ........................................................................... 2.112.4.4 Combination of Causes ................................................................................................... 2.112.5 Swept-Wing Airplane Fundamentals for Pilots .............................................................. 2.122.5.1 Flight Dynamics .............................................................................................................. 2.122.5.2 Energy States ................................................................................................................... 2.122.5.3 Load Factors .................................................................................................................... 2.13

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2.5.4 Aerodynamic Flight Envelope ........................................................................................ 2.162.5.5 Aerodynamics .................................................................................................................. 2.172.5.5.1 Angle of Attack and Stall ................................................................................................ 2.172.5.5.2 Camber............................................................................................................................. 2.202.5.5.3 Control Surface Fundamentals ........................................................................................ 2.212.5.5.3.1 Spoiler-Type Devices ...................................................................................................... 2.212.5.5.3.2 Trim ................................................................................................................................. 2.222.5.5.4 Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic Considerations ................................................... 2.232.5.5.4.1 Angle of Sideslip ............................................................................................................. 2.232.5.5.4.2 Wing Dihedral Effects ..................................................................................................... 2.242.5.5.4.3 Pilot-Commanded Sideslip ..............................................................................................2.252.5.5.5 High-Speed, High-Altitude Characteristics .................................................................... 2.252.5.5.6 Stability ............................................................................................................................ 2.262.5.5.7 Maneuvering in Pitch ...................................................................................................... 2.272.5.5.8 Mechanics of Turning Flight ........................................................................................... 2.292.5.5.9 Lateral Maneuvering ....................................................................................................... 2.312.5.5.10 Directional Maneuvering................................................................................................. 2.322.5.5.11 Flight at Extremely Low Airspeeds ................................................................................ 2.332.5.5.12 Flight at Extremely High Speeds .................................................................................... 2.332.6 Recovery From Airplane Upsets ..................................................................................... 2.342.6.1 Situation Awareness of an Airplane Upset ..................................................................... 2.342.6.2 Miscellaneous Issues Associated With Upset Recovery ................................................ 2.342.6.2.1 Startle Factor ................................................................................................................... 2.342.6.2.2 Negative G Force............................................................................................................. 2.352.6.2.3 Use of Full Control Inputs ............................................................................................... 2.352.6.2.4 Counter-Intuitive Factors ................................................................................................ 2.352.6.2.5 Previous Training in Nonsimilar Airplanes .................................................................... 2.352.6.2.6 Potential Effects on Engines ........................................................................................... 2.352.6.3 Airplane Upset Recovery Techniques............................................................................. 2.352.6.3.1 Stall .................................................................................................................................. 2.362.6.3.2 Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques ............................................................ 2.362.6.3.3 Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques ............................................................. 2.372.6.3.4 High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques ........................................................................ 2.382.6.3.5 Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques............................................ 2.38

3 Example Airplane Upset Recovery Training Program ..................................................... 3.13.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 3.13.1 Academic Training Program ............................................................................................. 3.13.1.1 Training Objectives ........................................................................................................... 3.13.1.2 Academic Training Program Modules .............................................................................. 3.23.1.3 Academic Training Syllabus ............................................................................................. 3.23.1.4 Additional Academic Training Resources ........................................................................ 3.23.2 Simulator Training Program ............................................................................................. 3.23.2.1 Simulator Limitations ........................................................................................................ 3.33.2.2 Training Objectives ........................................................................................................... 3.43.2.3 Simulator Training Syllabus ............................................................................................. 3.43.2.4 Pilot Simulator Briefing .................................................................................................... 3.43.2.5 Simulator Training (Preexercise Preparation) .................................................................. 3.5Simulator Training Exercises ............................................................................................................. 3.7Exercise 1. Nose-High Characteristics (Initial Training) .................................................................. 3.9Exercise 1. Iteration One—Use of Nose-Down Elevator .................................................................. 3.9Exercise 1. Iteration Two—Use of Bank Angle .............................................................................. 3.10Exercise 1. Iteration Three—Thrust Reduction (Underwing-Mounted Engines) ........................... 3.11

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iii

Exercise 2. Nose-Low Characteristics (Initial Training) ................................................................. 3.13Exercise 2. Iteration One—High Entry Airspeed ............................................................................ 3.13Exercise 2. Iteration Two—Accelerated Stall Demonstration ........................................................ 3.14Exercise 2. Iteration Three—High Bank Angle/Inverted Flight ..................................................... 3.15Exercise 3. Optional Practice Exercise ............................................................................................ 3.17Exercise 3. Instructions for the Simulator Instructor ....................................................................... 3.17Recurrent Training Exercises ........................................................................................................... 3.19Appendix 3-A, Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery Questions .................................... App. 3-A.1Appendix 3-B, Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing .............................................................. App. 3-B.1Appendix 3-C, Video Script: Airplane Upset Recovery .......................................................App. 3-C.1Appendix 3-D, Flight Simulator Information ....................................................................... App. 3-D.1

4 References for Additional Information ............................................................................... 4.1

Index ............................................................................................................................................... I.1

Section Page

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v

Units of Measurement° degree (temperature)deg degree (angle)deg/s degrees per secondft feetft/min feet per minuteft/s feet per secondhPa hectoPascalhr hourin inchinHg inches of mercurykg kilogramkn knotm metermbar millibarmi milemin minutenm nautical milesec second

AcronymsADI Attitude Direction IndicatorAFM Approved Flight ManualAGL above ground levelAOA angle of attackASRS Aviation Safety Reporting SystemATC air traffic controlCAT clear air turbulenceCFIT Controlled Flight Into TerrainCG center of gravityECAMS Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring SystemEICAS Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting SystemFAA Federal Aviation AdministrationICAO International Civil Aviation OrganizationILS Instrument Landing SystemIMC instrument meteorological conditionsMAC mean aerodynamic chordMSL mean sea levelNASA National Aeronautics Space AdministrationNTSB National Transportation Safety BoardPF pilot flyingPFD Primary Flight DisplayPNF pilot not flyingRTO rejected takeoffVMC visual meteorological conditionsVSI Vertical Speed Indicator

REFERENCE

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REFERENCE

vii

Airplane Upset Recovery Glossary

Certain definitions are needed to explain the con-cepts discussed in this training aid. Some of thedefinitions are from regulatory documents or otherreferences, and some are defined in the aid.

Airplane UpsetAn airplane in flight unintentionally exceedingthe parameters normally experienced in line op-erations or training:• Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose up.• Pitch attitude greater than 10 deg, nose down.• Bank angle greater than 45 deg.• Within the above parameters, but flying at

airspeeds inappropriate for the conditions.

Altitude (USA)The height of a level, point, or object measuredin feet above ground level (AGL) or from meansea level (MSL).1. MSL altitude – Altitude expressed in feet mea-

sured from mean sea level.2. AGL altitude – Altitude expressed in feet mea-

sured above ground level.3. Indicated altitude – The altitude as shown by

an altimeter. On a pressure or barometricaltimeter, it is altitude as shown uncorrectedfor instrument error and uncompensated forvariation from standard atmosphericconditions.

Altitude (ICAO)The vertical distance of a level, a point, or anobject considered as a point, measured from meansea level.

Angle of Attack (AOA)Angle of attack is the angle between the oncomingair or relative wind, and some reference line on theairplane or wing.

Autoflight SystemsThe autopilot, autothrottle, and all related sys-tems that perform flight management andguidance.

CamberThe amount of curvature evident in an airfoil shape.

CeilingThe heights above the Earth’s surface of the lowestlayer of clouds or obscuring phenomena that arereported as “broken,” “overcast,” or “obscuration,”and not classified as “thin” or “partial.”

Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)High-level turbulence (normally above 15,000 ftabove sea level) not associated with cumuliformcloudiness, including thunderstorms.

Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)An event where a mechanically normally function-ing airplane is inadvertently flown into the ground,water, or an obstacle.

DihedralThe positive angle formed between the lateral axisof an airplane and a line that passes through thecenter of the wing.

EnergyThe capacity to do work.

Energy StateHow much of each kind of energy (kinetic, poten-tial, or chemical) the airplane has available at anygiven time.

Flight Crew or Flight Crew MemberA pilot, first officer, flight engineer, or flight navi-gator assigned to duty in an airplane during flighttime.

Flight LevelA level of constant atmospheric pressure related toa reference datum of 29.92 inches of mercury. Eachis stated in three digits that represent hundreds offeet. For example, Flight Level 250 represents abarometric altimeter indication of 25,000 ft; flightlevel 255, an indication of 25,500 ft.

REFERENCE

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Flight Management SystemsA computer system that uses a large database toallow routes to be preprogrammed and fed into thesystem by means of a data loader. The system isconstantly updated with respect to position accu-racy by reference to conventional navigation aids.The sophisticated program and its associated data-base ensures that the most appropriate aids areautomatically selected during the information up-date cycle.

Flight PathThe actual direction and velocity an airplanefollows.

Flight Path AngleThe angle between the flight path vector and thehorizon.

Flight RecorderA general term applied to any instrument or devicethat records information about the performance ofan airplane in flight or about conditions encoun-tered in flight.

Fly-by-Wire AirplanesAirplanes that have electronic flight controlsystems

Instrument Landing SystemA precision instrument approach system that nor-mally consists of the following electronic compo-nents and visual aids:1. Localizer.2. Glideslope.3. Outer marker.4. Middle marker.5. Approach lights.

Instrument Landing System Categories1. ILS Category I – An ILS approach procedure

that provides for approach to a height abovetouchdown of not less than 200 ft and withrunway visual range of not less than 1800 ft.

2. ILS Category II – An ILS approach procedurethat provides for approach to a height abovetouchdown of not less than 100 ft and withrunway visual range of not less than 1200 ft.

3. ILS Category III –IIIA. An ILS approach procedure that provides

for approach without a decision heightminimum and with runway visual rangeof not less than 700 ft.

IIIB. An ILS approach procedure that providesfor approach without a decision heightminimum and with runway visual rangeof not less than 150 ft.

IIIC. An ILS approach procedure that providesfor approach without a decision heightminimum and without runway visualrange minimum.

Instrument Meteorological ConditionsMeteorological conditions expressed in terms ofvisibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling lessthan the minimums specified for visual meteoro-logical conditions.

International Civil Aviation OrganizationA specialized agency of the United Nations whoseobjectives are to develop the principles and tech-niques of international air navigation and fosterplanning and development of international civil airtransport.

Load FactorA measure of the acceleration being experiencedby the airplane.

ManeuverA controlled variation of the flight path.

Mean Sea Level (MSL) AltitudeAltitude expressed in feet measured from mean sealevel.

Mountain WaveSevere turbulence advancing up one side of amountain and down the other.

REFERENCE

ix

Newton’s First LawAn object at rest will tend to stay at rest, and anobject in motion will tend to stay in motion in astraight line, unless acted on by an external force.

Newton’s Second LawAn object in motion will continue in a straight lineunless acted on by an external force.

Force = mass x acceleration

OperatorsThe people who are involved in all operationsfunctions required for the flight of commercialairplanes.

PitchMovement about the lateral axis.

Pitch AttitudeThe angle between the longitudinal axis of theairplane and the horizon.

RollMotion about the longitudinal axis.

Sideslip AngleThe angle between the longitudinal axis of theairplane and the relative wind as seen in a planview.

StabilityPositive static stability is the initial tendency toreturn to an undisturbed state after a disturbance.

StallAn airplane is stalled when the angle of attackis beyond the stalling angle. A stall is character-ized by any of, or a combination of, thefollowing:a. Buffeting, which could be heavy at times.b. A lack of pitch authority.c. A lack of roll control.d. Inability to arrest descent rate.

TrimThat condition in which the forces on the airplaneare stabilized and the moments about the center ofgravity all add up to zero.

TurbulenceTurbulent atmosphere is characterized by a largevariation in an air current over a short distance.

Visual Meteorological ConditionsMeteorological conditions expressed in terms ofvisibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling equal toor better than specified minimums.

VMCAThe minimum flight speed at which the airplane iscontrollable with a maximum of 5-deg bank whenthe critical engine suddenly becomes inoperativewith the remaining engine at takeoff thrust.

Wake TurbulenceThe condition in which a pair of counter-rotatingvortices is shed from an airplane wing, thus causingturbulence in the airplane’s wake.

WindshearWind variations at low altitude

YawMotion about the vertical axis

REFERENCE

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REFERENCE

SECTION 1

1.i

1Overview for Management

Table of Contents

Section Page

1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1.1

1.1 General Goal and Objectives ............................................................................................... 1.2

1.2 Documentation Overview .................................................................................................... 1.2

1.3 Industry Participants ............................................................................................................ 1.2

1.4 Resource Utilization ............................................................................................................ 1.3

1.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 1.3

SECTION 1SECTION 1

SECTION 1

1.1

1.0 Introduction

Airplane manufacturers, airlines, pilot associa-tions, flight training organizations, and govern-ment and regulatory agencies have developed thistraining resource. The training package consists ofthis document and a supporting video. It is dedi-cated to reducing the number of accidents causedby the loss of control of large, swept-wing air-planes that results from airplane upset. Airplaneupset is defined as an airplane in flight uninten-tionally exceeding the parameters normally expe-rienced in line operations or training.

While specific values may vary among airplanemodels, the following unintentional conditionsgenerally describe an airplane upset:• Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose up.• Pitch attitude greater than 10 deg, nose down.• Bank angle greater than 45 deg.• Within the above parameters, but flying at air-

speeds inappropriate for the conditions.

Accidents that result from loss of airplane controlhave been and continue to be a major contributorto fatalities in the worldwide commercial aviationindustry. Industry statistical analysis indicates therewere 37 in-flight, loss-of-control accidents be-tween 1987 and 1996.1 These accidents resulted inmore than 2200 fatalities. There were many rea-sons for the control problems; problems have beenattributed to environment, equipment, and pilots.These data suggest that pilots need to be betterprepared to cope with airplane upsets. Research bysome operators has indicated that most airlinepilots rarely experience airplane upsets duringtheir line flying careers. It has also indicated thatmany pilots have never been trained in maximum-performance airplane maneuvers, such as aero-batic maneuvers, and those pilots who have beenexposed to aerobatics lose their skills over time.

Several operators have reacted to this situation bydeveloping and implementing pilot training pro-grams that include academic and simulator train-ing. Some government regulatory agencies areencouraging airlines to provide education and train-

1Overview for Management

ing to better prepare pilots to recover airplanes thathave been upset. Airplane manufacturers haveresponded to this by leading an industry teamformed to develop this Airplane Upset RecoveryTraining Aid.

The team approach to the development of traininghas several advantages. Most issues are identifiedand discussed, and a consensus is then achievedthat is acceptable to the aviation industry. Thisprocess reduces the time for development andimplementation of training. Synergy is gainedduring this process that results in an improvedproduct. Finally, a training program is readilyavailable to any operator that may not have beenable to produce its own program. Established pro-grams may be improved and modified.

This training aid is intended to be a comprehensivetraining package that airlines can present to theirflight crews in a combination of classroom andsimulator programs. It is structured to be a baselinetool to incorporate into existing programs or tocustomize by the operator to meet its unique re-quirements.

There will be additional costs associated withairplane upset recovery training; however, it isanticipated that the return on investment will be areduction in airplane accidents. An operator willfind the implementation of this training package tobe principally a change in emphasis, not a replace-ment of existing syllabi. Some of the training maybe conducted in conjunction with existing trainingrequirements, which may reduce the additionalcosts. Except in unique instances where trainingdevices may need upgrading to address significantpreexisting limitations, there should be virtuallyno hardware costs associated with this upset re-covery training.

Airplane upsets happen for a variety of reasons.Some are more easily prevented than others. Im-provement in airplane design and equipment reli-ability continues to be a goal of airplanemanufacturers and others. The industry has seenimprovements to the point that airplane upsets

1. Source: “Statistical Summary of Commercial Jet Airplane Accidents, Worldwide Operations, 1959–1996,” Airplane Safety Engineering, Boeing Commercial Airplane Group (Seattle, Washington, USA: June 1997).

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1.2

happen so infrequently that pilots are not alwaysprepared or trained to respond correctly. Airplaneupsets that are caused by environmental factors aredifficult to predict; therefore, training programsstress avoidance of such phenomena, but this is notalways successful. The logical conclusion is thatpilots should be trained to safely recover an air-plane that has been upset. For this training to beimplemented, it needs to be supported by the topmanagement within all airplane operators.

1.1 General Goal and ObjectivesThe goal of the Airplane Upset Recovery TrainingAid is to increase the pilot’s ability to recognizeand avoid situations that can lead to airplane upsetsand improve the pilot’s ability to recover control ofan airplane that has exceeded the normal flightregime. This can be accomplished by increasingawareness of potential upset situations and knowl-edge of flight dynamics and by the application ofthis knowledge during simulator training scenarios.

Objectives to support this goal include thefollowing:• Establishment of an industry-wide consensus

on a variety of effective training methods forpilots to recover from airplane upsets.

• Development of appropriate educationalmaterials.

• Development of an example training program,providing a basis from which individual opera-tors may develop tailored programs.

1.2 Documentation OverviewIn addition to the Overview for Management, theAirplane Upset Recovery Training Aid packageconsists of the following:• Section 2: “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset

Recovery.”• Section 3: “Example Airplane Upset Recovery

Training Program.”• Section 4: “References for Additional Informa-

tion.”• Video: Airplane Upset Recovery.

Section 2. The “Pilot Guide to Airplane UpsetRecovery” briefly reviews the causes of airplaneupsets; fundamental flight dynamics of flight forlarge, swept-wing airplanes; and the application offlight dynamic fundamentals for recovering anairplane that has been upset. The guide is a highlyreadable, concise treatment of pilot issues, written

by pilots—for pilots. It is intended for self-study orclassroom use.

Section 3. The “Example Airplane Upset Recov-ery Training Program” is a stand-alone resourcedesigned to serve the needs of a training depart-ment. An example academic training program anda simulator training program are both included.Academic training provides pilots with the foun-dation for avoiding airplane upsets that are withintheir control and also provides information aboutflight dynamics associated with airplane recovery.The flight simulator scenarios are designed toprovide the opportunity for pilots to apply theknowledge gained in the academic program andimprove their skills in recovery from airplaneupset.

Section 4. This section consists of references foradditional reading on subjects associated withairplane upsets and recovery.

Video Program. Airplane Upset Recovery is in-tended for use in an academic program in conjunc-tion with the “Pilot Guide to Airplane UpsetRecovery.”

CD-ROM. Document and video.

1.3 Industry ParticipantsThe following organizations participated in thedevelopment of this training aid:

A.M. Carter Associates (Institute forSimulation & Training)

Air Transport AssociationAirbus IndustrieAir Line Pilots AssociationAlaska Airlines, Inc.All Nippon Airways Co., Ltd.Allied Pilots AssociationAloha Airlines, Inc.American Airlines, Inc.American Trans Air, Inc.Ansett AustraliaBombardier Aerospace Training Center

(Regional Jet Training Center)British AirwaysCalspan CorporationCathay Pacific Airways LimitedCayman Airways, Ltd.Civil Aviation HouseContinental Airlines, Inc.

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1.3

Delta Air Lines, Inc.Deutsche Lufthansa AGFederal Aviation AdministrationFlight Safety FoundationFlightSafety InternationalInternational Air Transport AssociationJapan Airlines Co., Ltd.Lufthansa German AirlinesMidwest Express Airlines, Inc.National Transportation Safety BoardNorthwest Airlines, Inc.SAS Flight AcademySouthwest AirlinesThe Boeing CompanyTrans World Airlines, Inc.United Air Lines, Inc.US Airways, Inc.

Five meetings were held, during which consensuswas gained among the participants concerning thegoal and objectives for the training aid. Two re-view cycles were conducted, in which commentsand recommendations were considered for inclu-sion in the final material.

1.4 Resource UtilizationThis document has been designed to be of maxi-mum utility, both in its current form and as a basisfor an operator to design or modify an airplaneupset program as it sees fit.

Both academic and practical simulator trainingshould be employed to achieve a well-balanced,effective training program. For some operators,the adoption of the Airplane Upset Recovery Train-ing Aid into their existing training programs maynot entail much change. For those operators thatare in the process of creating a complete trainingprogram, the Airplane Upset Recovery TrainingAid will readily provide the foundation of a thor-ough and efficient program.

The allocation of training time within recurrentand transition programs will vary from operator tooperator.

1.5 ConclusionThis document and video are designed to assistoperators in creating or updating airplane upsetrecovery training programs. While this trainingaid stresses the importance of avoiding airplaneupsets, those upsets that are caused by the environ-ment or airplane equipment failures can be diffi-cult, if not impossible, for the pilot to avoid.Therefore, management is encouraged to take ap-propriate steps to ensure that an effective airplaneupset recovery training program is in place forpilots.

SECTION 1

1.4

SECTION 2

2.i

2Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery

Table of Contents

Section Page

2.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 2.1

2.1 Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 2.1

2.2 Definition of Airplane Upset ............................................................................................. 2.1

2.3 The Situation ..................................................................................................................... 2.2

2.4 Causes of Airplane Upsets ................................................................................................ 2.22.4.1 Environmentally Induced Airplane Upsets ....................................................................... 2.32.4.1.1 Turbulence ......................................................................................................................... 2.32.4.1.1.1 Clear Air Turbulence ......................................................................................................... 2.42.4.1.1.2 Mountain Wave .................................................................................................................. 2.42.4.1.1.3 Windshear .......................................................................................................................... 2.42.4.1.1.4 Thunderstorms ................................................................................................................... 2.42.4.1.1.5 Microbursts ........................................................................................................................ 2.62.4.1.2 Wake Turbulence .............................................................................................................. 2.62.4.1.3 Airplane Icing .................................................................................................................... 2.82.4.2 Systems-Anomalies-Induced Airplane Upsets ................................................................. 2.82.4.2.1 Flight Instruments.............................................................................................................. 2.92.4.2.2 Autoflight Systems ............................................................................................................ 2.92.4.2.3 Flight Control and Other Anomalies ................................................................................. 2.92.4.3 Pilot-Induced Airplane Upsets .......................................................................................... 2.92.4.3.1 Instrument Cross-Check ..................................................................................................2.102.4.3.2 Adjusting Attitude and Power ......................................................................................... 2.102.4.3.3 Inattention ........................................................................................................................ 2.102.4.3.4 Distraction From Primary Cockpit Duties ...................................................................... 2.102.4.3.5 Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation .................................................................................... 2.102.4.3.6 Pilot Incapacitation .......................................................................................................... 2.112.4.3.7 Improper Use of Airplane Automation ........................................................................... 2.112.4.4 Combination of Causes ................................................................................................... 2.11

2.5 Swept-Wing Airplane Fundamentals for Pilots .............................................................. 2.122.5.1 Flight Dynamics .............................................................................................................. 2.122.5.2 Energy States ................................................................................................................... 2.122.5.3 Load Factors .................................................................................................................... 2.132.5.4 Aerodynamic Flight Envelope ........................................................................................ 2.162.5.5 Aerodynamics .................................................................................................................. 2.172.5.5.1 Angle of Attack and Stall ................................................................................................ 2.172.5.5.2 Camber............................................................................................................................. 2.202.5.5.3 Control Surface Fundamentals ........................................................................................ 2.212.5.5.3.1 Spoiler-Type Devices....................................................................................................... 2.212.5.5.3.2 Trim .................................................................................................................................. 2.222.5.5.4 Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic Considerations ................................................... 2.232.5.5.4.1 Angle of Sideslip .............................................................................................................. 2.232.5.5.4.2 Wing Dihedral Effects ..................................................................................................... 2.24

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2.ii

2.5.5.4.3 Pilot-Commanded Sideslip ..............................................................................................2.252.5.5.5 High-Speed, High-Altitude Characteristics .................................................................... 2.252.5.5.6 Stability ............................................................................................................................ 2.262.5.5.7 Maneuvering in Pitch ...................................................................................................... 2.272.5.5.8 Mechanics of Turning Flight ........................................................................................... 2.292.5.5.9 Lateral Maneuvering ....................................................................................................... 2.312.5.5.10 Directional Maneuvering................................................................................................. 2.322.5.5.11 Flight at Extremely Low Airspeeds ................................................................................ 2.332.5.5.12 Flight at Extremely High Speeds .................................................................................... 2.33

2.6 Recovery From Airplane Upsets ..................................................................................... 2.342.6.1 Situation Awareness of an Airplane Upset ..................................................................... 2.342.6.2 Miscellaneous Issues Associated With Upset Recovery ................................................ 2.342.6.2.1 Startle Factor ................................................................................................................... 2.342.6.2.2 Negative G Force............................................................................................................. 2.352.6.2.3 Use of Full Control Inputs ............................................................................................... 2.352.6.2.4 Counter-Intuitive Factors ................................................................................................ 2.352.6.2.5 Previous Training in Nonsimilar Airplanes .................................................................... 2.352.6.2.6 Potential Effects on Engines ........................................................................................... 2.352.6.3 Airplane Upset Recovery Techniques............................................................................. 2.352.6.3.1 Stall .................................................................................................................................. 2.362.6.3.2 Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques ............................................................ 2.362.6.3.3 Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques ............................................................. 2.372.6.3.4 High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques ........................................................................ 2.382.6.3.5 Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques............................................ 2.38

Section Page

SECTION 2

2.1

2Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery

2.0 Introduction

The “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery” isone part of the Airplane Upset Recovery TrainingAid. The other parts include an “Overview forManagement” (Sec. 1), “Example Airplane UpsetRecovery Training Program” (Sec. 3), “Refer-ences for Additional Information” (Sec. 4), and atwo-part video.

The goal of this training aid is to increase theability of pilots to recognize and avoid situationsthat can lead to airplane upsets and to improve theirability to recover control of an airplane that hasexceeded the normal flight regime. This will beaccomplished by increasing awareness of poten-tial upset situations and knowledge of aerodynam-ics and by application of this knowledge duringsimulator training scenarios.

The education material and the recommendationsprovided in the Airplane Upset Recovery TrainingAid were developed through an extensive reviewprocess to achieve a consensus of the air transportindustry.

2.1 ObjectivesThe objectives of the “Pilot Guide to AirplaneUpset Recovery” are to provide pilots with• Knowledge to recognize situations that may

lead to airplane upsets so that they may beprevented.

• Basic airplane aerodynamic information.• Airplane flight maneuvering information and

techniques for recovering airplanes that havebeen upset.

It is intended that this information be provided topilots during academic training and that it beretained for future use.

2.2 Definition of Airplane Upset

Research and discussions within the commercialaviation industry indicated that it was necessary toestablish a descriptive term and definition in orderto develop this training aid. Terms such as “un-usual attitude,” “advanced maneuver,” “selectedevent,” “loss of control,” “airplane upset,” andothers are terms used within the industry. The teamdecided that “airplane upset” was appropriate forthis training aid. An airplane upset is defined as anairplane in flight unintentionally exceeding theparameters normally experienced in line opera-tions or training.

While specific values may vary among airplanemodels, the following unintentional conditionsgenerally describe an airplane upset:• Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose up.• Pitch attitude greater than 10 deg, nose down.• Bank angle greater than 45 deg.• Within the above parameters, but flying at air-

speeds inappropriate for the conditions.

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2.2

2.3 The Situation

The commercial aviation industry has not specifi-cally tracked airplane upset incidents that meetthis training aid’s precise definition; therefore,safety data do not directly correlate to the upsetparameters established for this training aid. How-ever, the data that are available suggest that loss ofcontrol is a problem that deserves attention. Figure 1shows that loss of control in flight accounted formany fatalities during the indicated time period.

2.4 Causes of Airplane Upsets

Airplane upsets are not a common occurrence.This may be for a variety of reasons. Airplanedesign and certification methods have improved.Equipment has become more reliable. Perhapstraining programs have been effective in teachingpilots to avoid situations that lead to airplaneupsets. While airplane upsets seldom take place,there are a variety of reasons why they happen.Figure 2 shows incidents and causes from NASAAviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) re-ports. The National Transportation Safety Boardanalysis of 20 transport-category loss-of-controlaccidents from 1986 to 1996 indicates that themajority were caused by the airplane stalling(Fig. 3). This section provides a review of the mostprevalent causes for airplane upsets.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Number offatal accidents

(137 total)

2396

2221

760

CFIT Loss ofcontrolin flight

In-flightfire

Sabotage Mid-air

collision

Hijack Ice/snow

Landing Wind-shear

Fuelexhaus-

tion

Other Runwayincursion

RTO

607506

306162 143 119 113 111

45 3

36 37 4 5 2 8 5 11 3 7 14 4 1

73 = 53%

Total fatalities: 7492

CFIT and loss of control in flight fatalities:4617, or 62%

Number offatalities

Figure 1Worldwide Airline

Fatalities Classifiedby Type of Event,

1987 to 1996

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2.3

2.4.1 Environmentally InducedAirplane Upsets

The predominant number of airplane upsets arecaused by various environmental factors (Fig. 2).Unfortunately, the aviation industry has the leastamount of influence over the environment whencompared to human factors or airplane-anomaly-caused upsets. The industry recognizes this di-lemma and resorts to training as a means foravoiding environmental hazards. Separate educa-tion and training aids have been produced throughan industry team process that addresses turbu-lence, windshear, and wake turbulence.

2.4.1.1 Turbulence

Turbulent atmosphere is characterized by a largevariation in an air current over a short distance.The main causes of turbulence are jet streams,convective currents, obstructions to wind flow,and windshear. Turbulence is categorized as “light,”“moderate,” “severe,” and “extreme.” Refer to anindustry-produced Turbulence Education andTraining Aid for more information about turbu-lence. This aid is available from the NationalTechnical Information Service or The BoeingCompany. Only limited information is presentedin this section for a short review of the subject.

