TREASURES OF THEEDUCATION SYSTEM

IN SRI LANKA:RESTORING PERFORMANCE,

EXPANDING OPPORTUNITIES ANDENHANCING PROSPECTS

February 2005

The World BankHuman Development Unit

South Asia Region

II

2004 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank1818 H Street, Washington, DC20433Telephone; 202-473-1000Internet: www.worldbank.orgE-Mail : feedback@worldbank.lk

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Executive Summary - English E I- Sinhala S I- Tamil T I

Chapter One The Education System: Policies, Enrolment and Organization 011.1 The Policy Framework and Organization of the Education Sector 021.2 The Education System: Enrolment, Grade Cycle Transition and Completion 051.3 The Governance Framework of the Education System 09

Chapter Two Economic and Social Benefits of Investment in Education 132.1 Economic Benefits of Investment in Education: External Efficiency 132.2 Social Benefits of Investment in Education: Externality Effects 192.3 Social Benefits of Investment in Education: Equity and Distributive Justice 202.4 Equity of Public Education Expenditure 232.5 Regional Dimensions of Equity: Geographical Variations in

Equitable Access to Education 242.6 Regional Dimensions of Equity: Government Policies to

Overcome Regional Variations in Education Access, Quality and Opportunity 272.7 Conclusions and Options for the Future 30

Chapter Three Investment in Education: Resources and Service Delivery 333.1 Public Investment in Education 333.2 Private Investment in Education 383.3 Sources of Education Financing 413.4 Internal Efficiency of Investment in Education 413.5 Education Service Delivery: Organizational and Operational Challenges 463.6 Conclusions and Options for the Future 51

Chapter Four Dimensions of Education Quality: Status, Challenges and Policy Responses 584.1 Dimensions of Education Quality: Levels and Determinants of Cognitive Achievement 584.2 Enhancing Education Quality: Government Policies and Strategy 634.3 Pursuing Excellence in Education Quality 664.4 Orienting the Education System to the World of Work 694.5 Case Studies of Selected Dimensions of Education Quality 71Case Study I: Developing Responsive Schools for Quality Learning 72Case Study II: Early Childhood Development in Sri Lanka 81Case Study III: Rehabilitating and Reconstructing Education in the Conflict Affected Areas 84Case Study IV: Promoting Peace building, Civic Values and Social Cohesion through Education 87

Chapter Five Training and Links to the Labor Market 935.1 TVET Institutional Framework and Policies 945.2 Overview of TVET Trends from Labour Force Surveys 1025.3 Determinants of Training 1095.4 Training and Labor Market Outcomes 1115.5 Conclusions and Implications for the Future 117

III

Table of Contents

IV

Table 1.1 Government Schools, Student Enrolment and Teachers, by Province, 2002.Table 1.2 GCE O/L and GCE A/L Examination Pass Rates, by Province, 2002.Table 1.3 Tertiary Education Enrolment Rates, 2002.Table 2.1 Social and Private Rates of Return to Education, 2002.Table 2.2 Earnings Functions Corrected for Selection Effects, 2002. Two Stage Least Squares Estimates.Table 2.3 The Impact of Education on the Occupational Attainment of Men and Women, 2002. Marginal

Effects Derived from a Multinomial Logit Model, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates.Table 2.4 The Impact of Education on Female Labor Force Participation, Marginal Effects Derived from

a Probit Model, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates (2002).Table 2.5 Unemployment Rates by Education Level, Men and Women.Table 2.6 The Impact of Maternal Education on Child Nutrition, 2000. Regression Coefficients from

Probit Models, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates.Table 2.7 Proportion of Babies given Colostrum at Birth by Mother’s Education Level, 1993 and 2002.Table 2.8 Multiple Regression Analysis of Economic Welfare, Generalized Least Squares Estimates.Table 2.9 Net Enrolment Rates in Major Education Cycles by Economic Groups.Table 2.10 Inequality Measures of Public Education Expenditure.Table 2.11 Primary Education Learning Outcomes by Province, 2003.Table 2.12 Net Enrolment in Senior Secondary Education and GCE O/L and GCE A/L Examination Pass

Rates, 2002.Table 3.1 Public Investment in Education as a Proportion of National Income and Government

Expenditure, 1998-2002.Table 3.2 Education Expenditure as a Share of National Income and Government Expenditures, Sri

Lanka and Selected Other Countries.Table 3.3 Time Trend of Public Education Expenditure per Student in Real Terms, 1998-2002.Table 3.4 Education Investment by Education Level, 2002.Table 3.5 Unit Recurrent Expenditure on Major Education Cycles: Sri Lanka and Selected Countries.Table 3.6 Household Education Expenditure, 1995/96.Table 3.7 Compulsory Education Cycle: Repetition Rates and Drop Out Rates, by Gender, 2001.Table 3.8 Proportion of Repeaters in the GCE O/L and GCE A/L Grades, 2002.Table 4.1 Proportion of Children Achieving Mastery of Language Skills at Grade 4, 2003.Table 4.2 Proportion of Primary Children Achieving Mastery of Numeracy Skills at Grade 4, 2003.Table 4.3 Regression Analysis of Student, Household and School Characteristics Affecting Learning

Achievement in Grade 4 in 2003.Table 4.4 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire, Civic KnowledgeTable 5.1 TEVT Enrolments by Province, 1990 to 2002.Table 5.2 Total Expenditures by Major TEVT Institutions (Rs. Millions). Table 5.3 Principal Outcomes of Tracer Studies of TEVT Graduates.Table 5.4 Overview of Training in Sri Lanka - 1992, 1997, 2002 Percent Getting Training by Type of

Training, Education, Sex and Province.Table 5.5 Percent Getting Training by Age Group and Education - 1992, 1997, 2002.Table 5.6 Training and Probability of Unemployment Last Week Using Pseudo-Cohort Data LFS 1992-

2002Table 5.7 Probability of any Training and Formal Training: 1992-2002.Table 5.8 Probability of Unemployment Last Week and Usually Unemployed Last Year, 1992-2002.Table 5.9 School to Work Transitions with and without Training. Table 5.10 Returns to Training for Wage and Salary Employees by Sector.

Annex TablesTable A1 Male and Female Labor Force Participation Rates, 2002.

List of Tables

V

Figure 1.1 Adult Literacy Rates in Relation to National Income per Capita, 1987-1990.Figure 1.2 Adult Literacy Rates in Relation to National Income per Capita, 2001.Figure 1.3 Organizational Structure of the Sri Lankan Education and Training System.Figure 1.4 Net Compulsory Education Completion Rates, Grades 1-9, 2001.Figure 1.5 Time Trend of GCE O/L and GCE A/L Pass Rates, 1993-2002.Figure 1.6 Tertiary Education Enrollment Trends, 1997-2002.Figure 1.7 Flow of Government Education Resources in the School System.Figure 1.8 Flow of Resources to Central Government Education Institutions.Figure 2.1 Private Marginal Rates of Return to Education, Men and Women, 2002.Figure 2.2 Poverty Incidence by Education Level of Household Head.Figure 2.3 Lorenz Curves of Shares of Public Education Expenditure among Economic Groups.Figure 2.4 Participation Rates in the Compulsory Education Cycle (Grades 1-9), 2001.Figure 2.5 Progressive Government Financing of Provinces with Low Average Primary Education

Achievement Levels.Figure 2.6 Progressive Central Government Financing of Provinces with Low GCE O/L Pass Rates.Figure 3.1 Shares of Public Capital and Recurrent Education Spending, 1998-2002.Figure 3.2 Shares of Private Education Expenditure per Student by Spending Category.Figure 3.3 Shares of Education Financing by Source, 2002.Figure 3.4 Cumulative Number of Schools by Student Teacher Ratio.Figure 3.5 Unit Recurrent Cost of a Teacher by School Type.Figure 3.6 Unit Recurrent Cost of Public Universities as a Function of Students on Roll.Figure 3.7 Unit Recurrent Cost of Public Universities Related to Student-Teacher Ratios, 2002.Figure 3.8 Teacher Absenteeism, by Province, 2002. Figure 3.9 Real Value of Salaries of Teachers in Relation to Other Government Servants.Figure 4.1 Needs of the Education Reconstruction, Rehabilitation and Development Program.Figure 4.2 The Financing Gap of Capital Stock Needs in the Conflict Affected Areas.Figure 4.3 Salaries per Student and STR in NEP Districts.Figure 4.4 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire (Social Cohesion, Diversity, Peace).Figure 4.5 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire (Social Cohesion, Diversity, Peace). Figure 4.6 Integration of Peace building & Civics in Schools.Figure 5.1 Institutional Framework of the TVET Sector.Figure 5.2 TEVT Enrollments 1990-2002.Figure 5.3 Proportion of Working Age Population with Technical and Vocational Training: 1992-2002.Figure 5.4 Time-To-First-Job by Level of Schooling.

List of Figures

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This report was produced by a team composed of:Harsha Aturupane (Senior Economist and Task Team Leader, SASHD), Helen Craig (Senior EducationSpecialist, SASHD), Hong Tan (Lead Economist, WBI), Venita Kaul (Senior Education Specialist,SASHD), Mohamed Allak (Consultant), Peter Colenso (Education Specialist - seconded from DFID), PaulGlewwe (Consultant), Thomas Kellaghan (Consultant), Sunil Chandrasiri (Consultant), Asoka Perera(Consultant), and Upul Sonnadara (Consultant). Peer reviewers were: Benoit Millot (Lead EducationSpecialist, AFTH2), Qaiser Khan (Lead Social Protection Specialist, SASHD); Alberto Rodriguez (SeniorEducation Specialist, LCSHE); and Anil Deolalikar (Professor of Economics, University of California).Phillip Senaratne (Consultant); Sisira Liyanage (Consultant); and Nishantha Palihewardena (Consultant)provided research assistance.

Vice PresidentPraful Patel

Country DirectorPeter Harrold

Sector DirectorJulian Schweitzer

Sector ManagerMichelle Riboud

Team LeaderHarsha Aturupane

ADB - Asian Development BankAFTH2 - Africa Region Human Development Unit 2ANTRIEP - Asian Network of Training and Research Institutions in Educational PlanningCCTE - Chief Commissioner for Teacher EducationDDIT - Double Deductions Tax Incentives for TrainingDFID - Department for International DevelopmentDRT - District Resource TeacherDTET - Department of Technical Education and TrainingDVTC - District Vocational Training CentersECAHD - Europe and Central Asia Human Development UnitECCD - Early Childhood Care and DevelopmentECD - Early Childhood DevelopmentECE - Early Childhood EducationEFA - Education for allGCE A/L - General Certificate of Education - Advanced LevelGCE O/L - General Certificate of Education - Ordinary LevelGDP - Gross Domestic ProductGEP2 - General Education Project IIGOM - Government of MalaysiaGOSL - Government of Sri LankaGTZ - German Agency for Technical CorporationHREF - Human Resources Endowment FundIEA - International Association for the Evaluation of Educational AchievementIT - Information TechnologyJICA - Japan International Corporation AgencyLCSHE - Latin America and the Caribbean, Human Development, EducationLFS - Labor Force SurveyLKR - Sri Lankan RupeesLMIS - Labor Market Information SystemM&E system - Monitoring and Evaluation SystemMBO - Multiple Textbook OptionMHRECA - Ministry of Human Resource Development, Education and Cultural AffairsMID - Ministry of Industrial DevelopmentMOE - Ministry of Education

VII

Abbreviations

MTET - Ministry of Tertiary Education and TrainingMTEVT - Ministry of Tertiary Education and Vocational TrainingMYAS - Ministry of Youth Affairs and SportsNAITA - National Apprentice and Industrial Training AuthorityNCOEs - National Colleges of EducationNEC - National Education CommissionNEP - North Eastern ProvinceNEREC - National Education Research and Evaluation CenterNGOs - Non-Governmental OrganizationsNIE - National Institute of EducationNYSC - National Youth Service CouncilOLS - Ordinary Least SquaresPexp - Potential experiencePSDG - Province Specific Development GrantRGDP - Regional Gross Domestic ProductRVTC - Rural Vocational Training CentersSASHD - South Asia Sector for Human DevelopmentSBT - School-Based Training/SupportSDP - Skills Development ProjectSIDA - Swedish International Development Co-operation AgencySLAAED - Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Education SLIATE - Sri Lanka Institute of Advanced Technical EducationSMEs - Small and Medium - size EnterprisesSTR - Student Teacher RatioTCs - Teacher Centers TEVT - Technical Education and Vocational TrainingTVEC - Technical and Vocational Education CommissionU.K. - United KingdomUGC - University Grants CommissionUN - United NationsUNDP - United Nations Development ProgramUNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNICEF - United Nations International Children's Emergency FundUSD, US$ - U.S. DollarsVTA - Vocational Training Authority of Sri Lanka VTEC - Vocational and Tertiary Education CommissionWBI - World Bank Institute

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IX

The study team acknowledgeswith sincere gratitude theassistance of several WorldBank colleagues andGovernment of Sri Lankacounterparts in the preparationof this draft, in particular Mr.Peter Harrold (Country Director,Sri Lanka), Mr. JulianSchweitzer (Sector Director,SASHD), Mr. Charles Griffin(Sector Director ECAHD andformer Sector Director,SASHD), Ms. Michelle Riboud(Education Sector Manager,SASHD), Ms. Mansoora Rashid(Social Protection SectorManager, SASHD), Mr. QaiserKhan (Lead Social ProtectionSpecialist - Peer Reviewer), Mr.Anil Deolalikar (Professor ofEconomics, University ofCalifornia - Peer Reviewer), Mr.Alberto Rodriguez (SeniorEducation Specialist - PeerReviewer), Mr. Benoit Millot(Lead Education Specialist,AFTH2 - Peer Reviewer) andMr. Sisira Liyanage(Consultant) and Mr. PhillipSenaratne (Consultant). Inaddition, several Sri Lankanofficials in the Ministry ofEducation, the former Ministryof Human ResourceDevelopment, Education andCultural Affairs, the formerMinistry of School Education,the former Ministry of TertiaryEducation and Training,Ministry of Finance, Ministry ofPolicy Development and

Planning, Finance Commission,University Grants Commissionand Provincial Councils assistedin providing policy ideas,statistics and information. Inparticular: Dr. Tara de Mel,Secretary, Ministry ofEducation, Mr. LalithWeeratunga, Secretary to thePrime Minister,Mr.V.K.Nanayakkara, formerSecretary, Ministry of HumanResources, Education andCultural Affairs, Mr.H.M.Sirisena, former Secretary,Ministry of School Education,Mr. R.S. Medagama, Advisor,Ministry of Education, Prof. R.P.Gunewardena, formerChairman, National EducationCommission, Prof. SwarnaJayaweera, former DeputyChairman, National EducationCommission, Mr. Eric de Silva,former Advisor, Ministry ofPolicy Development andPlanning, Dr. Patricia Alailima,Director-General, Departmentof National Planning, Ministryof Policy Development andImplementation, Mr. B.Abeygunawadena, AdditionalDirector General, NationalBudget Department, Ministry ofFinance and Planning, Mr.G.B.H. Liyanage, formerAdditional Secretary, Ministryof School Education, Mr. S.Leelaratne, AdditionalSecretary, Ministry of TertiaryEducation and Training, Mrs.C.S. Kumarasinghe, Additional

Director-General, Budget,Ministry of Finance, Mrs.Ranjini Nanayakkara,Additional Director-General,External Resources Department,Ministry of Finance andPlanning, Mr. B.Abeygunewardena, AdditionalDirector-General, Budget,Ministry of Finance andPlanning, Anoja Munasinghe,Deputy Director, Department ofNational Planning, Ministry ofFinance and Planning, Mr.T.D.Sumanadasa, ChiefAccountant, Ministry ofEducation, Mr. S.U. Wijeratne,Director, Policy, Planning andMonitoring, Ministry ofEducation, Mr.D.M.Dissanayake, Accountant,Ministry of Education and Mrs.Hema Perera, Deputy Director,Ministry of Education. TheDepartment of Census andStatistics shared several datasets which were extremelyuseful for the analysis.Preliminary information fromthe analysis was shared at twoworkshops, in Colombo andGalle, and provided extremelyuseful feedback. The UKDepartment for InternationalDevelopment (DFID) providedfinancial assistance through aTrust Fund. This assistance isgratefully acknowledged.

Acknowledgements

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E 1

Executive Summary

OVERVIEW, PRINCIPAL FINDINGS ANDOPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE

Introduction1. The Sri Lankan educationsystem has been celebrated indevelopment policy circles andthe economic literature for itssuccess in providing widespreadaccess to primary and secondaryeducation, and enabling thecountry to attain a high level ofhuman development for a lowincome economy. Up to theearly 1990s Sri Lanka enjoyedthe highest basic socialdevelopment outcomes relativeto per capita income amongvirtually all developingcountries. This achievement wasthe result of strategic publicpolicy decisions, over severalsuccessive generations, to investresources in education, healthand other social services. TheSri Lankan policy makers whodesigned the basic framework ofthe education system, in the1930s and 1940s, were far aheadof their time in perceivinghuman capital as a promisinginvestment with the potential toproduce a wide range ofimportant economic and socialbenefits.

2. Unfortunately, over thepast fifty years the economicperformance of the countrylagged behind the pace ofeducation development, withseveral adverse consequencesfor the education system. Thepoor economic growth rate ofthe country meant that, overtime, Sri Lanka lacked theresources to invest sufficientlyin education to keep up withcountries which grew muchfaster, such as South Korea,Singapore, Hong Kong,Malaysia and Thailand. Inconsequence, Sri Lanka has lostits initial lead in education. Inaddition, due to slow growth, thedemand for educated laborfailed to expand sufficientlyrapidly to match the supply ofeducated young people enteringthe labor market. This resultedin an enduring problem ofeducated youth unemployment.Modern Sri Lankan policymakers are aware of thecountry's lost educationadvantage and problems. Inconsequence, education hasbecome an area of intense publicinterest, debate and policy

development in recent years [seeNEC (1997), (2003)].

