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TRANSPORT AND CONNECTIVITY: PROBLEMS FACED BY SMALL ISLAND
DEVELOPING STATES
Robert J. McCalla,
Department of Geography,
Saint Mary’s University, Halifax,
Canada
B3H 3C3
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 2
PURPOSE
• The purpose of this paper is to show how the connectiveness of Caribbean island ports impacts on their throughput, and to discuss how other shipping logistics characteristics may or may not be just as important to explain throughput.
• Being ‘connected’ may not be enough!
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 3
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
• containerization is a necessary condition for increasing trade in developing countries (UNCTAD Secretariat 2003, 9).
• Moreover, containerization has played the main role in the development of multimodal transport and logistic services.
• Two key players in the seamless operation of logistics services are ports and shipping lines connecting them.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 4
• In order for ports to prosper they must be well connected.
• Four ways to measure ‘connectiveness’ of a port:1. the number of shipping services it has, 2. the number of port partners in its services’ network, 3. the number of linkages provided by the shipping lines to
these port partners. 4. the connectivity index of the port determined by dividing
linkages by port partners.
• To show how well these measures relate to selected Caribbean port’s throughput is the purpose of this paper.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 5
DATA AND METHODOLOGY TO CREATE
NETWORKS • Data were drawn for two years: 1994 and 2002, from the
Containerisation International Yearbook.
• All shipping services operating in the Caribbean basin in those two years were recorded. For every service listed the shipping company, the ships assigned to the service, their capacity, the frequency of the service and the Caribbean ports of call of that service were recorded. By knowing the ports of call service networks could be constructed.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 6
• For each service a line was drawn connecting nearest neighbour ports but the line was not closed. For example, if a route included the ports of New Orleans, Houston, Veracruz and Kingston a line was drawn joining those ports in that order. Kingston and New Orleans were not joined.
• A GIS was used to record the ports and the service routes.
• The complete networks for 1994 and 2002 are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
• Table 1 shows the connectiveness characteristics of these two networks.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 7
Figure 1: 1994 Network
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Rama
Abaco
Ponce
Tampa
Guanta
HavanaMariel
Nassau
Tuxpan
Bonaire
Tampico
TortolaAnguilla
Beaumont Gulfport
Kingston
Plymouth
Veracruz
Arlen SiuCartagena
Coco SoloCristobal
Maracaibo
Rio Haina
Cienfuegos
Georgetown
Grand Turk
Oranjestad
Belize City
Brownsville
Montego Bay
St George's
Port Manatee
Puerto Limon
Puerto Plata
Coatzacoalcos
Puerto Andres
Puerto CortesFort-de-France
Panama City FL
Providenciales
Puerto Barrios
Puerto Morelos
Freeport
Puerto Castilla
Freeport
Mobile
Roseau
Curacao
Houston
Altamira
Guaranao
Gustavia
Matanzas
San Juan
St Croix
Galveston
Kingstown
La Guaira
La Romana
Pensacola
St John's
St Thomas
Basseterre
BridgetownSt Vincent
Willemstad
Baton Rouge
Cap Haitien
El Guamache
New Orleans
Philipsburg
Point Lisas
Santa MartaBarranquilla
Lake Charles
Puerto OrdazPuerto Sucre
St Eustatius
Port Castries
Port of Spain
Santo Domingo
Isla Margarita
Pointe-a-Pitre
Port-au-Prince
Puerto Cabello Bahia Las Minas
Santiago de Cuba
Santo Tomas de Castilla
0 1000 Kilometers
N
EW
S