Figure 2MultiengineTurbojet Loss-of-Control Factors,January 1987 toMay 1995, ASRS*

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Total number ofincidents: 297

MicroburstYawdamper

AileronsRudderWindshearFlapsAutopilotAircrafticing

SevereWx

turbulence

Aircraftwake

turbulence

Numberofincidents

*The ASRS database is current through May 1995.Data are based on ASRS reports containing any reference to loss of control involving the above factors that include reporter narratives.

0

2

4

6

8

Stall Flight controls/systems/structure

Icing Microburst

Causes of loss-of-control accidents, 1986 to 1996

Numberof accidents

Crewdisorientation

Other/unknown

Figure 3Loss-of-ControlAccidents (Trans-port Category)

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2.4

Knowledge of the various types of turbulenceassists in avoiding it and, therefore, the potentialfor an airplane upset.

In one extreme incident, an airplane encounteredsevere turbulence that caused the number 2 engineto depart the airplane. The airplane entered a roll50 deg left, followed by a huge yaw. Several pitchand roll oscillations were reported. The crew re-covered and landed the airplane.

2.4.1.1.1 Clear Air Turbulence

Clear air turbulence (CAT) is defined by the Aero-nautical Information Manual as “high-level turbu-lence (normally above 15,000 ft above sea level)not associated with cumuliform cloudiness, in-cluding thunderstorms.”

Although CAT can be encountered in any layer ofthe atmosphere, it is almost always present in thevicinity of jet streams. A number of jet streams(high-altitude paths of winds exceeding velocitiesof 75 to 100 kn) may exist at any given time, andtheir locations will vary constantly. CAT becomesparticularly difficult to predict as it is extremelydynamic and does not have common dimensionsof area or time. In general, areas of turbulenceassociated with a jet stream are from 100 to 300 milong, elongated in the direction of the wind; 50 to100 mi wide; and 2000 to 5000 ft deep. These areasmay persist from 30 min to 1 day. CAT near the jetstream is the result of the difference in wind-speeds and the windshear generated between points.CAT is considered moderate when the verticalwindshear is 5 kn per 1000 ft or greater and thehorizontal shear is 20 kn per 150 nm, or both.Severe CAT occurs when the vertical shear is 6 knper 1000 ft and the horizontal shear is 40 kn per150 nm or greater, or both.

2.4.1.1.2 Mountain Wave

Mountains are the greatest obstructions to windflow. This type of turbulence is classified as “me-chanical” because it is caused by a mechanicaldisruption of wind. Over mountains, rotor or len-ticular clouds are sure signs of turbulence. How-ever, mechanical turbulence may also be present inair too dry to produce clouds. Light to extremeturbulence is created by mountains.

Severe turbulence is defined as that which causeslarge, abrupt changes in altitude or attitude. Itusually causes large variation in indicated air-

speed. The airplane may be momentarily out ofcontrol. Severe turbulence can be expected inmountainous areas where wind components ex-ceeding 50 kn are perpendicular to and near theridge level; in and near developing and maturethunderstorms; occasionally, in other toweringcumuliform clouds; within 50 to 100 mi on the coldside of the center of the jet stream; in troughs aloft;and in lows aloft where vertical windshears exceed10 kn per 1000 ft and horizontal windshears ex-ceed 40 kn per 150 mi.

Extreme turbulence is defined as that in which theairplane is violently tossed around and practicallyimpossible to control. It may cause structural dam-age. Extreme turbulence can be found in moun-tain-wave situations, in and below the level ofwell-developed rotor clouds, and in severethunderstorms.

2.4.1.1.3 Windshear

Wind variations at low altitude have long beenrecognized as a serious hazard to airplanes duringtakeoff and approach. These wind variations canresult from a large variety of meteorological con-ditions, such as topographical conditions, tem-perature inversions, sea breezes, frontal systems,strong surface winds, and the most violent forms ofwind change—thunderstorms and rain showers.Thunderstorms and rain showers may produce anairplane upset, and they will be discussed in thefollowing section. The Windshear Training Aidprovides comprehensive information onwindshear avoidance and training. This aid isavailable from the National Technical InformationService or The Boeing Company.

2.4.1.1.4 Thunderstorms

There are two basic types of thunderstorms: airmassand frontal. Airmass thunderstorms appear to berandomly distributed in unstable air, and theydevelop from localized heating at the Earth’s sur-face (Fig. 4). The heated air rises and cools to formcumulus clouds. As the cumulus stage continues todevelop, precipitation forms in high portions of thecloud and falls. Precipitation signals the beginningof the mature stage and the presence of a downdraft.After approximately an hour, the heated updraftcreating the thunderstorm is cut off by rainfall.Heat is removed and the thunderstorm dissipates.Many thunderstorms produce an associated cold-air gust front as a result of the downflow andoutrush of rain-cooled air. These gust fronts are

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usually very turbulent, and they can create a seri-ous airplane upset, especially during takeoff andapproach.

Frontal thunderstorms are usually associated withweather systems line fronts, converging wind, andtroughs aloft (Fig. 5). Frontal thunderstorms formin squall lines; last several hours; generate heavyrain, and possibly hail; and produce strong gustywinds, and possibly tornadoes. The principal dis-tinction in formation of these more severe thunder-storms is the presence of large, horizontal wind

changes (speed and direction) at different altitudesin the thunderstorm. This causes the severe thun-derstorm to be vertically tilted. Precipitation fallsaway from the heated updraft, permitting a muchlonger storm development period. Resulting air-flows within the storm accelerate to much highervertical velocities, which ultimately results inhigher horizontal wind velocities at the surface.The downward moving column of air, or downdraft,of a typical thunderstorm is fairly large, about 1 to5 mi in diameter. Resultant outflows may producelarge changes in windspeed.

Figure 4Airmass Thunder-storm Life Cycle

Figure 5Severe FrontalThunderstormAnatomy

Light rain

Cumulus stage

Localized surfaceheating

= Airflow/circulation Surface cooling

Mature stageDissipating stage

Rain

Gustfront

Surface heating

Heavy rainand hail

Wind

Airflowcirculation

DowndraftDowndraft

Updraft

Anvil

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2.6

when exiting the microburst. Windspeeds inten-sify for about 5 min after a microburst initiallycontacts the ground and typically dissipate within10 to 20 min after ground contact.

It is vital to recognize that some microburstscannot be successfully escaped with any knowntechniques.

2.4.1.2 Wake Turbulence

Wake turbulence is the leading cause of airplaneupsets that are induced by the environment. Thephenomenon that creates wake turbulence resultsfrom the forces that lift the airplane. High-pressureair from the lower surface of the wings flowsaround the wingtips to the lower pressure regionabove the wings. A pair of counter-rotating vorti-

2.4.1.1.5 Microbursts

Identification of concentrated, more powerfuldowndrafts—known as microbursts—has resultedfrom the investigation of windshear accidents andfrom meteorological research. Microbursts canoccur anywhere convective weather conditionsoccur. Observations suggest that approximately5% of all thunderstorms produce a microburst.Downdrafts associated with microbursts are typi-cally only a few hundred to 3000 ft across. Whena downdraft reaches the ground, it spreads outhorizontally and may form one or more horizontalvortex rings around the downdraft (Fig. 6).Microburst outflows are not always symmetric.Therefore, a significant airspeed increase may notoccur upon entering outflows, or it may be muchless than the subsequent airspeed loss experienced

Figure 6Symmetric

Microburst—Anairplane transiting

the microburstwould experienceequal headwinds

and tailwinds.

DowndraftVirga or rain

Horizontalvortex

Outflowfront

Outflow

1000 ftApproximatescale

1000 ft0

Cloud Base

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2.7

ces are thus shed from the wings: the right wingvortex rotates counterclockwise, and the left wingvortex rotates clockwise (Fig. 7). The region ofrotating air behind the airplane is where waketurbulence occurs. The strength of the turbulenceis determined predominantly by the weight, wing-span, and speed of the airplane. Generally, vorticesdescend at an initial rate of about 300 to 500 ft/minfor about 30 sec. The descent rate decreases andeventually approaches zero at between 500 and900 ft below the flight path. Flying at or above theflight path provides the best method for avoidance.Maintaining a vertical separation of at least 1000 ftwhen crossing below the preceding aircraft may beconsidered safe. This vertical motion is illustratedin Figure 8. Refer to the Wake Turbulence Train-ing Aid for comprehensive information on how toavoid wake turbulence. This aid is available from

the National Technical Information Service or TheBoeing Company.

An encounter with wake turbulence usually resultsin induced rolling or pitch moments; however, inrare instances an encounter could cause structuraldamage to the airplane. In more than one instance,pilots have described an encounter to be like “hit-ting a wall.” The dynamic forces of the vortex canexceed the roll or pitch capability of the airplane toovercome these forces. During test programs, thewake was approached from all directions to evalu-ate the effect of encounter direction on response.One item was common to all encounters: withouta concerted effort by the pilot to reenter the wake,the airplane would be expelled from the wake andan airplane upset could occur.

500 to 900 ft

Flight path

Levels off in approximately 5 nm in approach configuration

Figure 7Wake TurbulenceFormation

Figure 8Vertical MotionOut of GroundEffect

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2.8

Counter-control is usually effective and inducedroll is minimal in cases where the wingspan andailerons of the encountering airplane extend be-yond the rotational flowfield of the vortex (Fig. 9).It is more difficult for airplanes with short wing-span (relative to the generating airplane) to counterthe imposed roll induced by the vortex flow.

Avoiding wake turbulence is the key to avoidingmany airplane upsets. Pilot and air traffic controlprocedures and standards are designed to accom-plish this goal, but as the aviation industry ex-pands, the probability of an encounter alsoincreases.

2.4.1.3 Airplane Icing

Technical literature is rich with data showing theadverse aerodynamic effects of airfoil contamina-tion. Large degradation of airplane performancecan result from the surface roughness of an ex-tremely small amount of contamination. Thesedetrimental effects vary with the location androughness, and they produce unexpected airplanehandling characteristics, including degradation ofmaximum lift capability, increased drag, and pos-sibly unanticipated changes in stability and con-trol. Therefore, the axiom of “Keep it clean” forcritical airplane surfaces continues to be a univer-sal requirement.

2.4.2 Systems-Anomalies-InducedAirplane Upsets

Airplane designs, equipment reliability, and flightcrew training have all improved since the Wrightbrothers’ first powered flight. Airplane certifica-tion processes and oversight are rigorous. Airlinesand manufacturers closely monitor equipment fail-ure rates for possible redesign of airplane parts ormodification of maintenance procedures. Dissemi-nation of information is rapid if problems aredetected. Improvement in airplane designs andequipment components has always been a majorfocus in the aviation industry. In spite of thiscontinuing effort, there are still failures. Some ofthese failures can lead to an airplane upset. That iswhy flight crews are trained to overcome or miti-gate the impact of the failures. Most failures aresurvivable if correct responses are made by theflight crew.

An airplane was approaching an airfield and ap-peared to break off to the right for a left downwindto the opposite runway. On downwind at approxi-mately 1500 ft, the airplane pitched up to nearly 60deg and climbed to an altitude of nearly 4500 ft,with the airspeed deteriorating to almost 0 kn. Theairplane then tail-slid, pitched down, and seem-ingly recovered. However, it continued into an-other steep pitchup of 70 deg. This time as it

Wake vortexflow

field

Counter-control

Figure 9Induced Roll

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2.9

tail-slid, it fell off toward the right wing. As itpitched down and descended again, seeminglyrecovering, the airplane impacted the ground in aflat pitch, slightly right wing down. The digitalflight data recorder indicated that the stabilizertrim was more than 13 units nose up. The flightcrew had discussed a trim problem during thedescent but made no move to cut out the electrictrim or to manually trim. The accident was surviv-able if the pilot had responded properly.

2.4.2.1 Flight Instruments

The importance of reliable flight instruments hasbeen known from the time that pilots first began torely on artificial horizons. This resulted in con-tinual improvements in reliability, design, redun-dancy, and information provided to the pilots.

However, instrument failures do infrequentlyoccur. All airplane operations manuals provideflight instrument system information so that whenfailures do happen, the pilot can analyze the impactand select the correct procedural alternatives. Air-planes are designed to make sure pilots have atleast the minimum information needed to safelycontrol the airplane.

In spite of this, several accidents point out thatpilots are not always prepared to correctly analyzethe alternatives, and an upset takes place. Duringthe takeoff roll, a check of the airspeed at 80 knrevealed that the Captain’s airspeed was not func-tioning. The takeoff was continued. When theairplane reached 4700 ft, about 2 min into theflight, some advisory messages appeared inform-ing the crew of flight control irregularities. Com-ments followed between the pilots about confusionthat was occurring between the airspeed indicationsystems from the left-side airspeed indication sys-tem, affecting the indication of the left-side air-speed autopilot and activation of the overspeedwarning. The airplane continued flying with theautopilot connected and receiving an erroneousindication in the Captain’s airspeed. Recordedsounds and flight data indicated extreme condi-tions of flight, one corresponding to overspeed andthe other to slow speed (stick shaker). The Captaininitiated an action to correct the overspeed, and thecopilot advised that his airspeed indicator wasdecreasing. The airplane had three airspeed indi-cating systems, and at no time did the flight crewmention a comparison among the three systems.The flight recorders indicated the airplane was out

of control for almost 2 min until impact. Expertsdetermined that the anomalies corresponded toconditions equal to an obstruction in the Captain’sairspeed sensors (pitot head).

2.4.2.2 Autoflight Systems

Autoflight systems include the autopilot,autothrottles, and all related systems that performflight management and guidance. The systemsintegrate information from a variety of other air-plane systems. They keep track of altitude, head-ing, airspeed, and flight path with unflaggingaccuracy. The pilot community has tended to de-velop a great deal of confidence in the systems, andthat has led to complacency in some cases. Asreliable as the autoflight systems may be, they can,and have, malfunctioned. Because of the integra-tion of systems, it may even be difficult for thepilot to analyze the cause of the anomaly, andairplane upsets have occurred. Since advancedautomation may tend to mask the cause of theanomaly, an important action in taking control ofthe airplane is to reduce the level of automation.Disengaging the autopilot, the autothrottles, orboth, may help in analyzing the cause of theanomaly by putting the pilot in closer touch withthe airplane and perhaps the anomaly.

2.4.2.3 Flight Control and Other Anomalies

Flight control anomalies, such as flap asymmetry,spoiler problems, and others, are addressed inairplane operations manuals. While they are rareevents, airplane certification requirements ensurethat pilots have sufficient information and aretrained to handle these events. However, pilotsshould be prepared for the unexpected, especiallyduring takeoffs. Engine failure at low altitudeswhile the airplane is at a low-energy condition isstill a demanding maneuver for the pilot to handle.An erroneous stall warning on takeoff or shortlyafter takeoff could be a situation that allows theairplane to become upset.

2.4.3 Pilot-Induced Airplane UpsetsWe have known for many years that sensory inputscan be misleading to pilots, especially when theycannot see the horizon. To solve this problem,airplanes are equipped with flight instruments toprovide the necessary information for controllingthe airplane.

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2.10

2.4.3.1 Instrument Cross-Check

Pilots must cross-check and interpret the instru-ments and apply the proper pitch, bank, and poweradjustments. Misinterpretation of the instrumentsor slow cross-checks by the pilot can lead to anairplane upset.

An important factor influencing cross-check tech-nique is the ability of the pilot: “All pilots do notinterpret instrument presentations with the samespeed; some are faster than others in understand-ing and evaluating what they see. One reason forthis is that the natural ability of pilots varies.Another reason is that the experience levels aredifferent. Pilots who are experienced and fly regu-larly will probably interpret their instruments morequickly than inexperienced pilots.”1

2.4.3.2 Adjusting Attitude and Power

A satisfactory instrument cross-check is only onepart of the equation. It is necessary for the pilot tomake the correct adjustments to pitch, bank, andpower in order to control the airplane. Airplaneupsets have occurred when the pilot has madeincorrect adjustments. This can happen when thepilot is not familiar with the airplane responses topower adjustments or control inputs. There havealso been instances when two pilots have appliedopposing inputs simultaneously.

2.4.3.3 Inattention

A review of airplane upsets shows that inattentionor neglecting to monitor the airplane performancecan result in minor excursions from normal flightregimes to extreme deviations from the norm.Many of the minor upsets can be traced to animproper instrument cross-check; for example,neglecting to monitor all the instruments or fixat-ing on certain instrument indications and not de-tecting changes in others. Some instrumentindications are not as noticeable as others. Forexample, a slight heading change is not as eye-catching as a 1000-ft/min change in vertical veloc-ity indication.

There are many extreme cases of inattention by theflight crew that have resulted in airplane upsetaccidents. In one accident, a crew had discussed arecurring autothrottle problem but continued touse the autothrottle. On level-off from a descent,

one throttle remained at idle and the other compen-sated by going to a high power setting. The result-ing asymmetric thrust exceeded the autopilotauthority and the airplane began to roll. At ap-proximately 50 deg of bank, full pro-roll lateralcontrol wheel was applied. The airplane rolled 168deg into a steep dive of 78 deg, nose low, andcrashed.

2.4.3.4 Distraction From PrimaryCockpit Duties

“Control the airplane first” has always been aguiding principle in flying. Unfortunately, it is notalways followed. In this incident, both pilots werefully qualified as pilot-in-command and were su-pervising personnel. The Captain left the left seat,and the copilot set the airplane on autopilot andwent to work on a clipboard on his lap. At this pointthe autopilot disengaged, possibly with no annun-ciator light warning. The airplane entered a steep,nose-down, right spiral. The copilot’s instrumentpanel went blank, and he attempted to use thepilot’s artificial horizon. However, it had tumbled.In the meantime, the Captain returned to his stationand recovered the airplane at 6000 ft using needleand ball. This is just one of many incidents wherepilots have become distracted. Many times, thedistraction is caused by relatively minor reasons,such as caution lights or engine performanceanomalies.

2.4.3.5 Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation

Spatial disorientation has been a significant factorin many airplane upset accidents. The definition ofspatial disorientation is the inability to correctlyorient oneself with respect to the Earth’s surface.A flight crew was climbing to about 2000 ft atnight during a missed approach from a secondInstrument Landing System (ILS) approach. Theweather was instrument meteorological conditions(IMC)– ceiling: 400 ft, visibility: 2 mi, rain, andfog. The airplane entered a spiral to the left. TheCaptain turned the controls over to the First Of-ficer, who was unsuccessful in the recovery at-tempt. The airplane hit trees and was destroyed byground impact and fire. [NTSB/AAR-92-05]

All pilots are susceptible to sensory illusions whileflying at night or in certain weather conditions.These illusions can lead to a conflict betweenactual attitude indications and what the pilot “feels”

1. Source: Instrument Flight Procedures. Air Force Manual 11-217, Vol. 1 (1 April 1996).

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2.11

is the correct attitude. Disoriented pilots may notalways be aware of their orientation error. Manyairplane upsets occur while the pilot is busilyengaged in some task that takes attention awayfrom the flight instruments. Others perceive aconflict between bodily senses and the flight in-struments but allow the airplane to become upsetbecause they cannot resolve the conflict. Unrecog-nized spatial disorientation tends to occur duringtask-intensive portions of the flight, while recog-nized spatial disorientation occurs during attitude-changing maneuvers.

There are several situations that may lead to visualillusions and then airplane upsets. A pilot canexperience false vertical and horizontal cues. Fly-ing over sloping cloud decks or land that slopesgradually upward into mountainous terrain oftencompels pilots to fly with their wings parallel to theslope, rather than straight and level. A relatedphenomenon is the disorientation caused by theAurora Borealis in which false vertical and hori-zontal cues generated by the aurora result in atti-tude confusion.

It is beyond the scope of this training aid to expandon the physiological causes of spatial disorienta-tion, other than to alert pilots that it can result inloss of control of an airplane. It should be empha-sized that the key to success in instrument flying isan efficient instrument cross-check. The only reli-able aircraft attitude information, at night or inIMC, is provided by the flight instruments. Anysituation or factor that interferes with this flow ofinformation, directly or indirectly, increases thepotential for disorientation. The pilot’s role inpreventing airplane upsets due to spatial disorien-tation essentially involves three things: training,good flight planning, and knowledge of proce-dures. Both pilots must be aware that it can happen,and they must be prepared to control the airplaneif the other person is disoriented.

2.4.3.6 Pilot Incapacitation

A First Officer fainted while at the controls enroute to the Azores, Portugal. He slumped againstthe controls, and while the rest of the flight crewwas removing him from his flight position, theairplane pitched up and rolled to over 80 deg ofbank. The airplane was then recovered by theCaptain. While this is a very rare occurrence, itdoes happen, and pilots need to be prepared toreact properly. Another rare possibility for air-

plane upset is an attempted hijack situation. Pilotsmay have very little control in this critical situa-tion, but they must be prepared to recover theairplane if it enters into an upset.

2.4.3.7 Improper Use of Airplane Automation

The following incident describes a classic case ofimproper use of airplane automation. “During anapproach with autopilot 1 in command mode, amissed approach was initiated at 1500 ft. It isundetermined whether this was initiated by thepilots; however, the pilot attempted to counteractthe autopilot-commanded pitchup by pushing for-ward on the control column. Normally, pushing onthe control column would disengage the autopilot,but automatic disconnect was inhibited in go-around mode in this model airplane. As a result ofthe control column inputs, the autopilot trimmedthe stabilizer to 12 deg, nose up, in order tomaintain the programmed go-around profile. Mean-while, the pilot-applied control column forcescaused the elevator to deflect 14 deg, nose down.The inappropriate pilot-applied control columnforces resulted in three extreme pitchup stallsbefore control could be regained. The airplanesystems operated in accordance with design speci-fications.” [FSF, Flight Safety Digest 1/92]

The advancement of technology in today’s mod-ern airplanes has brought us flight directors, auto-pilots, autothrottles, and flight managementsystems. All of these devices are designed toreduce the flight crew workload. When used prop-erly, this technology has made significant contri-butions to flight safety. But technology can includecomplexity and lead to trust and eventual compla-cency. The systems can sometimes do things thatthe flight crew did not intend for them to do.Industry experts and regulators continue to worktogether to find the optimal blend of hardware,software, and pilot training to ensure the highestpossible level of system performance—which cen-ters on the human element.

2.4.4 Combination of CausesA single cause of an airplane upset can be theinitiator of other causes. In one instance, a possibleinadvertent movement of the flap/slat handle re-sulted in the extension of the leading edge slats.The Captain’s initial reaction to counter the pitchupwas to exert forward control column force; thecontrol force when the autopilot disconnected re-

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2.12

sulted in an abrupt airplane nose-down elevatorcommand. Subsequent commanded elevator move-ments to correct the pitch attitude induced severalviolent pitch oscillations. The Captain’s com-manded elevator movements were greater thannecessary because of the airplane’s light controlforce characteristics. The oscillations resulted in aloss of 5000 ft of altitude. The maximum nose-down pitch attitude was greater than 20 deg, andthe maximum normal accelerations were greaterthan 2 g and less than 1 g.

This incident lends credence to the principle usedthroughout this training aid: Reduce the level ofautomation while initiating recovery; that is, dis-connect the autopilot and autothrottle, and do notlet the recovery from one upset lead to another.

2.5 Swept-Wing Airplane Fundamentalsfor Pilots

2.5.1 Flight Dynamics

In understanding the flight dynamics of large,swept-wing transport airplanes, it is important tofirst understand what causes the forces and mo-ments acting on the airplane and then move to whatkinds of motion these forces cause. Finally, withthis background, one can gain an understanding ofhow a pilot can control these forces and momentsin order to direct the flight path.

Newton’s first law states that an object at rest willtend to stay at rest, and an object in motion willtend to stay in motion in a straight line, unless actedon by an external force. This definition is funda-mental to all motion, and it provides the founda-tion for all discussions of flight mechanics. Acareful examination of this law reveals an impor-tant subtlety, which is the reference to motion in astraight line. If an airplane in motion is to deviatefrom a straight line, there must be a force, or acombination of forces, imposed to achieve thedesired trajectory. The generation of the forces isthe subject of aerodynamics (to be discussed later).The generation of forces requires energy.

2.5.2 Energy StatesA pilot has three sources of energy available tomanage or manipulate to generate aerodynamicforces and thus control the flight path of anairplane.

The term “energy state” describes how much ofeach kind of energy the airplane has available atany given time. Pilots who understand the airplaneenergy state will be in a position to know instantlywhat options they may have to maneuver theirairplane. The three sources of energy available tothe pilot are• Kinetic energy, which increases with increas-

ing airspeed.• Potential energy, which is proportional to

altitude.• Chemical energy, from the fuel in the tanks.

The airplane is continuously expending energy; inflight, this is because of drag. (On the ground,wheel brakes and thrust reversers, as well as fric-tion, dissipate energy.) This drag energy in flight isusually offset by using some of the stored chemicalenergy—by burning fuel in the engines.

During maneuvering, these three types of energycan be traded, or exchanged, usually at the cost ofadditional drag. This process of consciously ma-nipulating the energy state of the airplane is re-ferred to as “energy management.” Airspeed canbe traded for altitude, as in a zoom-climb. Altitudecan be traded for airspeed, as in a dive. Storedenergy can be traded for either altitude or airspeedby advancing the throttles to command more thrustthan required for level flight. The trading of energymust be accomplished, though, with a view towardthe final desired energy state. For example, whilealtitude can be traded for airspeed by diving theairplane, care must be taken in selecting the angleof the dive so that the final desired energy state willbe captured.

This becomes important when the pilot wants togenerate aerodynamic forces and moments to ma-neuver the airplane. Only kinetic energy (airspeed)can generate aerodynamic forces and maneuvercapability. Kinetic energy can be traded for poten-tial energy (climb). Potential energy can only beconverted to kinetic energy. Chemical energy canbe converted to either potential or kinetic energy,but only at specified rates. These energy relation-ships are shown in Figure 10.

High-performance jet transport airplanes are de-signed to exhibit very low drag in the cruise con-figuration. This means that the penalty for tradingairspeed for altitude is relatively small. Jet trans-port airplanes are also capable of gaining speedvery rapidly in a descent. The pilot needs to exer-cise considerable judgment in making very large

SECTION 2

2.13

energy trades. Just as the level flight accelerationcapability is limited by the maximum thrust of theengines, the deceleration capability is limited bythe ability to generate very large drag increments.For high-performance jet transport airplanes, theability to generate large decelerating drag incre-ments is often limited. The pilot always should beaware of these limitations for the airplane beingflown. A very clean airplane operating near itslimits can easily go from the low-speed boundaryto and through the high-speed boundary veryquickly.

The objective in maneuvering the airplane is tomanage energy so that kinetic energy stays be-tween limits (stall and placards), the potentialenergy stays within limits (terrain to buffet alti-tude), and chemical energy stays above certainthresholds (not running out of fuel). This objectiveis especially important during an inadvertent upsetand the ensuing recovery.

In managing these energy states and trading be-tween the various sources of energy, the pilot doesnot directly control the energy. The pilot controlsthe orientation and magnitude of the various forcesacting on the airplane. These forces result in accel-erations applied to the airplane. The result of theseaccelerations is a change in the orientation of theairplane and a change in the direction or magni-tude, or both, of the flight path vector. Ultimately,velocity and altitude define the energy state.

This process of controlling forces to change accel-erations and produce a new energy state takes time.The amount of time required is a function of themass of the airplane and the magnitude of the

applied forces, and it is also governed by Newton’slaws. Airplanes of larger mass generally take longerto change orientation than do smaller ones. Thelonger time requires the pilot to plan ahead more ina large-mass airplane and make sure that the ac-tions taken will achieve the final desired energystate.

2.5.3 Load FactorsLoad factor in the realm of flight mechanics is ameasure of the acceleration being experienced bythe airplane. By Newton’s second law,

force = mass x acceleration

Since the airplane has mass, if it is being acceler-ated there must be a force acting on it. Conversely,if there is a force acting on an airplane, it willaccelerate. In this case, acceleration refers to achange in either magnitude or direction of thevelocity. This definition of acceleration is muchmore broad than the commonplace reference toacceleration as simply “speeding up.” Accelera-tion has dimensions (length/time2). It is conve-nient to refer to acceleration by comparing it to theacceleration due to gravity (which is 32.2 ft/s2 or9.81 m/s2). Acceleration is expressed in this way asunits of gravity (g).

In addition, the acceleration (or load factor in g’s)is typically discussed in terms of componentsrelative to the principal axes of the airplane:• Longitudinal (fore and aft, typically thought of

as speed change).• Lateral (sideways).• Vertical (or normal).

Figure 10EnergyRelationships

Aerodynamic forces,maneuver capability

Potential energy

Chemical energy

Kinetic energy

SECTION 2

2.14

Frequently, load factor is thought of as being onlyperpendicular to the floor of the airplane. But theforce, and thus the acceleration, may be at anyorientation to the airplane, and the vertical, ornormal, load factor represents only one compo-nent of the total acceleration. In sideslip, for ex-ample, there is a sideways acceleration, and thepilot feels pushed out of the seat sideways. In asteep climb or a rapid acceleration, the pilot feelsforced back into the seat.

In level flight, the vertical load factor is one timesthe acceleration due to gravity, or 1.0 (Fig. 11).This means that the wing is producing lift equal to1.0 times the weight of the airplane, and it isoriented in a direction opposed to the gravityvector. In a pull-up, the load factor is above 1.0(Fig. 12).

In the example in Figure 12, the load factor is 2.0.That is, the force generated by the airplane (wings,fuselage, etc.) is twice that of gravity. Also note

Figure 11Four Forces

of Flight

Figure 12Airplane in

Pull-Up

Drag Thrust

Lift = 1 x weight

Weight

Level flightpath

Weight

Flight pathis curved.