Education Organization inRelation to DevelopmentPolicy Models3. The Sri Lankan educationsystem has followed theclassical recipe of developmentpolicy in two important respects.First, it has emphasized theimportance of public financingand provision of basic educationand secondary education to theentire population. This visionaryemphasis, commencing in the1930s and 1940s, wasgenerations ahead of its time.Second, Sri Lanka limitedpublic resources devoted totertiary education, awardingemphasis to the basic andsecondary cycles. The fruits ofthese policies have been reapedin subsequent generations, withbasic education attainment,primary health outcomes andsocial development indicatorsclose to levels observed inupper-middle income anddeveloped countries.

4. Sri Lanka has alsodeviated from the classicalrecipe in one important respect.The establishment of privateschools from grades 1-9 waslegally banned in the early1960s. This legal prohibitionremains in force to date. Thishas made Sri Lanka one of thefew countries in the world tolegally forbid the establishmentof schools. Other low incomecountries and states famous fortheir high basic educationattainment levels, such as CostaRica and the state of Kerala inIndia, rely heavily on the privatesector. In Kerala, for instance,more than half of schoolenrollment is in private schools.The political economy contextof Sri Lanka also makes itvirtually impossible to invest inprivate universities, althoughthere is no explicit legal barrier.However, from the 1990sonwards it has been possible toestablish private degreeawarding institutions, as long asthey do not carry the title“university”. In preventingformal private universities theSri Lankan education systemdeviated from the modeladopted by some of the highestperforming education systems inthe world, such as South Korea,which concentrated publicresources on primary and basiceducation, followed bysecondary education, whileleaving university educationlargely to the private sector.Recently, however, Sri Lankaneducation policy makers haverecommended amending

legislation to allow privateschools and private universitiesto be established [see NEC(2003)]. This is a path breakingrecommendation which, ifimplemented, would remove amajor, self-imposed shackle onthe education system and enableSri Lanka to compete on moreeven terms with other countries.

Enrolment Patterns andTrendsThe compulsory education cycle(grades 1-9)

5. Net enrolment in grade 1is about 97% for both boys andgirls, and nearly all childrencomplete grade 5. At the end ofthe compulsory education cycle,grade 9, completion rates areabout 81% for boys and 84% forgirls. The high primaryeducation (grades 1-5) andjunior secondary education(grades 6-9) enrolment rates arethe outcome of severalcomplementary and mutuallyreinforcing policies, such astuition free schooling, specialeducation programs fordisadvantaged students, freetextbooks, free uniforms andsubsidized transport, and ofstrong household demand foreducation. The evidence alsoshows that Sri Lanka has not yetachieved universal compulsoryeducation, with about 18% ofchildren failing to completegrade 9. Hence, there still existsa considerable challenge to meetthe target of providing allchildren between ages 6-14 with9 years of schooling. Further, an

important equity issue exists, asthe 18% of children who fail tocomplete grade 9 are drawnfrom poorer homes,economically disadvantagedgeographical regions such as therural hinterland, conflictaffected areas and the estatesector, or are disabled andhandicapped children. Strongpolicy action is needed to reachthese vulnerable socio-economic groups, and achievethe target of universal enrolmentand completion in thecompulsory education cycle.

The senior secondary education,GCE O/L and GCE A/L cycles

6. School completion ratesare less satisfactory in the seniorsecondary cycle, withcomparatively low examinationpass rates at the GCE O/L (grade11) and GCE A/L (grade 13)examinations. The average passrate at the GCE O/L examinationfor the country as a whole is37%, implying that only aboutone out of every threecandidates successfullycompletes the GCE O/Lexamination. Pass rates in thepoorer and more disadvantagedareas of the country, such as theNorth-Eastern, North-Central,Uva and Central Provinces,range from 31%-32%. Theprosperous and advancedWestern Province alone standsout among the geographicalregions, with GCE O/L passrates of 48%, indicating thatabout one out of every twocandidates in this areasuccessfully completes the GCE

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O/L examination. GCE A/Lexamination pass rates averageabout 56% for the country as awhole, suggesting that about oneout of every two candidates issuccessful at this examination.This is on the low side, giventhat only the best studentssurvive through to the GCE A/Lcycle. The pass rates across theprovinces are fairly similar,ranging from 52% in the UvaProvince to 58% in the North-Western and North-EasternProvinces. The relatively evendistribution of GCE A/Lexamination pass rates acrossthe country can be attributed totwo key factors: (i) policyinitiatives to ensure a widenetwork of good qualitysecondary schools in allprovinces; and (ii) selectivityeffects, as students in the GCEA/L cycle are the most ablepupils in their age cohorts.

7. The time trend of GCEO/L and GCE A/L pass ratesshows that, over about the pastten years, there has beenimprovement in GCE O/L passrates, but that GCE A/L passrates have been relativelyconstant. GCE O/L pass rateshave risen from about 22% in1993 to 37% in 2002, with muchof the improvement occurring inthe mid-late 1990s. In the GCEA/L cycle, pass rates haveremained fairly steady between1994 and 2002, except for oneunusually high year, 1995 andone poor year, 1999. Sri Lankanpolicy makers have recognizedthat the country faces an

important challenge to increasethe quality of education andenable students to achieve thestandards set for the GCE O/Land GCE A/L examinations.

Tertiary education enrolment

8. The overall tertiaryeducation enrolment rate isabout 11% of the eligiblepopulation. This is slightlyabove the South Asia average(10%), and approximately equalto countries such as India,Morocco, Vietnam andMauritius. It is also equal tocountries such as South Korea,Singapore, Hong Kong,Malaysia and Thailand whenthey were at the current level ofeconomic development of SriLanka. The major proportion oftertiary enrolment, about 6%, isin courses outside the domesticuniversity and formal technicaleducation sector. These studentsare enrolled in the private sectorin a variety of professionalcourses, such as IT,management, accounting,marketing, law, business andfinance, or in overseasuniversities. Universityenrolment is approximately 3%,and advanced technicaleducation enrolment about 2%.About 70% of tertiary educationenrolment is in the privatesector, and the balance in thepublic sector. The highproportion of private sectorenrolment at the tertiary level, incontrast to the primary andsecondary levels, can beattributed to the policyframework, which does not

legally prohibit privateinvestment at the tertiary level.The time trend of tertiaryeducation enrolment shows that,over the recent past, enrolmenthas risen from about 8% in 1997to 11% in 2002. Overall, tertiaryeducation enrolment rates haveexpanded about 38% over theperiod 1997-2002. This growthhas been particularly rapid inprivate tertiary educationinstitutions in the most recentyears.

Economic and SocialBenefits of Investment inEducationExternal efficiency and rates ofreturn to education

9. Investment in educationproduces a wide array ofeconomic and social benefits inSri Lanka, including higherhuman capital and earnings,improved occupationalattainment and social mobility,increased female labor forceparticipation, and superiorfamily health levels and childnutrition outcomes. The socialrate of return to education ishigh, especially at thecompulsory basic and seniorsecondary education gradecycles. Among men, social ratesof return to education are 20% atthe senior secondary schoolinglevel and 15% at the compulsorybasic education level. Amongwomen, social rates of return toeducation are 20% at thecompulsory schooling level and18% at the senior secondaryschooling level. These high

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returns to compulsory basic andsenior secondary educationsuggest that Sri Lanka under-invests in education at theselevels. Externality effects, suchas health and nutrition benefits,are also strong among primaryand secondary educatedmothers. Tertiary educationgenerates high private returns toindividuals, 26% for men and24% for women. However,social returns to tertiaryeducation, at 11% for men and10% for women, areconsiderably below the privatereturns and smaller than forcompulsory basic and seniorsecondary education. Thissuggests that the benefits oftertiary education accrue chieflyto individuals as private gains.

Education, equity and povertyreduction

10. Education exerts apowerful effect on povertyreduction and the economicwelfare of the poor. The povertyrates of households fall sharplyas the education level of thehousehold head or principalincome earner rises. Theimprovement in poverty rates isespecially swift as householdheads or principal incomeearners complete the basiceducation, GCE O/L and GCEA/L cycles. There is also a highdegree of equity of governmenteducation investment acrossprovinces, with progressivelyhigher per student allocationsfor educationally disadvantagedregions. The broad range ofpolicy measures to promote

enrolment, attendance andschool completion, especially atprimary and compulsory basiceducation levels, have enjoyedwidespread success. Andpopular and successful policies,such as the norm-based unit costresource allocation mechanismto distribute public resources toschools, have greatly enhancedthe equity of resourcedistribution among schools. Theallocation of public educationspending across economicgroups is progressive at theprimary, basic and seniorsecondary education levels, withbenefits relatively evenlydistributed among all economicgroups. However, at the tertiaryeducation level the pattern ofpublic education spending isregressive, with benefitsaccruing disproportionately tothe highest economic class.

Educated youth unemployment

11. A major problem facinggovernment policy makers isthat of unemployed educatedindividuals, especially women.Unemployment rates tend to behighest among universitygraduates and GCE O/L andGCE A/L completers. The highunemployment rates of educatedlabor force participants aremainly caused by lengthy jobsearch durations of new entrantsinto the labor market. Theselengthy periods of job searchhave led to considerable socialunrest in the past, particularlyamong university graduates. Themain cause of highunemployment and long job

search among educated youngpeople has been the slow growthrate of the economy, which hasprevented the demand foreducated labor risingsufficiently fast to absorb theincreasing supply of educatedyoung people entering the labormarket. Secondary causes ofeducated youth unemploymenthave included the production ofschool completers and graduateswith low generic skills indemand within the labor market,such as English languagefluency and IT skills, themoderate quality of someuniversity degree programs andinadequate orientation of theeducation system to the world ofwork, especially thedevelopment of skills such as adisciplined work ethic, goodteam work, creativity, flexibilityand adaptability, effectivecommunication and a problemsolving approach to issues.

Public and PrivateInvestment in Education12. Government educationexpenditure in Sri Lankacurrently amounts to about LKR40,000 million (USD 415million) annually. In recentyears, the education budget hasaccounted for approximately 3%of national income and 7%-9%of government spending. Thisrepresents a comparativelymodest level of public educationinvestment by developingcountry standards. There arefour main reasons for therelatively moderate volume of

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public education investment inSri Lanka: (i) the broad range ofpublic services, such asuniversal free health care andwide-ranging access to povertyoriented safety nets, such as theSamurdhi program, which aregenerally not available in mostother developing countries, andcompete for governmentresources; (ii) high defenseexpenditure, which absorbs over5% of GDP and crowds outother investments; (iii) lowpublic revenue, which hascontributed to large budgetdeficits and constrainedgovernment expenditures; and(iv) comparatively low teachersalaries, with Sri Lankanteachers receiving salaries abouthalf or less, as a proportion ofnational income per capita, thanteachers in countries such asIndia, Bangladesh, Malaysia,Thailand and South Korea.

Capital expenditures: currentspending and future priorities

13. The tight budgetconstraint in recent years hasfallen especially heavily on thecapital budget. The educationcapital budget declined steeplyfrom 5% of government capitalspending in 1999 to 2.5% in2002. In terms of shares of theeducation budget, the capitalbudget decreased from about20% in 1998-2000 to 16% in2001-02. This fall in capitalinvestment constrainedexpansion and development ofthe education system. In termsof the composition ofexpenditures, the main share of

capital or investmentexpenditure in the school anduniversity systems, accountingfor over 80% of capitaleducation investment, is onconstruction activities, mainlybuilding of class room blocks inschools, and lecture halls,administrative complexes andresidential facilities inuniversities. Only a relativelysmall proportion of resources,less than 20%, is invested inquality inputs, such asequipment, technology, furnitureand tools. The classroomconstruction activities in theschool system also appear adhoc, without sound forwardplanning based on enrolmentneeds. In consequence, manyrural schools carry excesscapacity with empty classrooms,while urban schools are heavilycongested and over-crowded.Construction activities in theuniversity system, too, areuncoordinated, with heavyexpenditure on buildingswithout a clear plan based onneeds of the university system asa whole. As a result of the lowinvestment in quality inputs,such as equipment andtechnology, the country couldfind itself on the wrong side ofthe digital divide and beseriously constrained inequipping future generationswith the knowledge, skills andcompetencies required in themodern global knowledgeeconomy.

14. The main challengesfacing the education capital

budget are to:

a. rationalize constructionactivities in the schoolsystem and universities;

b. devote greater resourcesto expanding andincreasing urban schools;

c. enhance the allocation ofresources to high levelquality inputs, such as ITcenters, sciencelaboratories, libraries,workshops, activityrooms, multi-purposerooms, computers, books,journals, audio-visualaids, educationalsoftware, equipment andtools in schools anduniversities; and

d. improve the supply ofbasic facilities, such aswater supply, sanitationand electricity, in ruraland estate schools.

Recurrent expenditures: currentspending and future priorities

15. The recurrent educationbudget has accounted for about79%-84% of public educationexpenditure in the recent past.The chief component ofrecurrent education expenditure,accounting for about 85%-90%of the combined central andprovincial recurrent educationbudgets, is salaries and wages.The major share of the salarybill is on the salaries of teachersand university staff, followed bythe salaries of principals,education administrators andother staff grades. After salaries,the next highest shares of

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recurrent education spending areon textbooks, which receiveabout 3% of the total recurrenteducation budget, and schooluniforms, which account forabout 2% of the total recurrenteducation budget. The balancefunds are mainly used foradministrative and operatingcosts such as electricity,communications, water andpostal charges, and staff travel.

16. The principal challengesfacing the recurrent educationbudget are to:

a. allocate sufficient funds,once salaries and adminis-trative costs have beenmet, to support educationquality processes, such asprofessional developmentof teachers and principals,and delivery of on-siteacademic andadministrative support toeducation institutions; and

b. meet the operating costsof capital educationinvestment in the schooland university systems.

17. By internationalstandards, average recurrenteducation expenditures perstudent in Sri Lanka are modestat primary and secondaryeducation levels, but high at thetertiary education level. Averagerecurrent education expenditureper student as a share of nationalincome per capita on primaryand secondary education, atabout 9% and 11% respectively,are among the lowest in SouthAsia and East Asia. In contrast,

average tertiary educationexpenditure per student as ashare of national income percapita, at 100%, is slightlyhigher than India, andsubstantially above the level inEast Asian countries such asSouth Korea, Singapore,Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesiaand the Philippines. The mainreason for the high share ofpublic recurrent spending ontertiary education is the largeunit cost of governmentuniversities. Overall, the patternof average recurrent expenditureacross education levels suggeststhat, in contrast to highperforming East Asiancountries, the balance of publicresources in Sri Lanka may betilted unduly in favor of tertiaryeducation, at the expense ofprimary and secondaryschooling.

Unit costs and internalefficiency

18. The internal efficiency ofprimary schooling (grades 1-5)and junior secondary schooling(grades 6-9), measured in termsof flow rates, are high.Repetition rates and drop outrates range from 2%-7%, withslightly higher repetition anddrop out among boys than girls.The high student flow rates canbe attributed to several policymeasures: (i) the supply ofsufficient school places, throughthe island-wide network ofprimary and secondary schools,to meet the demand foreducation from parents andstudents; (ii) incentive schemes,

such as free textbooks, schooluniforms and subsidizedtransport, to enroll and continuethrough the school system; and(iii) automatic promotion fromgrades 1-11, with no formalmechanisms to fail pupils,unless students voluntarilyrepeat grades. Repetition rates atthe key examination grades inthe senior secondary educationcycle, grades 11 and 13,however, are high. In grade 11,about 27% of students arerepeaters, with the proportion ofrepeating boys and girls close toeven. This is a high percentage,as it implies that about one infour students in grade 11 is inthe class for the second time. Ingrade 13, the proportion ofstudents repeating rises further.Among GCE A/L sciencestudents, 35% of students arerepeaters, among GCE A/L artsstudents, 37% of students takethe class for the second time;and among GCE A/L commercestudents, 35% of students arerepeaters. The repetition rates ofboys and girls are very similaracross grades 11 and 13, andamong types of subjects. TheGCE A/L repetition rates showthat about 1 in 3 students ingrade 13 is taking the class forthe second time. The highrepetition rates at grade 11 andgrade 13 suggest the existenceof considerable costinefficiencies in the educationsystem at these levels. The mainreason for these high repetitionrates at grade 11 and grade 13are the low learning levels ofstudents through the primary

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and secondary cycle up to grade11, which are exposed at thepublic examinations.

Size and distribution of schools

19. Sri Lanka maintains alarge and geographically widelydispersed network of publicschools, established oversuccessive past generations toserve a population residinglargely in rural areas. However,with economic development andexpansion of the service andindustrial sectors, the proportionof population living in cities andtowns has been increasing inrecent years. In addition, bettertransport and communicationsnetworks have placed ruralvillages in touch with schools inurban centers. In consequence,there has been sharplyincreasing demand for popular,prestigious urban schools anddecreasing demand for rural andless prestigious semi-urbanschools. This shift in demandhas led to the existence of a largenumber of very small schools.About 5,900 schools (60% ofschools) have less than 300students. Further, about 2,700schools (27% of schools) haveunder 100 students, and 1,360schools (14% of schools) haveless than 50 students. Thisnetwork of small schools isexpensive to maintain andoperate. In particular, student-teacher ratios in small schoolstend to be low, resulting in highunit recurrent costs. About 1,000schools (10% of schools) havestudent-teacher ratios as low as7:1 or less. Around 1,700

schools (17%) have student-teacher ratios less than 10:1, andabout 6,000 schools (60%) havestudent-teacher ratios of 15:1 orless. Schools with such smallstudent-teacher ratios are farmore expensive to operate, andtypically have unit recurrentcosts about 100% greater thanlarge schools with student-teacher ratios of about 25:1.