Caribbean Container Shipping Network,All Connections, 1994
# Ports
Shipping Connections
Ports = 90
Linkages = 677
Connectivity = 7.36
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 8
Figure 2: 2002 Network
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Rama
Abaco
Colon
Ponce
Tampa
Guanta
HavanaMariel
Nassau
NicaroTuxpan
Guanaja
Marigot
Tampico
Tortola Anguilla
BeaumontGulfport
Kingston
Plymouth
Progreso
Veracruz
Arlen Siu
CartagenaCoco Solo
Cristobal
Kingstown
La GuairaMaracaibo
Rio Haina
Cienfuegos
Georgetown
Grand Turk
Oranjestad
Belize City
Brownsville
Montego Bay
Panama City
Port Manatee
Puerto Limon
Puerto Plata
Puerto CortesPuerto BarriosPuerto Lempira
Puerto Morelos
Freeport
Freeport,
Utila
Mobile
Roatan
BonaireCuracao
Altamira
Cruz Bay
Guaranao
Gustavia
Matanzas
San Juan
St Croix
La Romana
Pensacola
St John's
St Thomas
BasseterreBoca Chica
BridgetownSt Vincent
Vieux Fort
Willemstad
Baton Rouge
Cap Haitien
Charlestown
El Guamache
New Orleans
Philipsburg
Point Lisas
Santa Marta St George'sBarranquilla
Lake Charles
Puerto OrdazPuerto Sucre
St EustatiusCoatzacoalcos
Port Castries
Port of Spain
Santo Domingo
Fort-de-France
Isla Margarita
Pointe-a-Pitre
Port-au-Prince
Providenciales
Puerto Cabello Bahia Las Minas
Puerto Castilla
Santiago de Cuba
Puerto Manzanillo
San Andres Island
Santo Tomas de Castilla
Roseau
Houston Galveston
0 1000 Kilometers
N
EW
S
Caribbean Container Shipping Network, All Connections, 2002
# Ports
Shipping Connections
Ports = 89
Linkages = 584
Connectivity = 6.56
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 9
Table 1: 1994 and 2002 Networks Compared
Links (l) Ports (p) Connect-ivity (l/p)
1994 677 90 7.36
2002 584 89 6.56
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 10
• In the 8 year period the network has actually become simpler in structure. There are fewer linkages, fewer ports (marginally) and a lower connectivity index. What is remarkable about this simplification is the fact that the actual number of containers handled in Caribbean basin ports has more than doubled from around 5.5 million in
1994 to close to 13 million in 2002.
• Table 2 shows the most connected ports in 1994 and 2002.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 11
Table 2A: Ports with the Most Port Partners, 1994 vs. 2002
First Ten Ports 1994 Port
Part-ners
Rank 2002 Port Part-ners
Rank Change in Rank
1994 to 2002
Houston 51 1 Rio Haina 49 1 +9
New Orleans 49 2 Port of Spain 46 2 +2
San Juan 46 3 Kingston 44 3 +7
La Guaira 45 4 Puerto Cabello 43 4 +2
Port of Spain 45 4 La Guaira 42 5 -1
Puerto Cabello 44 6 Houston 37 6 -5
Maracaibo 42 7 San Juan 35 7 -4
Oranjestad 38 8 Cartagena 35 7 +6
Willemstad 37 9 New Orleans 32 9 -7
Kingston 35 10 Puerto Limon 32 9 +1
Continued…
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 12
Table 2B: Ports with the Most Port Partners, 1994 vs. 2002Second Ten Ports
1994 Port
Part-ners
Rank 2002 Port Part-ners
Rank Change in Rank
1994 to 2002
Puerto Limon 35 10 Bridgetown 32 9 +8
Rio Haina 35 10 Pointe-a-Pitre 32 9 +11
Cartagena 34 13 Willemstad 32 9 0
Guanta 33 14 Port-au-Prince 30 14 +3
Mobile 32 15 Fort-de-France 30 14 +19
S. Tom. de Castilla 32 15 Veracruz 29 16 +14
Bridgetown 31 17 Port Castries 28 17 +17
Port-au-Prince 31 17 Puerto Cortes 27 18 -1
Puerto Cortes 31 17 Basseterre 27 18 +7
Santa Marta 30 20 Puerto Manzanillo(Not ranked in 1994)
27 18 n/a
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 13
• The highlighted ports (excluding Basseterre) from Table 2 form the focus of the rest of the paper. The ports are: Rio Haina, Port of Spain, Kingston, San Juan, Bridgetown, Pointe-a-Pitre, Willemstad, Port-au-Prince, Fort-de-France, Port Castries and Oranjestad.
• Connectivity networks were drawn for each of these ports for 1994 and 2002.
• As examples, Figure 3 and 4 are shown for Kingston and Bridgetown respectively.