Lift > 1 x weight

SECTION 2

2.15

that the flight path is now curved. Newton’s firstlaw says that an object will continue in a straightline unless acted on by a force. In this case, the liftforce is acting in a perpendicular direction to thevelocity, and the resulting flight path is curved.

In a sustained vertical climb along a straight line,the thrust must be greater than the weight and drag.The load factor perpendicular to the airplane floormust be zero (Fig. 13a).

If it were anything but zero, the flight path wouldnot be a straight line (Fig. 13b).

Note that the acceleration is a result of the sum ofall forces acting on the airplane. One of thoseforces is always gravity. Gravity always producesan acceleration directed toward the center of theEarth. The airplane attitude determines the direc-tion of the gravitational force with respect to theairplane. Aerodynamic forces are produced as aresult of orientation and magnitude of the velocity

Figure 13bAirplane VerticalWith ForcesUnbalanced

Figure 13a(far left) AirplaneVertical With ForcesBalanced

Weight

Drag

Thrust >

Flight pathvertical

weightanddrag

Load factormust bezero

No force in thisdirection

Weight

Drag

Flight pathnot straight

Still noforce in thisdirection

Load factormore thanzero

Thrust

SECTION 2

2.16

vector relative to the airplane, which is reducedinto angles of attack and sideslip. (Refer to Sec.2.5.5, Aerodynamics, for a detailed discussion.) Itis the direction and speed of the airplane throughthe air that results in aerodynamic forces (e.g.,straight ahead or sideways, fast or slow). It is theorientation of the airplane to the center of the Earththat determines the orientation of the gravityvector.

Current jet transport airplanes are certificated towithstand normal vertical load factors from –1.0 to2.5 g in the cruise configuration. Figure 14 is atypical v-n diagram for a transport airplane (“v”for velocity, “n” for number of g’s acceleration). Inaddition to the strength of the structure, the han-dling qualities are demonstrated to be safe withinthese limits of load factor. This means that a pilotshould be able to maneuver safely to and fromthese load factors at these speeds without needingexceptional strength or skill.

Pilots should be aware of the various weight,configuration, altitude, and bank angle specifics ofthe diagrams for the particular airplane they flyand of the limitations imposed by them.

2.5.4 Aerodynamic Flight EnvelopeAirplanes are designed to be operated in well-defined envelopes of airspeed and altitude. Theoperational limits for an airplane—stall speeds,placarded maximum speeds and Mach numbers,and maximum certificated altitudes—are in theApproved Flight Manual (AFM) for each indi-vidual airplane. Within these limits, the airplaneshave been shown to exhibit safe flightcharacteristics.

Manufacturing and regulatory test pilots haveevaluated the characteristics of airplanes in condi-tions that include inadvertent exceedances of theseoperational envelopes to demonstrate that the air-

Figure 14Load Factor

Envelope ShowingSpeeds and Load

Factors

Figure 15Aerodynamic

Flight Envelope

Airspeed

Loadfactor

-1

0

1

2

3

Flaps down

Flaps up

Flaps up

S1 A C D

VS1

VA

VC

VD

= flaps up 1-g stallspeed

= design maneuverspeed, flaps up

= design structuredcruising speed

= design dive speedV V V V

Maximum operating altitude

Stallspeed*

Altitude

Airspeed

MDF

VDFVMO

MMO

MMO

MDF

VMO

V DF

= maximum operatingMach number

= maximum flight-demonstrated Machnumber

= maximum operatingairspeed

= maximum flight-demonstratedairspeed

* Function of airplane configuration and load factor.

SECTION 2

2.17

planes can be returned safely to the operationalenvelopes. Figure 15 depicts a typical flight enve-lope. M

MO and V

MO are the operational limitations,

but the figure also shows the relationship to MDF

and VDF

, the maximum dive speeds demonstratedin flight test. These are typically 0.05 to 0.07 Machand 50 kn higher than the operational limits. In theregion between the operational envelope and thedive envelope, the airplane is required to exhibitsafe characteristics. Although the characteristicsare allowed to be degraded in that region fromthose within the operational flight envelope, theyare shown to be adequate to return the airplane tothe operational envelope if the airplane is outsidethe operational envelope.

2.5.5 AerodynamicsAside from gravity and thrust forces, the otherforces acting on an airplane are generated as aresult of the changing pressures produced on the

surfaces that result in turn from the air flowingover them. A brief review of basic fundamentalaerodynamic principles will set the stage for dis-cussion of airplane upset flight dynamics.

2.5.5.1 Angle of Attack and Stall

Most force-generating surfaces on modern jet trans-port airplanes are carefully tailored to generatelifting forces efficiently. Wings and tail surfacesall produce lift forces in the same way. Figure 16shows a cross section of a lifting surface and thefamiliar definition of angle of attack. The lift forcein pounds generated by a surface is a function ofthe angle of attack, the dynamic pressure (which isproportional to the air density and the square of thetrue airspeed) of the air moving around it, and thesize of the surface.

It is important to understand the dependence of lifton angle of attack. Figure 17 shows how lift varies

Figure 16Airfoil at Angleof Attack

Chord line

Relative wind

Lift is function of

Angle ofattack

• Speed.• Density.• Wing area.• Angle of attack.

Figure 17Lift at Angleof Attack

Angle of attack

Lift

Not stalled StalledMaximumlift

Critical angleof attack

SECTION 2

2.18

with angle of attack for constant speed and airdensity. Important features of this dependencyinclude the fact that at zero angle of attack, lift isnot zero. This is because most lifting surfaces arecambered. Further, as angle of attack is increased,lift increases proportionally, and this increase inlift is normally quite linear. At higher angles ofattack, however, the lift due to angle of attackbehaves differently. Instead of increasing with anincrease in angle of attack, it decreases. At thiscritical angle of attack, the air moving over theupper surface can no longer remain attached to thesurface, the flow breaks down, and the surface isconsidered stalled.

It is necessary to understand that this breakdown ofthe flow and consequent loss of lift is dependentonly on the angle of attack of the surface. Exceedthe critical angle of attack and the surface willstall, and lift will decrease instead of increasing.This is true regardless of airplane speed or atti-tude. In order to sustain a lifting force on theaerodynamic surfaces, the pilot must ensure thatthe surfaces are flown at an angle of attack belowthe stall angle, that is, avoid stalling the airplane.

Depending on the context in which it is used,aerodynamicists use the term “angle of attack” ina number of ways. Angle of attack is always theangle between the oncoming air or relative wind,and some reference line on the airplane or wing.Sometimes it is referenced to the chord line at aparticular location on the wing, sometimes to an“average” chord line on the wing, other times it isreferenced to a convenient reference line on the

airplane, like the body reference x axis. Regardlessof the reference, the concept is the same as are theconsequences: exceed the critical angle of attackand the lifting surfaces and wind will separate,resulting in a loss of lift on those surfaces. Fre-quently the term “Airplane Angle of Attack” isused to refer to the angle between the relative windand the longitudinal axis of the airplane. In flightdynamics, this is frequently reduced to simply“angle of attack.”

Angle of attack can sometimes be confusing be-cause there is not typically an angle-of-attackindicator in most commercial jet transport air-planes. The three angles usually referred to in thelongitudinal axis are• Angle of attack.• Flight path angle.• Pitch angle.These three angles and their relationships to eachother are shown in Figure 18.

Pitch attitude, or angle, is the angle between thelongitudinal axis of the airplane and the horizon.This angle is displayed on the Attitude Indicator orartificial horizon.

The flight path angle is the angle between the flightpath vector and the horizon. This is also the climb(or descent angle). On the newest generation jettransports, this angle can be displayed on thePrimary Flight Display (PFD), as depicted in Fig-ure 18. Flight path angle can also be inferred fromthe Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) or altimeter, if

Figure 18Pitch Attitude,

Flight Path Angle,and Angle of

Attack

Horizon

Velocity

Angle of attack

Angle of attack is thedifference between pitchattitude and flight path angle(assumes no wind).

Pitchattitude

Flight path angle

Flight pathvector

SECTION 2

2.19

the ground speed is known. Many standard instru-ment departures require knowledge of flight pathangle in order to ensure obstacle clearance.

Angle of attack is also the difference between thepitch angle and the flight path angle in a no-windcondition. The angle of attack determines whetherthe aerodynamic surfaces on the airplane are stalledor not.

The important point is that when the angle of attackis above the stall angle, the lifting capability of thesurface is diminished. This is true regardless ofairspeed. An airplane wing can be stalled at anyairspeed. An airplane can be stalled in any attitude.If the angle of attack is greater than the stall angle,the surface will stall. Figure 19 indicates thatregardless of the airspeed or pitch attitude of theairplane, the angle of attack determines whetherthe wing is stalled.

A stall is characterized by any or a combination ofthe following:• Buffeting, which could be heavy.• Lack of pitch authority.• Lack of roll control.• Inability to arrest descent rate.

These characteristics are usually accompanied bya continuous stall warning. A stall must not beconfused with an approach-to-stall warning thatoccurs before the stall and warns of an approach-ing stall. An approach to stall is a controlled flightmaneuver. However, a full stall is an out-of-con-trol condition, but it is recoverable.

Stall speeds are published in the AFM for eachtransport airplane, giving the speeds at which theairplane will stall as a function of weight. Thisinformation is very important to the pilot, but itmust be understood that the concept of stall speedis very carefully defined for specific conditions:• Trim at 1.3 Vs.• Forward CG.• Low altitudes.• Deceleration rate of 1 kn/s.• Wings level.• Approximately 1-g flight.

Under normal conditions, the wings are level ornear level, and the normal load factor is very near1.0. Under these conditions, the published stallspeeds give the pilot an idea of the proximity to

Figure 19Several PitchAttitudes and StallAngle of Attack

Velocity

High AOA

High AOA

Velocity

Velocity

HighAOA

The wing only “knows”angle of attack (AOA).

HighAOA

Velocity

Horizon

SECTION 2

2.20

stall. In conditions other than these, however, thespeed at stall is not the same as the “stall speed.”Aerodynamic stall depends only on angle of at-tack, and it has a specific relationship to stall speedonly under the strict conditions previously noted.Many upsets are quite dynamic in nature andinvolve elevated load factors and large speed-change rates. Pilots should not expect the airplaneto remain unstalled just because the indicatedairspeed is higher than AFM chart speeds, becausethe conditions may be different.

All modern jet transports are certified to exhibitadequate warning of impending stall, to give thepilot opportunity to recover by decreasing theangle of attack. Whether this warning is by naturalaerodynamic buffet or provided by a stick shakeror other warning devices, it warns the pilot whenthe angle of attack is getting close to stall. More-over, the warning is required to be in a form otherthan visual. The pilot need not look at a particularinstrument, gauge, or indicator. The warning istactile: the pilot is able to feel the stall warningwith enough opportunity to recover promptly. Pi-lots need to be especially cognizant of stall warn-ing cues for the particular airplanes they fly. Theonset of stall warning should be taken as an indica-tion to not continue to increase the angle of attack.

The angle of attack at which a wing stalls reduceswith increasing Mach so that at high Mach (nor-mally, high altitude), an airplane may enter anaccelerated stall at an angle of attack that is lessthan the angle of attack for stalling at lower Machnumbers.

2.5.5.2 Camber

Camber refers to the amount of curvature evidentin an airfoil shape. Camber is illustrated inFigure 20. The mean camber line is a line connect-ing the midpoints of upper and lower surfaces of anairfoil. In contrast, the chord line is a straight lineconnecting the leading and trailing edges.

Technical aerodynamicists have defined camberin a variety of ways over the years, but the reasonfor introducing camber has remained the same:airfoils with camber are more efficient at produc-ing lift than those without. Importantly, airfoilswith specific kinds of camber at specific places aremore efficient than those of slightly different shape.

Airplanes that must produce lift as efficiently up aswell as down, such as competition aerobatics air-planes, usually employ symmetrical airfoils. Thesework well, but they are not as efficient for cruiseflight. Efficient, high-speed airplanes often em-

Figure 20Camber

Definition

Symmetrical Airfoil Modern Aft-Cambered Airfoil

Cambered Airfoil

Trailing edge

Mean camber line

Chord line

Leading edge

SECTION 2

2.21

ploy exotic camber shapes because they have beenfound to have beneficial drag levels at high speeds.Depending on the mission the airplane is intendedto fly, the aerodynamic surfaces are given anoptimized camber shape. While both camberedand uncambered surfaces produce lift at angle ofattack, camber usually produces lift more effi-ciently than angle of attack alone.

2.5.5.3 Control Surface Fundamentals

Trailing edge control surfaces such as ailerons,rudders, and elevators provide a way of modulat-ing the lift on a surface without physically chang-ing the angle of attack. These devices work byaltering the camber of the surfaces. Figure 21shows undeflected and deflected control surfaces.

The aerodynamic effect is that of increasing the liftat constant angle of attack for trailing edge downdeflection. This is shown in Figure 22. The pricepaid for this increased lift at constant angle of

attack is a reduced angle of attack for stall. Notethat for larger deflections, even though the lift isgreater, the stall angle of attack is lower than thatat no deflection.

The important point is that increasing camber(downward deflection of ailerons, for example)lowers the angle of attack at which stall occurs.Large downward aileron deflections at very highangles of attack could induce air separation overthat portion of the wing. Reducing the angle ofattack before making large aileron deflections willhelp ensure that those surfaces are as effective asthey can be in producing roll.

2.5.5.3.1 Spoiler-Type Devices

Spoilers, sometimes referred to as “speedbrakes”on large transport airplanes, serve a dual purposeof “spoiling” wing lift and generating additionaldrag. By hinging upwards from the wing uppersurface, they generate an upper surface disconti-

Figure 21DeflectedSurfaces

Figure 22Lift Characteristicsfor DeflectedTrailing EdgeSurfaces

Effective mean camber line

Control surfacedeflection

Control surfacedeflectionLift

coefficient

Angle ofattack

Angle of attack

No deflection

Deflected control Stall

Relative wind

SECTION 2

2.22

nuity that the airflow cannot negotiate, and theyseparate, or stall, the wing surface locally. Figure23 depicts spoiler operation with both flaps up andflaps down. The effectiveness of spoiler devicesdepends on how much lift the wing is generating(which the spoiler will “spoil”). If the wing is notproducing much lift to begin with, spoiling it willnot produce much effect. If the wing is producinglarge amounts of lift, as is the case with the flapsextended and at moderate angles of attack, thespoilers become very effective control devicesbecause there is more lift to spoil.

Because spoilers depend on there being some liftto “spoil” in order to be effective, they also losemuch of their effectiveness when the wing is in astalled condition. If the flow is already separated,putting a spoiler up will not induce any moreseparation. As was the case with aileron control athigh angles of attack, it is important to know thatthe wing must be unstalled in order for the aerody-namic controls to be effective.

2.5.5.3.2 Trim

Aerodynamicists refer to “trim” as that conditionin which the forces on the airplane are stabilizedand the moments about the center of gravity all addup to zero. Pilots refer to “trim” as that conditionin which the airplane will continue to fly in themanner desired when the controls are released. Inreality, both conditions must be met for the air-plane to be “in trim.” In the pitch axis, aerody-namic, or moment, trim is achieved by varying thelift on the horizontal tail/elevator combination tobalance the pitching moments about the center ofgravity. Once the proper amount of lift on the tailis achieved, means must be provided to keep itconstant. Traditionally, there have been three waysof doing that: fixed stabilizer/trim tab, all-flyingtail, and trimmable stabilizer.

In the case of the fixed stabilizer/trim tab configu-ration, the required tail load is generated by de-flecting the elevator. The trim tab is then deflected

Figure 24Typical

TrimmableTails Maximum deflection

Smaller additionaldeflection available,this direction

Deflected trim tab holds surface away from neutral position

Larger additionaldeflection available,this direction

Maximum deflection

Figure 23Spoiler Devices

Separationregion

Separationregion

Flaps Up Flaps Down

Spoiler deflectedSpoiler deflected

SECTION 2

2.23

in such a way as to get the aerodynamics of the tabto hold the elevator in the desired position. Theairplane is then in trim (because the required loadon the tail has been achieved) and the column forcetrim condition is met as well (because the tab holdsthe elevator in the desired position). One sideeffect of this configuration is that when trimmednear one end of the deflection range, there is notmuch more control available for maneuvering inthat direction (Fig. 24).

In the case of the all-flying tail, the entire stabilizermoves as one unit in response to column com-mands. This changing of the angle of attack of thestabilizer adjusts the tail lift as required to balancethe moments. The tail is then held in the desiredposition by an irreversible flight control system(usually hydraulic). This configuration requires avery powerful and fast-acting control system tomove the entire tail in response to pilot inputs, butit has been used quite successfully on commercialjet transport airplanes.

In the case of the trimmable stabilizer, the properpitching moment is achieved by deflecting theelevator and generating the required lift on the tail.The stabilizer is then moved (changing its angle ofattack) until the required tail lift is generated by thestabilizer with the elevator essentially at zero de-flection. A side effect of this configuration is thatfrom the trimmed condition, full elevator deflec-tion is available in either direction, allowing amuch larger range of maneuvering capability. Thisis the configuration found on most high-perfor-mance airplanes that must operate through a verywide speed range and that use very powerful high-lift devices (flaps) on the wing.

Knowing that in the trimmed condition the eleva-tor is nearly faired or at zero deflection, the pilotinstantly knows how much control power is avail-able in either direction. This is a powerful tactilecue, and it gives the pilot freedom to maneuverwithout the danger of becoming too close to sur-face stops.

2.5.5.4 Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic Considerations

Aerodynamically, anti-symmetric flight, or flightin sideslip can be quite complex. The forces andmoments generated by the sideslip can affect mo-tion in all three axes of the airplane. As will beseen, sideslip can generate strong aerodynamicrolling moments as well as yawing moments. In

particular the magnitude of the coupled roll-due-to-sideslip is determined by several factors.

2.5.5.4.1 Angle of Sideslip

Just as airplane angle of attack is the angle betweenthe longitudinal axis of the airplane and the rela-tive wind as seen in a profile view, the sideslipangle is the angle between the longitudinal axis ofthe airplane and the relative wind, seen this time inthe plan view (Fig. 25). It is a measure of whetherthe airplane is flying straight into the relative wind.

With the exception of crosswind landing consider-ations requiring pilot-commanded sideslip, com-mercial transport airplanes are typically flown ator very near zero sideslip. This usually results inthe lowest cruise drag and is most comfortable forpassengers, as the sideways forces are minimized.

For those cases in which the pilot commands asideslip, the aerodynamic picture becomes a bitmore complex. Figure 25 depicts an airplane in a

Figure 25Angle of Sideslip

Left rudder,right aileron/spoiler

“Cross-controlled”

Rudder deflected leftto hold sideslip angle

Aileron upAileron down

Spoilers up

Sideslipangle

Airp

lane

vel

ocity

Rel

ativ

e w

ind

Rel

ativ

e w

ind

SECTION 2

2.24

commanded nose-left sideslip. That is, the veloc-ity vector is not aligned with the longitudinal axisof the airplane, and the relative wind is comingfrom the pilot’s right.

One purpose of the vertical tail is to keep the noseof the airplane “pointed into the wind,” or make thetail follow the nose. When a sideslip angle isdeveloped, the vertical tail is at an angle of attackand generates “lift” that points sideways, tendingto return the airplane to zero sideslip. Commercialjet transport airplanes are certificated to exhibitstatic directional stability that tends to return theairplane to zero sideslip when controls are releasedor returned to a neutral position. In order to hold asideslip condition, the pilot must hold the rudder ina deflected position (assuming symmetrical thrust).

2.5.5.4.2 Wing Dihedral Effects

Dihedral is the positive angle formed between thelateral axis of an airplane and a line that passesthrough the center of the wing, as depicted inFigure 26. Dihedral contributes to the lateral sta-bility of an airplane, and commercial jet transportairplanes are certificated to exhibit static lateralstability. A wing with dihedral will develop stablerolling moments with sideslip. If the relative windcomes from the side, the wing into the wind issubject to an increase in lift. The wing away fromthe wind is subject to a decrease in angle of attackand develops a decrease in lift. The changes in lifteffect a rolling moment, tending to raise the wind-ward wing; hence, dihedral contributes a stableroll due to sideslip. Since wing dihedral is sopowerful in producing lateral stability, it is used asa “common denominator term” of the lateral sta-bility contribution of other airplane components,such as rudder and wing sweep. In other words, the

term “dihedral effect” is used when describing theeffects of wing sweep and rudder on lateral stabil-ity and control.

A swept-wing design used on jet transport air-planes is beneficial for high-speed flight, sincehigher flight speeds may be obtained before com-ponents of speed perpendicular to the leading edgeproduce critical conditions on the wing. In otherwords, wing sweep will delay the onset of com-pressibility effects. This wing sweep also contrib-utes to the dihedral effect. When the swept-wingairplane is placed in a sideslip, the wing into thewind experiences an increase in lift, since theeffective sweep is less, and the wing away from thewind produces less lift, since the effective sweep isgreater (Fig. 25). The amount of contribution, ordihedral effect, depends on the amount ofsweepback and lift coefficient of the wing. Theeffect becomes greater with increasing lift coeffi-cient and wing sweep. The lift coefficient willincrease with increasing angle of attack up to thecritical angle. This means that any sideslip resultsin more rolling moment on a swept-wing airplanethan on a straight-wing airplane. Lateral controlson swept-wing airplanes are powerful enough tocontrol large sideslip angles at operational speeds.

Rudder input produces sideslip and contributes tothe dihedral effect. The effect is proportional to theangle of sideslip. (That is, roll increases withsideslip angle; therefore, roll increases with in-creasing rudder input.) When an airplane is at ahigh angle of attack, aileron and spoiler roll con-trols become less effective. At the stall angle ofattack, the rudder is still effective; therefore, it canproduce large sideslip angles, which in turn pro-duces roll because of the dihedral effect.

Figure 26Wing Dihedral

Angle

Dihedral angle

SECTION 2

2.25

2.5.5.4.3 Pilot-Commanded Sideslip

It is important to keep in mind that the rudders onmodern jet transport airplanes are usually sized tocounter the yawing moment associated with anengine failure at very low takeoff speeds. This verypowerful rudder is also capable of generating largesideslips (when an engine is not failed). The largesideslip angles generate large rolling moments thatrequire significant lateral control input to stop theairplane from rolling. In maneuvering the airplane,if a crosswind takeoff or landing is not involvedand an engine is not failed, keeping the sideslip asclose to zero as possible ensures that the maximumamount of lateral control is available for maneu-vering. This requires coordinated use of bothaileron/spoilers and rudder in all maneuvering.

One way to determine the sideslip state of theairplane is to “feel” the lateral acceleration; it feelsas if the pilot is being pushed out of the seatsideways. Another way is to examine the slip-skidindicator and keep the ball in the center. Pilotsshould develop a feel for the particular airplanesthey fly and understand how to minimize sideslipangle through coordinated use of flight controls.

Crossover speed is a recently coined term thatdescribes the lateral controllability of an airplanewith the rudder at a fixed (up to maximum) deflec-tion. It is the minimum speed (weight and configu-ration dependent) in a 1-g flight, where maximumaileron/spoiler input (against the stops) is reachedand the wings are still level or at an angle tomaintain directional control. Any additional rud-der input or decrease in speed will result in anunstoppable roll into the direction of the deflectedrudder or in an inability to maintain desired head-ing. Crossover speed is very similar in concept toVmca, except that instead of being Vmc due to athrust asymmetry, it is Vmc due to full rudderinput. This crossover speed is weight and configu-ration dependent. However, it is also sensitive toangle of attack. With weight and configurationheld constant, the crossover speed will increasewith increased angle of attack and will decreasewith decreased angle of attack. Thus, in an airplaneupset due to rudder deflection with large andincreasing bank angle and the nose rapidly fallingbelow the horizon, the input of additional nose-upelevator with already maximum input of aileron/spoilers will only aggravate the situation. Thecorrect action in this case is to unload the airplane

to reduce the angle of attack, which will regainaileron/spoiler effectiveness and allow recovery.This action may not be intuitive and will result ina loss of altitude.

Note: The previous discussion refers to the aero-dynamic effects associated with rudder input; how-ever, similar aerodynamic effects are associatedwith other surfaces.

2.5.5.5 High-Speed, High-AltitudeCharacteristics

Modern commercial jet transport airplanes aredesigned to fly at altitudes from sea level to morethan 40,000 ft. There are considerable changes inatmospheric characteristics that take place overthat altitude range, and the airplane must accom-modate those changes.

One item of interest to pilots is the air temperatureas altitude changes. Up to the tropopause (36,089 ftin a standard atmosphere), the standard tempera-ture decreases with altitude. Above the tropo-pause, the standard temperature remains relativelyconstant. This is important to pilots because thespeed of sound in air is a function only of airtemperature. Aerodynamic characteristics of lift-ing surfaces and entire airplanes are significantlyaffected by the ratio of the airspeed to the speed ofsound. That ratio is Mach number. At high alti-tudes, large Mach numbers exist at relatively lowcalibrated airspeeds.

As Mach number increases, airflow over parts ofthe airplane begins to exceed the speed of sound.Shock waves associated with this local supersonicflow can interfere with the normally smooth flowover the lifting surfaces, causing local flow sepa-ration. Depending on the airplane, as this separa-tion grows in magnitude with increasing Machnumber, characteristics such as pitchup, pitchdown,or aerodynamic buffeting may occur. Transportcategory airplanes are certificated to be free fromcharacteristics that would interfere with normalpiloting in the normal flight envelope and to besafely controllable during inadvertent exceedancesof the normal envelope, as discussed in Section2.5.4, “Aerodynamic Flight Envelope.”

The point at which buffeting would be expected tooccur is documented in the Approved FlightManual. The Buffet Boundary or Cruise Maneuver

SECTION 2

2.26

Capability charts contain a wealth of informationabout the high-altitude characteristics of each air-plane. A sample of such a chart is shown inFigure 27.

The chart provides speed margins to low-speed(stall-induced) and high-speed (shock-induced)buffet at 1 g, normal load factor or bank angle tobuffet at a given Mach number, or altitude capabil-ity at a given Mach number and 1 g. The buffetboundaries of various airplanes can differ signifi-cantly in their shapes, and these differences con-tain valuable information for the pilot. Someairplanes have broad speed margins, some haveabrupt high-speed buffet margins, some have nar-row, “peaky” characteristics, as depicted notion-ally in Figure 28. Pilots should become familiarwith the buffet boundaries. These boundaries letthe pilot know how much maneuvering room isavailable, and they give clues for successful strat-

egies should speed changes become rapid or atti-tude or flight path angles become large.

For example, the pilot of Airplane A in the figurehas a broad speed range between high- and low-speed buffet onset at 1 g and the current altitude,with only a nominal g capability. Airplane B hasby comparison a much smaller speed range be-tween high- and low-speed buffet onset, but agenerous g capability at the current Mach number.Airplane C is cruising much closer to the high-speed buffet boundary than the low-speed bound-ary, which lets the pilot know in which direction(slower) there is more margin available.

2.5.5.6 Stability

Positive static stability is defined as the initialtendency to return to an undisturbed state after adisturbance. This concept has been illustrated bythe “ball in a cup” model (Fig. 29).

Figure 27Sample Buffet

Boundary Chart

0.45

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

0.50 0.55 0.60

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80

High-speedmargin

Low-speedmargin

0.85 10 20 30 40 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0

60555045403530252015

True Mach number (MT) CG percent MAC

Ref

. lin

e

Ban

k an

gle,

deg

Normal acceleration to initial buffet, g

Gro

ss w

eigh

t, kg

x 1

000

0

Altitude x 1000

Altitude margin

Figure 28Notional Buffet

Boundaries

Mach

Airplane A Airplane B Airplane CMach Mach

Cruise altitude

Coe

ffici

ent o

f lift

Coe

ffici

ent o

f lift

Coe

ffici

ent o

f lift

Cruise altitudeCruise altitude

SECTION 2

2.27

All transport airplanes demonstrate positive sta-bility in at least some sense. The importance hereis that the concept of stability can apply to anumber of different parameters, all at the sametime. Speed stability, the condition of an airplanereturning to its initial trim airspeed after a distur-bance, is familiar to most pilots. The same conceptapplies to Mach number. This stability can beindependent of airspeed if, for example, the air-plane crosses a cold front. When the outside airtemperature changes, the Mach number changes,even though the indicated airspeed may not change.Airplanes that are “Mach stable” will tend to returnto the original Mach number. Many jet transportairplanes incorporate Mach trim to provide thisfunction. Similarly, commercial airplanes are stablewith respect to load factor. When a gust or otherdisturbance generates a load factor, the airplane iscertificated to be stable: it will return to its initialtrimmed load factor (usually 1.0). This “maneu-

vering stability” requires a sustained pull force toremain at elevated load factors—as in a steep turn.

One important side effect of stability is that itallows for some unattended operation. If the pilotreleases the controls for a short period of time,stability will help keep the airplane at the conditionat which it was left.

Another important side effect of stability is that oftactile feedback to the pilot. On airplanes withstatic longitudinal stability, for example, if thepilot is holding a sustained pull force, the speed isprobably slower than the last trim speed.

2.5.5.7 Maneuvering in Pitch

Movement about the lateral axis is called “pitch,”as depicted in Figure 30.

Figure 29Static Stability

Unstable NeutralStableWhen ball is displaced,it returns to its original position.

When ball is displaced,it accelerates from its original position.

When ball is displaced,it neither returns, nor accelerates away—itjust takes up a newposition.