20. Public universityeducation in Sri Lanka isexpensive, with high unitoperating costs in comparison toother developing countries. Inaddition, there are widedifferences in unit costs amongpublic universities, ranging fromabout 40,000-120,000 rupeesper student per year. Generally,unit costs are related to studentenrolment size, with smalleruniversities experiencing highcosts and larger universities,which can reap economies ofscale, enjoying low unit costs.The most expensive universitiestend to be small, newinstitutions such as theWayamba, Eastern and South-Eastern Universities. Larger,older universities such asKelaniya, Sri Jayewardenapura,Colombo and Jaffna have thelowest unit costs, apart from thespecial case of the OpenUniversity, which only offersdistance education courses andhas high enrolment numbers andvery low unit costs. Theexception to the general ruleabove of an inverse relationshipbetween unit costs andenrolment size is Peradeniya

University, which is the secondlargest university in terms ofstudent numbers, but has unitcosts comparable to the smallSouth-Eastern University. Afurther important determinant ofunit recurrent costs is the ratio ofstudents to non-academic staff,as the latter strongly affects theuniversity wage bill and hencerecurrent expenditures. Thepublic universities haveextremely low student-non-academic staff ratios: rangingfrom 3:1 in universities such asWayamba, Eastern, South-Eastern and Peradeniya to 8:1 inSri Jaywardenapura. Theaverage for student-non-academic staff ratio for the 12public universities which offeron-site degree courses is only4:1. In terms of academic staff tonon-academic staff, too, theratio is 1:4. This suggests a costinefficient system, with anunduly large proportion ofresources devoted to non-academic staff salaries.

Private education expenditure

21. Households investconsiderable resources oneducation. In 1995/96, the mostrecent date for whichinformation on householdeducation expenditure iscurrently available, privateexpenditure in seven provinceswas about 4,688 million rupees.At 1995/96 public educationinvestment levels, this was equalto about 23% of governmenteducation expenditure. It wasalso greater than public capitaleducation expenditure by about

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13%. Based on certainassumptions concerning theincome elasticity of demand foreducation, total privatehousehold educationexpenditure in 2002 can beestimated to be about 10,600million rupees in 2002 prices.This would be equal to about26% of total public educationexpenditure, and is 62% higherthan the public capital educationbudget. This volume ofhousehold expenditure is in alegal and political economyenvironment unfavorable toprivate investment in education.The level of private investmentcould be substantially increasedif the NEC (2003) proposals areimplemented and the legalrestriction on private schools islifted.

Quality and Efficiency ofService Delivery22. The quantity and patternof public expenditure oneducation is an extremelyimportant determinant ofeducation attainment andlearning in a country. Equallyimportant, however, is thequality and effectiveness ofservice delivery. In this context,Sri Lanka enjoys importantpositive features. A network ofeducation institutions alreadyexists to formulate policy; staff,plan and administer the schooland university systems; developcurricula and syllabi for schoolsand degree programs inuniversities; provideprofessional development

opportunities for schoolprincipals, section heads andteachers, and universityacademics; and conductexaminations and providecertification that enjoys publicconfidence. Legally definedcadres exist for importantservices, such as the teachers'service, teacher educators'service and educationadministrators' service. Thegovernment also has reasonablefinancial managementprocedures, with double entrybookkeeping and cashaccounting, although not yetaccrual accounting. Further,there is both a supreme auditinstitution, the Auditor General'sDepartment and an internal auditwithin the education system.Hence, the service deliverynetwork of the education systemis built on a strong foundation.

23. However, the servicedelivery network also faces a setof major structural challenges,especially to support policyinitiatives to develop a highquality education system. Thesechallenges include: (i) weakteacher deployment, withteacher surpluses in popularurban schools and teachershortages in remote ruralschools; (ii) high teacherabsenteeism with, on theaverage, about one-fifth ofteachers absent on a givenschool day; (iii) Low teachersalaries and poor teachermotivation, with teachersearning only about 85% of theirincomes in 1978, in real terms;

(iv) inadequate managerial andacademic empowerment offrontline education servicedelivery institutions, such asschools, National Colleges ofEducation (NCOEs) andTeacher Centers (TCs); (v)administrative weaknesses, withtechnical and operationalconstraints resulting from anexcessive reliance on manualoperations instead of automatedand computerized systems, theabsence of basic internalmechanisms and insufficientforward planning; (vi) externalinterference in administrationwhich hampers decisionmaking, rule compliance andcivil service morale; (vii)procurement weaknesses, withproblems in drawing uptechnical specifications,preparing tender and biddingdocuments, slow execution oftechnical evaluations, andweaknesses in producing clearand accurate technicalevaluation and tender boardreports and minutes; (viii) lowacademic salaries, leading tostaffing difficulties inuniversities, especially thoselocated outside Colombo andKandy; (ix) universityadministrative and managementstructures excessively weightedtowards undergraduate teachingand insufficiently oriented tosupport the full range ofuniversity outputs, includingresearch, postgraduateprograms, consulting andcommunity services; and (x)student unrest in universities,leading to disrupted academic

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programs and delays in coursecompletion.

Education Quality andLearning Outcomes24. The Sri Lankan educationsystem contains islands ofexcellence. Students from thebest schools and universityprograms enjoy high demand insome of the world’s leadinguniversities and privatecorporations, and ininternational organizations.However, the average leveleducation quality and learningoutcomes are consideredunsatisfactory by policy makers[see NEC (1997),(2003)].Cognitive achievement testsamong primary school childrenshow substantial shortfalls inmastery of fundamentallanguage and numeracy skillstowards the end of the primarycycle. In first language(Sinhalese and Tamil), averagemastery is only 37%. Writing(28%) and syntax (30%) are theweakest mother tongue skills.Comprehension (45%), too, ispoor. Vocabulary skills (70%)are better, but even here one inthree children has an inadequatecommand of the language.English language skills areextremely low. Only 10% ofprimary children achieve thetargeted level of mastery.English language writing skillsare virtually non-existent, withjust 1% of children exhibitingthe required skill level. Englishlanguage comprehension (16%)and syntax (20%) are also very

poor. English languagevocabulary skills are higher(35%), but show that two out ofthree children lack even thisbasic skill.

25. In mathematicsachievement, too, overallmastery is only 38%. Mastery ofmathematical concepts is 45%,procedures 51% and problemsolving only 34%. The low levelof cognitive achievement amongprimary students is especiallyworrying, from a policyperspective, as primaryeducation forms the foundationupon which secondary andtertiary education and varioustypes of skills training are built.Hence, the quality andperformance of the entireeducation system is constrainedby the low achievement levels inthe primary grades.

26. In addition to these lowoverall achievement levels,there are also significantdisparities in achievementbetween urban and rural areas.First language (Sinhalese orTamil) mastery in urban areas is51%, but falls to 34% in ruralareas. In English language skills,23% of urban children achievemastery, but in rural areas only7% of children reach mastery. Inmathematics, 52% of urbanchildren attain mastery, whilejust 35% of rural childrenachieve the required level ofcompetence. Average learningachievements in the primaryeducation cycle also show highregional variations. Theproportion of primary students

attaining mastery of their firstlanguage, Sinhalese or Tamil,varies from 23% in the North-Eastern Province to 51% in theWestern Province. Similarly,mastery of primary mathematicsranges from 25% in the North-Eastern Province to 52% in theWestern Province, and masteryof English languagecompetencies varies from 5% inthe North-Eastern Province to20% in the Western Province.The Central, Uva and North-Central Provinces, too, tend toperform poorly on language andmathematics scores. Theseregional and urban-ruraldifferences can be attributed to acombination of factors, such asthe lower quality of educationservices in disadvantagedprovinces and rural areas,weaker parental capability andsupport, and pooreropportunities for child activitiesthat promote learning.

27. The unsatisfactory state ofeducation quality is also evidentat the level of secondaryeducation. The proportion ofstudents passing the GCE O/L islow, only 37%, implying thatabout two out of every threestudents taking the examinationfails. Further, this low pass ratehas been fairly constant over theperiod 1998-2002. A substantialmajority of students appear tostruggle with subjects such asmathematics, English language,science and social studies. At theGCE A/L examination, too, passrates have been around the 50-55 percent level since 1998 over

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the 1998-2002 period. Thisimplies that only about one outof every two students actuallypasses the GCE A/Lexamination. These are low passrates at the GCE O/L and GCEA/L examinations, especiallysince successful completion ofthese examinations is necessaryfor a variety of skills trainingcourses or access to tertiaryeducation programs, or forentrance into a range of labormarket occupations.

28. In addition to the problemof poor education quality asmeasured by low learningachievement scores or highexamination failure rates, policymakers and employers haveargued that other, non-cognitivedimensions of education qualityare also unsatisfactory and needurgent improvement [see NEC(1997), (2003)]. Educationpolicy makers have stressed theimportance of producingcharacteristics such as adisciplined work ethic, goodteam work, creativity andinitiative, a problem solvingapproach, effectivecommunication, goodleadership, flexibility,adaptability, initiative, drive andcivic consciousness through theeducation system [see NEC(2003)].

Skills Development29. Skills developmentthrough technical education andvocational training (TEVT) is animportant dimension of nationalpolicy. Economic analysis

shows that education andtraining are complements ratherthan substitutes in the SriLankan labor market,confirming the position ofeducation policy makers that thebest foundation for the world ofwork is a high quality generaleducation [see NEC (2003)].Individuals with greatereducation tend to receive moretraining and enjoy higherbenefits from skillsdevelopment. In particular,education and training interactpositively to reduce job searchand increase earnings. Formaltraining receives larger returnsin the public sector, but thereturn on formal and informaltraining is about equal in theprivate sector.

30. The skills developmentsector faces a number of criticalchallenges. These include: (i)expanding the coverage of serviceprovision to offer greater regionalbalance; (ii) stimulating privateinvestment and forging private-public partnerships in servicedelivery; (iii) trainingmismatches, with the presence ofTEVT courses for which there isinsufficient demand and ashortage of TEVT courses whichenjoy strong demand; (iv)internal inefficiencies in thesector with duplication ofcourses, outdated equipment andcurricula, shortage of goodtrainers and high dropout rates;and (v) sub-optimal use ofexisting public sector workshopsand laboratories; and insufficientlinkages between the educationand training sectors.

Early ChildhoodDevelopment31. Early childhooddevelopment has begun toattract policy attention,especially given the emphasis onimproving learning outcomesamong young children andrising awareness of the centralimportance of the early pre-school years for braindevelopment and cognitivecapability. There has been arapid growth of pre-schools andnurseries in recent years. In the1970s, there were an estimated2,000 pre-schools and nurseries.By 2003, this number hadincreased to be between 11,000and 12,500, exceeding thequantity of schools in thecountry. Over 80% of pre-schools are in the private sector.The participation of childrenaged 3-5 in pre-schooleducation, estimated to be about20% in the 1980s, rose to 40% in1994 and to about 60% in 2001.The Sri Lankan Draft Plan ofAction for EFA sets a target of80% coverage against a baselineof 62% for the period 2004 to2008 and home based provisionfor the balance 20%.

32. The pre-school systemfaces several policy anddevelopmental challenges.These include:

a. widening serviceprovision;

b. increasing participation tomeet the EFA goals;

c. establishing quality stand-ards and norms;

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d. creating awareness ofappropriate curricula andpedagogical methods forpre-school children;

e. developing a system ofteacher education andtraining for pre-schoolteachers;

f. linking pre-schoolactivities and the primary

education curriculum; and g. creating an appropriate

administrative structure,especially in theprovincial councils, toencourage, support anddevelop pre-schools.

Policy attention is urgentlyneeded to address these

challenges. Also, in futurepolicy development, thegovernment needs to build uponthe broad foundation laid by theprivate sector in the pre-schoolsystem, as this substantiallyincreases the resources investedand creates a built-in mechanismfor quality development.

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The Forward Flowing Tide of Time: Options for the Future

Enhancing Equity in AccessAchieving universal enrolmentand completion of compulsorybasic education (grades 1-9)

33. Sri Lanka has nearlycompleted the first stage ofeducation development,providing universal access toprimary and basic education,with primary (grades 1-5)completion rates of 97% andbasic education (grades 1-9)completion rates of 83%. Thefinal first generation challengeleft is to attract and retain thelast 17% of students, whocurrently drop out beforecompleting grade 9, eitherwithin the formal schoolsystem or in non-formaleducation programs, until theycomplete the basic educationcycle. These students belongto the poorest and mostdisadvantaged households inthe country, including childrenin remote rural villages, streetchildren in cities, students inisolated plantationcommunities and children inconflict affected areas. Thegovernment has a broad range

of initiatives to attract andretain these students in school,and achieve full enrolment andcompletion of the universalbasic education cycle (grades1-9), including:

a. giving school children achoice of free textbooks;

b. awarding free schooluniforms;

c. offering transportsubsidies to attend school;

d. reconstructing damagedschools in conflictaffected areas; and

e. providing specialeducation, non-formaleducation and catch-upeducation programs asalternatives outside theformal school system.

These initiatives, especiallyspecial education, non-formaleducation and catch upeducation programs, need to bestrengthened and implementedeffectively. In addition, newdemand-side initiatives, such asthe use of economic incentivesand social mobilizationactivities by local community

organizations, could be tried outamong the most disadvantagedgroups. Such demand sideinitiatives have provedsuccessful in attracting andretaining hard to reach groups ofchildren in several othercountries, including South Asianneighbors such as India,Pakistan and Bangladesh.

34. Demand side actions toattract children from the mostdisadvantaged communities toschool, based on successfulinternational experience fromother countries, can include:

a. mobilizing localcommunities to promoteschool enrolment andattendance;

b. creating a student-friendlyenvironment, includingproducing attractiveschool buildings,comfortable class-rooms,and play areas; and

c. reducing the opportunitycost of schooling, amongworking children in poorfamilies, by linking a partof the income supplement

of the government povertyreduction program toschool attendance orparticipation in alternativeeducation programs bychildren in the relevantage group.

Strengthening special education,non-formal education andcatch-up education programs.

35. In addition, thegovernment could considerstrengthening the role of specialeducation, non-formal educationand catch up educationprograms as alternatives to theformal school system. Prioritydevelopment measures in thisarea include:

a. clarifying the comple-mentary role of theseprograms to formal edu-cation and on-the-jobtraining;

b. specifying the curriculum,learning outcomes andtargeted populations of thevarious programs andinstalling a monitoringand evaluation system togive feedback to policymakers;

c. improving linkages to thelabor market, especiallyproviding skills insustainable livelihoodsand income generatingactivities;

d. increasing institutionalcapacity in the provincialeducation departmentsand zonal educationoffices to manage theseprograms; and

e. developing the technicalcapacity of education staffengaged in deliveringthese programs.

Pursuing Excellence inEducation QualityDeveloping the quality of basicand senior secondary education

36. The cardinal challengefacing Sri Lankan educationpolicy makers is to develop andsustain a high quality educationsystem. At present, thegovernment has a wide array ofdevelopment initiatives toimprove the quality of theschool system. These include:

a. modernizing the schoolcurriculum;

b. promoting child-friendlyteaching methods;

c. improving theprofessional capabilitiesand skills of teachers;

d. promoting effectiveschool leadership andmanagement; and

e. reforming examinationsystems to enable flexibleand continuousassessment of studentperformance.

These measures provide apromising foundation uponwhich Sri Lanka can build ahigh quality education system.The education developmentliterature, the education reformexperience of other countries,and the education experience ofSri Lanka itself, suggest severalfurther development initiatives

that are urgently needed toimprove the quality of educationand establish high performingschools, universities andtechnical education institutionsin the country.

Improving understanding, atschool level, of targetedcompetencies in the primaryeducation curriculum

37. Currently, thecompetencies, skills andexpected learning outcomes ofthe primary school curriculumare clearly specified. However,understanding of theseachievement levels amongprincipals and teachers is limitedand inadequate. Further, thecapabilities of principals andteachers to translate theseprimary school achievementlevels into effective teachingstrategies in schools andclassrooms are weak. Thegovernment could consider twokey initiatives to combat thisproblem:

a. ensure widespreaddissemination andunderstanding of thecompetencies, skills andexpected learningoutcomes of the primaryschool curriculum amongprincipals and teachers,including making printedversions of theseachievement levelsavailable to schools; and

b. strengthen the capacity ofteachers to equip studentsup to the achievement levelsspecified in the curriculum.

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Clarifying and detailing thesecondary school curriculum

38. Unlike in the primaryschool curriculum, thecompetencies, skills andexpected learning outcomes ofthe secondary school curriculumare not clearly specified. Inconsequence, the secondarycurriculum is disorganized, withpoor sequencing across gradelevels and cycles. In addition,schools are unable to set goalsand targets for achievementlevels in each grade, or organizetheir teaching methods andlearning strategies around aclearly articulated curriculum.

Hence, two core developmentinitiatives that can be consideredby government to strengthensecondary education in thefuture are to:

a. clarify and organize thesecondary school curri-culum, specifying thecompetencies, skills andexpected learningoutcomes in each gradeand subject; and

b. ensure widespreaddissemination andunderstanding of theseachievement levels amongprincipals and teachers,including making relevantprinted material availableto schools.