• Table 3 is a summary of the connectiveness characteristics of these ports for 2002.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 14
Figure 3: Kingston Connectivity Networks, 1994 and 2002
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Nassau
Tuxpan
Bonaire
Tampico
TortolaAnguilla
Beaumont Gulfport
Kingston
Plymouth
Veracruz
Arlen SiuCartagena
Coco SoloCristobal
Maracaibo
Rio Haina
Cienfuegos
Georgetown
Grand Turk
Oranjestad
Belize City
Brownsville
Montego Bay
St George's
Port Manatee
Puerto Limon
Puerto Plata
Coatzacoalcos
Puerto Andres
Puerto CortesFort-de-France
Panama City FL
Providenciales
Puerto Barrios
Puerto Morelos
Freeport
Puerto Castilla
Freeport
Mobile
Roseau
Curacao
Houston
Altamira
Guaranao
Gustavia
Matanzas
San Juan
St Croix
Galveston
Kingstown
La Guaira
La Romana
Pensacola
St John's
St Thomas
Basseterre
BridgetownSt Vincent
Willemstad
Baton Rouge
Cap Haitien
El Guamache
New Orleans
Philipsburg
Point Lisas
Santa MartaBarranquilla
Lake Charles
Puerto OrdazPuerto Sucre
St Eustatius
Port Castries
Port of Spain
Santo Domingo
Isla Margarita
Pointe-a-Pitre
Port-au-Prince
Puerto Cabello Bahia Las Minas
Santiago de Cuba
Santo Tomas de Castilla
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N
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S
Caribbean Container Shipping Network,Kingston, 1994
# Ports
Shipping Connections
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Rama
Abaco
Colon
Ponce
Tampa
Guanta
HavanaMariel
Nassau
NicaroTuxpan
Guanaja
Marigot
Tampico
Tortola Anguilla
BeaumontGulfport
Kingston
Plymouth
Progreso
Veracruz
Arlen Siu
CartagenaCoco Solo
Cristobal
Kingstown
La GuairaMaracaibo
Rio Haina
Cienfuegos
Georgetown
Grand Turk
Oranjestad
Belize City
Brownsville
Montego Bay
Panama City
Port Manatee
Puerto Limon
Puerto Plata
Puerto CortesPuerto BarriosPuerto Lempira
Puerto Morelos
Freeport
Freeport,
Utila
Mobile
Roatan
BonaireCuracao
Altamira
Cruz Bay
Guaranao
Gustavia
Matanzas
San Juan
St Croix
La Romana
Pensacola
St John's
St Thomas
BasseterreBoca Chica
BridgetownSt Vincent
Vieux Fort
Willemstad
Baton Rouge
Cap Haitien
Charlestown
El Guamache
New Orleans
Philipsburg
Point Lisas
Santa Marta St George'sBarranquilla
Lake Charles
Puerto OrdazPuerto Sucre
St EustatiusCoatzacoalcos
Port Castries
Port of Spain
Santo Domingo
Fort-de-France
Isla Margarita
Pointe-a-Pitre
Port-au-Prince
Providenciales
Puerto Cabello Bahia Las Minas
Puerto Castilla
Santiago de Cuba
Puerto Manzanillo
San Andres Island
Santo Tomas de Castilla
Roseau
Houston Galveston
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N
EW
S
Caribbean Container Shipping Network,Kingston, 2002
# Ports
Shipping Connections
Ports = 35 Linkages = 93 Connectivity = 2.66 Ports = 44 Linkages = 118 Connectivity = 2.68
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 15
Figure 4: Bridgetown Connectivity Networks, 1994 and 2002
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Guanta
HavanaMariel
Nassau
Tuxpan
Bonaire
Tampico
TortolaAnguilla
Beaumont Gulfport
Kingston
Plymouth
Veracruz
Arlen SiuCartagena
Coco SoloCristobal
Maracaibo
Rio Haina
Cienfuegos
Georgetown
Grand Turk
Oranjestad
Belize City
Brownsville
Montego Bay
St George's
Port Manatee
Puerto Limon
Puerto Plata
Coatzacoalcos
Puerto Andres
Puerto CortesFort-de-France
Panama City FL
Providenciales
Puerto Barrios
Puerto Morelos
Freeport
Puerto Castilla
Freeport
Mobile
Roseau
Curacao
Houston
Altamira
Guaranao
Gustavia
Matanzas
San Juan
St Croix
Galveston
Kingstown
La Guaira
La Romana
Pensacola
St John's
St Thomas
Basseterre
BridgetownSt Vincent
Willemstad
Baton Rouge
Cap Haitien
El Guamache
New Orleans
Philipsburg
Point Lisas
Santa MartaBarranquilla
Lake Charles
Puerto OrdazPuerto Sucre
St Eustatius
Port Castries
Port of Spain
Santo Domingo
Isla Margarita
Pointe-a-Pitre
Port-au-Prince
Puerto Cabello Bahia Las Minas
Santiago de Cuba
Santo Tomas de Castilla
#
0 1000 Kilometers
N
EW
S
Caribbean Container Shipping Network,Bridgetown, 1994
# Ports
Shipping Connections
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Rama
Abaco
Colon
Ponce
Tampa
Guanta
HavanaMariel
Nassau