Figure 30Reference AxisDefinitions

Lateral axis

Ver

tical

axi

s

Longitudinal

axis

Center ofgravity

Pitch

SECTION 2

2.28

Controlling pitching motions involves controllingaerodynamic and other moments about the centerof gravity to modulate the angle of attack. Asidefrom the pitching moment effects of thrust whenengines are offset from the center of gravity (dis-cussed below), the pilot controls the pitching mo-ments (and therefore the angle of attack) by meansof the stabilizer and elevator. The horizontal stabi-lizer should be thought of as a trimming device,reducing the need to hold elevator deflection,while the elevator should be thought of as theprimary maneuvering control. This is true becausethe horizontal stabilizer has only limited rate capa-bility—it cannot change angle very quickly. Ma-neuvering, or active pilot modulation of the pitchcontrols, is usually accomplished by the elevatorcontrol, which is designed to move at much fasterrates. To get a better understanding of how thesecomponents work together, the following discus-sion will examine the various components of pitch-ing moment.

“Moments” have dimensions of force times dis-tance. Pilots are familiar with moments from work-ing weight and balance problems. In the case ofpitching moment, we are concerned with momentsabout the center of gravity. So the pitching mo-ment due to wing lift, for example, is the wing lift

times the distance between the center of gravityand the center of the wing lift. Since weight actsthrough the center of gravity, there is no momentassociated with it. In addition, there is a momentassociated with the fact that the wing is usuallycambered and with the fact that the fuselage isflying in the wing’s flowfield. This wing-bodymoment does not have a force associated with it; itis a pure torque.

Figure 31 shows many of the important compo-nents of pitching moment about the center ofgravity of an airplane. Weight acts through thecenter of gravity and always points toward thecenter of the Earth. In steady (unaccelerated) flight,the moments about the center of gravity, as well asthe forces, are all balanced: the sum is zero. Since,in general, there is a pitching moment due to thewing and body and the lift is not generally alignedwith the center of gravity—and the thrust of theengines is also offset from the center of gravity—there is usually some load on the horizontal tailrequired to balance the rest of the moments, andthat load is generally in the downward direction, asshown in the figure.

Essentially, the pilot controls the amount of liftgenerated by the horizontal tail (by moving the

Figure 31Airplane Pitching

Moments

Tail lift

Weight

Lift

Wing distance

Enginedistance

ThrustTail distance

Drag

Wing-bodymoment

(Moment)Tail

(Moment)Lift

(Moment)Thrust

(Moment) =Wing-body

(Moment)Wing-body

Totalpitchingmoment

=Totalpitchingmoment

+ + +

+Tail Tail + +* * *liftWing Wing

distancelift distanceThrust Engine

distance

SECTION 2

2.29

elevator), which adjusts the angle of attack of thewing and therefore modulates the amount of liftthat the wing generates. Similarly, since enginesare rarely aligned with the center of gravity, chang-ing the thrust will be accompanied by a change inthe pitching moment around the center of gravity.The pilot then adjusts the lift on the tail (with theelevator) to again balance the pitching moments.

As long as the angle of attack is within unstalledlimits and the airspeed is within limits, the aerody-namic controls will work to maneuver the airplanein the pitch axis as described. This is true regard-less of the attitude of the airplane or the orientationof the weight vector.

Recall that the object of maneuvering the airplaneis to manipulate the forces on the airplane in orderto manage the energy state. The aerodynamicforces are a function of how the pilot manipulatesthe controls, changing angle of attack, for ex-ample. Similarly, the thrust forces are commandedby the pilot. The weight vector always pointstoward the center of the Earth. The orientation withrespect to the airplane, though, is a function of theairplane attitude. The weight vector is a verypowerful force. Recall that transport airplanes arecertificated to 2.5 g. That means that the wing is

capable of generating 2.5 times the airplane weight.In contrast, engine thrust is typically on the orderof 0.3 times the airplane weight at takeoff weights.

To get an appreciation for the magnitude of theweight vector and the importance of its orienta-tion, consider the very simple example ofFigure 32.

In a nose-up pitch attitude, the component of theweight vector in the drag direction (parallel to theairplane longitudinal axis) equals the engine thrustat about 20 deg, nose-up pitch attitude on a takeoffclimb. Conversely, at nose-down pitch attitudes,the weight vector contributes to thrust. Since themagnitude of the weight vector is on the order of 3times the available thrust, pilots need to be verycareful about making large pitch attitude changes.When procedures call for a pitch attitude reductionto accelerate and clean up after takeoff, one aspectof that maneuver is getting rid of the weight com-ponent in the drag direction, allowing the airplaneto gain speed.

2.5.5.8 Mechanics of Turning Flight

Recalling that Newton’s laws dictate that an objectin motion will continue in a straight line unless

Figure 32Contributions ofWeight Vector

Weight

Component of weightin drag direction

Component of weightin thrust direction

Thrust

Thrust

SECTION 2

2.30

acted on by an external force, consider what isrequired to make an airplane turn. If a pilot wantsto change the course of an airplane in flight, a forceperpendicular to the flight path in the direction ofthe desired turn must first be generated. Usuallythis is accomplished by banking the airplane. Thispoints the lift vector off to the side, generating ahorizontal component of lift (Fig. 33). This is notthe only way to generate a sideways-pointing force,but it is the typical method.

When the lift vector is tilted to generate the hori-zontal component, the vertical component getssmaller. Since the acceleration due to gravity stillpoints toward the earth, there is now an imbalancein the vertical forces. Unless the lift vector isincreased so that its vertical component equals theweight of the airplane, the airplane will begin toaccelerate toward the earth—it will begin to de-scend. To maintain altitude in a banked turn, thelift produced by the airplane must be more than the

weight of the airplane, and the amount is a functionof bank angle (Fig. 34).

All of this is well known, but it bears reiteration inthe context of recovery from extreme airplaneupsets. If the objective is to arrest a descent,maneuvering in pitch if the wings are not level willonly cause a tighter turn and, depending on thebank angle, may not contribute significantly togenerating a lift vector that points away from theground. Indeed, Figure 34 indicates that to main-tain level flight at bank angles beyond 66 degrequires a larger load factor than that for whichtransport airplanes are certificated.

In early training, many pilots are warned about the“Graveyard Spiral.” The Graveyard Spiral maneu-ver is one in which the airplane is in a large bankangle and descending. The unknowing pilot fix-ates on the fact that airspeed is high and theairplane is descending. In an attempt to arrest both

Figure 33Mechanics of

Turning Flight

Figure 34Bank Versus Load

Factor (g’s) forLevel Flight

Weight

Lift

Additionallift required so that vertical componentstill equals weight

Horizontal componentproduces curvedflight path = turn

4

3

2

1

3020100 5040 60 70

Loadfactor, g's

Bank angle, deg

SECTION 2

2.31

the speed and sinkrate, the pilot pulls on the col-umn and applies up-elevator. However, at a largebank angle, the only effect of the up-elevator is tofurther tighten the turn. It is imperative to get thewings close to level before beginning any aggres-sive pitching maneuver. This orients the lift vectoraway from the gravity vector so that the forcesacting on the airplane can be managed in a con-trolled way.

Knowledge of these relationships is useful in othersituations as well. In the event that the load factoris increasing, excess lift is being generated, and thepilot does not want speed to decrease, bank anglecan help to keep the flight path vector below thehorizon, getting gravity to help prevent loss ofairspeed. In this situation, the excess lift can beoriented toward the horizon and, in fact, modu-lated up and down to maintain airspeed.

2.5.5.9 Lateral Maneuvering

Motion about the longitudinal axis (Fig. 35) iscalled “roll.” Modern jet transport airplanes usecombinations of aileron and spoiler deflections asprimary surfaces to generate rolling motion. Thesedeflections are controlled by the stick or wheel,and they are designed to provide precise maneu-vering capability. On modern jet airplanes, thespecific deflection combinations of ailerons andspoilers are usually designed to make adverse yawvirtually undetectable to the pilot. Even so, coor-dinated use of rudder in any lateral maneuveringshould keep sideslip to a minimum.

As described in Section 2.5.5, “Aerodynamics,”trailing edge control surfaces lose effectiveness inthe downgoing direction at high angles of attack.Similarly, spoilers begin to lose effectiveness asthe stall angle of attack is exceeded.

Transport airplanes are certificated to have posi-tive unreversed lateral control up to a full aerody-namic stall. That is, during certification testing,the airplane has been shown to have the capabilityof producing and correcting roll up to the time theairplane is stalled. However, beyond the stall angleof attack, no generalizations can be made. For thisreason it is critical to reduce the angle of attackat the first indication of stall so that controlsurface effectiveness is preserved.

The apparent effectiveness of lateral control, thatis, the time between the pilot input and when theairplane responds, is in part a function of the

airplane’s inertia about its longitudinal axis. Air-planes with very long wings, and, in particular,airplanes with engines distributed outboard alongthe wings, tend to have very much larger inertiasthan airplanes with engines located on the fuse-lage. This also applies to airplanes in which fuel isdistributed along the wing span. Early in a flightwith full wing (or tip) tanks, the moment of inertiaabout the longitudinal axis will be much largerthan when those tanks are nearly empty. Thisgreater inertia must be overcome by the rollingmoment to produce a roll acceleration and result-ing roll angle, and the effect is a “sluggish” initialresponse. As discussed before, airplanes of largemass and large inertia require that pilots be pre-pared for this longer response time and plan appro-priately in maneuvering.

From a flight dynamics point of view, the greatestpower of lateral control in maneuvering the air-plane—in using available energy to maneuver theflight path—is to orient the lift vector. In particu-lar, pilots need to be aware of their ability to orientthe lift vector with respect to the gravity vector.Upright with wings level, the lift vector is opposedto the gravity vector, and vertical flight path iscontrolled by longitudinal control and thrust. Up-right with wings not level, the lift vector is notaligned with gravity, and the flight path will becurved. In addition, if load factor is not increasedbeyond 1.0, that is, if lift on the wings is not greaterthan weight, the vertical flight path will becomecurved in the downward direction, and the airplanewill begin to descend. Hypothetically, with theairplane inverted, lift and gravity point in the samedirection: down. The vertical flight path will be-

Figure 35Roll Axis

Lateral axis

Ver

tical

axi

s

Longitudinal

axis

Center ofgravity

Roll

SECTION 2

2.32

come curved and the airplane will accelerate to-ward the earth quite rapidly. In this case, the pilotmust find a way to orient the lift vector away fromgravity. In all cases, the pilot should ensure that theangle of attack is below the stall angle and roll toupright as rapidly as possible.

2.5.5.10 Directional Maneuvering

Motion about the vertical axis is called “yaw”(Fig. 36). The character of the motion about thevertical axis is determined by the balance of mo-ments about the axis (around the center of gravity).The principal controller of aerodynamic momentsabout the vertical axis is the rudder, but it is not theonly one. Moments about the vertical axis can begenerated or affected by asymmetric thrust, or byasymmetric drag (generated by ailerons, spoilers,asymmetric flaps, and the like). These asymmetricmoments may be desired (designed in) or unde-sired (perhaps the result of some failure).

Generally, the rudder is used to control yaw in away that minimizes the angle of sideslip, that is,the angle between the airplane’s longitudinal axisand the relative wind. For example, when an en-gine fails on takeoff, the object is to keep theairplane aligned with the runway by using rudder.

On modern jet transports with powerful engineslocated away from the centerline, an engine failurecan result in very large yawing moments, andrudders are generally sized to be able to controlthose moments down to very low speeds. Thismeans that the rudder is very powerful and has thecapability to generate very large yawing moments.When the rest of the airplane is symmetric, for

example, in a condition of no engine failure, verylarge yawing moments would result in very largesideslip angles and large structural loads, shouldthe pilot input full rudder when it is not needed.Pilots need to be aware of just how powerful therudder is and the effect it can have when the rest ofthe airplane is symmetric. Many modern airplaneslimit the rudder authority in parts of the flightenvelope in which large deflections are not re-quired, for example, at high speeds. In this way, thesupporting structure can be made lighter. Pilotsalso need to be aware of such “rudder limiting”systems and how they operate on airplanes.

There are a few cases, however, when it is neces-sary to generate sideslip. One of the most commonis the crosswind landing. In the slip-to-a-landingtechnique, simultaneous use of rudder and aileron/spoiler aligns the airplane with the runwaycenterline and at the same time keeps the airplanefrom drifting downwind. The airplane is flying“sideways” and the pilot feels the lateralacceleration.

Static stability in the directional axis tends to drivethe sideslip angle toward zero. The vertical fin andrudder help to do this. The number of times theairplane oscillates as it returns to zero sideslipdepends on its dynamic stability. Most of thedynamic stability on a modern transport comes,not from the natural aerodynamics, but from anactive stability augmentation system: the yawdamper. If disturbed with the yaw damper off, theinertial and aerodynamic characteristics of a mod-ern jet transport will result in a rolling and yawingmotion referred to as “dutch roll.” The yaw dampermoves the rudder to oppose this motion and dampit out very effectively. Transport airplanes arecertificated to demonstrate positively dampeddutch-roll oscillations.

The installed systems that can drive the ruddersurface are typically designed in a hierarchicalmanner. For example, the yaw damper typicallyhas authority to move the rudder in only a limiteddeflection range. Rudder trim, selectable by thepilot, has authority to command much larger rud-der deflections that may be needed for enginefailure. In most cases, the pilot, with manual con-trol over rudder deflection, is the most powerfulelement in the system. The pilot can commanddeflection to the limits of the system, which maybe surface stops, actuator force limits, or anyothers that may be installed (e.g., rudder ratiochangers).

Figure 36Yaw Axis

Lateral axis

Ver

tical

axi

s

Longitudinal

axis

Center ofgravity

Yaw

SECTION 2

2.33

2.5.5.11 Flight at Extremely Low Airspeeds

Stall speed is discussed in Section 2.5.5.1. It ispossible for the airplane to be flown at speedsbelow the defined stall speed. This regime is out-side the certified flight envelope. At extremely lowairspeeds, there are several important effects forthe pilot to know.

Recall from the discussion of aerodynamics thatthe aerodynamic lift that is generated by wings andtails depends on both the angle of attack and thevelocity of the air moving over the surfaces. Angleof attack alone determines whether the surface isstalled. At very low airspeeds, even far below thestrictly defined stall speed, an unstalled surface(one at a low angle of attack) will produce lift.However, the magnitude of the lift force willprobably be very small. For a surface in thiscondition, the lift generated will not be enough tosupport the weight of the airplane. In the case of thelift generated by the tail, at very low airspeeds, itmay not be great enough to trim the airplane, thatis, to keep it from pitching.

With small aerodynamic forces acting on the air-plane, and gravity still pulling towards the earth,the trajectory will be largely ballistic. It may bedifficult to command a change in attitude untilgravity produces enough airspeed to generate suf-ficient lift—and that is only possible at angles ofattack below the stall angle. For this reason, ifairspeed is decreasing rapidly it is very importantto reduce angle of attack and use whatever aerody-namic forces are available to orient the airplane sothat a recovery may be made when sufficientforces are available.

When thrust is considered, the situation becomesonly slightly more complicated. With engines off-set from the center of gravity, thrust produces bothforces and moments. In fact, as airspeed decreases,engine thrust generally increases for a given throttlesetting. With engines below the center of gravity,there will be a nose-up moment generated byengine thrust. Especially at high power settings,this may contribute to even higher nose-up atti-tudes and even lower airspeeds. Pilots should beaware that as aerodynamic control effectivenessdiminishes with lower airspeeds, the forces andmoments available from thrust become more evi-dent, and until the aerodynamic control surfacesbecome effective, the trajectory will depend largelyon inertia and thrust effects.

2.5.5.12 Flight at Extremely High Speeds

Inadvertent excursions into extremely high speeds,either Mach number or airspeed, should be treatedvery seriously. As noted in the section on high-speed, high-altitude aerodynamics (Sec. 2.5.5.5),flight at very high Mach numbers puts the airplanein a region of reduced maneuvering envelope (closerto buffet boundaries). Many operators opt to fly atvery high altitudes, because of air traffic control(ATC) and the greater efficiencies afforded there.But operation very close to buffet-limiting alti-tudes restricts the range of Mach numbers and loadfactors available for maneuvering. During certifi-cation, all transport airplanes have been shown toexhibit safe operating characteristics with inad-vertent exceedances of Mach envelopes. Theseexceedances may be caused by horizontal gusts,penetration of jet stream or cold fronts, inadvertentcontrol movements, leveling off from climb, de-scent from Mach-limiting to airspeed-limiting al-titudes, gust upsets, and passenger movement.This means that the controls will operate normallyand airplane responses are positive and predictablefor these conditions. Pilots need to be aware thatthe maneuvering envelope is small and that pru-dent corrective action is necessary to avoid ex-ceeding the other end of the envelope duringrecovery. Pilots should become very familiar withthe high-speed buffet boundaries of their airplaneand the combinations of weights and altitudes atwhich they operate.

Flight in the high-airspeed regime brings with it anadditional consideration of very high control power.At speeds higher than maneuver speed (Fig. 14),very large deflection of the controls has the poten-tial to generate structural damage. While promptcontrol input is required to reduce speed after aninadvertent exceedance, care must be taken toavoid damage to the airplane. Pilots should beknowledgeable of the load factor envelope of theirairplane.

In either the Mach or airspeed regime, if speed isexcessive, the first priority should be to reducespeed to within the normal envelope. Many toolsare available for this, including orienting the liftvector away from the gravity vector; adding loadfactor, which increases drag; reducing thrust; andadding drag by means of the speedbrakes. Asdemonstrated in Section 2.5.5.8, “Mechanics ofTurning Flight,” the single most powerful forcethe pilot has available is the wing lift force. The

SECTION 2

2.34

second largest force acting on the airplane is theweight vector. Getting the airplane maneuvered sothat the lift vector points in the desired directionshould be the first priority, and it is the first steptoward managing the energy available in theairplane.

2.6 Recovery From Airplane UpsetsPrevious sections of this training aid review thecauses of airplane upsets to emphasize the prin-ciple of avoiding airplane upsets. Basic aerody-namic information indicates how and why large,swept-wing airplanes fly. That information pro-vides the foundation of knowledge necessary forrecovering an airplane that has been upset. Thissection highlights several issues associated withairplane upset recovery and presents basic recom-mended airplane-recovery techniques for pilots.There are infinite potential situations that pilotscan experience while flying an airplane. The tech-niques that are presented in this section are appli-cable for most situations.

2.6.1 Situation Awareness of anAirplane UpsetIt is important that the first actions for recoveringfrom an airplane upset be correct and timely.Guard against letting the recovery from one upsetlead to a different upset situation. Troubleshoot-ing the cause of the upset is secondary to initiat-ing the recovery. Regaining and then maintainingcontrol of the airplane is paramount.

It is necessary to use the primary flight instrumentsand airplane performance instruments when ana-lyzing the upset situation. While visual meteoro-logical conditions may allow the use of referencesoutside the airplane, it normally is difficult orimpossible to see the horizon. This is because inmost large commercial airplanes the field of viewis restricted. For example, the field of view from anairplane that exceeds 25-deg, nose-up attitude prob-ably is limited to a view of the sky. Conversely, thefield of view is restricted to the ground for a nose-down pitch attitude that exceeds 10 deg. In addi-tion, pilots must be prepared to analyze the situationduring darkness and when instrument meteoro-logical conditions (IMC) exist. Therefore, the At-titude Direction Indicator (ADI) is used as a primaryreference for recovery. Compare the ADI informa-tion with performance instrument indications be-fore initiating recovery. For a nose-low upset,

normally the airspeed is increasing, altitude isdecreasing, and the VSI indicates a descent. For anose-high upset, the airspeed normally is decreas-ing, altitude is increasing, and the VSI indicates aclimb. Cross-check other attitude sources, for ex-ample, the Standby Attitude Indicator and the PilotNot Flying (PNF) instruments.

Pitch attitude is determined from the ADI PitchReference Scales (sometimes referred to as PitchLadder Bars). Most modern airplanes also usecolors (blue for sky, brown for ground) or groundperspective lines to assist in determining whetherthe airplane pitch is above or below the horizon.Even in extreme attitudes, some portion of the skyor ground indications is usually present to assistthe pilot in analyzing the situation.

The Bank Indicator on the ADI should be used todetermine the airplane bank.

Situation analysis process:• Locate the Bank Indicator.• Determine pitch attitude.• Confirm attitude by reference to other

indicators.• Assess the energy.

Recovery techniques presented later in this sectioninclude the phrase, “Recognize and confirm thesituation.” This situation analysis process is usedto accomplish that technique.

2.6.2 Miscellaneous Issues AssociatedWith Upset RecoverySeveral issues associated with recovering from anupset have been identified by pilots who haveexperienced an airplane upset. In addition, obser-vation of pilots in a simulator training environ-ment has also revealed useful informationassociated with recovery.

2.6.2.1 Startle Factor

It has already been stated that airplane upsets donot occur very often and that there are multiplecauses for these unpredictable events. Therefore,pilots are usually surprised or startled when anupset occurs. There can be a tendency for pilots toreact before analyzing what is happening or tofixate on one indication and fail to properly diag-nose the situation. Proper and sufficient training isthe best solution for overcoming the startle factor.

SECTION 2

2.35

The pilot must overcome the surprise and quicklyshift into analysis of what the airplane is doing andthen implement the proper recovery. Gain controlof the airplane and then determine and eliminatethe cause of the upset.

2.6.2.2 Negative G Force

Airline pilots are normally uncomfortable withaggressively unloading the g forces on a largepassenger airplane. They habitually work hard atbeing very smooth with the controls and keeping apositive 1-g force to ensure flight attendant andpassenger comfort and safety. Therefore, theymust overcome this inhibition when faced withhaving to quickly and sometimes aggressivelyunload the airplane to less than 1 g by pushingdown elevator.

Note: It should not normally be necessary to obtainless than 0 g.

While flight simulators can replicate normal flightprofiles, most simulators cannot replicate sus-tained negative-g forces. Pilots must anticipate asignificantly different cockpit environment duringless-than-1-g situations. They may be floating upagainst the seat belts and shoulder harnesses. Itmay be difficult to reach or use rudder pedals ifthey are not properly adjusted. Unsecured itemssuch as flight kits, approach plates, or lunch traysmay be flying around the cockpit. These are thingsthat the pilot must be prepared for when recoveringfrom an upset that involves forces less than 1-gflight.

2.6.2.3 Use of Full Control Inputs

Flight control forces become less effective whenthe airplane is at or near its critical angle of attackor stall. Therefore, pilots must be prepared to usefull control authority, when necessary. The ten-dency is for pilots not to use full control authoritybecause they rarely are required to do this. Thishabit must be overcome when recovering fromsevere upsets.

2.6.2.4 Counter-Intuitive Factors

Pilots are routinely trained to recover fromapproach to stalls. The recovery usually requiresan increase in thrust and a relatively small reduc-tion in pitch attitude. Therefore, it may be counter-intuitive to use greater unloading control forces or

to reduce thrust when recovering from a high angleof attack, especially at lower altitudes. If the air-plane is stalled while already in a nose-downattitude, the pilot must still push the nose down inorder to reduce the angle of attack. Altitude cannotbe maintained and should be of secondaryimportance.

2.6.2.5 Previous Training inNonsimilar Airplanes

Aerodynamic principles do not change, but air-plane design creates different flight characteris-tics. Therefore, training and experience gained inone model or type of airplane may or may not betransferable to another. For example, the handlingcharacteristics of a fighter-type airplane cannot beassumed to be similar to those of a large, commer-cial, swept-wing airplane.

2.6.2.6 Potential Effects on Engines

Some extreme airplane upset situation may affectengine performance. Large angles of attack canreduce the flow of air into the engine and result inengine surges or compressor stalls. Additionally,large and rapid changes in sideslip angles cancreate excessive internal engine side loads, whichmay damage an engine.

2.6.3 Airplane Upset RecoveryTechniquesAn Airplane Upset Recovery Team comprisingrepresentatives from airlines, pilot associations,airplane manufacturers, and government avia-tion and regulatory agencies developed the tech-niques presented in this training aid. These tech-niques are not necessarily procedural. Use ofboth primary and secondary flight controls toeffect the recovery from an upset are discussed.Individual operators must address proceduralapplication within their own airplane fleet struc-ture. The Airplane Upset Recovery Team stronglyrecommends that procedures for initial recoveryemphasize the use of primary flight controls (ai-leron, elevator, and rudder). However, the appli-cation of secondary flight controls (stabilizertrim, thrust vector effects, and speedbrakes) maybe considered incrementally to supplement pri-mary flight control inputs after the recovery hasbeen initiated.

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For instructional purposes, several different air-plane upset situations are discussed. These includethe following:• Nose high, wings level.• Nose low, wings level.

– Low airspeed.– High airspeed.

• High bank angles.– Nose high.– Nose low.

This provides the basis for relating the aerody-namic information and techniques to specific situ-ations. At the conclusion of this recoverytechniques section, recommended recovery tech-niques are summarized into two basic airplaneupset situations: nose-high and nose-low. Con-solidation of recovery techniques into these twosituations is done for simplification and ease ofretention.

◆ Following several situations, where appropri-ate, abbreviated techniques used for recoveryare indicated by the solid diamond shown here.

Airplanes that are designed with electronic flightcontrol systems, commonly referred to as “fly-by-wire” airplanes, have features that should mini-mize the possibility that the airplane would enterinto an upset and assist the pilot in recovery, if itbecomes necessary. But, when fly-by-wire air-planes are in the degraded flight control mode, therecovery techniques and aerodynamic principlesdiscussed in this training aid are appropriate. Someenvironmental conditions can upset any airplane.But the basic principles of recognition and recov-ery techniques still apply, independent of flightcontrol architecture.

Airplane autopilots and autothrottles are intendedto be used when the airplane is within its normalflight regime. When an airplane has been upset,the autopilot and autothrottle must be discon-nected as a prelude to initiating recovery tech-niques. Assessment of the energy is also required.

2.6.3.1 Stall

The recovery techniques assume the airplane isnot stalled. An airplane is stalled when the angle ofattack is beyond the stalling angle. A stall ischaracterized by any of, or a combination of, thefollowing:a. Buffeting, which could be heavy at times.b. A lack of pitch authority.

c. A lack of roll control.d. Inability to arrest descent rate.

These characteristics are usually accompanied bya continuous stall warning.

A stall must not be confused with stall warning thatoccurs before the stall and warns of an approach-ing stall. Recovery from an approach to stall warn-ing is not the same as recovering from a stall. Anapproach to stall is a controlled flight maneuver. Astall is an out-of-control condition, but it is recov-erable. To recover from the stall, angle of attackmust be reduced below the stalling angle—applynose-down pitch control and maintain it untilstall recovery. Under certain conditions, on air-planes with underwing-mounted engines it may benecessary to reduce thrust to prevent the angle ofattack from continuing to increase. If the airplaneis stalled, it is necessary to first recover from thestalled condition before initiating upset recoverytechniques.

2.6.3.2 Nose-High, Wings-LevelRecovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than25 deg, nose high, and increasing.

Airspeed decreasing rapidly.

Ability to maneuver decreasing.

Start by disengaging the autopilot and autothrottleand recognize and confirm the situation. Next,apply nose-down elevator to achieve a nose-downpitch rate. This may require as much as full nose-down input. If a sustained column force is requiredto obtain the desired response, consider trimmingoff some of the control force. However, it may bedifficult to know how much trim should be used;therefore, care must be taken to avoid using toomuch trim. Do not fly the airplane using pitch trim,and stop trimming nose-down as the required el-evator force lessens. If at this point the pitch rate isnot immediately under control, there are severaladditional techniques that may be tried. The use ofthese techniques depends on the circumstances ofthe situation and the airplane controlcharacteristics.

Pitch may be controlled by rolling the airplane toa bank angle that starts the nose down. The angleof bank should not normally exceed approximately60 deg. Continuous nose-down elevator pressure

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will keep the wing angle of attack as low aspossible, which will make the normal roll controlseffective. With airspeed as low as the onset of thestick shaker, or lower, up to full deflection of theailerons and spoilers can be used. The rollingmaneuver changes the pitch rate into a turningmaneuver, allowing the pitch to decrease. (Referto Fig. 33.) In most situations, these techniquesshould be enough to recover the airplane from thenose-high, wings-level upset. However, other tech-niques may also be used to achieve a nose-downpitch rate.

If altitude permits, flight tests have shown that aneffective method for getting a nose-down pitchrate is to reduce the power on underwing-mountedengines. (Refer to Sec. 2.5.5.11, “Flight at Ex-tremely Low Airspeeds.”) This reduces the up-ward pitch moment. In fact, in some situations forsome airplane models, it may be necessary toreduce thrust to prevent the angle of attack fromcontinuing to increase. This usually results in thenose lowering at higher speeds, and a milderpitchdown. This makes it easier to recover to levelflight.

If control provided by the ailerons and spoilers isineffective, rudder input may be required to inducea rolling maneuver for recovery. Only a smallamount of rudder input is needed. Too muchrudder applied too quickly or held too long mayresult in loss of lateral and directional control.Caution must be used when applying rudder be-cause of the low-energy situation. (Refer to Sec.2.5.5.10, “Directional Maneuvering.”)

To complete the recovery, roll to wings level, ifnecessary, as the nose approaches the horizon.Recover to slightly nose-low attitude to reduce thepotential for entering another upset. Check air-speed, and adjust thrust and pitch as necessary.

Nose-high, wings-level recovery:◆ Recognize and confirm the situation.◆ Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.◆ Apply as much as full nose-down elevator.◆ Use appropriate techniques:

• Roll to obtain a nose-down pitch rate.• Reduce thrust (underwing-mounted

engines).◆ Complete the recovery:

• Approaching horizon, roll to wings level.• Check airspeed, adjust thrust.• Establish pitch attitude.