Strengthening professionalcompetencies and skills ofteachers

39. The quality of theteaching force is of cardinalimportance in any education

system. Sri Lanka investedheavily, over the past five yearsor so, to construct, staff andequip a complete network ofnational colleges of education(NCOEs) to provide pre-serviceteacher education and teachercenters (TCs) to delivercontinuing teacher education.Virtually all school teachers arenow trained, and enjoyopportunities for professionaldevelopment during their career.The government can build onthis institutional foundation todevelop the professionalcapabilities and skills ofteachers. Key actions that wouldhelp achieve this objective are:

a. introducing continuingteacher training programsaimed at transforming anddeveloping entire schoolsthrough on-site training,to complement the off-sitetraining activitiescurrently offered throughteacher centers to enableindividual teachers toupgrade their skills;

b. modernizing the curriculaand instructional practicesof pre-service andcontinuing teachertraining programs to equipteachers to utilizeequipment and technologyin teaching activities, suchas course planning andorganization, classroompractice, studentassignments andhomework, andassessment of studentknowledge and skills;

c. developing the curriculaand instructional practicesof pre-service andcontinuing teachereducation programs toequip teachers with thepedagogical skills neededto promote child-centeredand activity basedt e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n gapproaches in the primaryand secondary gradecycles;

d. endowing teachers withthe skills to forgepartnerships with localcommunities to improveschool quality;

e. equipping teachers toassume responsibility,under the leadership ofprincipals, to set andachieve high schoolperformance standards;and

f. strengthening theprofessional knowledgeand understanding ofsubject areas and thepedagogical skills ofteachers on a regular,continuing cycle overtheir teaching careers.

Strengthening the leadershipand management capabilities ofprincipals, headmasters andheadmistresses

40. The central importance ofhigh quality school leadership isappreciated by Sri Lankaneducation policy makers. Aprincipals’ training center isbeing developed to provideleadership and managementtraining to principals and school

section heads such asheadmasters andheadmistresses. Further, policymeasures are being introducedto empower principals anddevolve considerablemanagerial power to schools.Strengthening the leadershipskills and managerialcompetencies of schoolprincipals, headmasters andheadmistresses is a key area fordevelopment. Importantleadership and managementskills required in the futureinclude the abilities to:

a. clearly articulate thevision and educationalgoals of schools;

b. organize schools toimplement the curriculumeffectively;

c. match the pedagogicalcompetencies of teachersto the classroom and co-curricular needs ofschools;

d. appraise staff, especiallyteachers, andprogressively improvetheir competencies andskills;

e. motivate staff andstudents towards highperformance;

f. deploy and utilizephysical resources topromote school goals;

g. develop close ties withcommunity organizations,including parent-teacherassociations and pastpupils’ associations; and

h. maintain high visibilityand accessibility to pupils,teachers, parents and othercommunity members.

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Box 1. On Site School Based Training Support for Teachers in Egypt

School based training and support has been operating in several areas of Egypt since the mid-1990s forEnglish teachers at the preparatory level. The main goal is to provide in-service training and support toincrease the effectiveness of teachers through training and mentoring at the school site.

The targets of the programs include: (a) effective use of instructional texts by teachers in the classroom; (b)unifying teachers in a school and actively encouraging them to work as a team; (c) improving communicationamong Ministry of Education inspectors, senior teachers, school principals, school directors and parents; (c)recognizing and rewarding individual creativity to increase job satisfaction, enhance self-worth and motivateprofessional pride in teaching; (d) providing a model for sharing effective problem solving strategies; (e)actively encouraging individuals who are models of excellence and potential leaders in their schools; (f)providing a forum for participatory inputs that affects the sense of investment and consequent ownership thatall participants develop towards their school; (g) encouraging inspectors, teachers and administrators todevelop conflict resolution strategies; (h) encouraging active and communicative pupil participation in thelearning process; and (i) institutionalizing the model of using the school as a unit for ongoing professionaldevelopment.

The strengths of the program include the following: (a) receipt by teachers of teaching material on basicclassroom techniques that can be used by teachers to make instructional texts and classroom practice moreinteresting and effective; (b) teachers are able to receive training without traveling long distances to a trainingsite; (c) teachers can practice new techniques and discuss the new material with colleagues and senior teacherson a daily basis; (d) the principal (or other interested teachers) can give classroom demonstrations using SBTactivities, or attend demonstrations given by other teachers in the school; (e) communication and sharing ofideas among staff improves; (f) the principal receives greater status and responsibility in the school; (g)teachers in schools which receive SBT develop a better rapport through working together; (h) all teachers inthe school receive new material and observe demonstrations (rather than one or two teachers nominated toattend an off-site training session); (i) it provides a positive focus for school inspector visits, classroomobservations and meeting with teachers; and (j) principals monitor teaching activities on a day-to-day basisand can thus better assist inspectors on their observation visits.

Source: LeBlanc, 1997.

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Developing academic andadministrative support systemsfor schools

41. Support networks thatprovide academic andadministrative assistance andguidance to schools are at arudimentary stage in Sri Lanka.The existing system of in-service advisors to providesupport to schools is poorlydeveloped. Strengthening thissystem is of strategic importancefor future educationdevelopment. Priority areas forfuture development include:

a. clearly articulating theroles andresponsibilities of in-service advisors;

b. selecting and appointingin-service advisors on thebasis of provenprofessional competenceand performance;

c. equipping in-service advi-sors to provide services,including information andtraining regarding goodinstructional practices, toschools to raiseperformance;

d. utilizing in-serviceadvisors effectively toevaluate and provideconstructive feed-back onthe academic performanceand efforts of schoolprincipals and teachers;and

e. incorporating on-sitesupport to schools into theregular developmentactivities of provincial

education authorities andzonal education offices.

Expanding the education capitalstock and increasing the use ofequipment and technology inteaching and learning

42. As Sri Lanka standspoised on the threshold of thesecond stage of educationdevelopment, the school systemneeds to advance from a low-technology environment heavilydependent on “chalk and talk” toa modern, equipment andtechnology intensive educationsystem. The education capitalstock of IT centers andequipment, science laboratories,libraries, activity rooms,instruments and tools, needs tobe increased in stages.Concurrently, equipment andtechnology have to be awarded aprominent role in teachingmethods, learning approachesand examinations. For instance,instructional time in science canbe weighted more in favor oflaboratory work, and lab-basedassignments used as part of theassessment mechanism.Similarly, teaching methods insubjects such as mathematicsand physics can include the useof educational software toenable, inter alia, self-pacedlearning among children. Audioequipment can be utilized inlanguage instruction, especiallyEnglish, to develop vocabulary,pronunciation and oral fluency.And increasing use of librariesand reading material provide anextremely effective method ofenhancing learning outcomes.

Improving the quality oftextbooks

43. Textbooks constitute themain learning resource in theeducation system. Further, for adeveloping country such as SriLanka, it is likely to remain thechief quality input for manyyears into the future. As such,ensuring high quality textbooksis vitally important. In recentyears, the government hasimplemented an importantpolicy initiative to increase thequality of textbooks and widenthe choice of textbooks availableto schools by dismantling a statemonopoly and opening textbookpublication to competitiveprivate firms. Futuredevelopment of private sectortextbook publication couldinclude the following key steps:

a. enhancing the technicalcapacity of textbookwriters, illustrators andeditors in the country;

b. strengthening qualitycontrol of manuscriptsand drafts, includingchecking factual accuracyand eliminating materialthat hurts differentreligious and ethnicgroups,

c. speeding up contractingand delivery to ensuretimely distribution toschools prior to thecommencement of theacademic year; and

d. developing technicalcapacity among writers toproduce supplementaryreading material,

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workbooks and textbookguides.

Enhancing the health andnutrition status of children

44. The analysis of therelationship between cognitivescores and school, householdand health variables show thatpoor health and low nutritionstatus among children arenegatively associated withlearning outcomes. Inconsequence, attempts toimprove education quality andlearning levels could benefitfrom actions to improve thehealth and nutrition levels ofpoor children. The basicframework for an effectiveschool health and nutritionprogram could contain thefollowing core elements:

a. health-related schoolpolicies that provide a safeand secure physicalenvironment, a favorableand affirmative psycho-social environment, andaddress issues such asstudent abuse, sexualharassment, schoolviolence, and bullying.

b. good school constructionand maintenance practices

to ensure safe drinkingwater and adequate, cleansanitation facilities;

c. skills based healtheducation to developknowledge, attitudes,values and life skills toenable students to makeand act on the mostappropriate and positivehealth related decisions;and

d. school-based health andnutrition services toaddress problems such asmicronutrient deficienciesand worm infestations,hunger, dental caries,myopia and hearingimpediments.

Promoting social cohesionthrough education

45. Enhancing civicknowledge and understandingamong students is an importantmeasure to promote respect fordiversity, democraticgovernance and civic liberties inthe backdrop of the 20 year longsecessionist conflict in thecountry. Additional measures topromote social cohesion througheducation include producingtextbooks that are sensitive tothe cultures of different social

groups, using the curriculumand co-curricular activities topromote respect for diversity,introducing schools wherechildren from different ethnicgroups can study together andpromoting the use of English asa link language. These are usefulmeasures, although their impactclearly depends on thecooperation of different socialgroups. In particular, thecooperation of dominant groupsin the conflict affected areas areneeded to promote theseactivities effectively.

Reconstructing damagededucation institutions in conflictaffected areas

46. Enrolment and learninglevels are lowest in the conflictaffected areas, whichexperience special challengescaused by the destruction ofeducation infrastructure.Government educationinstitutions in the conflictaffected areas, especiallyschools, suffered damagedduring the conflict period. Anassessment of thereconstruction, rehabilitationand developmental needs of theregion [see UNICEF-WorldBank (2003)] estimated that

Box 2. School-Level Pilots in Civics and Citizenship - an Example from Northern Ireland

The two-year 'Social, Civic and Political Education Project' was a partnership between the Council forCurriculum, Examinations & Assessment, and a university. The project included the development and trialingof curriculum resources, teacher training modules, and models of cooperation between schools, curriculumdevelopers, NGOs and community organizations. Through a process of piloting different approaches, theproject arrived at a model of teaching and learning where 'citizenship' concepts were designed to beinvestigated, rather than taught didactically: "In the attempt to move beyond 'polite exchange' and to avoid acompliance model of citizenship we have arrived at an investigatory curriculum driven by questions ratherthan answers."

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about USD140 million isrequired to restore the educationcapital stock in the region.Technical capacity, however, is amajor challenge inimplementing educationreconstruction and rehabilitationwork in the conflict affectedregions. In particular, there areshortages of material and skilledlabor. Also, as funds havepoured into the region forreconstruction work, prices ofgoods and wages have risen.Long-term support to restore theeducation system in the conflictaffected areas requiresconsiderable capacity buildingactivity.

Improving the quality ofuniversity education

47. The university system hasnot experienced the sameintensive process of consultativepolicy development as theschool system. However, theUGC and individual universitieshave developed severalinitiatives to enhance quality.These include reformingcurricula and examinationsystems, especially organizingdegree programs around courseunit systems and introducingcontinuous assessment systems,developing corporate plans foruniversities, introducingperformance appraisal systemsfor staff, setting up anaccreditation process under anindependent board, andintroducing an element ofperformance based funding.These initiatives have yet to betested, and good evaluations,

especially of the older initiativessuch as the introduction ofcourse unit systems andcontinuous assessmentmechanisms, could be helpful topolicy makers and academics.

Orienting the EducationSystem to the World ofWork48. The Sri Lankan educationpolicy framework stresses theimportance of orienting theeducation system to the world ofwork [see NEC (2003)]. Policymakers are aware that the bestfoundation for the world of workis a high quality school systemwhich can supply the labormarket with trainableindividuals and provide a strongspring board for technical,professional and universityeducation. The school systemplays a pivotal role in producingknowledge and generic skills,such as team work, decisionmaking, initiative, problemsolving, responsibility,leadership and communication,which are important in the worldof work. The school system alsoconstitutes the basic curriculumframework for the acquisition ofknowledge and specificcapabilities in demand in thelabor market. Plans to improvethe orientation of the Sri Lankaneducation system to the world ofwork needs prioritydevelopment initiatives incurricula, use of IT andtechnology in education,language skills and fluency, andcareer guidance and counseling.

Developing and implementingan activity based curriculum

49. The activity basedcurriculum approach advocatedby Sri Lankan policy makers forsecondary education is explicitlydesigned to develop a soundwork ethic among schoolchildren [see NEC (2003)]. Assuch, it can play a key role inorienting the education systemto the world of work. The futuredevelopment andimplementation of the activitybased curriculum approachdepends on key initiatives to:

a. train teachers in activitybased pedagogy;

b. train principals toorganize schools for anactivity based curriculum;

c. provide sufficientclassroom space andactivity rooms toimplement activity basedlearning; and

d. make adequateequipment, technologyand reading materialavailable in schools tosupport activity basedteaching and learning.

Increasing IT literacy and skillsand introducing IT basedteaching and learning

50. IT literacy and skills arefundamental in the modernworld, and vastly increase thenational and global labor marketprospects of school completersand university graduates.Education policy makers areaware of the cardinal importanceof IT, and advocate expanding

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and deepening the use of IT inthe education system. This is anextremely important, highpriority policy measure. Keyinitiatives to develop the use ofIT in the school system andimplement IT based teachingand learning include:

a. equipping schools with ITfacilities and connectivityin stages;

b. establishing a nationaleducation network tomaximize access to ITbased education material;

c. training teachers in ITequipment, educationalsoftware and on-lineeducation resources;

d. creating awareness amongschool principals on theuse of IT in education; and

e. making provision for ITequipment and IT basededucational resources inschool quality inputallocations.

Improving English languageskills

51. English language skillsand fluency enjoy strongdemand in the national labormarket. In addition, Englishlanguage competency opens jobprospects in the global economy.In consequence, developingEnglish language skillsconstitutes a central element ofthe education policy frameworkto improve the labor marketorientation of the school system.Important developmentinitiatives for the future include:

a. allowing private schoolsto provide students achoice of English as amedium of instruction,along with Sinhalese andTamil, from grade 1upwards;

b. introducing English as amedium of instruction ingovernment schools instages, as and whenadequate teachers becomeavailable;

c. training teachers,including re-training "excess teachers " in thesystem, to teach Englishas a subject;

d. training teachers,including re-training "excess teachers " in thesystem, to teach inEnglish as a medium ofinstruction;

e. utilizing audio-visualeducational resources andIT based educationmaterial widely forEnglish language teachingand learning.

Strengthening skillsdevelopment and training

52. Skills developmentconstitutes the chief active labormarket strategy of thegovernment to promote the jobprospects and labor productivityof school leavers. Severalpromising developmentinitiatives and policy measureshave been proposed by policymakers, including:

a. strengthening theTechnical and Vocational

Education Commission(TVEC) as the apex bodyfor TEVT;

b. developing the role ofgovernment to function asa facilitator, standardsetter and regulator oftraining;

c. fostering private sectorparticipation in training;

d. promoting government-industry partnerships inskills development;

e. accrediting andmonitoring the quality ofpublic and private traininginstitutions;

f. rationalizing the publicsector TEVT system;

g. improving the linkages ofthe TEVT system with theschool and universitysystems; includingestablishing careerguidance and counselingin schools anduniversities;

h. promoting vocationaltraining for the informalsector; and

i. providing financialincentives for trainingtargeting the corporatesector.

These are rational andpotentially productive ideas,reflecting international thinkingand practice. The actual stage ofdevelopment of these variouspolicy initiatives is modest, withmany ideas still at the level ofblue prints. Translating thesepolicy ideas into developmentstrategies and implementingthem constitute the next major

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challenges faced by the TEVTsector.

Developing career guidance andcounseling

53. An important governmentrecommendation to linkeducation to the world of workis the development of effectivecareer guidance and counseling.Universities have commencedcareer guidance and counselingactivities. However, in theschool system, career guidanceand counseling is virtually non-existent. Developing careerguidance and counseling inschools is an important initiativefor future implementation. Keyactions to promote this initiativeinclude:

a. training a core cadre ofschool staff in careerguidance and counseling;

b. prioritizing schools inpoor regions in thedevelopment of guidanceand counseling, asstudents in such areashave less access to labormarket information; and

c. developing informationnetworks betweenvocational training andtechnical educationinstitutions and guidancecounselors in schools.

Education ResourceAllocation and Distribution54. The government facesseveral cardinal challenges toensure universal completion ofthe basic compulsory education

cycle (grade 1-9), enhance thequality of education, orient theeducation system to the world ofwork, improve equity of publicspending, strengthen servicedelivery within the system, anddevelop the economic and socialrelevance of the education andtraining system. Thesechallenges exist at a time whenpublic investment in educationis modest by developing countrystandards, governmenteducation spending has beendeclining in real terms and thestate experiences a heavy fiscaldeficit which compels aconservative budgetary policy.In this context, it is extremelyimportant that the educationsystem uses the limited publicresources available equitablyand efficiently.

Improving equity and qualitythrough future development ofthe norm-based, unit costresource allocation mechanism

55. The norm-based, unit costresource allocation mechanismused to allocate public resourcesto schools during the last 4-5years has considerably increasedthe equity of resource allocationand distribution in the educationsystem. The first stage ofimplementation of this formulatreated all schools similarly,with adjustments only for schoolsize to accommodate economiesof scale, poverty levels of themost disadvantaged schools, andvariations in subjects taught andgrade cycles covered. Thecountry can now move on to thesecond stage of the norm-based,

unit cost resource allocationmechanism. This would involve:

a. allowing variation in thefunding formula toincorporate provincial andzonal differences ineducation needs ands o c i o - e c o n o m i cdevelopment;

b. refining the formula toallocate resources forcurriculum enhancementin schools selected, oversuccessive developmentstages, to increase theequipment and technologyintensity of thecurriculum, and offer ITbased education andEnglish mediumeducation;

c. strengthening thetechnical and institutionalcapacity of central andprovincial education andfinance authorities toallocate and distributeresources according to themore advanced model ofthe norm-based, unit costresource allocationmechanism.