NicaroTuxpan
Guanaja
Marigot
Tampico
Tortola Anguilla
BeaumontGulfport
Kingston
Plymouth
Progreso
Veracruz
Arlen Siu
CartagenaCoco Solo
Cristobal
Kingstown
La GuairaMaracaibo
Rio Haina
Cienfuegos
Georgetown
Grand Turk
Oranjestad
Belize City
Brownsville
Montego Bay
Panama City
Port Manatee
Puerto Limon
Puerto Plata
Puerto CortesPuerto BarriosPuerto Lempira
Puerto Morelos
Freeport
Freeport,
Utila
Mobile
Roatan
BonaireCuracao
Altamira
Cruz Bay
Guaranao
Gustavia
Matanzas
San Juan
St Croix
La Romana
Pensacola
St John's
St Thomas
BasseterreBoca Chica
BridgetownSt Vincent
Vieux Fort
Willemstad
Baton Rouge
Cap Haitien
Charlestown
El Guamache
New Orleans
Philipsburg
Point Lisas
Santa Marta St George'sBarranquilla
Lake Charles
Puerto OrdazPuerto Sucre
St EustatiusCoatzacoalcos
Port Castries
Port of Spain
Santo Domingo
Fort-de-France
Isla Margarita
Pointe-a-Pitre
Port-au-Prince
Providenciales
Puerto Cabello Bahia Las Minas
Puerto Castilla
Santiago de Cuba
Puerto Manzanillo
San Andres Island
Santo Tomas de Castilla
Roseau
Houston Galveston
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0 1000 Kilometers
N
EW
S
Caribbean Container Shipping Network,Bridgetown, 2002
# Ports
Shipping Connections
Ports = 33 Linkages = 99 Connectivity = 3.00 Ports = 32 Linkages = 71 Connectivity = 2.22
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 16
Table 3: Connectiveness Characteristics of Selected Ports, 2002
Services Port Partners
Linkages Connectivity (links/ports)
Throughput (TEUs)*
Rio Haina 27 49 126 2.57 460,184
Port of Spain 25 47 126 2.68 282,487
Kingston 31 44 112 2.68 765,977
San Juan 31 36 100 2.78 2,392,749
Bridgetown 16 32 71 2.22 68,600
Pointe-a-Pitre 17 33 11 2.33 129,991
Willemstad 11 33 68 2.06 71,000
Port-au-Prince 8 31 38 1.20 97,973
Fort-de-France 16 30 72 2.40 141,700
Port Castries 10 29 63 2.17 27,070
Oranjestad 6 17 28 1.64 71,500* Source: Containerization International Yearbook, 2002. Values are for 2000, the latest year available.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 17
ANALYSIS• The results of simple linear regression anlysis between
throughput (dependent variable) and individual port connectiveness variables from Table 3 are shown in Table 4 and graphically in Figure 5.
Table 4: R2 values for Simple Linear Regression Analysis between
Port Throughput (TEUs) and Connectiveness MeasuresConnectiveness Measures R2
Services 0.4944
Port Partners 0.0767
Linkages 0.1754
Connectivity 0.2739
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 18
Figure 5: Relationships between TEUs and Port
Connectiveness Measures
TEUs vs Services 2002
y = 52805x - 526154
R2 = 0.4944
0
1000000
2000000
3000000
0 10 20 30 40
Number
TE
Us
TEUs vs. Port Partners 2002
y = 20990x - 317094
R2 = 0.0767
0
1000000
2000000
3000000
0 20 40 60
Number
TE
Us
TEUs vs. Linkages 2002
y = 8715.2x - 292832
R2 = 0.1754
0
1000000
2000000
3000000
0 50 100 150
Number
TE
Us
TEUs vs Connectivity 2002
y = 757364x - 1E+06
R2 = 0.2739
0
1000000
2000000
3000000
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
Index
TE
Us
San Juan San Juan
San JuanSan Juan
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 19
• The results are disappointing. • A close appraisal of the graphs shows that one
point, San Juan, is very far removed from the trend lines. Because of its special status with the US it could be considered an anomaly to the ports under study. Removing it from consideration improves the relationships between TEUs and the independent variables. Table 5 shows the new R2 values.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 20
Table 5: R2 values for Simple Linear Regression Analysis between Port Throughput (TEUs) and
Connectiveness Measures - WITHOUT San Juan
Connectiveness Measures R2
Services 0.8025
Port Partners 0.5193
Linkages 0.5678
Connectivity 0.3458
These results are much more encouraging.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 21
DISCUSSION
• The conclusion to draw from the analysis is that port connectiveness is important to port throughput, an assumption made at the start of this paper, but now shown to have validity.