2.6.3.3 Nose-Low, Wings-LevelRecovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionallymore than 10 deg, nose low.

Airspeed low.

Recognize and confirm the situation. Disengagethe autopilot and autothrottle. Even in a nose-low,low-speed situation, the airplane may be stalled ata relatively low pitch. It is necessary to recoverfrom the stall first. This may require nose-downelevator, which may not be intuitive. Once recov-ered from the stall, apply thrust. The nose must bereturned to the desired pitch by applying nose-upelevator. Avoid a secondary stall, as indicated bystall warning or airplane buffet. Airplane limita-tions of g forces and airspeed must be respected.(Refer to Sec. 2.5.2, “Energy States.”)

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally morethan 10 deg, nose low.

Airspeed high.

Recognize and confirm the situation. Disengagethe autopilot and autothrottle. Apply nose-up el-evator. Then it may be necessary to cautiouslyapply stabilizer trim to assist in obtaining thedesired nose-up pitch rate. Stabilizer trim may benecessary for extreme out-of-trim conditions. Re-duce thrust, and, if required, extend speedbrakes.The recovery is completed by establishing a pitch,thrust, and airplane configuration that correspondsto the desired airspeed. (Refer to Sec. 2.5.2, “En-ergy States.”) Remember that a very clean airplanecan quickly exceed its limits. When applying nose-up elevator, there are several factors that the pilotshould consider. Obviously, it is necessary toavoid impact with the terrain. Do not enter into anaccelerated stall by exceeding the stall angle ofattack. Airplane limitations of g forces and air-speed should also be respected.

Nose-low, wings-level recovery:◆ Recognize and confirm the situation.◆ Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.◆ Recover from stall, if necessary.◆ Recover to level flight:

• Apply nose-up elevator.• Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary.• Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary.

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2.6.3.4 High-Bank-AngleRecovery Techniques

Bank angles can exceed 90 deg. In high-banksituations, the primary objective is to roll theairplane in the shortest direction to near wingslevel. However, if the airplane is stalled, it is firstnecessary to recover from the stall.

Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg.

Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg,nose high.

Airspeed decreasing.

A nose-high, high-angle-of-bank attitude requiresdeliberate flight control inputs. A large bank angleis helpful in reducing excessively high pitch atti-tudes. (Refer to Sec. 2.5.5.8, “Mechanics of Turn-ing Flight.”) Recognize and confirm the situation.Disengage the autopilot and autothrottle. Unload(reduce the angle of attack) and adjust the bankangle, not to exceed 60 deg, to achieve a nose-down pitch rate. Maintain awareness of energymanagement and airplane roll rate. To completethe recovery, roll to wings level as the nose ap-proaches the horizon. Recover to a slightly nose-low attitude. Check airspeed and adjust thrust andpitch as necessary.

Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg.

Pitch attitude lower than 10 deg,nose low.

Airspeed increasing.

A nose-low, high-angle-of-bank attitude requiresprompt action, because altitude is rapidly beingexchanged for airspeed. Even if the airplane is atan altitude where ground impact is not an immedi-ate concern, airspeed can rapidly increase beyondairplane design limits. Recognize and confirm thesituation. Disengage the autopilot and autothrottle.Simultaneous application of roll and adjustment ofthrust may be necessary. It may be necessary tounload the airplane by decreasing backpressureto improve roll effectiveness. If the airplane has

exceeded 90 deg of bank, it may feel like “push-ing” in order to unload. It is necessary to unloadto improve roll control and to prevent pointingthe lift vector towards the ground. Full aileron andspoiler input may be necessary to smoothly estab-lish a recovery roll rate toward the nearest horizon.It is important that positive g force not be increasedor that nose-up elevator or stabilizer trim be useduntil the airplane approaches wings level. If theapplication of full lateral control (ailerons andspoilers) is not satisfactory, it may be necessary toapply rudder in the direction of the desired roll. Asthe wings approach level, extend speedbrakes, ifrequired. Complete the recovery by establishing apitch, thrust, and airplane drag device configura-tion that corresponds to the desired airspeed. Inlarge transport-category airplanes, do not attemptto roll through (add pro-roll controls) during anupset in order to achieve wings level more quickly.Roll in the shortest direction to wings level.

2.6.3.5 Consolidated Summary of AirplaneRecovery Techniques

These summaries incorporate high-bank-angletechniques.

NOSE-HIGH RECOVERY:◆ Recognize and confirm the situation.◆ Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.◆ Apply as much as full nose-down elevator.◆ Use appropriate techniques:

• Roll (adjust bank angle) to obtain a nose-down pitch rate.

• Reduce thrust (underwing-mounted engines).◆ Complete the recovery:

• Approaching the horizon, roll to wings level.• Check airspeed, adjust thrust.• Establish pitch attitude.

NOSE-LOW RECOVERY:◆ Recognize and confirm the situation.◆ Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.◆ Recover from stall, if necessary.◆ Roll in the shortest direction to wings level—

bank angle more than 90 deg: unload and roll.◆ Recover to level flight:

• Apply nose-up elevator.• Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary.• Adjust thrust and drag as necessary.

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3Section Page

Example Airplane UpsetRecovery Training Program

Table of Contents

3.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 3.1

3.1 Academic Training Program ............................................................................................... 3.13.1.1 Training Objectives ............................................................................................................. 3.13.1.2 Academic Training Program Modules ................................................................................ 3.23.1.3 Academic Training Syllabus ............................................................................................... 3.23.1.4 Additional Academic Training Resources .......................................................................... 3.2

3.2 Simulator Training Program ................................................................................................ 3.23.2.1 Simulator Limitations .......................................................................................................... 3.33.2.2 Training Objectives ............................................................................................................. 3.43.2.3 Simulator Training Syllabus ................................................................................................ 3.43.2.4 Pilot Simulator Briefing ....................................................................................................... 3.43.2.5 Simulator Training (Pre-exercise Preparation) ................................................................... 3.5

Simulator Training Exercises ............................................................................................................. 3.7

Exercise 1. Nose-High Characteristics (Initial Training) .................................................................. 3.9Exercise 1. Iteration One—Use of Nose-Down Elevator .................................................................. 3.9Exercise 1. Iteration Two—Use of Bank Angle .............................................................................. 3.10Exercise 1. Iteration Three—Thrust Reduction (Underwing-Mounted Engines) ........................... 3.11

Exercise 2. Nose-Low Characteristics (Initial Training) ................................................................. 3.13Exercise 2. Iteration One—High Entry Airspeed ............................................................................ 3.13Exercise 2. Iteration Two—Accelerated Stall Demonstration ........................................................ 3.14Exercise 2. Iteration Three—High Bank Angle/Inverted Flight ..................................................... 3.15

Exercise 3. Optional Practice Exercise ............................................................................................ 3.17Exercise 3. Instructions for the Simulator Instructor ....................................................................... 3.17

Recurrent Training Exercises ........................................................................................................... 3.19

Appendix 3-A, Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery Questions .................................... App. 3-A.1

Appendix 3-B, Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing .............................................................. App. 3-B.1

Appendix 3-C,Video Script: Airplane Upset Recovery ........................................................App. 3-C.1

Appendix 3-D, Flight Simulator Information ....................................................................... App. 3-D.1

SECTION 1SECTION 2SECTION 3

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3.1

3Example Airplane Upset

Recovery Training Program

3.0 Introduction

The overall goal of the Airplane Upset RecoveryTraining Aid is to increase the ability of pilots torecognize and avoid situations that may lead toairplane upsets and improve the pilots’ ability torecover control of an airplane that has exceededthe normal flight regime. This may be accom-plished by increasing awareness of potentialupset situations and knowledge of aerodynamicsand by application of this knowledge duringsimulator training scenarios. Therefore, an aca-demic and training program is provided to sup-port this goal.

This “Example Airplane Upset Recovery Train-ing Program” is structured to stand alone, but itmay be integrated into existing initial, transition,and recurrent training and check programs, ifdesired. The Academic Training Program is de-signed to improve awareness by increasing thepilot’s ability to recognize and avoid those situ-ations that cause airplanes to become upset. Theacademic program also provides aerodynamicinformation associated with large, jet, swept-wing airplanes. This information provides thebasis for understanding aircraft behavior in or-der to avoid upsets and for understanding whyvarious upset recovery techniques are recom-mended. Finally, airplane upset recovery tech-niques are provided for pilots to use to return anairplane to the normal flight regime once it hasbeen upset.

The Simulator Training Program includes a simu-lator briefing outline and simulator exercises.These exercises are designed for pilots to ana-lyze upset situations and properly apply recov-ery techniques. A methodical building blockapproach is used so that pilots can learn the effectof each recovery technique and develop therequired piloting skills in applying them. Therecommended exercises are the minimum thatpilots should accomplish. Operators are encour-aged to develop additional exercises and sce-narios. Recurrent training should, to themaximum extent possible, use real-time situa-tion-integrated presentations with various levelsof automation. Over several recurrent cycles,flight crews should be presented with upsets

involving various levels of pilot and automationinterface. Good communication, crew coordina-tion, and other skills associated with crew resourcemanagement should be an integral part of recur-rent training in upset recovery. Use of airplanesystems, flight control, or engine malfunctions toaccomplish these objectives is encouraged. How-ever, training scenarios should not exceed thelimitations of simulator engineering data or me-chanical operation. Use of simulators beyond theirmechanical or engineering data capabilities canlead to counterproductive learning and should beavoided. Operators are encouraged to assess thecapabilities of their simulators and improve them,if necessary, to conduct this training. Simulatorengineering information is provided in Appendix3-D. The purpose of this information is to aidoperators in assessing simulators.

3.1 Academic Training ProgramThe Academic Training Program focuses on theelements that are important to preventing an air-plane from being upset and recovery techniquesavailable for returning an airplane to the normalflight regime.

3.1.1 Training ObjectivesThe objectives of the training program are toprovide the pilot with the following:• Aerodynamic principles of large, swept-wing

airplanes.• The ability to recognize situations that may lead

to airplane upsets so that they may be pre-vented.

• Airplane flight maneuvering information andtechniques for recovering from an airplaneupset.

• Skill in using upset recovery techniques.

A suggested syllabus is provided, with the knowl-edge that no single training format or curriculum isbest for all operators or training situations. Alltraining materials have been designed to “standalone.” As a result, some redundancy of the subjectmaterial occurs. However, using these materialstogether in the suggested sequence will enhanceoverall training effectiveness.

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3.2

3.1.3 Academic Training Syllabus

Combining all of the previous academic trainingmodules into a comprehensive training syllabusresults in the following suggested Academic Train-ing Program:

Training Method ofModule Presentation

Pilot Guide Self-study/classroom

Pilot Guide Questions Self-study/classroom

Video (optional) Classroom

Airplane Upset Briefing Classroom

3.1.4 Additional Academic TrainingResourcesThe Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid isprovided in CD-ROM DOS format. The completedocument and the two-part video are included inthis format. This allows for more flexible trainingoptions and makes the information readily avail-able to pilots. For example, the Pilot Guide (Sec. 2of the document) may be printed from the CD-ROM format and distributed to all pilots.

3.2 Simulator Training ProgramThe Simulator Training Program addresses tech-niques that pilots should use to recover an airplanethat has been upset. Training and practice areprovided to allow the pilot to, as a minimum,recover from nose-high and nose-low airplaneupsets. The exercises have been designed to meetthe following criteria:• Extensive simulator engineering modification

will not be necessary.• All exercises will keep the simulator within the

mathematical models and data provided by theairplane manufacturer.

• Exercises will not result in negative or counter-productive training.

3.1.2 Academic Training ProgramModules

The following academic training modules are avail-able for preparing an academic trainingcurriculum.

Pilot Guide. The “Pilot Guide to Airplane UpsetRecovery” (Airplane Upset Recovery TrainingAid, Sec. 2) is a comprehensive treatment of pre-vention and lessons learned from past upset acci-dents and incidents. The pilot guide is designed asa document that should be reviewed by an indi-vidual pilot at any time before formal upset recov-ery academic or simulator training.

Pilot Guide Questions. A set of questions basedon the material contained in the Pilot Guide iscontained in Appendix 3-A. These questions aredesigned to test the pilot’s knowledge of eachsection of the Pilot Guide. In an airplane upsetrecovery curriculum, these questions may be usedin one of two ways:1. As part of a pilot’s review of the Pilot Guide.2. As an evaluation to determine the effectiveness

of the pilot’s self-study prior to subsequentacademic or simulator training for upsetrecovery.

Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing. A paper copyof viewfoils with descriptive words for each onethat can be used for a classroom presentation iscontained in Appendix 3-B. The briefing supportsa classroom discussion of the Pilot Guide.

Video (optional). Airplane Upset Recovery—Thisvideo is in two parts. Part One is a review of causesof the majority of airplane upsets. It emphasizesawareness as a means of avoiding these events.Part One also presents basic aerodynamic infor-mation about large, swept-wing airplanes. Thispart of the video provides the background neces-sary for understanding the principles associatedwith recovery techniques. Part Two presents air-plane upset recovery techniques for several differ-ent upset situations. Part Two is excellent as anacademic portion of recurrent training.

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3.3

To be most effective, simulator training requiresthe pilot-in-training to be familiar with the mate-rial in the Academic Training Program.

Simulator training exercises are developed so thatan operator needs only minimum training capabil-ity to encourage the implementation of an effec-tive airplane upset recovery training program. Thetraining exercises may be initiated by severalmeans:• Manual maneuvering to the demonstration

parameters.• Automated simulator presets.• Stabilizer trim to induce the demonstration as

best suits the pilot-in-training requirements.• Other appropriate airplane-system, flight-con-

trol, or engine malfunctions.

Instructors may be called on to maneuver thesimulator to assist the pilot-in-training in order toobtain the desired parameters and learning objec-tives. The instructors need to be properly trained toavoid nonstandardized or ineffective training.

3.2.1 Simulator LimitationsSimulator fidelity relies on mathematical modelsand data provided by the airplane manufacturer.The simulator is updated and validated by themanufacturer using flight data acquired during theflight test program. Before a simulator is approvedfor crew training, it must be evaluated and quali-fied by a regulatory authority. This process in-cludes a quantitative comparison to actual flightdata for certain test conditions, such as thosespecified in the International Civil Aviation Orga-nization (ICAO) Manual of Criteria for the Quali-fication of Flight Simulators. These flightconditions represent airplane operation within thenormal operating envelope.

When properly accomplished, the training recom-mended in this training aid should be within thenormal operating envelope for most simulators.However, operators must assess their simulators to

ensure their ability to support the exercises. Thisassessment should include, at a minimum, aerody-namic math models, their associated data tables,and the performance capabilities of visual, flightinstrument and motion systems to support maneu-vers performed in the simulator.

Appendix 3-D, “Flight Simulator Information,”was developed to aid operators and training orga-nizations in assessing their simulators. The infor-mation is provided by airplane manufacturers andbased on the availability of information. Simulatormanufacturers are another source for information.

The simulation may be extended to represent re-gions outside the typical operating envelope byusing reliable predictive methods. However, flightdata are not typically available for conditionswhere flight testing would be very hazardous.From an aerodynamic standpoint, the regimes offlight that are not generally validated fully withflight test data are the stall region and the region ofhigh angle of attack with high-sideslip angle. Whilenumerous approaches to stall or stalls are flown oneach model (available test data are normallymatched on the simulator) the flight controls arenot fully exercised during an approach to stall, orduring a full stall, because of safety concerns.Training maneuvers in this regime of flight mustbe carefully tailored to ensure that the combinationof angle of attack and sideslip angle reached in themaneuver do not exceed the range of validateddata or analytical/extrapolated data supported bythe airplane manufacturer. The values of pitch,roll, and heading angles, however, do not affect theaerodynamics of the simulator or the validity of thetraining as long as angle of attack and sideslipangles do not exceed values supported by theairplane manufacturer. For example, a full 360-deg roll maneuver conducted without exceedingthe valid range of the angle of attack and sideslipangle will be correctly replicated from an aerody-namic standpoint. However, the forces imposed onthe pilot and the ratio of control forces to inertialand gravity forces will not be representative of theairplane.

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3.4

Simulator technology continues to improve, whichallows more training opportunities. However, train-ers and pilots must understand that simulators stillcannot replicate all things. For example, sustainedg forces, both negative and positive, are not repli-cated. This means that a pilot cannot rely oncomplete sensory feedback that would be avail-able in an actual airplane. Additionally, such thingsas loose items that would likely be floating in thecockpit during a negative-g situation are clearlynot replicated in the simulator. However, a prop-erly programmed simulator should provide accu-rate control force feedback (absent any sustained gloading), and the motion system should provideairframe buffet consistent with the aerodynamiccharacteristics of the airplane which could resultfrom control input during certain recoverysituations.

The importance of providing feedback to a pilotwhen control inputs would have exceeded air-frame, physiological, or simulator model limitsmust be recognized and addressed. Some simula-tor operators have effectively used a simulator’s“crash” mode to indicate limits have been ex-ceeded. Others have chosen to turn the visualsystem red when given parameters have been ex-ceeded. Simulator operators should work closelywith training departments in selecting the mostproductive feedback method when selected pa-rameters are exceeded.

3.2.2 Training ObjectivesThe objective of the Simulator Training Programis to provide pilots with the necessary experienceand skills to• Recognize and confirm airplane upset.• Gain confidence and understanding in maneu-

vering the airplane during upsets.• Successfully apply proper airplane upset recov-

ery techniques.

3.2.3 Simulator Training Syllabus

The training given during initial, transition, andrecurrent phases of training should follow a build-ing block approach. The first time an upset isintroduced, it should be well briefed and the pilotshould have general knowledge of how the air-plane will react. Since full limits of control forcesmay be necessary during a recovery from an upset,it may be appropriate to allow the pilot opportunityfor maneuvering using all flight control inputs.

Exercises are initiated by the instructor pilot. Oncethe desired upset situation is achieved, the pilot-in-training then applies appropriate techniques toreturn the airplane to its normal flight regime or tomaneuver the airplane during certain demonstra-tions, depending on the exercise. It may take sev-eral iterations before the pilot-in-training has therequired skills for recovering the airplane.

3.2.4 Pilot Simulator BriefingPilots should be familiar with the material in theGround Training Program before beginning Air-plane Upset Recovery Training. However, a brief-ing should be given to review the following:• Situation analysis process:

– Callout of the situation.– Location of the Bank Indicator.– Determination of the pitch attitude.– Confirmation of attitude by reference to other

indicators.– Assessment of the energy.

• Controlling the airplane before determining thecause of the upset.

• Use of full control inputs.• Counter-intuitive factors.• G-force factors.• Use of automation.• Recovery techniques for nose-high and nose-

low upsets.

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3.5

3.2.5 Simulator Training (Pre-exercisePreparation)

Before flying the simulator training exercises, it ishighly recommended that the pilot be exposed tothe handling characteristics and airplane responsesto the primary and secondary flight control andthrust inputs that will be used to effect recoveryfrom an airplane upset. The proficiency and skill ofthe pilot-in-training should be considered in deter-mining the amount of pre-exercise preparation.Operators may select several events from thoselisted, or they may develop others. Such pre-exercise preparation, depending on the airplanemodel, could include maneuvers that demonstrate• Roll rate with full aileron/spoiler input.• Roll rate with rudder input.• Roll rate with full aileron/spoiler input in addi-

tion to coordinated rudder input.• Pitch change with the use of only stabilizer

trim.• Pitch change with the use of thrust adjustments.• Pitch change with the use of speedbrakes.• Control forces that must be used to counter

stabilizer trim malfunctions (e.g., runaway,jammed or restricted, stabilizer out of trim).

• Yawing motion and resultant roll because ofsideslip caused by asymmetric thrust (autopilotengaged and disengaged).

• Entry into stick shaker and recovery from stickshaker using only pitch control to reduce theangle of attack. (Note: This is not the same asrecovery from approach-to-stall maneuver.)

• Other maneuvers that demonstrate airplane-specific handling characteristics related to up-set recovery (e.g., fly-by-wire airplanes).

The pilot should also fly the airplane beyond thedefined upset parameters (i.e., pitch attitude greaterthan 25 deg, nose up; pitch attitude greater than 10deg, nose down; bank angle greater than 45 deg).This familiarizes the pilot-in-training with thepicture of an upset situation. It allows practice in• Recognizing an upset and applying the correct

maneuver to return to the normal flight regime(e.g., Attitude Direction Indicator orientation).

• Incorporating proper control inputs for recov-ery, including primary and secondary controlsand thrust.

• Integrating procedural steps for upset recovery(e.g., recognizing and confirming the situation,disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle, andso forth).

The instructor should identify common pilot-in-training errors during the pre-exercise prepara-tion. Examples of these errors include thefollowing:• Initiating roll in the wrong direction.• Applying elevator backpressure when over 90

deg of bank.• Failure to use up to full control inputs when

required.• Failure to use established operator procedures.

The pre-exercise preparation events are flown withthe pilot-in-training at the controls. The intent is toallow pilots to gain confidence in their ability to flythe airplane when it is outside its normal flightregime. This preparation provides the opportunityfor pilots to develop recovery decision-makingskills and become familiar with the use of operatorprocedures. This prepares the pilot-in-training forcompleting the follow-on exercises.

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3.6

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3.7

3Simulator Training Exercises

Exercise 1. Nose-High CharacteristicsObjectiveDevelop skills for recovery from a nose-high airplane upset.

Exercise 2. Nose-Low CharacteristicsObjectives• Demonstrate low-speed and high-speed accelerated stalls.• Develop skills for recovery from a nose-low airplane upset.

Exercise 3. Optional Practice ExerciseObjectives• Develop skills for recovery from a nose-high, low-energy airplane upset.• Expose the pilot to a realistic airplane upset that requires disengaging the

autopilot and autothrottle.

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3.8

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3.9

Exercise 1. Nose-High Characteristics (Initial Training)

ObjectiveDevelop skills for recovery from a nose-high airplane upset.

General DescriptionThis exercise should be used for initial training. The pilot is exposed to airplane nose-high aerodynamiccharacteristics. The exercise is designed to allow the pilot-in-training to develop proficiency intechniques for recovering from a nose-high airplane upset. Specifically, the pilot-in-training is requiredto recover from a minimum of a 40-deg, nose-high upset by recognizing and confirming the situation,verifying that the autopilot and autothrottle are disengaged, and applying appropriate recoverytechniques. The first iteration requires the pilot-in-training to use up to full nose-down elevator. Thesecond iteration requires the pilot-in-training to roll the airplane as a technique for reducing the pitch.The third iteration requires the pilot-in-training to use thrust reduction as a pitch-reduction recoverytechnique, if the airplane model has underwing-mounted engines. All iterations require the pilot tocomplete the recovery by rolling to wings level, if necessary, and, at the appropriate time, checkingairspeed and establishing a final recovery pitch attitude.

Initial ConditionsAltitude: 1000 to 5000 ft above ground level.

Center of gravity: Midrange.

Airspeed: Maneuvering plus 50 kn.

Autopilot: Disengaged.

Autothrottle: Disengaged.

Attitude: 40-deg, nose-up pitch, wings level.

Exercise 1. Iteration One—Use of Nose-Down ElevatorInstructions for the Instructor Pilot

1. Establish initial conditions. Briefly point out or discuss the pitch-angle scale for various pitchattitudes. Have the pilot-in-training note the pitch attitude for the initial conditions.

2. Initiate the exercise by the following means:• Manual maneuvering to the demonstration parameters.• Automated simulator presets.• Stabilizer trim to induce the demonstration as best suits the pilot-in-training requirements.• Other appropriate airplane-system, flight-control, or engine malfunctions.

3. Transfer airplane control to the pilot-in-training.

4. Instruct the pilot-in-training to slowly release the control column and simultaneously increase thrustto maximum. As the airplane pitch attitude passes approximately 40 deg, instruct the pilot-in-trainingto initiate recovery by simulating disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle and countering pitch; byuse of nose-down elevator; and, if required, by using stabilizer trim to relieve elevator controlpressure.

5. The pilot-in-training completes the recovery when approaching the horizon by checking airspeed,adjusting thrust, and establishing the appropriate pitch attitude and stabilizer trim setting for levelflight.

SECTION 3

3.10

Common Instructor Pilot Errors• Achieves inadequate airspeed at entry.• Attains stall angle of attack because of too-aggressive pull-up.• Does not achieve full parameters before transfer of airplane control to the pilot-in-training.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors• Fails to simulate disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle.• Hesitates to use up to full control input.• Overtrims nose-down stabilizer.

Exercise 1. Iteration Two—Use of Bank AngleInstructions for the Instructor Pilot

1. Establish initial conditions.

2. Initiates the exercise by the following means:• Manual maneuvering to the demonstration parameters.• Automated simulator presets.• Stabilizer trim to induce the demonstration as best suits the pilot-in-training requirements.• Other appropriate airplane-system, flight-control, or engine malfunctions.

3. Slowly release the control column and simultaneously increase thrust to maximum.


5. Allow the simulator to pitch up until approximately 40 deg.

6. Have the pilot-in-training roll the airplane until a nose-down pitch rate is detected.

7. The pilot-in-training completes the recovery when approaching the horizon by rolling to wings leveland slightly nose low, checking airspeed, adjusting thrust, and establishing the appropriate pitchattitude and stabilizer trim setting for level flight.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors• Achieves the required roll too slowly, which allows the nose to drop

too slowly and airspeed to become excessively low.• Continues the roll past what is required to achieve a nose-down pitch rate;

therefore, the difficulty of recovery is unnecessarily increased.• Rolls out at a pitch attitude that is too high for conditions and

encounters an approach to stall.

SECTION 3

3.11

Exercise 1. Iteration Three—Thrust Reduction (Underwing-Mounted Engines)Instructions for the Instructor Pilot



3. Slowly release the control column and simultaneously increase thrust to maximum.

4. Allow the airplane to pitch up until 40 deg.


6. Instruct the pilot-in-training to initiate recovery by reducing thrust to approximately midrange untila detectable nose-down pitch rate is achieved.

7. The pilot-in-training completes the recovery when approaching the horizon by checking airspeed,adjusting thrust, and establishing the appropriate pitch attitude and stabilizer trim setting for levelflight.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors• Fails to simulate disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle.• Fails to reduce thrust sufficiently to obtain nose-down pitch.• Reduces thrust excessively.

SECTION 3

3.12

SECTION 3

3.13

Exercise 2. Nose-Low Characteristics (Initial Training)

Objectives• Demonstrate low-speed and high-speed accelerated stalls.• Develop skills for recovery from a nose-low airplane upset.

General DescriptionThis exercise should be used for initial training. Selected iterations should also be used for recurrenttraining as determined by the operator. The pilot is exposed to airplane nose-low aerodynamiccharacteristics. The exercise is designed to demonstrate what an approach to accelerated stall is and howto recover from it. The pilot-in-training is required to recover from a minimum of a 20-deg, nose-lowupset. High-bank-angle (up to inverted flight), nose-low upset iterations are used. To recover, the pilot-in-training recognizes and confirms the situation and verifies that the autopilot and autothrottle aredisengaged. Thrust is adjusted for the appropriate energy condition. For a satisfactory nose-lowrecovery, the pilot-in-training must avoid ground impact and accelerated stall and respect g-force andairspeed limitations. The pilot-in-training is required to recover to stabilized flight with a pitch, thrust,and airplane configuration that corresponds to the desired airspeed.

Initial ConditionsAltitude: 1000 to 10,000 ft above ground level.


Airspeed: L/D maximum or minimum maneuvering.

Autopilot: Disengaged.

Autothrottle: Disengaged.

Attitude: Level flight, then establish up to 20 deg, nose low, and about 60 deg, of bank.

Exercise 2. Iteration One—High Entry AirspeedInstructions for the Instructor Pilot

1. Begin the exercise while in level flight.

2. Have the pilot-in-training roll the airplane to 60 deg with no attempt to maintain altitude.

3. Have the pilot-in-training observe the nose drop and airspeed increase and the outside viewof the ground.

4. Instruct the pilot-in-training to recover by recognizing and confirming the situation; verifying that theautopilot and autothrottle are disengaged; rolling to approaching wings level, then applying nose-upelevator; applying stabilizer trim, if necessary; and adjusting thrust and drag as necessary.

SECTION 3

3.14

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors• Forgets to disengage the autopilot and or autothrottle.• Fails to use full control inputs.• Initiates pull-up before approaching wings level.• Attempts to precisely obtain wings level and delays pull-up.• Enters secondary stall.• Exceeds positive g force during pull-up.• Fails to reduce thrust to idle for high speed.• Fails to use speedbrakes, if required.• Achieves inadequate pull-up to avoid ground impact.

Exercise 2. Iteration Two—Accelerated Stall DemonstrationInstructions for the Instructor Pilot



Note: For manual maneuvering to the demonstration parameters, the instructor pilot applies nose-upelevator assisted with a small amount of nose-up stabilizer trim to slowly achieve up to 20-deg, nose-high pitch. Do not change the entry thrust. Allow the airspeed to decrease. Upon reaching approximately20 deg of nose-up pitch, the instructor pilot rolls the airplane until a nose-down pitch rate is achieved.The instructor pilot holds that bank angle until the nose is well below the horizon.

3. Have the pilot-in-training note the reduced ability to visually detect the horizon once below10 deg, nose low.


5. When approximately 20 deg below the horizon, instruct the pilot-in-training to slowly applybackpressure while maintaining the bank angle. Sufficient backpressure is applied until achievingstick shaker. Note the airspeed, and unload to eliminate stick shaker. Again, after allowing bank toincrease and pitch to go lower, have the pilot-in-training slowly apply backpressure until achievingstick shaker. Note the airspeed, and unload and initiate recovery.