Enhancing the efficiency andequity of public educationspending across educationcycles

56. The social benefits ofeducation are highest at thecompulsory basic education andsenior secondary educationcycles. This suggests that thebest return to educationinvestment is at the basiceducation and senior secondary

education levels. The pattern ofstudent enrolment over majorgrade cycles, and the unit costsof education by grade level,show that investment in basicand senior secondary educationare relatively progressive andbenefit students from low andmiddle income householdssubstantially, whereasinvestment in tertiary educationmainly tends to benefit studentsfrom upper-income households.In consequence, there is a strongcase for allocating the majorshare of any increase in publicresources for the educationsector to basic and seniorsecondary education, whilecarefully controlling theexpansion of the public

university system and allowingenrolment expansion in tertiaryeducation take place mainly inthe private sector. Opportunitiesfor poorer students to accesstertiary education could beexpanded through schemes suchas student vouchers and studentloans, rather than through directprovision.

Intra-budget shifts in resourceallocation to enhance educationquality

57. Development initiatives toimprove the quality of educationand orient the education systemto the world of work, such asincreasing the equipment andtechnology intensity of thecurriculum, promoting IT

literacy and IT based education,and expanding English languagefluency and skills, will requiresubstantial investment in theeducation capital stock. Hence,over time, the balance of capitaland recurrent spending withinthe education budget needs toshift to allocate a greater shareof resources to capitalexpenditure. Within the capitalbudget, a higher proportion ofresources needs to be invested inquality inputs such as IT centers,science laboratories, libraries,activity rooms, multi-purposerooms, books, journals,computers, educationalsoftware, equipment,technology and tools. Theconstruction and expansion of

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Box 3. Components of an Education Resource Allocation Formula andSome Examples from Developed Economies.

An education resource allocation formula typically has four components:

I. A basic allocation, based on the numbers of students in a school, and a grade level supplement to coverthe differential resource of different grades. The norm-based unit cost resource allocation mechanismdeveloped for schools in Sri Lanka over the past 6 years focuses on this component.

II. Curriculum enhancement, where additional resources are provided for selected groups of students, withthe choice based on ability or aptitude. For instance, in Australia, the State of Victoria provides funds fora number of state wide initiatives to enable schools to participate in specific-purpose programs such asinstrumental music programs and languages other than English. In New Zealand, additional staffing isprovided to operate manual training centres to support the delivery of technology programmes and extraresources are awarded to facilitate school-to-work transition.

III. Supplementary educational needs, especially to promote equity by accommodating special groups suchas children with learning impediments. For instance, in the U.S.A. school districts in Cincinnati andSeattle provide supplementary resources for special education and school health programs, while inEdmonton, Canada special resources are provided for children with mild, moderate and specialdisabilities.

IV. School site allocations, to take into account differential school costs, based on location, that are causedby structural factors outside the managerial control of the school. Typically, such factors include physicalisolation from population centers, regional differences in the prices of educational resources andenvironmental features such as altitude and temperature. In the United Kingdom, for instance, smallschools receive supplementary resources to protect them from losing on the basis of diseconomies ofscale. The formula implemented in Sri Lanka, too, has special provision for small schools and for schoolslocated in cold temperatures above 5,000 feet.

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buildings, which absorbs thehighest share of the capitalbudget, needs to be rationalized,prioritizing the urban schoolsystem which is experiencingrising demand. Within therecurrent budget, too, resourcesneed to be reallocated fromsalaries and administrativeexpenses to quality processes,such as teacher education andtraining, management andacademic training of schoolprincipals, the purchase ofteaching material and learningresources, and to meet theoperating expenses of highercapital investment.

Increasing private sectorinvestment and participation ineducation

58. As the country advancesto higher levels of educationquality the education systemneeds to supplement thegovernment budget by raisingalternative sources of revenue.This is especially important and

urgent in an unfavorablemacroeconomic environmentwith a large and persistentbudget deficit. Relaxing legalobstacles to the establishment ofprivate schools and introducingstrategic initiatives to counterthe adverse political economyenvironment to private sectorparticipation in education couldproduce several benefits:

a. it would increase theoverall volume ofresources invested in theeducation sector,

b. since the studentsattending private schoolsand education institutionsare likely to be drawnfrom upper incomefamilies, it would releasemore public resources, ona per student basis, forstudents from poorerfamilies,

c. it would stimulateeconomic activity in asector where investment

has been artificiallyrestricted and contributeto higher growth, and

d. it would provide analternative model ofservice delivery, withconsiderable power andresponsibility at the levelof the individualeducation institutions,such as private schoolsand institutes. Theseprivate educationinstitutions would becompelled to offer highquality services to remainviable in an economiccontext where they are incompetition with freepublic educationinstitutions.

59. The establishment ofprivate universities has been anextremely contentious issue,with several past attemptsresulting in student violence andsocial unrest. Hence, it is highlyunlikely that private universities

Box 4. Tertiary Education Strategy in the Republic of Korea

The Republic of Korea is one of the outstanding economic success stories of modern times. The Republic ofKorea also has an education system that consistently comes among the top achievers in numerous globalstudies of education performance. As the country grew rapidly from the 1960s onwards, reaching a per capitaincome level that now places it among the ranks of high income countries, the education system also expandedto keep pace with the growth of the economy and the rising demand for educated labor. The tertiary educationsystem made a key contribution to growth at the higher industrial and service levels. Key stages in thedevelopment of tertiary education in Korea were: (a) in the 1960s, encouragement of private institutions, withlimited public funding for capital costs and scholarships; (b) in the 1970s and 1980s, the expansion ofengineering and technical education to meet human resource requirements; and (c) in the 1990s, a focus onquality, research and development capacity, accountability, deregulation, and performance-based funding.Two key outcomes of the tertiary education strategy in Korea are: (i) the proliferation of private tertiaryeducation institutions in Korea, enrolling 85% of the total student population by 2000; and (ii) activepromotion of university-industry partnerships by the government. The predominance of the private sector intertiary education financing and provision has enabled Korea to increase the supply of highly educated laborrapidly enough to exploit the growth opportunities enjoyed by the economy.

Source: World Bank (2002).

can be established in Sri Lankain the medium-term. Thegovernment has responded tothe opposition to privateuniversities by encouraging theprivate sector to participate innon-contentious areas. Thesehave mainly been theestablishment of private degreeawarding institutions, usuallylinked to foreign universities,and investment in tertiary levelprograms such as professionalcourses and technical fields. Thegovernment needs to exploreoptions to expand privateparticipation in tertiary levelnon-university education,especially in professional andtechnical fields where thedemand for labor, both withinand outside the country, isstrong.

Promoting cost sharing inpublic university education

60. The analysis clearlyshows that public universityundergraduate education yieldshigh private returns, well inexcess of social returns, anddisproportionately benefits thewealthiest quintile ofhouseholds. Given these facts,there is a strong case forincreasing the share ofuniversity income that is drawnfrom private households.Equally, it is important to takeinto account the politicaleconomy context of Sri Lanka,where tuition free publicuniversity education has beenthe norm for decades, and theinternational experience ofcountries that have sought to

introduce cost sharing into freepublic university systems, whichhave resulted in strongresistance, especially fromstudent groups. Hence, it isunlikely that Sri Lanka will beable to introduce cost sharinginto public undergraduateeducation anytime in the nearfuture. However, over the long-term, especially as the economygrows and the wealth ofhouseholds increases, costsharing will need to become alive policy option. In thiscontext, an area which hasaroused considerable interest intransition economies is that ofincome contingent studentloans. The government couldconsider pilot testing somestudent loans of this type,perhaps to be used in privatetertiary institutions in the firstinstance. Meanwhile, an areawhere cost sharing is possible inpublic university education isthat of postgraduate degrees.The majority of postgraduatestudents in universities areemployed and engage in part-time, fee paying courses. This isan area that has considerablepotential for further expansionto increase university incomesand improve the supply of welleducated human resources in thecountry.

Improving the Quality andEfficiency of EducationService Delivery61. Development initiativesand strategies to wideneducation access to the poorest

and most disadvantagedeconomic groups, improveeducation quality and learningoutcomes, and orient theeducation system to the world ofwork, also requiresstrengthening the efficiency andquality of service deliverywithin the education system.Government strategy to improveservice delivery contains severalpromising elements.

Empowering frontline servicedelivery institutions, such asschools and universities

62. A key government policyinitiative under consideration isto devolve managerial power tofrontline service deliveryinstitutions, such as and schoolsand universities. In the schoolsystem, the aim of devolvingmanagerial authority is toempower principals,headmasters andheadmistresses, and teachers;enable schools to forge linkswith local communities toimprove resource mobilizationand public accountability; andimprove the speed andsensitivity of decision makingby decreasing administrativelayers. In devolving managerialautonomy to schools, it isimportant that different modelsof school development boardsbe pilot tested, as thegovernance capacity of schoolsvaries significantly, dependingon such factors as location, sizeand history. For instance, themain public schools in cities andtowns are likely to possessvastly greater managerial

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Box 5. Alternative Models of School Based Management in Developed and Developing Countries

School-based management can involve a variety of activities in which responsibility to make decisions aboutone or more of the following is devolved to the school level: the allocation of resources; choice of teachingmaterials; approval of school budgets; setting policies within centrally determined guidelines; drawing up aschool development plan; preparation of an annual performance report; a mechanism for teachers to beinvolved in certain decisions; purchase of advisory services; hiring and firing of staff; staff developmenttraining; setting disciplinary policies; assigning students and staff to classes; paying teachers' salaries; and arole for parents, through a school-site management body, board, or council of teachers, parents, and othermembers of local communities, in an advisory or decision-making capacity.

SBM systems vary in the degree of emphasis they accord to one or more of these activities. On the basis ofthe activities which are most prominent, four models have been identified: an administrative control model, aprofessional control model, a community control model, and a balanced control model.

I. In the administrative control model, the principal teacher makes decisions about budget, personnel, andcurriculum, following consultation with teachers, parents, students, and community representatives. Anexample of this model is to be found in Edmonton, Canada, where the head can make decisions in almostall areas of school administration (personnel, budget, curriculum).

II. In the professional control model, teachers make decisions about budget and curriculum (and occasionallyabout personnel). The model is based on the assumption that professionals that are closest to studentshave the most relevant knowledge for decision-making. A council with decision-making powers thatincludes parents may be associated with this model; if this is the case, teachers will have the largestproportion of members. Examples of systems in which teachers assume leadership are to be found inSantiago, Chile and Columbus Ohio in the U.S.A.

III. The community control model is based on the assumption that the school curriculum should directlyreflect the values and preferences of parents and the local community, to which the school should beaccountable. In this model, parents/ community will have the majority, or at least the greatest proportion,of membership on school councils and will be empowered to make decisions about curriculum, budget,and personnel. In the extreme case (e.g., in New Zealand), the council makes decisions about budgets, theappointment and dismissal of principal teachers, teachers, and other staff, building maintenance, andoverall performance of the school. The community control model of SBM is also found in Australia andin El Salvador where it originated in rural areas during civil war when families got together to run schoolsin the absence of government services. The success of this experience moved the government to open thegovernance of schools to teachers, parents, and students.

IV. The balanced control model attempts to balance professional and parental control. Teachers' knowledgeis privileged in making key decisions in the school; the school, however, is accountable to parents and thelocal community. In one balanced control SBM model (in Spain), the school council is responsible forstudent admissions, curriculum, budget, school management, extra-curricular activities, supervision ofadministration and instruction. The mixed model is also found in Nicaragua.

While the models provide a useful conceptual framework, it should be noted that considerable variation existsin how they are implemented from site to site.

capabilities and sophisticatedcommunity support than smallrural schools in remote villages.

63. Universities already enjoyconsiderable autonomy, butfurther powers to recruit

administrative staff, tailoracademic salaries to individualstaff members, and decide onstudent admissions, couldincrease the motivation,responsibility and accountabilityof university staff and

authorities. These measures,however, may be controversialfrom a political economyperspective. For instance,providing universities freedomto tailor academic salaries toindividual staff members can be

highly controversial in a contextwhere academics areaccustomed to a uniform salaryscale. Similarly, devolvingresponsibility for studentadmissions to individualuniversities has to be madeconsistent with the policy ofallocating student quotas todisadvantaged districts.

64. The government couldalso consider applying theprinciple of devolvinggovernance to other educationinstitutions, such as NationalColleges of Education (NCOE's)and Teacher Centers (TC's).Currently, the NCOE's havelittle managerial responsibilityand autonomy. Curriculumdesign, assessment andcertification of teachereducation courses offered byNCOE's are undertaken by theNational Institute of Education(NIE). Recruitment of academicstaff is to a centralized teachereducators service, and NCOE'srarely have a voice in the choiceof academic staff allocated tothem. TC's operate in aninefficient administrativestructure. The NIE designs thecurricula of continuing teachereducation programs offered byTC's. The NCOE's act asacademic advisors to TC's. Foradministrative purposes,including finances, the TC'scome under the zonal educationoffices. This complexadministrative and academicstructure has badly hamperedthe development of TC's.Devolving a greater degree of

managerial autonomy andresponsibility to NCOE's andTC's could increase theoperational efficiency of theinstitutions and enhance thequality of service delivery.

Developing performanceappraisal systems andintroducing fiscal incentives forperformance

65. The strengthening ofperformance appraisal systemscould contribute strongly tohigher quality service delivery.Within the university system,performance appraisal hascommenced, especially foracademic staff. However,measures to introduceperformance appraisal to theschool system have provedcontroversial, and leftundeveloped. Three keyinitiatives that could assist thegovernment to introduceperformance appraisaleffectively into the schoolsystem are:

a. communicating tostakeholders, especiallyeducation unions, thevalue of performanceappraisal systems asfeedback mechanisms tostrengthen servicedelivery and reward goodperformance, rather thanas punitive measures forpoor performance;

b. designing performanceappraisal systems for thevarious educationservices, such as theteachers service,

education administratorsservice, principals serviceand the teacher educatorsservice, in closeconsultation withstakeholders, includingthe relevant unions; and

c. enhancing the technicalcapacity of educationinstitutions and educationadministrators to manageand utilize performanceappraisal systems.

66. Introducing financialincentives for performance,especially for key services, canalso be a promising initiative.For instance, poor teacherdeployment and high teacherabsenteeism in difficult areas isa key constraint on effectiveservice delivery within theeducation system. Further, theimpact of weak teacherdeployment fallsdisproportionately on poorstudents, as the most unpopularregions, where teacherabsenteeism is highest, aretypically remote, economicallydisadvantaged, rural locations.To improve teacher deploymentand attendance, the governmentcould implement the NEC(2003) proposals to offerfinancial incentives to teacherslocating in schools in difficultareas. In addition, to reduceteacher absenteeism, teacherscould be entitled to encashunutilized leave. The mainconstraint to introducing fiscalincentives for performance is thetight budget situation, whichprecludes expensive new policy

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measures. However, if costsavings could be generatedwithin the education system,some of the resources obtainedcould be allocated to introducesuch performance incentivesmeasures.

Streamlining roles, responsi-bilities and accountabilitywithin the education system

67. Many of the measuressuggested to improve educationservice delivery would requiregovernment officials in thecentral ministry, provincialcouncils and zonal offices toassume new and additional rolesand responsibilities, whiledevolving some of their currentpowers to frontline servicedelivery institutions, such asschools, national colleges ofeducation and teacher centers.During this process ofdecentralization andempowerment of localinstitutions, the current patternof responsibility andaccountability and the futuremodels required need to beanalyzed carefully.

Human resource development ofcentral, provincial and zonaleducation authorities

68. The complex system ofeducation governance, withmultiple tiers of administrationat the central, provincial andzonal levels, requires a widerange of administrative,technical and operations skillsand competencies from staffworking at each tier. An overallhuman resource strategy needsto be developed andimplemented, across thedifferent tiers of the educationsystem, to equip central,provincial and zonal educationstaff with the necessaryadministrative, technical andoperations skills andcompetencies. In addition, thisstrategy needs to provide forregular and continuous updatingof skills and competencies astechnical and operations skillsadvance and develop.

Institutional strengthening ofcentral, provincial and zonaleducation authorities

69. Strengthening theoperational procedures,capabilities and performance of

central, provincial and zonaleducation authorities cancontribute significantly to thequality and efficiency ofeducation planning,administration and servicedelivery in the future. Lessonsfrom recent policy measures anddevelopment initiatives,including reforms supported bydonors such as the World Bankand Asian Development Bank,suggest some key areas whereinstitutional strengthening isurgently required.

Administrative processing

70. The administrativeprocesses in central, provincialand zonal offices tend to be longand cumbersome, resulting inconsiderable delays inoperational activities. One majorreason for these delays are theuse of outdated manual systemsfor important administrativetasks, including correspondence,filing, record keeping andinventory control. Developingcomputerized operating systemsfor normal and routineadministrative tasks wouldsubstantially increase theefficiency of governmentoperations.

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Box 6. Use of National Assessment Results in Argentina

Following a national assessment of learning outcomes in Mendoza Province, each school received anindividualized report at the beginning of the school year, which contained results for the school as well asprovincial, departmental, and sectoral (urban, rural marginal and rural) average scores. Test scores for theschool were disaggregated by classroom and by student, as well as skill area (geometry, probability etc.), andtest item. Schools were assigned an overall ranking relative to all other schools within their sector. A series ofanalytical documents, videos and workshops about specific difficulties encountered by students and proposingpedagogical changes to address perceived shortcomings was provided. Patterns of student achievement interms of gender, geographical location, and public/private management variables were described.