• BUT since 1994 some of the ports have been
losing services, port partners, linkages and connectivity index values.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 22
Table 5: Changes in Port Connectiveness Measures, 1994-2002
Services Port Partners Linkages Connectivity
Rio Haina 2 11 20 -0.22
Port of Spain 0 1 -31 -0.73
Kingston 8 9 25 0.02
Bridgetown -2 -1 -28 -0.78
Pointe-a-Pitre 2 4 -4 -0.46
Willemstad -2 -5 -16 -0.15
Port-au-Prince -2 -1 -10 -0.30
Fort-de-France
2 6 4 -0.43
Port Castries 3 6 7 -0.26
Oranjestad -5 -22 -47 -0.28
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 23
• Bridgetown, Willemstad, Port-au-Prince and Oranjestad show negative values under all four variables. Only Kingston has positive change values in all four variables.
• It might be expected that with the decline in connectiveness values that ports would experience declines in throughput, but this is not the case.
• Why?
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 24
• Other factors at work: 1. Ship size
2. Frequency of service
3. Hub connections
• Table 7 shows that in all ports average vessel size (exception is Port-au-Prince) and frequency of service increased between the two years.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 25
Table 7: Changes in Vessel Size and Frequency of Service, 1994-2002
Average Vessel Size (TEUs)
Average Service Frequency (per month)
1994 2002 Change 1994 2002 Change
Rio Haina 499 661 162 2.8 4.1 1.3
Port of Spain 404 765 361 2.2 3.3 1.1
Kingston 365 1,146 781 2.3 3.3 1.0
Bridgetown 349 562 213 2.5 3.6 1.1
Pointe a Pitre 533 889 356 3.3 3.8 0.5
Willemstad 526 807 281 2.8 3.7 0.9
Port-au-Prince 526 467 -59 2.7 4.5 1.8
Fort-de-France
528 779 251 3.0 3.6 0.6
Port Castries 225 526 301 3.6 3.8 0.2
Oranjestad 460 856 396 3.4 3.8 0.4
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 26
• Hub connections may also be important in explaining throughput. Smaller ports depend on transshipment points, or hubs, as major conduits through which their goods must pass.
• Caribbean hubs include:NORTH: Houston, Miami and Freeport, Bahamas. CENTRE: Kingston, Rio Haina, San Juan SOUTH: Port of Spain, Puerto Cabello, Cartagena and the terminals at Colon (Puerto Manzanillo, Colon and Cristobal)
• Table 8 shows changes to hub connections for seven non-hub Caribbean ports
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 27
Table 8: Hub* Connections of Non-Hub Island PortsHub Connections Principle Hub
with No. of Connections
New Hub Connect’s
Lost Hub Connnect’s
1994 2002 Change 1994 2002 1994-02 1994-02
Bridgetown 24 19 -5 PS 9 PS 9 H -4
Pointe-a-Pitre 11 19 8 PS 6 PS 4 K 3, C 3 H -2
Willemstad 31 28 -3 PS 9 PC 9 SJ -2
Port-au-Prince 18 13 -5 K 5 K 5 F 1 PC -2, C -1
Fort-de-France 10 15 5 PS 5 PS 5 C 3, RH 2, Co 1
H -2
Port Castries 7 15 8 PS 6 PS 6 K 3, PS 2, RH 3
Oranjestad 22 11 -11 PC 6 PC 5 PS -3, H -1, SJ -2
* Hub ports are: Houston (H), Freeport (F), Kingston (K), Rio Haina (RH), San Juan (SJ), Port of Spain (SP), Puerto Cabello (PC), Cartagena (C), Colon including Cristobal and Puerto Manzanillo (Co).
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 28
• Oranjestad (-11), Bridgetown (-5), Port-au-Prince (-5) and Willemstad (-3) have all experienced net losses in hub connections.
• Note the importance of Port of Spain as a hub.• Houston is the big loser as a transshipment center
for four of the ports. • Kingston,Cartagena and Rio Haina have become
more important.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 29
CONCLUSION
• Ports do need to be connected to prosper.
• The analysis shows this to be true to a varying degree depending on how connectiveness is measured.
• But connectiveness is not everything in explaining port throughput.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 30
• Variables such as vessels size, frequency of service and hub connections are also important in influencing throughput.
• Although there is no doubt that containerization is a necessary condition for increasing trade in developing countries, its very presence is not a guarantee that such improvement will occur. The actual dimensions of the shipping networks by which the country through its ports is connected are important factors in bringing about positive change.
UNCTAD, Multimodal Transport and Logistic Services, 24-26 September 2003 31
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
• Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
• Dr. Brian Slack, Concordia University and Dr. Claude Comtois, Université de Montréal.