6. Recovery is accomplished by recognizing and confirming the situation and verifying that theautopilot and autothrottle are disengaged. The pilot-in-training rolls to approaching wings level andthen recovers to level flight by applying nose-up elevator and nose-up stabilizer trim, if necessary,and adjusting thrust and drag as necessary.

Common Instructor Pilot Errors• Allows airspeed to become excessive for final recovery.• Allows the pilot-in-training to pull to stick shaker too quickly, and angle of attack

exceeds simulator fidelity.• Allows the pilot-in-training to reduce bank angle and pitch before final recovery.

SECTION 3

3.15

Exercise 2. Iteration Three—High Bank Angle/Inverted FlightInstructions for the Instructor Pilot



Note: For manual maneuvering to the demonstration parameters, the instructor pilot applies nose-upelevator assisted with small amounts of nose-up stabilizer trim to slowly achieve up to 20 deg of pitch.Do not change the entry thrust.


4. At approximately 20 deg of nose-up pitch, the pilot-in-training rolls the airplane until a nose-downpitch rate is achieved. Use a roll rate that will achieve 120 deg of bank at about 20 deg, nose low.

5. Have the pilot-in-training note the reduced ability to visually detect the horizon.

6. When approximately 20 deg below the horizon, the pilot-in-training recovers by recognizing andconfirming the situation and verifying that the autopilot and autothrottle are disengaged. The pilot-in-training must unload and roll. The pilot-in-training, when approaching wings level, recovers tolevel flight by applying nose-up elevator and nose-up stabilizer trim, if necessary, and adjusting thrustand drag as necessary.

Common Instructor Pilot Errors• Allows airspeed to become excessive for final recovery.• Allows the pilot-in-training to pull to stick shaker too quickly

and exceed stall angle of attack or g-force limit.• Fails to notice improper control inputs.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors• Forgets to disengage the autopilot or autothrottle.• Fails to unload.• Fails to use sufficient control inputs.• Initiates pull-up before approaching wings level.• Attempts to precisely obtain wings level and delays pull-up.• Exceeds positive g-force limits during pull-up.• Fails to reduce thrust to idle for high speed.• Fails to use speedbrakes, if required.• Achieves inadequate pull-up to avoid ground impact.

SECTION 3

3.16

SECTION 3

3.17

Exercise 3. Optional Practice Exercise

Objectives• Develop skills for recovery from a nose-high, low-energy airplane upset.• Expose the pilot to a realistic airplane upset that requires disengaging the

autopilot and autothrottle.

General DescriptionThis exercise may be used for initial training modified for the airplane model. It is a good example fora recurrent training scenario. The instructor pilot is not required to occupy a pilot position. No additionaltraining time is required, since a normal takeoff and departure is continued. The pilots are exposed toa nose-high, low-energy situation. It allows the pilot-in-training to experience a challenging airplaneupset recovery. The focus of this exercise is on the entry and recovery from an airplane upset, not on theengine thrust reduction. Malfunction analysis or nonnormal procedure accomplishment should not bedone. A normal takeoff is made. During the second segment climb with the autopilot and autothrottleengaged at 1000 ft above ground level, thrust is reduced to idle on one engine (the outboard engine forairplanes with more than two engines). The intent is to create a nose-high, significant yaw and rollcondition with decreasing airspeed. When the bank angle is approximately 45 deg, the instructor pilotinforms the pilot-in-training to recover by using appropriate recovery techniques. After recovery,normal thrust is restored.

Initial ConditionsAltitude: 1000 ft above ground level and climbing.


Airspeed: Second segment climb airspeed.

Autopilot: Engaged.

Autothrottle: Engaged.

Thrust: As required.

Target parameters: 45-deg bank angle.Autopilot and autothrottle engaged.Minimum of 1000 ft above ground level.

Exercise 3. Instructions for the Simulator Instructor1. Establish initial conditions.

2. Reduce thrust to idle on one engine (the outboard engine for airplanes with more than two engines).Maintain thrust on other engine(s).

3. Have the pilot-in-training observe the developing yaw and roll condition and decreasing airspeed.

4. Upon passing 45 deg of bank, instruct the pilot-in-training to recover by assessing the energy,disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle, and applying appropriate recovery techniques. Rollcontrol may require as much as full aileron and spoiler input and use of coordinated rudder.

5. After recovery, normal thrust is used and training continues.

SECTION 3

3.18

Common Instructor Pilot Errors• Autopilot and autothrottle are not engaged at 1000 ft above ground level.• Has the pilot-in-training initiate recovery before allowing the autopilot to fly to 45 deg of bank angle.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors• Forgets to disengage the autopilot or autothrottle.• Fails to unload.• Fails to use full control inputs.• Fails to complete the recovery before ground impact.

SECTION 3

3.19

Recurrent Training ExercisesThe pilot-in-training should be given the opportu-nity to review the airplane handling characteris-tics. Those events identified as pre-exercise practiceare appropriate for this review. The length ofreview should depend on pilot-in-training experi-ence and skill level.

Recurrent training should incorporate a nose-highsituation. This situation can be induced by thepilot-in-training, or by the Pilot Not Flying (PNF)(with perhaps the pilot-in-training closing his orher eyes to force an assessment of the situation andenergy), or by conditions available to the instruc-tor by the use of simulator engineering. The pilot-in-training should recover by using appropriatetechniques discussed in initial training.

Recurrent training should incorporate a nose-low,high-bank-angle situation. This situation can beinduced by the pilot-in-training, or by the PNF(with perhaps the pilot-in-training closing his orher eyes to force an assessment of the situation andenergy), or by conditions available to the instruc-tor by the use of simulator engineering. The pilot-in-training should recover by using appropriatetechniques discussed in initial training.

SECTION 3

3.20

APPENDIX

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App. 3-A.1

Pilot Guide to Airplane UpsetRecovery Questions

3-A

Section Page

Included in the following appendix are questions designed to test a pilot’s knowledge of the materialcontained in the “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery.” The questions are all multiple choice.

The first part of this appendix is the Pilot-in-Training Examination. Instructions for answering thequestions are provided.

The second part of this appendix is the Instructor Examination Guide. This part contains the questionsin the Pilot-in-Training Examination, the correct answers to each question, and the section in the“Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery” where the correct answer may be found.

Pilot-in-Training Examination ............................................................................................. App. 3-A.3

Instructor Examination Guide .............................................................................................. App. 3-A.13

Summary of Answers ........................................................................................................... App. 3-A.25

Table of Contents

APPENDIX

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App. 3-A.2

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.3

Pilot-in-Training Examination

Instructions

These questions are based on the material in the “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery.” The answerto each question can be found in that section. The questions are all multiple choice. Circle the one answerto each question that is most correct.

Questions1. The predominant number of airplane upsets are caused by ____________ .

a. Environmental factors.b. Airplane system anomalies.c. Pilot-induced factors.

2. Most of the multiengine turbojet loss-of-control incidents that are caused by environmentalfactors are because of _____________.a. Microbursts.b. Windshear.c. Airplane icing.d. Wake turbulence.

3. Technology in modern airplanes reduces the flight crew workload. Therefore, while initiatingthe recovery from an airplane upset, the pilot should __________ .a. Verify that the autopilot and autothrottles are still engaged.b. Engage the autopilot and autothrottles, if disengaged.c. Reduce the level of automation by disengaging the autopilot and autothrottles.d. Ask the other pilot “What is it doing now?”

4. Which of the following statements regarding energy is true?a. Kinetic energy decreases with increasing airspeed.b. Potential energy is approximately proportional to airspeed.c. Chemical energy remains constant throughout a flight.d. Kinetic energy can be traded for potential energy, and potential energy can be traded for kinetic

energy.

5. The objective in maneuvering the airplane is to manage energy so that ___________ .a. Kinetic energy stays between limits (stall and placards).b. Potential energy stays between limits (terrain to buffet altitude).c. Chemical energy stays above certain thresholds (not running out of fuel).d. All of the above.

6. The airplane angle of attack is the angle between the airplane longitudinal axis and theoncoming air.a. True.b. False.

7. Exceed the critical angle of attack and the surface will stall, and lift will decrease instead ofincreasing. This is true ______________ .a. Unless the airplane is in a nose-down pitch attitude.b. Only if the airspeed is low.c. Only if the airplane is in a nose-high pitch attitude.d. Regardless of airplane speed or attitude.

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.4

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.5

8. The angle of attack at which a wing stalls reduces with ____________ Mach.a. Decreasing.b. Increasing.

9. Airplane stall speeds are published in the Approved Flight Manual for each airplane model.These speeds are presented as a function of airplane weight. Therefore, if a pilot maintainsairspeed above the appropriate speed listed for the airplane weight, the airplane will not stall.a. True.b. False.

10. Large downward aileron deflections _______________ .a. Could induce air separation over that portion of the wing at very high angles of attack.b. Should never be used when recovering from an airplane upset.c. Are more effective at high angles of attack.

11. Dihedral is the positive angle formed between the lateral axis of an airplane and a line thatpasses through the center of the wing. Which of the following statements is incorrect?a. Dihedral contributes to airplane lateral stability.b. The term “dihedral effect” is used when describing the effects of wing sweep and rudder on

lateral stability.c. A wing with dihedral will develop stable rolling moments with sideslip.d. If the relative wind comes from the side of an airplane that has dihedral-designed wings, the wing

into the wind is subject to a decrease in lift.

12. Rudders on modern jet transport airplanes are usually designed and sized to ____________.a. Create large sideslip capability during recovery from stall.b. Counter yawing moment associated with an engine failure at very low takeoff speeds.c. Counter rolling moment created by ailerons and spoilers.

13. While already at high speed, what happens if Mach is allowed to increase?a. Airflow over parts of the airplane begins to exceed the speed of sound.b. Shock waves can cause local airflow separation.c. Characteristics such as pitchup, pitchdown, or buffeting may occur.d. All of the above.

14. Positive static stability is defined as the initial tendency to return to an initial undisturbed stateafter a disturbance.a. True.b. False.

15. Movement about the airplane lateral axis is called _____________.a. Yaw.b. Roll.c. Pitch.d. Sideslip.

16. Which of the following statements is always true?a. Weight points 90 deg from the airplane longitudinal axis.b. Lift must always be aligned with the center of gravity.c. Weight always points to the center of the Earth.d. The center of gravity never changes in flight.

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.6

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.7

17. If the engines are not aligned with the airplane center of gravity, a change in engine thrust will____________.a. Have no effect on pitching moment.b. Be accompanied by a change in pitching moment.

18. To maintain altitude in a banked turn, the lift produced by the airplane must be _________.a. Greater than the airplane weight, and the amount is a function of bank angle.b. Greater than the airplane weight, and the amount is a function of altitude.c. Equal to the weight of the airplane.

19. During lateral maneuvering, aileron and spoiler effectiveness ___________________.a. Increases with increasing angle of attack.b. Decreases with increasing angle of attack.c. Is a function of the airplane’s inertia about its vertical axis.

20. Which of the following statements about recovering from large airplane bank angles is true?a. The effect of up-elevator is to tighten the turn.b. The bank should be reduced to near level before initiating aggressive pitch maneuvering.c. The lift vector should be oriented away from the gravity vector.d. All of the above.e. Only answers a and b.

21. If a pilot inputs full rudder in a normal symmetric airplane situation, it will result in very largesideslip angles and large structural loads.a. True.b. False.

22. Stability in the vertical axis tends to drive the sideslip angle toward zero. The most dynamicstability about the vertical axis on modern jet transports is from _____________.a. The vertical fin.b. The rudder.c. An active stability augmentation system/yaw damper.d. Pilot roll input.

23. With insufficient aerodynamic forces acting on the airplane (airplane stalled), its trajectory willbe mostly ballistic and it may be difficult for the pilot to command a change in attitude until___________.a. Full nose-up elevator is applied.b. Full rudder input is applied.c. Gravity effect on the airplane produces enough airspeed when the angle of attack is reduced.d. Arriving at a lower altitude.

24. During a situation where the high-speed limitation is exceeded, recovery actions should becareful and prompt and may include ______________.a. Orienting the lift vector away from the gravity vector.b. Reducing thrust.c. Adding drag.d. All of the above.

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.8

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.9

25. Which of the following statements regarding recovering from an airplane upset are correct?a. The actions should be correct and timely.b. Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is secondary to initiating recovery.c. Regaining and maintaining control of the airplane is paramount.d. All of the above.

26. A good analysis process of an airplane upset should include ____________.a. Locating the Bank Indicator.b. Determining the pitch attitude.c. Confirming attitude by referring to other indicators.d. Assessing the airplane energy.e. All of the above.

27. During recovery from an airplane upset _____________.a. Pilots must be very careful to maintain at least 1-g force.b. Altitude should always be maintained.c. Training and experience gained from one airplane may always be transferred to another.d. Pilots must be prepared to use full control authority.

28. A stall is usually accompanied by a continuous stall warning, and it is characterized by__________.a. Buffeting, which could be heavy.b. A lack of pitch authority.c. A lack of roll authority.d. The inability to arrest descent rate.e. All of the above.

29. Which of the following statements is true?a. A stall is a controlled situation.b. An approach to stall warning is an uncontrolled situation.c. Recovery from approach to stall warning is the same as recovery from a stall.d. To recover from a nose-low stall, angle of attack must be reduced.

30. When initiating recommended airplane upset recovery techniques, the first two techniques are_______________.a. Maintain altitude and apply additional thrust.b. Reduce the angle of attack and maneuver toward wings level.c. Recognize and confirm the situation and disengage the autopilot and autothrottles.d. Determine the malfunction and disengage the autopilot and autothrottles.

31. In a nose-high, wings-level airplane upset, after accomplishing the first two recommendedtechniques, ______________.a. Apply up to full nose-down elevator and consider trimming off some control force.b. Immediately roll into a 60-deg bank.c. Maintain at least 1-g force.d. Immediately establish sideslip in order to maintain at least 1-g force.

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.10

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.11

32. In a nose-high, wings-level airplane upset, when it is determined that rudder input is requiredbecause roll input is ineffective, _____________.a. Only a small amount should be used.b. Do not apply rudder too quickly.c. Do not hold rudder input too long.d. Improper use of rudder may result in loss of lateral and directional control.e. Extreme caution must be used because of the low-energy situation.f. All of the above.

33. During recovery from a nose-low, wings-level, high-airspeed airplane upset, ____________.a. The airplane cannot be stalled.b. Use of stabilizer trim is always optional, but never required.c. The recovery is completed by establishing a pitch, thrust, and airplane configuration that

corresponds to the desired airspeed.

34. During recovery from a nose-low, high-bank-angle airplane upset, ____________.a. If 90 deg of bank is exceeded, continue the roll to wings level.b. It may be necessary to unload the airplane by decreasing backpressure.c. Increase elevator backpressure while beginning to roll toward wings level.

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.12

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.13

Instructor Examination Guide

Instructions

This guide contains questions based on the material in the “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery.”The answer to each question can be found in that section. The questions are all multiple choice. Thereis one answer to each question that is most correct.

The correct answer is listed after each question, along with the section in the “Pilot Guide to AirplaneUpset Recovery” where the correct answer may be found.

Questions1. The predominant number of airplane upsets are caused by ____________ .

a. Environmental factors.b. Airplane system anomalies.c. Pilot-induced factors.

Answer: a. (Section 2.4.1).

2. Most of the multiengine turbojet loss-of-control incidents that are caused by environmentalfactors are because of _____________.a. Microbursts.b. Windshear.c. Airplane icing.d. Wake turbulence.

Answer: d. (Section 2.4.1)

3. Technology in modern airplanes reduces the flight crew workload. Therefore, while initiatingthe recovery from an airplane upset, the pilot should __________ .a. Verify that the autopilot and autothrottles are still engaged.b. Engage the autopilot and autothrottles, if disengaged.c. Reduce the level of automation by disengaging the autopilot and autothrottles.d. Ask the other pilot “What is it doing now?”

Answer: c. (Section 2.4.4)

4. Which of the following statements regarding energy is true?a. Kinetic energy decreases with increasing airspeed.b. Potential energy is approximately proportional to airspeed.c. Chemical energy remains constant throughout a flight.d. Kinetic energy can be traded for potential energy, and potential energy can be traded for kinetic

energy.


5. The objective in maneuvering the airplane is to manage energy so that ___________ .a. Kinetic energy stays between limits (stall and placards).b. Potential energy stays between limits (terrain to buffet altitude).c. Chemical energy stays above certain thresholds (not running out of fuel).d. All of the above.


APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.14

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.15

6. The airplane angle of attack is the angle between the airplane longitudinal axis and theoncoming air.a. True.b. False.

Answer: a. (Section 2.5.5.1)

7. Exceed the critical angle of attack and the surface will stall, and lift will decrease instead ofincreasing. This is true ______________ .a. Unless the airplane is in a nose-down pitch attitude.b. Only if the airspeed is low.c. Only if the airplane is in a nose-high pitch attitude.d. Regardless of airplane speed or attitude.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.1)

8. The angle of attack at which a wing stalls reduces with ____________ Mach.a. Decreasing.b. Increasing.

Answer: b. (Section 2.5.5.1).

9. Airplane stall speeds are published in the Approved Flight Manual for each airplane model.These speeds are presented as a function of airplane weight. Therefore, if a pilot maintainsairspeed above the appropriate speed listed for the airplane weight, the airplane will not stall.a. True.b. False.


10. Large downward aileron deflections _______________ .a. Could induce air separation over that portion of the wing at very high angles of attack.b. Should never be used when recovering from an airplane upset.c. Are more effective at high angles of attack.

Answer: a. (Section 2.5.5.3).

11. Dihedral is the positive angle formed between the lateral axis of an airplane and a line thatpasses through the center of the wing. Which of the following statements is incorrect?a. Dihedral contributes to airplane lateral stability.b. The term “dihedral effect” is used when describing the effects of wing sweep and rudder on

lateral stability.c. A wing with dihedral will develop stable rolling moments with sideslip.d. If the relative wind comes from the side of an airplane that has dihedral-designed wings, the wing

into the wind is subject to a decrease in lift.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.4.2).

12. Rudders on modern jet transport airplanes are usually designed and sized to ____________.a. Create large sideslip capability during recovery from stall.b. Counter yawing moment associated with an engine failure at very low takeoff speeds.c. Counter rolling moment created by ailerons and spoilers.

Answer: b. (Section 2.5.5.4.3).

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.16

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.17

13. While already at high speed, what happens if Mach is allowed to increase?a. Airflow over parts of the airplane begins to exceed the speed of sound.b. Shock waves can cause local airflow separation.c. Characteristics such as pitchup, pitchdown, or buffeting may occur.d. All of the above.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.5).

14. Positive static stability is defined as the initial tendency to return to an initial undisturbed stateafter a disturbance.a. True.b. False.


15. Movement about the airplane lateral axis is called _____________.a. Yaw.b. Roll.c. Pitch.d. Sideslip.

Answer: c. (Section 2.5.5.7).

16. Which of the following statements is always true?a. Weight points 90 deg from the airplane longitudinal axis.b. Lift must always be aligned with the center of gravity.c. Weight always points to the center of the Earth.d. The center of gravity never changes in flight.


17. If the engines are not aligned with the airplane center of gravity, a change in engine thrust will____________.a. Have no effect on pitching moment.b. Be accompanied by a change in pitching moment.

Answer: b. (Section 2.5.5.7)

18. To maintain altitude in a banked turn, the lift produced by the airplane must be _________.a. Greater than the airplane weight, and the amount is a function of bank angle.b. Greater than the airplane weight, and the amount is a function of altitude.c. Equal to the weight of the airplane.


19. During lateral maneuvering, aileron and spoiler effectiveness ___________________.a. Increases with increasing angle of attack.b. Decreases with increasing angle of attack.c. Is a function of the airplane’s inertia about its vertical axis.


APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.18

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.19

20. Which of the following statements about recovering from large airplane bank angles is true?a. The effect of up-elevator is to tighten the turn.b. The bank should be reduced to near level before initiating aggressive pitch maneuvering.c. The lift vector should be oriented away from the gravity vector.d. All of the above.e. Only answers a and b.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.8).

21. If a pilot inputs full rudder in a normal symmetric airplane situation, it will result in verylarge sideslip angles and large structural loads.a. True.b. False.


22. Stability in the vertical axis tends to drive the sideslip angle toward zero. The most dynamicstability about the vertical axis on modern jet transports is from _____________.a. The vertical fin.b. The rudder.c. An active stability augmentation system/yaw damper.d. Pilot roll input.


23. With insufficient aerodynamic forces acting on the airplane (airplane stalled), its trajectorywill be mostly ballistic and it may be difficult for the pilot to command a change in attitudeuntil ___________.a. Full nose-up elevator is applied.b. Full rudder input is applied.c. Gravity effect on the airplane produces enough airspeed when the angle of attack is

reduced.d. Arriving at a lower altitude.

Answer: c. (Section 2.5.5.11)

24. During a situation where the high-speed limitation is exceeded, recovery actions should becareful and prompt and may include ______________.a. Orienting the lift vector away from the gravity vector.b. Reducing thrust.c. Adding drag.d. All of the above.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.11)

25. Which of the following statements regarding recovering from an airplane upset are correct?a. The actions should be correct and timely.b. Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is secondary to initiating recovery.c. Regaining and maintaining control of the airplane is paramount.d. All of the above.


APPENDIX

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App. 3-A.20

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.21

26. A good analysis process of an airplane upset should include ____________.a. Locating the Bank Indicator.b. Determining the pitch attitude.c. Confirming attitude by referring to other indicators.d. Assessing the airplane energy.e. All of the above.

Answer: e. (Section 2.6.1).

27. During recovery from an airplane upset _____________.a. Pilots must be very careful to maintain at least 1-g force.b. Altitude should always be maintained.c. Training and experience gained from one airplane may always be transferred to another.d. Pilots must be prepared to use full control authority.

Answer: d. (Section 2.6.6.2, 3, 5).

28. A stall is usually accompanied by a continuous stall warning, and it is characterized by__________.a. Buffeting, which could be heavy.b. A lack of pitch authority.c. A lack of roll authority.d. The inability to arrest descent rate.e. All of the above.

Answer: e. (Section 2.6.3).

29. Which of the following statements is true?a. A stall is a controlled situation.b. An approach to stall warning is an uncontrolled situation.c. Recovery from approach to stall warning is the same as recovery from a stall.d. To recover from a nose-low stall, angle of attack must be reduced.

Answer: d. (Section 2.6.3).

30. When initiating recommended airplane upset recovery techniques, the first two techniques are_______________.a. Maintain altitude and apply additional thrust.b. Reduce the angle of attack and maneuver toward wings level.c. Recognize and confirm the situation and disengage the autopilot and autothrottles.d. Determine the malfunction and disengage the autopilot and autothrottles.

Answer: c. (Section 2.6.3.1, 2, 3).

31. In a nose-high, wings-level airplane upset, after accomplishing the first two recommendedtechniques, ______________.a. Apply up to full nose-down elevator and consider trimming off some control force.b. Immediately roll into a 60-deg bank.c. Maintain at least 1-g force.d. Immediately establish sideslip in order to maintain at least 1-g force.


APPENDIX

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App. 3-A.22

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.23

32. In a nose-high, wings-level airplane upset, when it is determined that rudder input is requiredbecause roll input is ineffective, _____________.a. Only a small amount should be used.b. Do not apply rudder too quickly.c. Do not hold rudder input too long.d. Improper use of rudder may result in loss of lateral and directional control.e. Extreme caution must be used because of the low-energy situation.f. All of the above.

Answer: f. (Section 2.6.3.1).

33. During recovery from a nose-low, wings-level, high-airspeed airplane upset, ____________.a. The airplane cannot be stalled.b. Use of stabilizer trim is always optional, but never required.c. The recovery is completed by establishing a pitch, thrust, and airplane configuration that

corresponds to the desired airspeed.


34. During recovery from a nose-low, high-bank-angle airplane upset, ____________.a. If 90 deg of bank is exceeded, continue the roll to wings level.b. It may be necessary to unload the airplane by decreasing backpressure.c. Increase elevator backpressure while beginning to roll toward wings level.


APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.24

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.25

Summary of Answers

1. a2. d3. c4. d5. d6. a7. d8. b9. b10. a11. d12. b13. d14. a15. c16. c17. b18. a19. b20. d21. a22. c23. c24. d25. d26. e27. d28. e29. d30. c31. a32. f33. c34. b

APPENDIX

3-A

App. 3-A.26

APPENDIX

3-B

App. 3-B.1

3-B

Go to presentation

APPENDIX

3-B

App. 3-B.2

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.1

Video Script: Airplane Upset Recovery

3-CThis video consists of two parts. Part One provides information covering the causes of airplane upsetsand the fundamentals of aerodynamics. Part Two presents several airplane upset scenarios and recoverytechniques that may be used to return an airplane to its normal flight regime. The video was developedby an aviation industry team as part of the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid. The team envisionsthat both parts may be used for initial pilot training and Part Two may be used for recurring training. Thisscript is provided to aid operators who choose to translate the video into other languages.

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.2

APPENDIX

3-C

App.3-C.3

PART 1

FADE in TEXT over the blackscreen.

TEXT: The scenes that follow arebased upon actual airplane upsetincidents.

1. FADE in. On a series of quick cuts,STOCK footage of a variety ofairplane models/manufacturers atairports across the world. We seea lot of activity: jets taxiing, takingoff, landing, etc.

2. CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA-TION SEQUENCE #1.

We see an airplane in flight thatsuddenly rolls and pitches nosedown.

AIRPLANE MAKE/MODEL:GENERIC

3. CUT back to STOCK. Continuewith quick scenes of heavy jettransports at world airports. Again,a lot of activity.


We see an airplane in flight pitch-ing up.


5. CUT back to STOCK. Continuewith activity at world airports, avariety of scenes.

Fast-paced, percussive MUSICruns up...

NARRATOR: A pilot initiates amissed approach. The airplanesuddenly rolls and impacts theground in a 17-degree, nose-downpitch attitude.

MUSIC up...

NARRATOR: An airplane on ap-proach experiences pitch excur-sions of greater than 70 degrees.The airplane does not recover.

MUSIC up.. .

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.4


We see an airplane executing amissed approach (go-around). Itpitches nose up and then stalls.


7. CUT back to STOCK. We see fiveor six more airport activity shots,then, CUT to

8. FREEZE-FRAME of GRAPHICBACKGROUND. Bring inFREEZE-FRAMES from each ofthe preceding 3D accident anima-tion sequences. In each FREEZE-FRAME, we see the airplane in anunusual attitude.

9. DISSOLVE to our narrator, in anairport environment (an office/areathat overlooks the ramp area wherewe can see general airport activity.The office/area itself is not identifi-able with any particular airline.)The narrator turns from the windowto address the CAMERA. He is asubject matter expert, but we do notassociate him with any manufac-turer, airline, or governmentagency.

10. DELETED.

11. DISSOLVE to PHOTOS from loss-of-control accidents.

NARRATOR: An airplane is on anautomatic ILS approach, but anerror has been made with theautoflight system. The airplaneenters a severe nose-high pitchattitude, stalls, and does notrecover.

MUSIC up...

VOICE-OVER: Three differentaccidents...three differentcauses...but one common thread:at some point in each case, theairplane was upset and entered an“unusual attitude”—that is, theplane unintentionally exceededthe parameters that you, the pilot,normally experience in day-to-dayoperations.

“Every day, around the world, tensof thousands of airplanes takeflight. As you well know, an over-whelming majority of those flightsproceed without incident.”

MUSIC bump (somber...)VOICE-OVER: Airplane upsets arenot a common occurrence. How-ever, there have been many loss-of-control incidents in multi-engine, turbojet airplanes. And,

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.5

12. CUT back to animation (use foot-age from 3D ANIMATED SE-QUENCE #2). We see an airplanenose high and then stalling/norecovery.

13. DISSOLVE back to the narrator.

14. DISSOLVE to GRAPHIC BACK-GROUND. On-screen text corre-sponds with narration.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Define Airplane Upset• Examine Causes• Review Aerodynamics


since the beginning of the jet age,there have been a significantnumber of commercial jet trans-port accidents attributed to con-trol problems.Music out.

VOICE-OVER: As you’ll see,causes for airplane upsets arevaried, and in some cases, diffi-cult to agree upon. But one thingeveryone agrees with is that onceyour airplane is upset and entersan unusual attitude, you may havelittle time to react. The actions youtake are critical to recovery.

“With this in mind, airlines, pilotassociations, airplane manufactur-ers and government aviation andregulatory agencies feel it is ap-propriate that you receive AirplaneUpset Recovery Training.”

VOICE-OVER: This video willdefine airplane upset...will look atcauses...and will review aerody-namic principles that form a basisfor recovery.

Music begins under...“There’s no doubt, you never wantto be in a situation where yourairplane has rolled or pitched outof control. But if you do find your-self in such a situation, the infor-mation that follows can play a vitalpart in a successfulrecovery.”

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.6

16. DISSOLVE back to GRAPHICBACKGROUND. Title appears ason-screen text, followed by asecond line underneath for subtitle.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Airplane Upset Recovery:• Overview and Aerodynamics

17. DISSOLVE back to our narrator.

18. DISSOLVE to 3D ANIMATIONSEQUENCE #4.

We see an airplane in a compassoutline.

As per sequences 1–3, this is ageneric airplane—a specific model,but no airline markings or colors.

The plane moves from “normalflight” to demonstrate a particular“upset” attribute. Between at-tributes, it returns momentarily to“normal” flight.


MUSIC comes up and holdsthroughout title sequence, thenfades back under...