Strengthening procurementcapabilities

71. The ability of governmentofficials to draft biddingdocuments, prepare technicalspecifications, praise proposals,and draw up technicalevaluation reports and tenderboard recommendations tointernational standards islimited, resulting in lengthyprocurement processes.Strengthening the procurementcapabilities of governmentofficials, hence, is an importantarea for future institutionaldevelopment.

Addressing political economyconstraints

72. Communicating therationale for controversial butimportant policy measures tostakeholders and beneficiariesand building stakeholderparticipation in reforms is animportant area wheregovernment capacity is stillmodest. For instance, thegovernment implemented aschool rationalization programover 1998-2002, which achievedover 75% of its target. This wasa well-designed, successfulrationalization program.However, it generated intensecontroversy, and central andprovincial education authoritieswere unable to explain therationale for the program clearlyto local communities, resultingin its temporary suspension in2003. Similarly, the governmentcommenced a multiple textbookpolicy, to widen choice andimprove quality, which

generated intense controversyand delayed implementation forseveral years. Again, central andprovincial education authoritieslacked the capability tocommunicate the policyeffectively. The country alsohas, in the aggregate, a surplusof school teachers, althoughthere are deficiencies in certainsubjects, especially English, andin the Tamil medium. However,there is intense pressure toemploy more teachers, inter aliato reduce the pressure ofunemployed educated youngpeople. Again, governmentagencies have often found itnearly impossible to withstandthis pressure. Hence,strengthening the ability ofgovernment education agencies,at each level of theadministrative tier, tocommunicate the rationale forpotentially controversial policymeasures and build stakeholdersupport is a vitally importantarea for future institutionalstrengthening.

Capacity development toundertake education researchand analysis, policy formulationand planning

73. There are three keyinitiatives that would contributeto the development of a highperforming education system,especially at the level ofanalysis, policy formulation andplanning.

Promoting education research,monitoring and evaluation

74. Sound research,

monitoring and evaluation,based on statistically validprocedures and measurableindicators, is extremely valuablefor policy makers. In advancededucation systems analyticallyrigorous education research andevaluation, including nationalassessments of learningoutcomes, constitutes thefoundation for policyformulation. The Sri Lankaneducation system currently hasseveral promising initiatives,such as the annual schoolcensus, the assessment of grade4 learning outcomes by NEREC,and the NEREC qualitativestudy of education managementpractices, that provide a basis fora rich and informativemonitoring and evaluationframework. This educationresearch, monitoring andevaluation system could bedeveloped with special emphasison the analysis of educationperformance and causal factorsuseful for policy making.Education research, monitoringand evaluation activities can beencouraged to utilize bothquantitative and qualitativemethods, and use modernresearch techniques such asexperimental designs,randomized trials andlongitudinal surveys.

Medium-term budgeting and amulti-year planning horizon

75. An important initiative toimprove education planning andresource management is thedevelopment of a medium-termbudget framework to facilitate

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multi-year planning. Themedium term budget couldcover a period of about threeyears, with provision for annualupdating to take into accountfresh information and needs.The medium-term budget couldalso be embedded in a long-termrolling plan for educationdevelopment. It would facilitateeducation planning, andmanagement by improving thepredictability of resources andproviding a longer-termdevelopment horizon than ispermitted by the current annualbudgets.

Public expenditure tracking

76. A public expendituretracking system wouldconstitute an importantmanagement tool for educationpolicy makers and financeofficials and complement themedium-term budgeting system.It would provide the centralgovernment and the provincesinformation on the flow of fundsthrough the education systemand the actual level of resourcesreaching various servicedelivery points, such as schools,universities, national colleges of

education and teacher centers. Itwould also increase thetransparency of resource flowsthrough the system. Suchinformation could then feedback into policy formulation andresource allocation as educationdevelopment needs evolve, andcentral government andprovincial plans are refined.

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ldhH_idOl idrdxYh

iudf,dapkh" m%Odk ks.uk ydwkd.; úl,amm%drïNh

1' Y%S ,xldfõ wOHdmk moaO;sh" m%d:ñlwOHdmkhg yd oaú;Shsl wOHdmkhg mq¿,awjia:d i,iñka wvq wdodhï mj;akdwd¾Ólhlg m%udKj;a jQ Wiia uÜgul udkjixj¾Okhla rgg Wodlr,Sug iu;alu oelajQksid ixj¾Ok m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhka w;frys;awd¾Ól m%ldYkj,;a m%Yxidjg ,la ù ;sfí' 1990oYlfha uq,a wjêh olajd ixj¾Okh jk rgj,aish,a, w;ßkau jdf.a m%;sYS¾I wdodhugidfmalaIj Wmßu uQ,sl iudc ixj¾Ok m%;s,dNN=la;s ú|Sug Y%S ,xldj iu;a úh' fïid¾:l;ajh" mrïmrd .Kkdjla ;=< ksr;=rejuwOHdmkh" fi!LHh yd fjk;a iudÔhfiajdjkays iïm;a wdfhdackh lsÍug .kakd ,oWmdhYS,S rdcH m%;sm;a;s ;SrKj, m%;sM,hls'1930 oYlfha;a 1940 oYlfha;a wOHdmkmoaO;sfha uQ,sl ie,iqï rduqj ilia l< Y%S,dxlsl m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhka udkj m%d.aOkhjeo.;a wd¾Ól yd iudÔh jdis mq¿,a mrdihlabmehSfï úNj Yla;shla we;s iúYajdiwdfhdackhla f,i oelSfuka ish ld,h blaujdwkd.;h foi ÿr olakd kqjKska n,d we;'

2' tfy;a wjdikdjls" miq.sh mKia jir ;=<rfÜ wd¾Ól ldhH_idOkh" wOHdmk ixj¾Okfõ.h yd iuj mshkeÕSug wiu;aùfukawOHdmk moaO;sfha wksgq m%;súmdl lsysmhla we;súh' rfÜ ÿ¾j, wd¾Ól j¾Ok fõ.h ksidisÿjQfha ol=Kq fldßhdj" isx.mamQrej" fydxfldx"uef,aishdj yd ;dhs,ka;h jeks jeä fõ.fhkajevqKq rgj,a yd tlg .uka lrkq msKsiwOHdmkfhys wdfhdackh i|yd m%udKj;aiïm;a l,la ;siafiau Y%S ,xldfjys ysÕùuh'fuys m%;sM,hla jYfhka Y%S ,xldjg

wOHdmkfhys ,d ;snqKq uq,a;ek .s,syS .sfhah'óg w;sf¾lj" ukao.dó j¾Ok fõ.h ;=< Y%ufj<|fmd<g msúfik W.;a ;reK fm< kue;siemhqug iß,k mßÈ W.;a Y%u b,a¨u m%udKj;afõ.fhka jHdma; fkdùh' fuys m%;sM,h jQfhaW.;a ;reK ú/lshdj kue;s fkdúi÷Kq.eg¨jla mej;Suh' j¾;udk Y%S ,xldfõm%;sm;a;s iïmdolfhda rgg ke;sjqKq tawOHdmksl jdish;a tys .eg¨;a jgyd f.kisá;s' tneúka" uE; ld,fhys wOHdmkh ;shqKquyck úuiqug;a újdohg;a m%;sm;a;siïmdokhg;a Ndckh jQ úIhhla ù ;sfí' [NEC^1997&" ^2003& n,kak']

ixj¾Ok m%;sm;a;s wdlD;Skag idfmalaIj

wOHdmk ixúOdkh

3' Y%S ,xldfõ wOHdmk moaO;sh iïNdjHjÜfgdarefõ jeo.;a lreKq folla wkq.ukhlr ;sfí' m<uqj" th iuia; ck;djgu uQ,slwOHdmkh;a oaú;Shsl wOHdmkh;a iïmdokhlr" ta i|yd uqo,a fhoùfï jeo.;aluwjOdrKh lr we;' wOHdmk oDIaáh wrnhd1930 oYlfha yd 1940 oYlfha werUqKq fuuwjOdrKh mrïmrd .Kkdjla bÈßfhkaisáfhah' fojkqj" uQ,sl wOHdmk yd oaú;ShslwOHdmk pl% fj; wjOdrKh ;nñka ;D;ShslwOHdmkh flfrys rdcH iïm;a fhoùu iSudlrk ,§' uQ,sl wOHdmkfha iM,;dj" m%d:ñlfi!LH m%;s,dN yd iudc ixj¾Ok o¾Yl hkfï lreKq by<-uOHu wdodhï,dNS iy ixj¾ê;rgj, olakg ,efnk uÜgïj,g wdikakùfuka fuu m%;sm;a;sj, m%;sM, miq mrïmrdj,§ fk<df.k we;s nj fmkS hhs'

4' Y%S ,xldj iïNdjH jÜfgdarefjys tlajeo.;a wxYhlska wfkla uÕla f.k we;' 1960uq,a ld,fha§ 1-9 fYa%Ks i|yd fm!oa.,sl mdi,amsysgqùu kS;sfhka ;ykï flßKs' fï kS;suh;yku wo olajdu j,x.=j mj;S' fï fya;=fjka"mdi,a msysgqùu kS;s uÕska ;ykï lrk f,dalrgj,a w;f,diai w;frys Y%S ,xldj o .efka'fldiagdßld o bkaÈhdfõ flar< m%dka;h o jeksWiia uQ,sl wOHdmk iM,;d uÜgï .ekm%isoaêhla we;s wvq wodhï,dNS wfkla rgj,a ofm!oa.,sl wxYh flfrys n,dfmdfrd;a;= ;ndwe;' ksoiqkla f,i" flar<fha mdi,a n|jd.ekSïj,ska wvlg jeäh fm!oa.,sl mdi,a lrdwe§ hhs' m%ldYs; kS;suh ndOlhla ke;;a" Y%S,xldfõ foaYmd,k wOHdmk md,kh ;=<fm!oa.,sl úYaj úoHd, i|yd wdfhdackh lsÍuuq¿ukskau jdf.a ÿIalrh' tfia jqj o" 1990kafumsg —úYaj úoHd,h˜ hk ku fhdodfkd.kakd ;dla fm!oa.,sl Wmdê m%odkh lrkwdh;k msysgqùug bv i,iajd ;sfí' úêu;afm!oa.,sl úYaj úoHd, msysgqúu ;ykï lsÍfukaY%S ,xldfõ wOHdmk moaO;sh ;=< isÿù we;af;am%d:ñl yd uQ,sl wOHdmkh;a" bkamiq" oaú;ShslwOHdmkh;a flfrys rdcH iïm;a b÷rd fjkalrñka úYaj úoHd, wOHdmkh úYd, jYfhkafm!oa.,sl wxYhg Ndr fok ol=Kq fldßhdjjeks Wiia;u M,odhS wOHdmk moaO;s we;srgj, l%shd;aul wdlD;sfhka fjkia uÕla.ekSuls' tfy;a uE;l§" Y%S ,xldfõ wOHdmkm%;sm;a;s iïmdolhka úiska fm!oa.,sl mdi,a ydfm!oa.,sl úYaj úoHd, msysgqùu msKsi kS;sixfYdaOk ks¾foaY lr ;sfí' [NEC ^2003&n,kak'] fï jQ l,S kj ux myok fhdackdjls'fuh l%shd;aul jqj fyd;a" wOHdmk moaO;shúiska ,d .;a uy;a yels,a,la .s,syS hdfuka Y%S,xldjg fjk;a rgj,a iuÕ jvd iu ;,hl;rÕ lsÍug bv ,efnkq we;'

n|jd .ekSfï rgd yd m%jK;d

wksjd¾h wOHdmk pl%h ^1-9 fY%aKs&

5' 1 fY%aKsfha oekg we;=<;a lr .ekSï msßñyd .eyeKq foj¾.hgu iudk whqßka 97] ls'<uhska ish,a,u mdfya 5 fY%aKsh iïmQ¾K lr;s'wksjd¾h wOHdmk pl%fha wjidkh jk 9fY%aKsfha§ iudma; lsÍfï wkqmd;h msßñ <uhskafjkqfjka 81] o" .eyeKq <uhska fjkqfjka 84]

o fõ' m%d:ñl wOHdmkh ^1-5 fY%aKs& yd lksIaGoaú;Shsl wOHdmkh ^6-9 fY%aKs& Wfoid n|jd.ekSï by< uÜgul mj;skafka fkdñ,fha^ksoyia& b.ekaùu" w.ysÕlñka mSä;hka i|ydúfYaI wOHdmk jevigyka" fkdñ,fha fm<fmd;a" fkdñ,fha ks, we÷ï yd iykodhSm%jdykh jeks wkqmQrl yd wfkHdkH iú.kajk m%;sm;a;s lsysmhlao wOHdmkh ,nd.ekSumsKsi udmsh jeäysá wd§kaf.a m%n, b,a,Su ofya;= fldg f.kh' ,eî we;s idlaIH wkqj oekqÿ18] la 9 fY%aKsh iïmQ¾K lsÍug wiu;a jk njfmfkk fyhska Y%S ,xldfjys ;ju;a iuia;wksjd¾h wOHdmkh bgq fkdjk nj meyeÈ,s fõ'tfyhska" jhi 6-14 ldKavfhys isák <uhskaish,a,gu jir kuhl wOHdmkhla Èfïb,lalh imqrd .ekSug iEfyk m%udKhlwNsfhda.hla ;ju;a mj;S' ;jo" 9 fY%aKshiudma; lsÍug wfmdfydi;a jk 18] È<s÷mjq,aj,ska fyda wE; msáir .ïudk jeks wd¾Ólw.ysÕlñka fmf<k m%foaYj,ska fyda igka ksidúkdY jQ m%foaYj,ska fyda j;=lrfhka fydameñfKkakka ùu;a" ke;fyd;a úl,dx.Swdndê;hka ùu;a ksid idOdrK;dj u; jeo.;a.eg¨jla o u;= fõ' fujka mßmSä; iudcwd¾Ól lKavdhï fj; ,Õdù iuia; n|jd.ekSfï yd wksjd¾h wOHdmk pl%h iudma;lsÍfï b,lalh imqrd .ekSug kï Yla;su;am%;sm;a;suh l%shdud¾. wjYH fõ'

fcHIaG oaú;Shsl wOHdmkh" w'fmd'i' id'$fm' ydw'fmd'i' W'$fm' pl%

6' w'fmd'i' id'$fm' ^11 fY%aKsh& yd w'fmd'i'W'$fm' ^13 fY%aKsh& úNd.j, idfmalaI wvqiu;aùfï wkqmd; we;s fcHIaG oaú;Shsl pl%fhysmdi,a iudma; lsÍfï wkqmd; fu;rïi;=gqodhl ke;' uq¿ rggu wod< jQ w'fmd'i'id'$fm' úNd.fhys iu;aùfï idudkH wkqmd;h37] ùfuka yeÕS hkafka yeu whÿïlrejka;sfofkl=gu tla wfhl= ;rï wvqfjka fïúNd.h id¾:lj ksu lrk j.h' W;=re-kef.kysr" W;=re-ueo" W!j" uOHu jeks rfÜjvd È<s÷ yd w.ysÕlñka wêlj fmf<km%foaYj, fuh 31]-32] fõ' w'fmd'i' id'$fm'm%;sM,j, idu¾:H wkqmd; 48] fyj;a iEuwfmalaIlhka fofofkl=g muK tla wfhl=iu;aùu jd¾;d lrk iuDoaêu;a yd ÈhqKqniakdysr m<d; muKla N+f.da,Sh m%foaY w;frys

S 2

lemS fmfkhs' w'fmd'i' W'$fm' idu¾:Hwkqmd;j, idudkHh" uq¿ rggu 56] fyj;a iEuwfmalaIlhka fofofkl=g muK tla wfhl=iu;aùu i,l=Kq lrhs' W'$fm' pl%h fj;msúfikafka olaI;u isiqka neúka fuh wj-mlaIhg nrùuls' W!j m<df;a 52] isg jhU ydW;=re-kef.kysr 58] w;r mj;sk iu;A ùfïm<d;a wkqmd; fnfyúka iudk nj fmkS hhs'rg mqrdu w'fmd'i' W'$fm' iu;aùï wkqmd;idfmalaIj iudk ùug m%Odk idOl follaoelaúh yelsh' ^1& yeu m<d;lu Wiia ;;ajfhaoaú;Shsl mdi,a cd,hla we;s lsÍug .kakd ,owerUqï mshjr yd ^2& úfYaI;dfõ m%;sM,( tkï"w'fmd'i' W'$fm' pl%fha isiqka ta ta jhialdKavj, w;s olaI isiqka ùu hk fï folh'

7' w'fmd'i' id'$fm' yd w'fmd'i' W'$fm'idu¾:H wkqmd;j, ld, m%jK;dj wkqjfmfkkafka miq.sh jir oyh muK ld,h ;=<id'$fm' idu¾:H wkqmd; ÈhqKq jQ w;r" W'$fm'idu¾:H wkqmd; idfmalaIj fkdfjkiaj mej;snjls' id'$fm' wkqmd; 1993 § 22] muK isg2002 § 37] olajd jeä úKs' bkqÿ" jeäu ÈhqKqjjQfha 1990 ueo yd w. ld,fhah' widudkHjWiia 1995 o" widudkHj ÿ¾j, 1999 o w;ay< úg1994 yd 2002 w;r ld,h ;=< W'$fm' iu;aùfïwkqmd; idudkHfhka iu uÜgul mej;sK'w'fmd'i' id'$fm' yd w'fmd'i' W'$fm' úNd.fha§wfmalaIs; ;;ajhg isiqka meñKùu msKsiwOHdmkfha .=Kd;aul wxYh jeäÈhqKq lsÍfïm%n, wNsfhda.hg uqyqK§fï wjia:djg Y%S ,xldjm;aù we;snj Y%S ,xldfõ m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhkajgyd f.k we;'