“An airplane is defined as upset ifit unintentionally exceeds theparameters normally experiencedin line operations or training.Specific values may vary amongairplane models, but the followingconditions are generally agreedupon:”

VOICE-OVER: Unintentional pitchattitude greater than 25 degrees,nose up...

Unintentional pitch attitudegreater than 10 degrees, nosedown...

Unintentional bank angle greaterthan 45 degrees...

Or even within these parameters,but flying at airspeeds inappropri-ate for the conditions.

“The causes of airplane upset arevaried, but these can also bebroadly categorized: upsets thatare environmentally induced ...those caused by airplane compo-nents ... those caused by humanfactors ... or those induced by acombination of any of these.”

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.7

20. DISSOLVE to air-to-air footage:scenes of clouds. On-screen textappears over scene on lower thirdof screen. It fades out as narrationbegins.

CUT to pilots in a preflight brief-ing, reviewing weather information.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Environmental

21. DISSOLVE to air-to-air footage.We see an airplane moving throughchanging weather conditions.

22. CUT to air-to-air footage: unique orunusual cloud patterns/formations.

23. CUT to flight deck footage. We seeweather instrumentation in cockpit.

24. CUT to STOCK from wake vortextesting. We see an airplane follow-ing another airplane with wingtipsmoke streamers, illustrating wakevortex turbulence.

25. CUT to 2D ART—GRAPHIC #1:

Illustration of windshear principles.

MUSIC bump... .VOICE-OVER: Interpreting andresponding to rapidly changingenvironmental conditions is aconstant way of life for the work-ing pilot. These conditions canalso lead to airplane upset, al-though not all of them have adirect effect on the airplane itself.

VOICE-OVER: For example, arapid environmental change maydictate a quick transition fromVMC to IMC. During this transition,it’s often easy to get distracted.Research shows that an upset ismore likely to develop when theflight crew is distracted.

VOICE-OVER: Environmentalconditions can also cause visualillusions, such as false verticaland horizontal cues. During suchillusions, instruments can be mis-interpreted, and again, the flightcrew can be distracted.

VOICE-OVER: The biggest dangerfrom environmental conditions,however, are those that directlyaffect the airplane flight path,such as the various types of tur-bulence a pilot might encounter.

VOICE-OVER: Industry study hasvalidated that wake vortex turbu-lence can contribute to an airplaneupset.

VOICE-OVER: Windshear has alsobeen extensively studied and is aknown cause of upset.

APPENDIX

3-C

App.3-C.8


Illustration of mountain waveprinciples.

27. CUT to flight deck footage. We seepilot and copilot from behind (notidentifiable with any airline). CUTclose on instruments to highlightrapid excursion—the effect ofturbulence.

28. CUT to footage of thunderclouds,then severe winter weather at anairport.

29. CUT to flight deck footage. We see/hear the pilot asking for a routearound severe weather.

30. DISSOLVE to flight deck scene:CLOSE-UP on the instrumentpanel. On-screen text appears overthe lower third of the screen. Itfades out as the narration begins.

Then cut to scenes of pilots at work.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Component or Equipment

31. CUT to simulator: pilots reacting toautopilot failure.

VOICE-OVER: Mountain wave—severe turbulence advancing upone side of a mountain and downthe other—is another environmen-tal factor that can affect the air-plane flight path...

VOICE-OVER: As is clear air tur-bulence, often marked by rapidchanges in pressure...temperaturefluctuations...and dramaticchanges in wind direction andvelocity.

VOICE-OVER: Other environmen-tally induced factors that cancontribute to, or cause, an air-plane upset includethunderstorms...and weatherconditions that result in ice build-up on the airplane.

The best solution to environmen-tal hazards is to avoid them whenpossible.

MUSIC bump...VOICE-OVER: Today’s airplanesare remarkably reliable, and mal-function of components or equip-ment that can lead to an upset arerare. Because of this high level ofreliability, when these problemsdo occur, they can surprise theflight crew.

VOICE-OVER: Airplane compo-nent problems such as an instru-ment failure or an autopilot failurefall under this category. Again, theresult can be direct, such as anautopilot failure resulting in apitch moment...or there can be anindirect effect, if the flight crewhas been significantly distracted

APPENDIX

3-C

App.3-C.9

32. CUT to simulator. Pilots reacting totrailing edge flap assemblyproblem.

33. DISSOLVE to flight deck footage.We see pilot and copilot frombehind. Not identifiable with anyairline. On-screen text appears overthe lower third of the screen. Itfades out as the narration begins.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Human Factors

34. CUT to flight deck footage. We seeclose-ups of pilot and copilot atwork, from a variety of angles.

35. CUT to simulator. Pilots reacting toa vertical mode malfunction.

by the failure of a particular com-ponent.

VOICE-OVER: Other causes in-clude flight control anomalies andsystem failures that lead to un-usual control input require-ments—as might be experiencedwith an engine failure, failure ofthe yaw damper, the spoilers, theflaps or slats, the primary flightcontrols, or as a result of struc-tural problems.

MUSIC bump...Human factors must also be takeninto account when examiningpossible causes.

VOICE-OVER: Cross-check andinstrument interpretation is anexample. Misinterpretation ofinstruments or a slow cross-checkmay lead to an upset.

VOICE-OVER: An upset can resultfrom unexpected airplane re-sponse to power adjustments,automated functions, or controlinputs...inappropriate use ofautomation...or by pilots applyingopposing inputs simultaneously.

APPENDIX

3-C

App.3-C.10

36. CUT to simulator. Pilots reviewingmap as airplane slows to stallingspeed.

37. CUT to close-up on an attitudeindicator at an obviously severeangle, with the horizon superim-posed over.

38. CUT to airplane in flight. HALF-DISSOLVE pilot passing out overcontrol column; then newspaperheadline from hijacking situation.

39. DISSOLVE back to the narrator.When he completes the narration,he exits the frame.

40. DISSOLVE to a “classroom”environment. We can tell by thematerial on the walls, etc., that thisis a flight crew training environ-ment. On-screen text appears overthe lower third of the screen. Itfades out as the narrator enters theframe.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Aerodynamics

VOICE-OVER: As previously men-tioned, inattention or distraction inthe flight deck can lead to anupset. This includes any type ofdistraction that causes the flightcrew to disregard control of theairplane, even momentarily.

VOICE-OVER: Spatial disorienta-tion, the inability to correctlyorient one’s self with respect tothe Earth’s surface, has been asignificant factor in many airplaneupsets.

VOICE-OVER: Other rare, butpossible human factors includepilot incapacitation due to a medi-cal problem, or, even rarer, ahijacking situation.

“A combination of any of thesefactors can also lead to upset. It’simportant to remember that we’retrying to look at all possiblecauses here, no matter how re-mote the possibility. The fact is,it’s sometimes this very remote-ness that allows an upset situa-tion to develop.”

MUSIC bump...“Now that we’ve taken a look atpossible causes, let’s take a fewmoments to review some keyaerodynamic principles. These arethings you learned at the begin-ning of your flying career. Younow react instinctively in the flightdeck and rarely need to thinkabout aerodynamic theory. How-ever, in an airplane upset situa-tion, these principles form thebasis for recovery.”

APPENDIX

3-C

App.3-C.11

41. CUT to shots of the Chief TestPilots for Boeing, Airbus, andBoeing Douglas Products Divisiontouring together at the National Airand Space Museum.

42. DISSOLVE to the Airbus ChiefTest Pilot. He addresses the camera.KEY: Capt. William Wainwright,Airbus

43. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTERANIMATION SEQUENCE #5.

We see an airplane in flight. WhenCapt. Wainwright says “energy,”we highlight the engines. When hesays “flight path,” an arrow orvelocity vector draws on thatillustrates the plane’s flight path outahead of it. When he says “maneu-ver,” the plane banks to the right.

44. DISSOLVE to an airplane in flight.

45. CUT to scenes of an airplane inflight. We see the engines, as wellas the wing.

46. CUT to flight deck footage. We seepilot operating flight controls.

CUT to an airplane in flight.

VOICE-OVER: We’ve asked theChief Test Pilots for Boeing andAirbus to assist us in this discus-sion. These are pilots who’vetaken their airplanes to the ex-tremes.

“When discussing large-airplaneaerodynamics, three words oftenenter the conversation:”

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Energy- -thecapacity to do work...Flight path —the actual directionand velocity an airplane follows...and Maneuver —a controlled varia-tion of the flight path.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: In an air-plane, the ultimate goal of usingenergy is to maneuver the airplaneto control the flight path .

PILOT VOICE-OVER: The energycreated by the thrust of the en-gines and the lift generated by thewings is controlled by the thrustlevers and flight controls to over-come gravity and aerodynamicdrag.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: In otherwords, flight controls give you theability to balance the forces actingon the airplane in order to maneu-ver—to change the flight path ofthe airplane. The direction of thelift produced by the wings is inde-pendent of the direction of gravity.

APPENDIX

3-C

App.3-C.12

47. CUT back to Capt. Wainwright.

CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA-TION SEQUENCE #6. We see anairplane in flight with instrumenta-tion package superimposed. We seespeed slowing as altitude increases.

48. CUT close on the airplane modeland pointer stick as Capt. Wain-wright demonstrates the angle-of-attack principle.

CUT DISSOLVE to 3D COM-PUTER ANIMATION SE-QUENCE #6A. We see an airplanein flight with the angle of attackincreasing to the point of stall inboth nose-high and nose-lowsituations.

49. DISSOLVE to Boeing Chief TestPilot.KEY: Capt. John Cashman, Boeing.


We see an airplane in a pitch andyaw diagram angle. As detailed byCapt. Cashman, we see the airplanepitch back and forth. When hedetails the elevator, we see thatcomponent highlighted.

51. CUT to air-to-air, airplanes in flight

“Two other important principles:energy management...and angle ofattack. An airplane in flight hastwo types of energy: kinetic, orairspeed, and potential, or alti-tude. You exchange speed foraltitude...and altitude for speed.”

“The angle at which the wingmeets the relative wind is calledthe “angle of attack.” Angle ofattack does not equate to pitchangle. Changing the angle ofattack either increases or de-creases the amount of lift gener-ated. But beyond the stall, theangle of attack must be reduced torestore lift.”

“Now, let’s look at the elements ofstability...”

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Movementaround the lateral axis of an air-plane is called “pitch” and isusually controlled by the elevator.At any specific combination ofairplane configuration, weight,center of gravity, and speed, therewill be one elevator position atwhich all of these forces are bal-anced.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: In flight, thetwo elements most easily changedare speed and elevator position;as the speed changes, the eleva-tor position must be adjusted tobalance the aerodynamic forces.For example, as the speed in-creases, the wing creates morelift.

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.13

52. CUT to close air-to-air shot. We seean airplane slightly pitching up anddown.

53. CUT back to Capt. Cashman. Hespeaks to camera, mocks pullingand pushing column.


We see extension of speedbrakesand resulting nose-up-pitchmoment.

1/14—change in narration.

55. CUT to a scene that reflects anelectronic flight control systemairplane.

56. CUT to airplane in flight. We see itpitch up as thrust increases.

57. CUT to examples of airplanes withtail-mounted engines.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: If the air-plane is at a balanced, “in-trim”position in flight, it will generallyseek to return to the trimmedposition if upset by externalforces or momentary pilot input.This is called “positive longitudi-nal static stability.”

“We’ve all experienced this andare familiar with the requirementsto apply pull forces when an air-plane is slowed and push forceswhen an airplane speeds up.”

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Changes inairplane configuration will alsoaffect pitching moment. For ex-ample, extending wing-mountedspeedbrakes generally produces anose-up pitching moment.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Airplanesthat have electronic flight controlsystems, commonly referred to as“fly-by-wire,” may automaticallycompensate for these changes inconfiguration.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Thrust af-fects pitch as well. With under-wing engines, reducing thrustcreates a nose-down pitchingmoment; increasing thrust createsa nose-up pitching moment.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Airplaneswith fuselage- or tail-mountedengines, or those designed withelectronic flight controls, producedifferent effects. Whatever type ofplane you are flying, you need toknow how the airplane willrespond.

APPENDIX

3-C

App.3-C.14

58. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTERANIMATION SEQUENCE # 9.We see the tail end of an airplane,with elevator and stabilizer moving.

59. CUT back to 3D COMPUTERANIMATION SEQUENCE # 9A.We see a close-up of the stabilizerand elevator showing a “jack-knifed” condition.

60. CUT to Boeing Douglas ProductsDivision Chief Test Pilot.KEY: Capt. Tom Melody, BoeingDouglas Products Division.


We see an airplane in a pitch andyaw diagram. As detailed by Capt.Melody, we see the airplane yawback and forth. When he details therudder, we see that componenthighlighted.

62. CUT back to Capt. Melody. The tailsection of an airplane fills the areabehind him. He speaks to thecamera.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: The combi-nation of elevator and stabilizerposition also affects pitch. Innormal maneuvering, the pilotdisplaces the elevator to achieve achange in pitch. The stabilizer isthen trimmed by driving it to anew position to balance theforces.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: This newstabilizer position is faired withthe elevator. If the stabilizer andelevator are not faired, one can-cels out the other. This conditionlimits the airplane’s ability toovercome other pitching momentsfrom configuration changes orthrust.

“Now, let’s continue this discus-sion by taking a look at yaw androll.”

MUSIC bump...PILOT VOICE-OVER: Motion aboutthe vertical axis is called “yaw”and is controlled by the rudder.Movement of the rudder creates aforce and a resulting rotationabout the vertical axis.

“The vertical stabilizer and therudder are sized to meet twoobjectives: to control asymmetricthrust from an engine failure at themost demanding flightcondition...and to generate suffi-cient sideslip for cross-windlandings.”

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.15

63. CUT close on the tail as the ruddermoves.


We see an airplane in a pitch andyaw diagram. As detailed by Capt.Melody, we see the airplane rollback and forth. When he details theailerons and spoilers, we see thosecomponents highlighted.

CUT to airplane in flight, rolling.

65. CUT to animation: we see aileronshighlighted. Cut to interior ofsimulator as needed.

66. CUT back to animation: we seeairplane at high angle of attack.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: To achievethese objectives at takeoff andlanding speeds, the vertical stabi-lizer and rudder must be capableof generating powerful yawingmoments and large sideslipangles.

MUSIC bump...PILOT VOICE-OVER: Motion aboutthe longitudinal axis is called roll.Control inputs cause the aile-rons—and then spoilers—to con-trol the airplane’s roll rate. Theaileron and spoiler movementchanges the local angle of attackof the wing—changing the amountof lift—which causes rotationabout the longitudinal axis.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: During anupset, there may be unusuallylarge amounts of aileron inputrequired to recover the airplane. Ifnecessary, this can be assisted bycoordinated input of rudder in thedirection of the desired roll.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: However,when a large-transport, swept-wing airplane is at a high angle ofattack, pilots must be carefulwhen using the rudder for assist-ing lateral control. Excessiverudder can cause excessive side-slip, which could lead to departurefrom controlled flight.

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.16


View of full airplane from slightlyabove and to the side. We seeairflow passing over the wing andaround the rudder. As the angle ofattack increases, we see airflowseparate over the wing, but remainaerodynamically effective aroundthe rudder.


We see demonstration of crossoverspeed.

We see airplane begin yaw roll.

Indicate unloading of controlcolumn.

69. CUT to airspeed indicator. We seehigh airspeed.

70. CUT to flight deck scene—simulatevibration.

1/14—Change in text.

CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA-TION SEQUENCE. (Variation ofsequence #8A. Speedbrake exten-sion as seen in scene 54—but thisone is at high speed and the pitchmoment is more pronounced.)

PILOT VOICE-OVER: As angle ofattack increases, aileron andspoiler effectiveness decreasesbecause the airflow begins toseparate over the wing. However,the rudder airflow is not sepa-rated; it remains aerodynamicallyeffective.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: In someaircraft configurations, there is acertain crossover speed at whichfull aileron and spoiler deflectionis necessary to counter the rolldue to full rudder deflection andthe resulting sideslip. Below thiscrossover speed, the rolling mo-ment created by ailerons andspoilers is gradually unable tocounter the rolling moment in-duced by the sideslip generatedby full rudder deflection. Theairplane must be unloaded toreduce angle of attack, and theairspeed must be increased, tomaintain lateral control.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: In contrast,very high speeds in excess of V MO

and MMO cause control surfaces tobe blown down, rendering themless effective.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: The mainconcern at high speed in excessof VMO and M MO comes from vibra-tions and high airloads that maylead to structural damage. Othereffects often include reducedeffectiveness or even reversal ofcontrol response. Any pitchingmoment due to speedbrake exten-sion or retraction is more pro-nounced at high speed, and

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.17

71. CUT to simulator. Pilots reacting toshock-wave vibration.

Then, CUT to 2D ART—GRAPHIC #4.

Ilustration of shock-waveprinciples.

72. CUT to simulator. Pilots reacting tobuffet.

73, CUT to Boeing Capt. JohnCashman in simulator.

74. CUT to close-up on altitude indica-tor. We see high altitude number.

pitching effects as a result ofthrust changes are less pro-nounced.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: High-speedbuffet is caused by shock-waveinstability. As the airplane ex-ceeds its cruise speed, the shockwave that runs along the wingupper surface becomes strongenough to cause the beginning ofa local separation or stall. Thiscauses the flow over the wing tofluctuate, leading to rapid changesin drag and the position of thecenter of pressure. The ensuingbuffet results in a loss of aerody-namic efficiency of the wing,which will impact the high-speeddive recovery.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: The buffetcan be disconcerting and willnormally not be symmetrical oneach wing—resulting in a rockingmotion during a pull-up. The pilotshould relax the pull force if high-speed buffet is encountered.

“Altitude and Mach also affect theperformance of the controlsurfaces...”

PILOT VOICE-OVER: The higherthe altitude, and Mach, the moresensitive the airplane is to controlsurface movements, making therecovery more difficult.

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.18

75. Then CUT to 3D COMPUTERANIMATION SEQUENCE #13.

We see an airplane entering a yaw,rolling motion.

Airplane yaws back to normalflight.

76. CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA-TION SEQUENCE #14. We seedemonstration of an airplane inV

MCA condition.

77. DISSOLVE to flight test footage offull stall testing (A340 and 777).

78. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTERANIMATION SEQUENCE # 15.We see an airplane rolling inresponse to rudder input.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Asymmetricthrust affects roll. When there isasymmetric thrust, sideslip iscreated, and thus, roll. This isnormally countered with rudderand lateral control. Obviouslythen, reducing an asymmetricthrust condition will also reducethe sideslip associated with it.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: The defini-tion of V MCA is the minimum flightspeed at which the airplane iscontrollable with a maximum of 5-degrees bank when the criticalengine suddenly becomes inop-erative with the remaining engineat takeoff thrust. Below this speedthere is insufficient directionalcontrol.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: As the air-speed decreases, the ability tomaneuver the airplane also de-creases. During a full or deepstall, the flight controls becomeless effective because of the highangle of attack.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: However, therudder remains effective at lowerspeeds. This can be good orbad—At speeds above stall, therudder can assist the airplane’sability to roll. However, at slowerspeeds, there will be a delay afterapplication of the rudder beforeroll response becomes apparentto you. Also, the amount of rudderused and the rate at which it isapplied is critical. The bad part isthat at speeds approaching thestall speed, or speeds below thestall speed, use of rudder cancause loss of lateral and direc-tional control.

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App.3-C.19

79. DISSOLVE back to Airbus Capt.Bill Wainwright.

80. DISSOLVE to plane in a level turn.

81. CUT to 3D ANIMATEDSEQUENCE #16.

Airplane actions correspond tonarration.

82. CONTINUE with ANIMATEDSEQUENCE #16.

Highlight stick shaker with visualand audible.

83. CUT to flight deck scenes of fly-by-wire airplanes.

CUT to A320 at high angle ofattack.

“Another consideration for longi-tudinal control is ‘g’ load. That is,the amount of load factor that isaligned with the vertical axis ofthe airplane.”

PILOT VOICE-OVER: In a levelturn or pull-up, the wing has tocreate more lift and the pilot feelsmore g load. The increased g loadwill also increase the stall speed.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Generally,the elevator and stabilizer havesufficient control authority todrive the wing past its stall angleof attack, even at high speed,which can adversely affect pitchand roll control.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: This meansthat the wing can be stalled. Inthis case, regardless of the pitchattitude, a pilot cannot command aspecific bank angle or flight path,even at high airspeeds. The air-plane has entered into an acceler-ated stall. The wing loading mustbe reduced to recover from thisstall and regain pitch and rollcontrol.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Airplaneswith electronic flight control sys-tems may provide protectionagainst entering into many upsetsituations. These systems alsoassist the airplane to return tonormal flight, if necessary. How-ever, when fly-by-wire airplanesoperate in the degraded mode,flight control inputs and the re-sponses are similar to non-fly-by-wire airplanes.MUSIC bump...

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App.3-C.20

84. DISSOLVE to Boeing DouglasProducts Division Capt. TomMelody.

Then DISSOLVE to flight testfootage from Boeing, Airbus, andMcDonnell Douglas. We seeairplanes at unusual attitudes orextreme test conditions.

85. DISSOLVE back to our narrator.

CREDIT RUN OF PROGRAMPARTICIPANTS.

FADE out.

PART 2

86. FADE in on a series of accidentphotos/footage.

DISSOLVE to animation sequence:airplane in upset condition.

87. DISSOLVE to our narrator. He is ina simulator environment. He ad-dresses the camera.

“The aerodynamic principleswe’ve reviewed are applied toairplane design.”PILOT VOICE-OVER: During flighttesting, all airplane manufacturersexceed these parameters to helpprove the safety of the airplanesthat you eventually fly. A workingknowledge of these principles isvital to a successful recovery froman upset situation.

MUSIC bump...“In this video, we’ve defined whatan airplane upset is...we’ve lookedat causes...and we’ve reviewed theaerodynamics associated withrecovery. We’ve laid a foundation.To build upon this foundation,follow-on training should reviewspecific recovery techniques.”MUSIC comes up...

MUSIC runs under...VOICE-OVER: Differentaccidents...different causes...butall of these accidents do have onething in common...At some timeduring the flight, an airplane upsetoccurred. And there’s one othercritical thing they have in com-mon: the flight crews did notrecover.

“An airplane is defined as upset ifit unintentionally exceeds theparameters normally experiencedin line operations or training.Specific values vary among air-plane models, but the followingconditions are generally agreedupon:”

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App.3-C.21

88. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTERANIMATION SEQUENCE #4

(As detailed in scene 18.) We seean airplane demonstrating upsetattributes.

89. DISSOLVE to upset animation.

90. DISSOLVE to scenes from Video#1: A weather scene...a componentmalfunction scene...the pilotsdistracted scene...then animation ofan upset situation. On-screen textappears over background.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Recognize and Confirm the

Situation• Disengage the Autopilot and

Autothrottle• Required Flight Control

Authority• Maneuver to Normal Bank/Pitch

91. CUT to animation: airplane in anobvious upset condition.

Then CUT to simulator: pilotreacting to upset condition.

VOICE-OVER: Unintentional pitchattitude greater than 25 degrees,nose up...Unintentional pitch attitudegreater than 10 degrees, nosedown...Unintentional bank angle greaterthan 45 degrees...Or even within these parameters,but flying at airspeeds inappropri-ate for the conditions.

MUSIC fades under...VOICE-OVER: Airplane upsets dohappen...but they are rare. Be-cause of this rarity, a flight crewthat finds itself in an upset situa-tion can quickly be overwhelmed.

VOICE-OVER: Causes of upsetsvary—they may be caused byenvironmental factors...by compo-nent or equipmentmalfunction...by humanfactors...or by a combination ofany of these. But no matter thecause, the foundation for recoveryis the same...You must—recognize and confirmthe situation...disengage the autopilot and auto-throttle...use whatever authority is requiredof the flight controls...and you must maneuver the air-plane to return to normal bank andpitch...

VOICE-OVER: Once you’ve en-tered an upset condition, youprobably won’t be able to rely onoutside visual references—inmany cases you won’t be able tolocate the horizon.You must plan on interpretingyour instruments...

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App.3-C.22

92. CUT to new angle on the narrator.

93. DISSOLVE to scenes of Capt. JohnCashman (Boeing), Capt. TomMelody (Boeing Douglas ProductsDivision) and Capt. William Wain-wright (Airbus), touring at theNational Air and Space Museum.

94. CUT back to narrator.

And if you are unsure if an instru-ment is working, such as yourattitude indicator, you must con-firm your situation through mul-tiple sources. In fact, that’s one ofthe reasons why redundancy ofcritical instrumentation is builtinto an airplane.

“This video will examine specificrecovery techniques that you canuse once your airplane has beenupset. We’ve asked three pilots tohelp us with this discussion—three pilots who have actuallybeen in some of the situationswe’ll be looking at.”

VOICE-OVER: The chief test pilotsfor Boeing and Airbus have agreat deal of expertise when itcomes to airplanes that fly outsidethe normal regime. During flighttesting, they regularly push theirairplanes beyond normal flightparameters.

“For the purposes of this training,it doesn’t matter how or why theairplane entered an upset situa-tion, or what caused it...whatmatters most is that you under-stand that your reaction time islimited—in short, if you find your-self in an upset situation, youmust act, and you must actquickly and correctly. You mustalso guard against letting therecovery of one airplane upsetlead into a different upsetsituation.”

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App.3-C.23

95. DISSOLVE to our three test pi-lots—a group shot, at the NationalAir and Space Museum. Capt.William (Bill) Wainwright begins.After his first sentence, ZOOM inon Bill.

KEY: Capt. William Wainwright,Airbus

CUT to Boeing Capt. JohnCashman.

KEY: Capt. John Cashman, Boeing

96. CUT to Boeing Douglas ProductsDivision Capt. Tom Melody.

KEY: Capt. Tom Melody, BoeingDouglas Products Division.

Capt. Wainwright: “An UpsetRecovery Team comprised ofrepresentatives from airlines, pilotassociations, airplane manufactur-ers, and government aviation andregulatory agencies developed thetechniques presented here. Thesetechniques are not necessarilyprocedural. Use of both primaryand secondary flight controls toeffect the recovery from an un-usual attitude are discussed.”

Capt. Cashman: “Your air carriermust address procedural applica-tion within your own fleet struc-ture. The Upset Recovery Teamstrongly recommends that yourprocedures for initial recoveryemphasize using primary flightcontrols (aileron, elevator, andrudder). However, the applicationof secondary flight controls (stabtrim, thrust vector effects, andspeedbrakes) may be consideredincrementally to supplementprimary flight control inputs afterthe recovery has been initiated.”

Capt. Melody: “One more thing—the recovery techniques we’lldiscuss assume that the airplaneis not stalled. If it is stalled, it isnecessary to first recover from thestalled condition before initiatingthese techniques. At this point, wefeel it is important to discuss stallrecovery. As a pilot, you hear anduse a lot of different terminologywhen discussing stalls: ‘stallwarning’, ‘stick shaker’, deepstalls’ and ‘approach to stalls.’These are all used in dailyconversation.”

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App.3-C.24

CUT back to Capt. Wainwright.

96A. CUT back to Capt. Cashman.

CUT back to Capt. Melody.

Capt. Wainwright: “As we said, Insome upset situations, you mustfirst recover from a stall beforeapplying any other recovery ac-tions. Now what do we mean bythat? By stall, we mean an angleof attack beyond the stallingangle. A stall is characterized byany, or a combination, of thefollowing:”

Capt. Cashman: “Buffeting, whichcould be heavy...the lack of pitchauthority...the lack of rollcontrol...inability to arrest descentrate. These characteristics areusually accompanied by a con-tinuous stall warning. A stall mustnot be confused with the stallwarning that occurs before thestall and warns of an approachingstall. You have been trained torecover from an approach to stall,which is not the same as a recov-ery from a stall. An approach tostall is a controlled flight maneu-ver. However, a full stall is an out-of-control condition, but it isrecoverable.”

Capt. Melody: “To recover fromthe stall, angle of attack must bereduced below the stalling angle.You must apply nose-down pitchcontrol and maintain it until youhave recovered from the stall.Under certain conditions, onairplanes with underwing-mounted engines, you may haveto reduce thrust in order to pre-vent the angle of attack fromcontinuing to increase. Onceunstalled, continue with the otherrecovery actions and reapplythrust as needed.”

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App.3-C.25

97. DISSOLVE to scenes of airplanesin flight: Airbus air-to-air andBoeing air-to-air.

98. DISSOLVE to GRAPHIC BACK-GROUND. Title appears as on-screen text, followed by a secondline for Part Two title.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Airplane Upset Recovery:• Recovery Techniques

99. DISSOLVE to FREEZE-FRAMEfrom 3D COMPUTER ANIMA-TION SEQUENCE #17.

On-screen text appears over thelower third of the screen, then fadesout as narration begins.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Nose High, Wings Level

Animation (sequence 17A) transi-tions from FREEZE-FRAME toFULL MOTION. We see theairplane pitching up. Instrumenta-tion dissolves on.

100. CUT to Capt. John Cashman inflight deck of a Boeing airplanesimulator. He turns from the pilot’sseat to address the camera.

VOICE-OVER: Airplanes that aredesigned with electronic flightcontrol systems, commonly re-ferred to as “fly-by-wire” air-planes, have safety features thatshould preclude the airplane fromentering into an upset and assistthe pilot in recovery if it becomesnecessary. However, when fly-by-wire airplanes are in the degradedflight control mode, the recoverytechniques and aerodynamicprinciples we will discuss areappropriate.

MUSIC comes up and holdsthroughout the title sequence,then fades back under...