;D;Shsl wOHdmkhg n|jd .ekSu

8' ;D;Shsl wOHdmkh i|yd iuia; n|jd.ekSï" iqÿiqlï ,o ck ixLHdfjka 11] muKfjhs' fuh ol=Kq wdishdfõ idudkHh jQ 10]u|la jeäjk w;r" bkaÈhdj" fudfrdlafldaj"úhÜkduh yd fudßIia jeks rgj,a yd o<jYfhka iudkh' ;jo ol=Kq fldßhdj"isx.mamQrej" fydxfldx" ;dhs,ka;h jeks rgj,aoeka Y%S ,xldj mj;sk wd¾Ól ixj¾Ok ;;ajfhamej;s ld,fha ,nd.;a uÜgug o iudkh';D;Shsl wOHdmkhg n|jd .ekSïj,ska jeäfldgila" tkï 6] muK" iïm%odhSh úYajúoHd,j,ska yd úêu;a ;dlaIKsl wOHdmk

wxYfhka neyer jQ mdGud,d i|yd ù ;sfí'fufia ne÷Kq YsIHhka msúi we;af;a f;dr;=re;dlaIKh" l<ukdlrKh" .KldêlrKh"jdKscHh" kS;sh" jHdmdrfõoh yd uQ,Hh jeksúúO jD;a;Sh mdGud,d imhk fm!oa.,slwxYhg fyda úfoaYSh úYaj úoHd,j,gh' úYajúoHd,j, n|jd .ekSï o< jYfhka 3]la o Wiia;dlaIKsl wOHdmkfhys 2]la muK o fõ';D;Shsl wOHdmkfha n|jd .ekSïj,ska 70]lamuK fm!oa.,sl wxYfha jQ w;r b;sß fldgirdcH wxYfhys jQfhah' m%d:ñl yd oaú;ShsluÜgïj, ;;ajhg m%;smlaIj" ;D;Shsl uÜgfuys§ fm!oa.,sl wxYfha n|jd .ekSïj, by<wkqmd;h" ;D;Shsl uÜgfuys fm!oa.,slwdfhdack kS;s u.ska ;ykï fkdflfrkm%;sm;a;s rduqj ;=< jQ ixisoaêhls' ;D;ShslwOHdmkfha n|jd .ekSïj, ld, m%jK;djwkqj fmkS hkafka" uE; ld,fha § ne|Sïjeäùuls' th 1997 § 8] isg 2002 § 11] olajdjeäù ;sfí' uq¿ukskau ;D;Shsl wOHdmkfhan|jd .ekSï wkqmd; 1997 isg 2002 ld,h ;=<38]la muK m%idrKh ù we;' b;du uE;j¾Ij, § fm!oa.,sl ;D;Shsl wOHdmkwdh;kj, fï j¾Okh fjfiiska fõ.j;a ù;sfí'

wOHdmkfha wdfhdackfhka ,efnk wd¾Ól

yd iudÔh M,-m%fhdack

ndysr ldhH_laIu;dj yd wOHdmkfha m%;s,dNwkqmd;

9' wOHdmkfha wdfhdackfhka Y%S ,xldjgbmefhk mq¿,a wd¾Ól yd iudÔh M,-m%fhdackiuQyh we;=<; Wiia;r udkj m%d.aOkh ydbmehqï" jeäÈhqKq jD;a;Sh Wm,íê yd iudc-p,kh" Y%u n,ldfhys ia;%S iyNd.s;ajh jeäùu"úYsIag mjq,a fi!LH uÜgï yd <ud fmdaIKwNsjDoaêh hkdÈh .sKsh hq;=h' wOHdmkm%;s,dNfhys iudÔh wkqmd;h" úfYaIfhkawksjd¾h uQ,sl yd fcHIaG oaú;Shsl wOHdmkfY%aKs pl%fhys § by< uÜgul mj;S' msßñkaw;f¾ wOHdmk m%;s,dNfhys iudÔh wkqmd;fcHIaG oaú;Shsl mdi,a uÜgfuys § 20]la o"wksjd¾h uQ,sl wOHdmk uÜgfuys § 15]la o fõ'ia;%Ska w;f¾ wOHdmk m%;s,dNfhys iudÔhwkqmd; wksjd¾h uQ,sl wOHdmk uÜgfuys §

S 3

20]la o" fcHIaG oaú;Shsl mdi,a uÜgfuys §18]la o fõ' fuf,i" wksjd¾h uQ,sl yd fcHIaGoaú;Shsl wOHdmkfha by< ;,hl m%;s,dNj,skayeÕS hkafka hglS wOHdmk uÜgïj, § furgwOHdmkfhys W!k wdfhdackhla mj;sk njh'fi!LH yd fmdaIK M, m%fhdack jeks ndysrm%;sM, o m%d:ñl yd oaú;Shsl wOHdmkh ,ouEKsjreka w;f¾ iq,nh" m%n,h' ;D;ShslwOHdmkh" mqoa.,hkag Wiia fm!oa.,sl m%;s,dN"tkï msßñkag 26]la o ia;%Skag 24]la o jYfhkaWmhd fohs' tfy;a" msßñkag 11]la yd ia;%Skag10]la jeks ;D;Shsl wOHdmkfha iudÔh m%;s,dNfm!oa.,sl m%;s,dNj,g jvd fnfyúka wvqh'tfukau" wksjd¾h uQ,sl yd fcHIaG oaú;ShslwOHdmk m%;s,dN ;rïj;a fkdfõ' fuhskayefÕkafka ;D;Shsl wOHdmkfha m%;s,dN m%OdkjYfhkau mqoa.,hkaf.a fm!oa.,sl ,dN jYfhkaTjqkag ysñjk njhs'

wOHdmkh" idOdrK;dj yd È<s÷lu msgqoelSu

10' È<s÷lu wvqlsÍfuys o È<skaokaf.a wd¾ÓlY=Nisoaêh ie,iSfuys o wOHdmkh m%n, whqßkan,mdhs' mjq,l m%Odkshdf.a fyda m%Odkwdodhï,dNshdf.a fyda wOHdmk uÜgu by<kÕsoa§ ta ta mjq,aj, È<s÷lï wkqmd; ;shqKq f,imy; jefÜ' mjq,a m%OdkSka fyda m%Odkwdodhï,dNSka fyda uQ,sl wOHdmkh" wfmdiid$fm yd W$fm pl% iudma; lr;a u È<s÷lïwkqmd;j, jeäÈhqKqj fjfiiska blauka fõ'wOHdmkslj jrm%ido-ySk m%foaYj,g l%ñljjeäjk m%;s-YsIH m%;smdok iys; jQ rcfhawOHdmk wdfhdack ms<sfjf;ys m<d;a w;r Wiiam%udKhl idOdrK;djla o olakg ,efí'we;=¿úï" mdi,a meñKSu yd iudma;sh iïnkaOmyiqlï" úfYaIfhka m%d:ñl yd wksjd¾h uQ,slwOHdmk uÜgïj, §" j¾Okh lsÍu Wfoid jQmq¿,a mrdihl m%;sm;a;s mshjr b;d id¾:lwhqßka jHdma; ù ;sfí' ;jo mdi,aj,g rdcHiïm;a fnodyeÍu msKsi jQ m%;sudk mdol talShmsßjeh iïm;a fjkalsÍfï hdka;%Kh jeksckm%sh yd id¾:l m%;sm;a;s mdi,a w;r iïm;afnodyeÍfï idOdrK;dj fnfyúka ÈhqKq lrwe;' wOHdmkh i|yd wd¾Ól lKavdhïj,grcfha úhoï fjkalsÍu m%d:ñl" uQ,sl ydfcHIaG oaú;Shsl uÜgïj, § l%ufhka jeäfj;au tys m%;sM, ish¨ wd¾Ól lKavdhï w;ridfmalaIj iudk whqßka fn§ hhs' tfy;a"

;D;Shsl wOHdmk uÜgfï § rdcH wOHdmkúhoï rgdj m%;s.dó fjñka by<;u wd¾Ólmka;shg úIudkqmd;slj jeä m%;s,dN w;alrfohs'

W.;a ;reK ú/lshdj

11' /lshd úrys; W.;=ka" úfYaIfhkaldka;djka ms<sn| .eg¨j rcfha m%;sm;a;siïmdolhka úiska úi|sh hq;= úYd, .eg¨jls'úYaj úoHd, WmdêOdÍka" wfmdi id$fm ydW$fm iu;=ka w;r ú/lshd wkqmd; by<;uuÜgul mj;sk j.la fmfka' W.;a Y%u n,ldhgm;ajkakka w;r wêl ú/lshd wkqmd; we;sùugfnfyúka fya;=jkafka Y%u fj<|fmd<gmsúfik kjlhka /lshd fiùfuys È.= l,laksr;ùuh' fuf,i È.= l,la /lshd fiùugisÿùfuka miq.sh jljdkqfõ § iEfykm%udKhl úhjq,a we;súh' fuh úfYaIfhka;on, jQfha úYaj úoHd, WmdêOdÍka w;frysh'wêl ú/lshdjg;a W.;a ;reKhkag È.= l,la/lshd fiùfuys fh§ug;a m%Odk fya;=j kïwd¾Ólfha ukao.dó j¾Okhhs' fuys§ isÿjkafkaY%u fj<|fmd<g we;=¿ jk W.;a ;reK msßiakue;s jeäjk iemhqu uq¿ukska Wlyd .ekSug;rï fõ.hlska W.;a Y%uh ms<sn| b,a¨ukeÕShdug ndOd meñKSuh' W.;a ;reKú/lshdjg oaú;Shsl fya;= w;f¾ .; yelsjkafkabx.%Sis NdId m%ùK;dj" f;dr;=re ;dlaIKl=i,;d jeks Y%u fj<|fmdf<ys b,a¨u we;s.KSh l=i,;djkays ÿn, mdi,a iudma;slrejkayd WmdêOdÍka ìyslsÍu" we;eï úYaj úoHd,mdGud,dj, kQiia .=Kh" úfYaIfhkau úkS;Y%u-iudpdrh" hym;a lKavdhï yeÕSï" ks¾udKfl!Y,Hh" iqkuH;dj" wkqj¾;kh" id¾:likaksfõokh yd .eg¨ úi|k wdl,amhlskalreKq úuiSu wd§ l=i,;d ÈhqKq jk mßÈwOHdmk moaO;sh Y%u f,dalhg m%udKj;ajkeUqre fkdùu hkdÈh .sKsh hq;=h'

wOHdmkfhys rdcH yd fm!oa.,sl wdfhdack

12' ful, Y%S ,xldfõ rcfha jd¾Isl wOHdmkúhou ,xld remsh,a ñ,shk 40"000 ^wefußldkqfvd,¾ ñ,shk 415& fõ' uE; j¾Ij, § wOHdmkúh-meyeoï o< jYfhka cd;sl wdodhfuka 3]lao rcfha úhofuka 7-9] w;r o .Kkh jQfhah'ixj¾Okh jk rgj, m%ñ;s wkqj neÆ l, fuh

S 4

rcfha wOHdmk wdfhdack jYfhka idfmalaIjiq¿;r uÜguls' Y%S ,xldfõ rcfha wOHdmkwdfhdack fu;rï iq¿;r ùug m%Odk fya;= f,i1& fkdñ,fha iemfhk i¾j;% fi!LHdrlaIdj oixj¾Okh fjñka mj;sk wka fndfyda rgj,idudkHfhka fkdue;s È<s÷lu b,lal lr.;aiuDoaê jevigyk jeks rcfha iïm;aj,g ;rÕlrk wdrlaIK cd,j,g msúiSfï mq¿,a wjldYo we;=¿ úYd, uyck fiajd mrdih 2& o< foaYShksIamdÈ;fhka (GDP) 5]la jeh .kajk ydfjk;a wdfhdack mfilg ;,a¨ lrk úYd,rdcHdrlaIl úhoï 3& rdcH whjeh f,aLkfhysbuy;a ysÕhlg ;=vq foñka rcfha úhoï wjysrlrk rcfha my;a wdodhï yd 4& bkaÈhdj"nx.a,dfoaYh" uef,aishdj" ;dhs,ka;h yd ol=Kqfldßhdj jeks rgj, .=rejrekaf.a m%;sYS¾Iwdodhfï wkqmd;hla f,i .;a l, idfmalaIjwvla muK fyda Bg;a wvq jQ my;a jegqma Y%S,xldfõ .=rejrekag kshu ùu hk lreKq y;roelaúh yelsh'

m%d.aOk úhoï( j¾;udk úh-meyeoï yd wkd.;m%uqL;d

13' uE; ld,fha § oeä wh-jeh wjysrhlg,la jQfha m%d.aOk wh-jeh f,aLkhhs' 1999 §wOHdmk m%d.aOk wh-jeh rcfha m%d.aOk úh-meyeofuka 5] isg laIKslj msßySfuka 2002 §2'5] úh' wOHdmk wh-jefhys fldgia wkqjie,l+ úg" 1998-2000 § 20] muK jQ m%d.aOk wh-jeh 2001-02 § 16] olajd wvqúh' m%d.aOkwdfhdackfha fï my; jeàu wOHdmk moaO;sfham%idrKh yd ixj¾Okh wjysr lf<ah' úhoïixhq;sh wkqj" mdi,a yd úYaj úoHd, moaO;sj,wOHdmk m%d.aOk wdfhdackfhka 80]g jeäfldgila jk m%d.aOk fyda wdfhdack úhofïúYd,;u fldgi jeh ù we;af;a bÈlsÍï" tkïmdi,aj, mka;s ldur fma<s yd úYaj úoHd,foaYk Yd,d" mßmd,k ixlS¾K iy fkajdislmyiqlï wdÈh i|ydh' WmlrK" ;dlaIKh" oejNdKav yd fuj,ï jeks .=Kd;aul fhojqï i|ydwdfhdackh ù we;af;a iïm;aj,ska idfmalaIjb;d iq¿ fldgila fyj;a 20]g;a wvq m%udKhls'mdi,a moaO;sfha mka;s ldur bÈlsÍï mjd isiqkan|jd.ekSfï wjYH;d fyda hym;a wkd.;ie,iqï fyda fkdue;sj ys;+-ys;+ fõ,djg l<fia fmfka' fuys m%;sM,hla jYfhka msáirmdi,a .Kkdjl ysia ldur iys; w;sßla;

Odß;djla mj;soa§ kd.ßl mdi,aj, bv-lvu|slñka wêl ;onohla we;s ù ;sfí' úYajúoHd, moaO;sfha jqjo bÈlsÍï lghq;= uekúkaiïnkaO ù ke;' iuia; úYaj úoHd, moaO;sfhawjYH;d wkqj .sh meyeÈ,s ie,eiaula fkdue;sjf.dvke.s,s i|yd wêl f,i úhoï lr ;sfí'WmlrK lÜg, yd ;dlaIKh jeks .=Kd;aulfhojqïj, wvq wdfhdackfha úmdl jYfhkamß.Kl ;dlaIK ÈhqKqfõ w,i me;af;a ,.skfï rg kQ;k úYaj-jHdma; oekqï wd¾ÓlfhyswjYH jk oekqu" olaI;d yd ksmqK;d wdÈfhkawkd.; mrïmrd ikakoaO lsÍfuys,d oeäwjysr;djlg m;a jkq we;'

14' wOHdmk m%d.aOk wh-jeh fj; t,a, jkm%Odk wNsfhda. jkafka" 1& mdi,a yd úYaj úoHd,moaO;sfha bÈlsÍï lghq;= {dkdkaú;jfufyhùu 2& kd.ßl mdi,a úYd, lsÍug;a" jeälsÍug;a jeä iïm;a fhoùu 3& mdi,aj, ydúYaj úoHd,j, f;dr;=re ;dlaIK flakaø"úoHd.dr" mqia;ld," w;alï mka;s ldur" /Õ=ïldur" nyq-fiajd ldur" mß.Kl" fmd;a-m;a"iÕrd" Y%jH-oDIH WmlrK" wOHdmksl uDÿldx."fuj,ï lÜg, wdÈh jeks Wiia uÜgfï.=Kd;aul fhojqï i|yd fjka lrk iïm;am%udKh jeä lsÍu 4& .%dóh yd j;=lrfhamdi,aj, c, iemhqu" ikSmdrlaIKh yd úÿ,shjeks uQ,sl myiqlï iemhqu jeä ÈhqKq lsÍu fõ'

mqkrdj¾;k úhoï( j¾;udk úh-meyeoï ydwkd.; m%uqL;d

15' uE; w;S;fha § wOHdmk úhoïj,ska 79]-84]la muK mqkrdj¾;k wOHdmk wh-jehi|yd lem ù we;' mqkrdj¾;k wOHdmkúhoïj, m%Odk ixrplh jkafka ix.Dys;uOHu yd m%dfoaYSh mqkrdj¾;k wOHdmk whjefhys 85]-90] ;rula Wlyd .kakd jegqma ydfõ;kh' jegqma jehlrfha úYd,;u fldgifjka jkafka mdi,a .=rejreka yd úYaj úoHd,wpd¾h uKav, i|ydh' B<Õg úÿy,am;s"wOHdmk mßmd,k yd fjk;a fiajd uKav,wd§kaf.a jegqma i|ydh' mqkrdj¾;k wOHdmkúhoïj,ska jegqma <Õgu tk wfkla úYd,;uwxYh jkafka uq¿ mqkrdj¾;k wOHdmk wh-jefhka 3]la muK jk fm< fmd;a i|ydúhoïh' B<Õg 2]la muK jeh jk mdi,a ks,we÷ïh' b;sß uqo,a o jeä jYfhka úÿ,sh"