MUSIC bump...VOICE-OVER: Imagine a wings-level situation where the airplanepitch attitude is unintentionallymore than 25 degrees, nosehigh—and increasing. In this case,the airspeed is decreasing rapidly.As the airspeed decreases, theability to maneuver the airplanealso decreases. Recognize andconfirm the situation.

“Start by disengaging the autopi-lot and the autothrottle.”

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App.3-C.26

101. CUT back to animation (sequence17A, with instrumentation).

CUT to Capt. Cashman, in simula-tor, applying sustained columnforce and trim.

102. CUT back to Capt. Cashman. Hespeaks to the camera.

103. CUT back to 3D ANIMATIONSEQUENCE #18.

We see plane starting to bank.

Replay this sequence as needed.Highlight deflection of ailerons andspoilers.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Next, applynose-down elevator to achieve anose-down pitch rate. This mayrequire as much as full nose-downinput. If a sustained column forceis required to obtain desired re-sponse, you may consider trim-ming off some of the control force.However, it may be difficult toknow how much trim should beused. Therefore, care must betaken to avoid using too muchtrim. Do not fly the airplane usingpitch trim, and stop trimming nosedown as the required elevatorforce lessens.

“If at this point you cannot imme-diately get the pitch rate undercontrol, there are several addi-tional techniques which may betried. The use of these techniquesdepends on the circumstances ofthe situation and the airplanecontrol characteristics.”

PILOT VOICE-OVER: You mayalso control the pitch by rollingthe airplane to a bank angle whichstarts the nose down—normallynot to exceed approximately 60degrees. Maintaining continuousnose-down elevator pressure willkeep the wing angle of attack aslow as possible, making the nor-mal roll controls as effective aspossible. With airspeed as low asstick shaker onset, normal rollcontrols—up to full deflection ofthe ailerons and spoilers—can beused. The rolling maneuverchanges the pitch rate into aturning maneuver, allowing thepitch to decrease.

APPENDIX

3-C

App.3-C.27

104. CUT back to Capt. Cashman. Headdresses the camera.

105. DISSOLVE to 3D ANIMATIONSEQUENCE #19.

Highlight engine thrust.

106. DISSOLVE back to 3D ANIMA-TION SEQUENCE #20.

Highlight rudder input.

107. CUT back to Capt. Cashman. Coverwith continuation of animation asneeded.

108. CUT back to 3D ANIMATIONSEQUENCE #20A.

We see plane returning to normalflight.

109. DISSOLVE to a scene of Capt.Cashman in the simulator, frombehind, wide. KEY on-screen textover this scene.

1/15/98—text change.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:Nose/High, Wings Level:• Recognize and Confirm the

Situation

“In most situations, the stepswe’ve just outlined should beenough to recover. Other tech-niques may also be employed toachieve a nose-down pitch rate.”

PILOT VOICE-OVER: If altitudepermits, flight tests have shownthat an effective method to get anose-down pitch rate is to reducethe power on underwing-mountedengines. This will reduce the up-ward pitch moment.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: If the controlprovided by the ailerons and spoil-ers is ineffective, rudder input maybe required to induce a rollingmaneuver for recovery.

“Only a small amount of rudder isneeded— too much rudder appliedtoo quickly—or held too long—mayresult in loss of lateral and direc-tional control. Because of the low-energy condition, use cautionwhen applying rudder.”

PILOT VOICE-OVER: To completethe recovery, roll to wings level asthe nose approaches the horizon.Recover to a slightly nose-lowattitude, check airspeed, and ad-just thrust and pitch as necessary.

MUSIC comes up.

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App.3-C.28

109A. CUT to a close-up of EICASdisplay indication disconnectionof autothrottle and autopilot.KEY on-screen text over thisscene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Disengage Autopilot and

Autothrottle

109B. CUT to Capt. Cashman applyingnose-down elevator. KEY on-screen text over this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Apply as Much as Full Nose-

Down Elevator

109C. CUT back to animation. KEYon-screen text over this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Use Appropriate Techniques:

– Roll to obtain nose-down pitch rate– Reduce thrust (underwing mounted engines)

109D. CUT to a scene from animationof airplane recovering. KEY on-screen text over this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Complete the Recovery:

– Approaching horizon, roll to wings level– Check airspeed, adjust thrust– Establish pitch attitude

MUSIC continues...

MUSIC continues...

MUSIC continues...

MUSIC continues...

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App.3-C.29

109E. DISSOLVE to GRAPHICBACKGROUND. On-screen textappears over background, high-lighting 2nd review of recoverysteps.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:Nose High/Wings Level:• Recognize and Confirm the

Situation• Disengage Autopilot/Autothrottle• Apply as Much as Full Nose-

down Elevator• Use Appropriate Techniques:

– Roll to obtain nose-down pitch rate– Reduce thrust (underwing- mounted engines)

• Complete the Recovery– Approaching horizon, roll to wings level– Check airspeed, adjust thrust– Establish pitch attitude


1/15/98—text change.


ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Nose Low, Wings Level

Airbus test pilot begins voice-over.

Animation transitions fromFREEZE-FRAME to FULL MO-TION. We see the airplane pitchingdown.

MUSIC continues....

MUSIC bump.. .VOICE-OVER: Now imagine anupset situation where the airplanepitch attitude is unintentionallymore than 10 degrees, nose low.Recognize and confirm thesituation.

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.30

111. CUT to Airbus Capt. WilliamWainwright in the flight deck of anAirbus airplane. He turns to addressthe camera.

He applies nose-down elevator.

.111A. CUT back to COMPUTER

ANIMATION SEQUENCE#21A. We see the airplanereturning to normal flight.

112. CUT to 3D ANIMATION SE-QUENCE #22.

113. CUT back to Capt. Wainwright inthe flight deck. He addresses thecamera.

114. CUT close on the column. Pull backto reveal Capt. Wainwright.

“In a nose-low, low-speed situa-tion, remember, the aircraft maybe stalled at a relatively low pitch,and it is necessary to recoverfrom the stall first. This may re-quire nose-down elevator, whichmay not be intuitive.”

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Once recov-ered from the stall, apply thrust.The nose must be returned to thedesired pitch, avoiding a second-ary stall, as indicated by stallwarning or buffet. Respect theairplane limitations of g forcesand airspeed.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: In a nose-low, high-speed situation , applynose-up elevator. Then, it may benecessary to cautiously applystabilizer trim, to assist obtainingthe desired nose-up pitch rate.Reduce thrust and, if required,extend speedbrakes.

“Complete the recovery by estab-lishing a pitch, thrust, and con-figuration that corresponds to thedesired airspeed.”

“A question naturally arises: Howhard do I pull? Here are someconsiderations. Obviously, youmust avoid impacting the terrain.But also avoid entering into anaccelerated stall. And respect theaircraft’s limitations of g forcesand airspeed.”

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App.3-C.31

115. DISSOLVE to a scene of Capt.Wainwright in the Airbus flightdeck. On-screen text appears overbackground, highlighting review ofrecovery steps.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:Nose Low/Wings Level:• Recognize and Confirm the

Situation

115A. CUT to Capt. Wainwright disen-gaging autopilot andautothrottles. KEY on-screen textover this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Disengage Autopilot and

Autothrottle

115B. CUT to a scene from the anima-tion. KEY on-screen text overthis scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Recover From Stall if Necessary

115C. Continue with scene from theanimation (new angle). KEY on-screen text over this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:• Recover to Level Flight

– Apply nose-up elevator– Apply stabilizer trim if necessary– Adjust thrust and drag as necessary

MUSIC up...

Music continues...

Music continues...

Music continues...

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.32

115D. DISSOLVE to GRAPHICBACKGROUND. On-screen textappears over background, high-lighting 2nd review of recoverysteps.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:Nose Low/Wings Level:(High and Low Speeds)• Recognize and Confirm the

Situation• Disengage Autopilot/Autothrottle• Recover From the Stall if

Necessary• Recover to Level Flight:

– Apply nose-up elevator– Apply stabilizer trim if

necessary– Adjust thrust and drag as necessary



ON-SCREEN TEXT:• High Bank Angles

Animation transitions fromFREEZE-FRAME to FULL MO-TION. We see the airplane in highbank angle attitude (60 degrees).

117. CUT to Boeing Douglas ProductsDivision Capt. Tom Melody in theflight deck of a McDonnell Douglasairplane. He addresses the camera.

MUSIC bump...VOICE-OVER: We’ve defined ahigh bank angle for upset as morethan 45 degrees; however, it ispossible to experience bankangles greater than 90 degrees. Inhigh-bank-angle situations, theprimary objective is to roll in theshortest direction to near wingslevel, but if the airplane is stalled,you must first recover from thestall. Recognize and confirm thesituation.

“At high bank angles, you may bein a nose-high attitude, or a nose-low attitude. Let’s look at a nose-high situation first.”

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.33

PILOT VOICE-OVER: A nose-high,high-angle-of-bank attitude re-quires deliberate flight controlinputs. A large bank angle ishelpful in reducing excessivelyhigh-pitch attitudes. Unload andadjust the bank angle to achieve anose-down pitch rate while keep-ing energy management andairplane roll-rate in mind. To com-plete the recovery, roll to wingslevel as the nose approaches thehorizon. Recover to a slightlynose-low attitude, check airspeed,and adjust thrust and pitch asnecessary.

“A nose-low, high-angle-of-bankattitude requires prompt actionbecause altitude is rapidly beingexchanged for airspeed. Even ifthe airplane is at an altitude whereground impact is not an immedi-ate concern, airspeed can rapidlyincrease beyond airplane designlimits. Simultaneous application ofroll and adjustment of thrust maybe necessary.”

PILOT VOICE-OVER: Again, disen-gage the autopilot andautothrottle. In this situation, itmay be necessary to unload theairplane by decreasingbackpressure or even pushing toobtain forward elevator pressure.

“Use full aileron and spoiler input,if necessary, to smoothly estab-lish a recovery roll rate toward thenearest horizon.”PILOT VOICE-OVER: It is impor-tant to not increase g force or usenose-up elevator or stabilizer untilapproaching wings level.

118. CUT back to 3D ANIMATIONSEQUENCE #24.

We see the airplane recover.

CUT to a scene of Capt. Melody inthe simulator, unloading the air-plane.

119. CUT back to Capt. Melody.

CUT back to 3D ANIMATIONSEQUENCE #25.

120. CUT to a close-up: disconnection ofautopilot/autothrottle.

CUT back to 3D ANIMATIONSEQUENCE #25B.

We see the airplane roll to recovery.

121. CUT back to Captain Melody.

Continue animation.

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App.3-C.34

122. CUT to 3D ANIMATION SE-QUENCE #26.

CUT close on the rudder as itmoves.

123. Continue animation. We see theairplane returning to normal flight.

124. DISSOLVE to on-camera narrator.

CUT to a series of wrap-upscenes—scenes we have seenduring the video.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: If full lateralcontrol application is not satisfac-tory, you may need to apply rud-der in the direction of the desiredroll.

PILOT VOICE-OVER: As the wingsapproach level, use the proce-dures we discussed earlier for anose-low situation. Adjust thrustand drag devices as required.

MUSIC bump...“As you’ve seen, there are spe-cific techniques you can use ifyour airplane becomes upset. Nomatter the type of upset—nose-high, wings level...nose-low,wings level...high angle of bank—you must take control of the situa-tion, and you must react quicklyand correctly.”

VOICE-OVER: Let’s review thenose-high and nose-low recover-ies one more time, incorporatingbank angles.

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.35

125. DISSOLVE to GRAPHIC BACK-GROUND. On-screen text appearsover background, highlightingreview of recovery steps.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:Nose High:• Recognize and Confirm the

Situation• Disengage Autopilot/Autothrottle• Apply as Much as Full Nose-

down Elevator• Use Appropriate Techniques:

– Roll (adjust bank angle) to obtain a nose-down pitch rate– Reduce thrust (underwing- mounted engines)

• Complete the Recovery:– Approaching the horizon, roll to wings level– Check airspeed/adjust thrust– Establish pitch attitude

126. DISSOLVE to GRAPHIC BACK-GROUND. On-screen text appearsover background, highlightingreview of recovery steps.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:Nose Low:• Recognize and Confirm the

Situation• Disengage Autopilot/Autothrottle• Recover From Stall, if Necessary• Roll in the Shortest Direction to

Wings Level– Bank angle more than 90 degrees: unload and roll

• Recover to Level Flight:– Apply nose-up elevator– Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary– Adjust thrust and drag as necessary

MUSIC up...

MUSIC up...

APPENDIX

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App.3-C.36

127. DISSOLVE to a series of wrap-upscenes: scenes we have seenthroughout the parts of the video.

127. CREDIT RUN OF PROGRAMPARTICIPANTS.

FADE out.

VOICE-OVER: Remember, thesequence of application of thesetechniques will vary, dependingupon the situation encountered.Thorough review of the causes ofairplane upsets...and the recom-mended actions you should take,will help prepare you to actquickly and decisively should anupset occur.

MUSIC up...

App. 3-D.1

APPENDIX

3-D

Flight Simulator Information

3-DGeneral Information

The ability of the simulators in existence today toadequately replicate the maneuvers being pro-posed for airplane upset recovery training is animportant consideration. Concerns raised aboutsimulators during the creation of the AirplaneUpset Recovery Training Aid include the adequacyof the hardware, the equations of motion, and theaerodynamic modeling to provide realistic cues tothe flight crew during training at unusual attitudes.

It is possible that some simulators in existencetoday may have flight instruments, visual systemsor other hardware that will not replicate the fullsix-degree-of-freedom movement of the airplanethat may be required during unusual attitude train-ing. It is important that the capabilities of eachsimulator be evaluated before attempting airplaneupset training and that simulator hardware andsoftware be confirmed as compatible with thetraining proposed.

Properly implemented equations of motion inmodern simulators are generally valid through thefull six-degree-of-freedom range of pitch, roll, andyaw angles. However, it is possible that someexisting simulators may have equations of motionthat have unacceptable singularities at 90, 180,270, or 360 deg of roll or pitch angle. Each simu-lator to be used for airplane upset training must beconfirmed to use equations of motion and mathmodels (and associated data tables) that are validfor the full range of maneuvers required. Thisconfirmation may require coordination with theairplane and simulator manufacturer.

Operators must also understand that simulatorscannot fully replicate all flight characteristics. Forexample, motion systems cannot replicate sus-tained linear and rotational accelerations. This istrue of pitch, roll, and yaw accelerations, andlongitudinal and side accelerations, as well asnormal load factor, “g’s.” This means that a pilotcannot rely on all sensory feedback that would beavailable in an actual airplane. However, a prop-erly programmed simulator should provide accu-rate control force feedback and the motion systemshould provide airframe buffet consistent with the

aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane whichcould result from control input during certainrecovery situations.

The importance of providing feedback to a pilotwhen control inputs would have exceeded air-frame, physiological, or simulator model limitsmust be recognized and addressed. Some simula-tor operators have effectively used a simulator’s“crash” mode to indicate limits have been ex-ceeded. Others have chosen to turn the visualsystem red when given parameters have been ex-ceeded. Simulator operators should work closelywith training departments in selecting the mostproductive feedback method when selected pa-rameters are exceeded.

The simulation typically is updated and validatedby the airplane manufacturer using flight dataacquired during the flight test program. Before asimulator is approved for any crew training, itmust be evaluated and qualified by a nationalregulatory authority. This process includes a quan-titative comparison of simulation results to actualflight data for certain test conditions such as thosespecified in the ICAO Manual of Criteria for theQualification of Flight Simulators. These flightconditions represent airplane operation within thenormal operating envelope.

The simulation may be extended to represent re-gions outside the typical operating envelope usingwind tunnel data or other predictive methods.However, flight data are not typically available forconditions where flight testing would be veryhazardous. From an aerodynamic standpoint, theregimes of flight that are usually not fully vali-dated with flight data are the stall region and theregion of high angle of attack with high sideslipangle where there may be separated airflow overthe wing or empennage surfaces. While numerousapproaches to stall or stalls are flown on eachmodel (available test data are normally matchedon the simulator), the flight controls are not fullyexercised during an approach to stall or during afull stall, because of safety concerns. Also, roll andyaw rates and sideslip angle are carefully con-trolled during stall maneuvers to be near zero;therefore, validation of derivatives involving these

App. 3-D.2

APPENDIX

3-D

terms in the stall region is not possible. Trainingmaneuvers in this regime of flight must be care-fully tailored to ensure that the combination ofangle of attack and sideslip angle reached duringthe maneuver does not exceed the range of vali-dated data or analytical/extrapolated data sup-ported by the airplane manufacturer.

Values of pitch, roll, and heading angles, however,do not directly affect the aerodynamic characteris-tics of the airplane or the validity of simulatortraining as long as angle of attack and sideslipangles do not exceed values supported by theairplane manufacturer. For example, the aerody-namic characteristics of the upset experiencedduring a 360-deg roll maneuver will be correctlyreplicated if the maneuver is conducted withoutexceeding the valid range of angle of attack andsideslip.

Simulator Alpha-Beta Data Plots

The aerodynamic model for each simulation maybe divided into regions of various “confidencelevels,” depending on the degree of flight valida-tion or source of predictive methods if supportedby the airplane manufacturer, correctly imple-mented by the simulator manufacturer and accu-rately supported and maintained on an individualsimulator. These confidence levels may be classi-fied into three general areas:

1. High: Validated by flight test data for avariety of tests and flight conditions.

2. Medium:Based on reliable predictivemethods.

3. Low: Extrapolated.

The flaps up data represent the maximums achievedat low speeds flaps up and do not imply that thesevalues have been achieved at or near cruise speeds.For flaps down, the maximums were generallyachieved at landing flaps, but are considered validfor the flaps down speed envelope.

App. 3-D.3

APPENDIX

3-D

A300/A310 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40 Flight validatedWind tunnel/analyticalExtrapolated for simulator

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)

Flight validatedWind tunnel/analyticalExtrapolated for simulator

-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)

A300/A310 Alpha/Beta Envelope

App. 3-D.4

APPENDIX

3-D


-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)

727 Alpha/Beta Envelope

App. 3-D.5

APPENDIX

3-D


-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)


-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)737 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope


App. 3-D.6

APPENDIX

3-D

747 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope



Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)


-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)

App. 3-D.7

APPENDIX

3-D




-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)


-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)

App. 3-D.8

APPENDIX

3-D




-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)


-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)

App. 3-D.9

APPENDIX

3-D




Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)


-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)

App. 3-D.10

APPENDIX

3-D

MD-90 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

MD-90 Alpha/Beta Envelope Flaps Deflected


-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)


-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)

App. 3-D.11

APPENDIX

3-D

MD-11 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

MD-11 Alpha/Beta Envelope Flaps Deflected


-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)


-10

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

40

Sideslip (deg)

Win

g an

gle

of a

ttack

(de

g)

App. 3-D.12

APPENDIX

3-D

4.1

4References for Additional Information

4.0 Introduction

The overall goal of the Airplane Upset RecoveryTraining Aid is to increase the ability of pilots torecognize and avoid situations that can lead toairplane upsets and improve the pilots’ ability torecover control of an airplane that has exceededthe normal flight regime. Several primary refer-ences used during the research and development ofthis training aid provide excellent additional infor-mation that is beyond the scope of this training aid.The references listed in this section are intended toassist those responsible for development of class-room material in locating additional material. Thesereferences may also be used as a resource foranswering questions raised in the training process.

4.1 References

.• Aerodynamics For Naval Aviators, H. H. Hurt,Jr., University of Southern California, UnitedStates Navy NAVAIR 00-80T-80: January1965, The Office of the Chief of Naval Opera-tions, Aviation Division.

• Airplane Performance, Stability, and Control,Courtland D. Perkins and Robert E. Hage, JohnWiley & Sons, Inc., New York: January 1967

• Handling the Big Jets, D. P. Davis, BrabazonHouse, Redhill, Surrey, England, third edition,December 1971.

• Instrument Flight Procedures, United StatesAir Force Manual 11-217, Volume I, 1 April1996, Department of the Air Force, HQAFFSA/CC, Publishing Distribution Office.

• Instrument Flying Handbook, U.S. Departmentof Transportation, Federal Aviation Adminis-tration, Superintendent of Documents, U.S.Government Printing Office, Washington, DC20402.

• Turbulence Education and Training Aid, U.S.Department of Transportation, Federal Avia-tion Administration, Air Transport Associationof America, The Boeing Company, NationalTechnical Information Service, 5285 Port RoyalRoad, Springfield, VA 22161.

• Van Sickle’s Modern Airmanship, 6th edition,edited by John F. Welsh, TAB Books, divisionof McGraw-Hill, Inc.

• Wake Turbulence Training Aid, U.S. Depart-ment of Transportation, Federal Aviation Ad-ministration, DOT/FAA/RD-95/6, DOT-VNTSC-FAA-95-4, Final Report April 1995,National Technical Information Service, 5285Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.

• Windshear Training Aid, U.S. Department ofTransportation, Federal Aviation Administra-tion, Boeing Commercial Airplane Group, Na-tional Technical Information Service, 5285 PortRoyal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.

SECTION 4

4.2

SECTION 4

I.1

AAcademic Training Program, 1.2, 3.1–3.3Accident statistics, 1.1, 2.2, 2.3Aeronautical Information Manual, 2.4Air temperature, 2.25Air traffic control (ATC), 2.33Airplane upset

causes, 1.1, 2.2–2.12, 3-A.3, 3-A.13conditions, 1.1definition, 1.1, 2.1frequency, 2.2induced by environmental factors, 2.3–2.8,2.36, 3-A.3, 3-A.13induced by human factors, 2.3induced by pilots, 2.9–2.11, 3-A.3, 3-A.13induced by systems anomalies, 2.3, 2.8–2.9, 3-A.3, 3-A.13recovery from, 2.34–2.38, 3.7, 3-A.3,3-A.9, 3-A.13, 3-A.21recovery team, 2.35

Angle of attack, 2.16, 2.17–2.20, 2.21, 2.22,2.23, 2.24, 2.25, 2.28, 2.29, 2.31, 2.32,2.33, 2.35, 2.36, 2.37, 2.38, 3.3, 3.5, 3.143-A.3, 3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.9, 3-A.15,3-A.17, 3-A.19, 3-A.21, 3-D.1–2

Angle-of-attack indicator, 2.18Angle of sideslip, 2.16, 2.23, 2.24, 2.25, 2.32,

2.35, 3.3, 3-A.7, 3-A.19, 3-D.1–2Approved Flight Manual, 2.16, 2.19, 2.20, 2.25,

3-A.5, 3-A.15Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI), 2.34, 3.5Attitude Indicator, 2.18Autoflight systems, 2.9Automation, 2.11, 2.12, 3.1, 3.4, 3-A.3, 3-A.13Autopilot and autothrottle, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12,

2.36, 2.37, 2.38, 3.5, 3.7, 3.9, 3.11, 3.13,3.14, 3.15, 3.17, 3.18, 3-A.3, 3-A.9,3-A.13, 3-A.21

B“Ball in a cup” model, 2.27bank angle, 2.1, 2.30, 2.31, 2.36, 2.38, 3.10,

3.13, 3.14, 3.15, 3.17, 3.18, 3.19, 3-A.7,3-A.11, 3-A.17, 3-A.19, 3-A.23

Bank Indicator, 2.34, 3.4, 3-A.9, 3-A.21Buffet boundaries, 2.26, 2.33Buffet Boundary charts, 2.25–2.26Buffeting, 2.19, 2.20, 2.25–2.26, 2.33, 2.36,

3-A.9, 3-A.5, 3-A.17, 3-A.21

CCamber, 2.20–2.21Camber line, 2.20CD-ROM DOS format, 3.2

Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT), 2.2Chord line, 2.18, 2.20Control surfaces, 2.21–2.22, 2.31Counter-intuitive recovery techniques, 2.25,

2.35, 2.37, 3.4Crossover speed, 2.25Crosswind landing, 2.23, 2.25, 2.32Cruise Maneuver Capability charts, 2.25–2.26

DDihedral, 2.24, 3-A.5, 3-A.15Dihedral effect, 2.24, 3-A.5, 3-A.15Dive speeds, 2.17Dutch roll, 2.32

EEnergy, 2.12–2.13, 2.34, 2.36, 2.38, 3.4, 3.13,

3.17, 3.19, 3-A.3, 3-A.9, 3-A.11, 3-A.13,3-A.21, 3-A.23

Energy management, 2.12, 2.13, 2.29, 2.34,2.38, 3-A.3, 3-A.13

Engine performance, 2.35Environmental factors, 2.3, 3-A.3, 3-A.13

FField of view, 2.34Flight envelope, 2.16–2.17, 2.25, 2.33Flight instruments, 2.9, 2.11, 2.34, 3.3Flight path angle, 2.18, 2.26Fly-by-wire, 2.36, 3.5

GG force, 2.35, 3-A.9, 3-A.21Graveyard Spiral, 2.30Ground Training Program, 3.4

IIcing, 2.8, 3-A.3, 3-A.13Inattention, 2.10Incapacitation, 2.11Instrument cross-check, 2.10, 2.11, 2.34International Civil Aviation Organization

(ICAO), 3.3, 3-D.1

JJet stream, 2.3, 2.4

LLateral control, 2.25, 2.31, 2.38Lateral stability, 2.23Load factors, 2.13–2.16, 2.19, 2.20, 2.26, 2.27,

2.30, 2.31, 2.33Logitudinal axis, 2.23, 3-A.3, 3-A.15

INDEX

I.2

MMach number, 2.16, 2.20, 2.25, 2.26, 2.27, 2.33,

3-A.5, 3-A.15, 3-A.17Mach trim, 2.27Manual of Criteria for the Qualification of

Flight Simulators, 3.3, 3-D.1Microburst, 2.6, 3-A.3, 3-A.13Moments, 2.7, 2.12, 2.22, 2.23, 2.28, 2.29, 2.32,

2.33, 3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.15, 3-A.17

NNASA ASRS reports, 2.2, 2.3National Technical Information Service, 2.3,

2.4, 2.7National Transportation Safety Board, 2.2Newton’s first law, 2.12, 2.15Newton’s second law, 2.13

PPilot Not Flying (PNF) instruments, 2.34, 3.19Pitch angle, 2.18, 2.19, 3-D.1–2Pitch control, 2.28–2.29, 2.36–2.37Pitch Ladder Bars. See Pitch Reference ScalesPitch Reference Scales, 2.34Pitching moments, 2.28. See also moments

RRoll, 2.23, 2.24, 2.25, 2.31, 2.37, 2.38, 3.3, 3.5,

3-A.5, 3-A.17Rudder, 2.32, 2.37, 3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.11,

3-A.15, 3-A.19, 3-A.23Rudder trim, 2.32

SSideslip, 2.14, 2.16, 2.23, 2.24, 2.25, 2.32, 3.5,

3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.9, 3-A.15, 3-A.17,3-A.19, 3-A.21, 3-D.1angle. See angle of sideslippilot-commanded, 2.23, 2.25

Simulator, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3-D.1–2Simulator limitations, 3.3Simulator Training Program, 1.2, 3.1, 3.2–3.5Situation awareness, 2.34Slip-skid indicator, 2.25Spatial disorientation, 2.10, 2.11Speed margins, 2.26Speed stability, 2.27Speedbrakes, 2.21, 2.33, 2.37, 2.38, 3.5, 3.14,

3.15Spoilers, 2.21–2.22, 2.31, 3.5, 3-A.5, 3-A.7,

3-A.15, 3-A.17

Stall, 2.2, 2.16, 2.17–2.20, 2.21, 2.22, 2.24,2.31, 2.33, 2.35, 2.36, 2.37, 2.38, 3.3,3.13, 3.14, 3-A.3, 3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.9,3-A.11, 3-A.13, 3-A.15, 3-A.19, 3-A.21,3-A.23, 3-D.1

Stall warning, 2.9, 2.36, 3-A.9, 3-A.21Standby Attitude Indicator, 2.34Startle factor, 2.34–2.35Static stability, 2.26, 2.32, 3-A.5, 3-A.17

TThunderstorms, 2.4–2.5, 2.6Trim, 2.9, 2.19, 2.22–2.23, 2.27, 2.28, 2.33,

2.36, 2.37, 3-A.11, 3-A.23Turbulence Education and Training Aid, 2.3Turbulence, 2.3

clear air turbulence (CAT), 2.4extreme, 2.4light, 2.3, 2.4mechanical, 2.4microburst, 2.6moderate, 2.3mountain wave, 2.4severe, 2.4thunderstorms, 2.4–2.5wake turbulence, 2.6–2.8, 3-A.3, 3-A.13

Turning, 2.29–2.31

VVertical Speed Indicator (VSI), 2.18, 2.34

WWake Turbulence Training Aid, 2.7Wake vortices, 2.6–2.8Windshear Training Aid, 2.4Windshear, 2.3, 2.4, 3-A.3, 3-A.13Wing sweep, 2.24, 3-A.5, 3-A.15

YYaw, 2.32, 3.17, 3-A.5, 3-A.17, 3-D.1Yaw damper, 2.32, 3-A.7, 3-A.19

INDEX

Video

Video.1

Part One – Overview & AerodynamicsPart Two – Recovery Techniques

To view .mpg videos you must first have Media Player (PC) orMovie Player (Mac) loaded onto your computer. You will find theseinstallable files on the Airplane Upset Recovery CD, in the folderlabeled Movie Player Install.

PC users: Once loaded, open the program and then with ‘file open’you will be able to view the videos.

Macintosh Users: You will need to copy the .mpg video files to yourhardrive, then open them through Movie Player. It will ask you to‘convert’ the file instead of ‘open’it (this process converts the .mpgto a Quicktime format). Your final step is to click the ‘play’ button atthe lower left corner of the image.