S 5

ikaksfõokh" c,h" ;eme,a .dia;= yd udKav,sl.uka úhoï we;=¿ mßmd,k yd fufyhqïmsßjeh i|ydh'

16' mqkrdj¾;k wOHdmk wh-jeh bÈßfhyswe;s m%uqL;u wNsfhda. jkafka 1& jegqma ydmßmd,k msßjeh fjkalsÍfuka miq .=rejrekaf.ayd úÿy,am;sjrekaf.a jD;a;Sh ixj¾Okh ydwOHdmk wdh;kj,g wka;ßl Ydia;%Sh ydmßmd,k iydh iemhSu jeks wOHdmksl.=Kd;aul l%shdj,s ;yjqre lsÍu msKsi m%udKj;auqo,a fjka lsÍu yd 2& mdi,a yd úYaj úoHd,moaO;sj, m%d.aOk wOHdmk wdfhdackfhafufyhqï msßjeh imqrd,Su hk fï folh'

17' cd;Hka;r m%ñ;s wkqj Y%S ,xldfõ m%;s-YsIH mqkrdj¾;k wOHdmk úhoïj, idudkHhm%d:ñl yd oaú;Shsl wOHdmk uÜgïj, § ueÈy;ajqjo ;D;Shsl wOHdmk uÜgfï§ wêlh' m%;s-YsIH mqkrdj¾;k wOHdmk úhoïj, idudkHh"m%d:ñl yd oaú;Shsl wOHdmkh i|yd m%;s-YS¾Icd;sl wdodhfï fldgila f,i ie,l+ l<m<uqjekakg ^m%d:ñl wOHdmkh& 9] o"fojekakg ^oaú;Shsl wOHdmkh& 11] o hkq ol=Kqwdishdfõ yd kef.kysr wdishdfõ b;du wvqm%udKhla f,i .efkkakls' óg m%;smlaIj" m%;s-YsIH ;D;Shsl wOHdmk úhoïj, idudkHh m%;s-YS¾I cd;sl wdodhfuka fldgila f,I 100]ls'fuh bkaÈhdjg u|la by<ska o" ol=Kq fldßhdj"isx.mamQrej" uef,aishdj" ;dhs,ka;h"bkaÿkSishdj yd ms,smSkh jeks kef.kysrwdishdfõ rgj,a uÜgñka iEfyk by<ska omej;Suls' ;D;Shsl wOHdmkh i|yd jQ rdcHmqkrdj¾;k úhoï fufia úYd, fldgila ùugm%Odk fya;=j jkafka rcfha úYaj úoHd,j,úYd, tall msßjehhs' iuia;j .;a l," wOHdmkuÜgïj,g lemjQ idudkH mqkrdj¾;k úhoïrgdfjka bÕs flfrkafka Wiia idOkhlafmkajk kef.kysr wdishdkq rgj,aj,gm%;smlaIj Y%S ,xldfõ rdcH iïm;a kue;s ;=,djm%d:ñl yd oaú;Shsl wOHdmkhg wjdisj o;D;Shsl wOHdmkhg jdisj o wfhda.H whqßkatla mfilg nr ù we;s njls'

tall msßjeh yd wNHka;r ldhH_laIu;dj

18' iHkaok wkqmd; wkqj ñkQ l, m%d:ñlmdi,a ^1-5 fY%aKs& ;=< .ufka;a" oaú;Shsl mdi,a^6-9 fY%aKs& ;=< .ufka;a wNHka;r

ldhH_laIu;dj Wiiah' tla fY%aKshl kej;/f|k fyda l,ska bj;ajk fyda isiqka ms<sn|wkqmd; 2]-7] fõ' fï fofldgfiysu jeäjkafka msßñ <uqkah' isiq iHkaok wkqmd; by<;;a;ajhl mej;Sug fya;= jYfhka m%;sm;a;s;SrK lsysmhla i|yka l< yelsh' 1&foudmshkaf.a yd isiqkaf.a b,a,Sï bgq lrkqmsKsi §mjHdma; m%d:ñl yd oaú;Shsl mdi,acd,djla u.ska wOHdmkh ,nd§ug m%udKj;amdi,a bv-lv ie,iSu 2& mdi,a moaO;shg ùÈ.gu /£ isàug wkqn, f,i fkdñ,fha fm<fmd;a" mdi,a ks, we÷ï yd m%jdyk iykdOdrjeks fm<Uqï ie,iSu yd 3& 1-11 fY%AKs pl%h ;=<ks¾ndê;j by< fY%aKshg udre lsÍu yd isiqkaish leue;af;ka kej; tu mka;sfha isàu yerwiu;a lsÍfï úêu;a hdka;%Khla fkd;sîu hkfïjdh' tfia jqj;a" fcHIaG oaú;Shsl wOHdmkpl%fha ;SrKd;aul úNd. fY%aKs jk 11 iy 13fY%aKsj, kej; /£-isàï wêlh' 11 fY%aKsfhakej; /f|kakka 27]ls' .eyeKq msßñfojf.ysu wkqmd; b;d ióm-iudkh' fuhska 11fY%aKsfha isiqka y;r fofkl=f.ka tla wfhl=muK tu mka;sfhau foj;djla isák j.yefÕk ksid fuh wêl m%;sY;hls' 13 fY%aKsfha§ h<s fmkS isák isiqkaf.a wkqmd;h ;j ÿrg;ajeäfõ' wfmdi W$fm úoHd isiqkaf.ka 35] h<sfmkS isá;s¦ l,d isiqkaf.ka 37]la o jdKscisiqkaf.ka 35]la o kej; mka;sfha isákafkdah'11 fY%aKsfha;a 13 fY%aKsfha;a msßñ .eyeKq w;r oúúO úIhhka w;r o kej; fmkS isákakkaf.awkqmd;j, ie,lsh hq;= fjkila fkdfmfka'wfmdi W$fm fofjks jr fmkS isàfï úia;rwkqj¦ 13 fY%aKsfha isiqka ;sfofkl=f.ka tlawfhla fofjks jr fmkS isákafkls' 11fY%aKsfha;a 13 fY%aKsfh;a kej; fmkS isáfïwkqmd; wêlùfuka fmfkkafka fï uÜgïj, §wOHdmk moaO;sfhys ie,lsh hq;= msßjehwldhH_laIu;d we;s j.ls' 11 yd 13 fY%aKsj,wêl h<s fmkS isàfï wkqmd;j,g m%Odk fya;=jjkafka m%d:ñl yd oaú;Shsl wOHdmk pl%h ;=<11 fY%aKsh olajd isiqkaf.a ÿn, bf.kqï uÜgïm%isoaO úNd.j, § t<sorõ ùuh'

mdi,a úYd,;ajh yd úirKh

19' fndfyda fihska .%dóh m%foaYj, mÈxÑck;djlg fiajh §u i|yd mrïmrd lsysmhlamqrd mej; tk úYd, §mjHdma; rdcH mdi,a

S 6

cd,hla Y%S ,xldj i;=j ;sfí' tfia jqjo" uE;ld,fha wd¾Ól ixj¾Okh;a" fiajd yd ld¾ñlwxY mq¿,aùu;a ksid uy k.rj,;a iq¿k.rj,;a mÈxÑ ù we;s ck ixLHdfõ wkqmd;hjeä ù we;' ;jo" jvd fyd| m%jdyk ydikaksfõok cd, uÕska .%dóh m%foaY o kd.ßluOHia:dkj, mdi,a iuÕ iïnkaOlïmeje;aùfï m%;sM,hla f,i ckm%sh iqm%isoaOkd.ßl mdi,a flfrys fõ.j;a jeä b,a¨ula o.%dóh yd wm%lg w¾O-kd.ßl mdi,a flfrys wvqb,a¨ula o fmksKs' fufia b,a¨u ú;ekaùu ksidb;d l=vd mdi,a úYd, ixLHdjla l%shd;aul jkqfmfka' rfÜ mdi,a 5"900l ^mdi,a 60]l& we;af;a<uhska 300lg wvq .Kkls' ;jo mdi,a 2700^mdi,a 27]& l 100g wvq ixLHdjla o mdi,a 1360^mdi,a 14]& l 50g wvq ixLHdjla o isák njfmfka' fujka l=vd mdi,a cd,hla mj;ajdf.khdu wêl úhoug uÕls' b÷rd lsjfyd;a" l=vdmdi,aj, YsIH-.=re wkqmd; wvqù wêl tallmqkrdj¾;k msßjehlg ;=vq fohs' mdi,a 1000^mdi,a 10]&l muK 7(1 fyda Bg wvq YsIH-.=rewkqmd; yuqfõ' mdi,a 1700 ^mdi,a 17]&l muK10(1 fyda Bg wvq YsIH-.=re wkqmd; o mdi,a 6000^mdi,a 60]&l muK 15(1 fyda Bg wvq YsIH-.=rewkqmd; o yuqfõ' fï id l=vd YsIH-.=re wkqmd;we;s mdi,a mj;ajdf.k hdu 25(1 muK YsIH-.=rewkqmd; we;s úYd, mdi,a meje;aùug jvd wêljjehdêl jkakdfiau jd¾.slj tjka mdi,aj,gjvd 100] .=Kfhka úYd,;r tall mqkrdj¾;kmsßjefhka o hqla;fõ'

20' Y%S ,xldfõ rdcH úYaj úoHd, wOHdmkh oixj¾Okh jk wfkla rgj,a yd iei÷ úg wêltall fufyhqï msßjehlg ;=vqfok wêl úhoïiys; wxYhls' fï yer" isiqfjl=g jirlgremsh,a 40"000-120"000 ;rï mrdihl mq¿,afjkiaùï fmkajk tall msßjeh fuu úYajúoHd, w;r olakg ,efí' idudkHfhka tallmsßjeh mj;skafka we;=¿ lr .ekqKq YsIHixLHdjg idfmalaIjh' tneúka" l=vd úYajúoHd,j, by< msßjeh o mßudKdkq.;msßueiqïj,g bv we;s úYd,;r úYaj úoHd,j,my;a tall msßjeh o fmfka' úhoï jvd;au wêlúYaj úoHd, l=vd jk fihla olajhs' wNskjfhkamsysgq jQ jhU" kef.kysr yd w.aksÈ. úYajúoHd, ksoiqka fõ' b;d wvq tall msßjehlaolajk" úYd, YsIH ixLHd n|jd.kakd újD;

úYaj úoHd,h imhkafka ¥ria: mdGud,d muKs'ta úfYaI ksoiqk yereKq úg le<Ksh" Y%Schj¾Okmqr" fld<U yd hdmkh jeks úYd,;rmerKs úYaj úoHd,j, o wju tall msßjeholakg ,efí'

by;ska oelajQ idudkH kS;shg jH;sf¾lhlaf,i tall msßjeh;a" n|jd.ekSï m%udK;a w;rm%;sf,dau in|;djla fmkajkafka fmardfoKshúYaj úoHd,hhs' YsIH ixLHd w;ska fojeks úYd,úYaj úoHd,h jk fuys tall msßjeh l=vdw.aksÈ. úYaj úoHd,fha tall msßjeh ydiudkh' tall mqkrdj¾;k msßjehg n,mdk;j;a jeo.;a ks¾Kdhlhla jkafka YsIHhka ydwkOHhk fiajl uKav, w;r wkqmd;hhs' fuysfojeks mlaIh úYaj úoHd, jegqma wxYhg fyj;amqkrdj¾;k úhoug úYd, nrls' rdcH úYajúoHd,j, we;af;a b;d l=vd YsIH-wkOHhkfiajl wkqmd;h jhU" kef.kysr" w.aksÈ. ydfmardfoKsh jekafkys 3(1 isg Y%S chj¾Ok-mqrfhys 8(1 ;rï mrdihl fïjd yuqfõ' wka;ßlWmdê mdGud,d imhk rdcH úYaj úoHd, 12 ysYsIH-wkOHhk fiajl wkqmd;fhys idudkHh4(1 muKls' wOHhk fiajd uKav, yd wkOHhkfiajd uKav, wkqmd;h o 1(4ls' fuh wkOHhkfiajl jegqma i|yd fkdksis f,i úYd, iïm;awkqmd;hla fjka flfrk msßjeh wldhH_laIumoaO;shla i,l=Kq lrhs'

fm!oa.,sl wOHdmk úhoï

21' mjq,a tall úiska wOHdmkh Wfoidwdfhdackh lrk iïm;a m%udKh by< uÜgulmj;S' mjq,la úiska wOHdmkh Wfoid jeh lrkuqo,a ms<sn| kùk;u f;dr;=re ,nd.; yels1995$1996 j¾Ifhys m<d;a y;l fm!oa.,slúhoï m%udKh remsh,a ñ,shk 4"688la muK úh'1995$96 rdcH wOHdmk wdfhdack uÜgï wkqjfuh rcfha wOHdmk úhoïj,ska 23] muK fõ';jo" fuh rdcH m%d.aOk wOHdmk úhoïj,ska13]la muK jeäjQjls' wOHdmkh i|yd jQb,a¨fuys wdodhï kuH;dj ms<sn| we;eïWml,amk mdol lr f.k 2002§ uq¿ fm!oa.,slmjq,a wOHdmk úhou 2002§ mej;s ñ, .Kkawkqj remsh,a ñ,shk 10"600 muK fj;ehsweia;fïka;= l< yelsfõ' fuh uq¿ rdcHwOHdmk úhofuka 26]lg muK iudk jkw;r" rdcH m%d.aOk wOHdmk úhofuka 62]gjvd by<h' ffk;sl yd foaYmd,kuh wd¾Ól

S 7

mßirhla ;=< fïid mjq,a úhoï iïNdrhla;sîu wOHdmkfhys fm!oa.,sl wdfhdackhgwjdisodhlh' cd;sl wOHdmk uKav,fha ^2003&fhdackd l%shdjg kÕd fm!oa.,sl mdi,a msysgqùuj<lk ffk;sl ndOd bj;al< fyd;a fm!oa.,slwdfhdack uÜgu fnfyúka jeäl< yelsh'

fiajd m%odkfha .=Kh yd ldhH_laIu;dj

22' wOHdmkh Wfoid lemjk rcfha úhoïm%udKh yd rgdj rgl wOHdmk m%;s,íêh ydbf.kqu flfrys w;Hka;fhka n,mdk jeo.;aks¾Odrlhls' tfia jqj;a" fiajd m%odkfha.=Kd;aulNdjh;a" ldhH_laIu;dj;a taidujeo.;a jkafkah' fuys,d" Y%S ,xldfõ m%n,Okd;aul ,laIK oelsh yelsh' m%;sm;a;siïmdokh i|yd o mdi,a yd úYaj úoHd,moaO;shg fiajd uKav, m;alr ie,iqï idodmd,kh lsÍu msKsi o mdi,aj,g;a úYajúoHd,j, Wmdê jevigykaj,g;a úIhud,d ydúNd. ks¾foaY ms<sfh< lsÍu msKsi o mdi,aúÿy,am;Ska" wxY m%OdkSka yd .=rejreka fukaúYaj úoHd, úoHd¾Òka Wfoid jD;a;Shixj¾Okd;aul wjia:d ,nd§u i|yd o úNd.mj;ajd uyck úYajdih Èkk iy;sl m;%m%odkh i|yd o jQ wOHdmk wdh;k cd,hlaoekqÿ msysgqjd we;' .=re fiajh" .=re WmfoaYlfiajh yd .=re mßmd,k fiajh jeks Ndr¥rfiajdjkag ffk;slj ksYaÑ; fiajl .K isá;s'WmÑ; .KldêlrKh ;ju y÷kajd ke;;aoaú;aj-igyka fmd;a ;eîu yd uqo,a.KldêlrKh we;=¿j" i;=gqodhl uQ,Hl<ukdlrK l%shdmámdá rch i;=j we;' fïu;=jg" ú.KldêldÍ fomd¾;fïka;=j kue;sWmßu ú.Kl wdh;khla o wOHdmk moaO;sh;=< wNHka;r ú.Kkhla o hkqfjka wdh;kfolla we;s fyhska wOHdmk moaO;sfha fiajdm%odk cd,h Yla;su;a mokul msysgd ;sfí'

23' ta flfia jqj;a" fiajd m%odk cd,h oúmq,;r jHqySh wNsfhda.j,g uqyqK foñka mj;S'fïjd úfYaIfhka n,mdkafka Wiia .=Kfhkahqla; wOHdmk moaO;shla j¾Okh lsÍug;=vqfok m%;sm;a;s mshjr ;yjqre lsÍugh' fïwNsfhda. w;frys 1& ckm%sh kd.ßl mdi,aj,.=re w;sßla;hla o ¥ria: .%dóh mdi,aj, .=reysÕhla o we;s lsÍug n,mdk ÿ¾j, .=re

ia:dk.; lsÍfï ms<sfj;" 2& idudkHfhka ljrfyda mdi,a Èkl§ .=rejreka mfyka tlla muKmdi,g fkdmeñfKk whqrl .=rejrekaf.afkdmeñKSu" 3& 1978§ fuka uQ¾; wdodhu ksh;wdodhfuka 85]la ;rï ,>q flfrk wvq .=rejegqma l%uhla yd ÿ¾j, .=re Woafhda.h" 4& mdi,a"cd;sl wOHdmk mSG (NCOE) yd .=re uOHia:dk(TC) jeks uq,a fmf<a wOHdmk fiajd m%odkwdh;kj,g m%udKj;a l<ukdlrK yd Ydia;%-úIhl n,-;, fkd§u" 5& iajhxl%Sh jQ omß.KldY%s; jQ o moaO;s fjkqjg ldhsll%shdldrlï flfrys wêlj hemSfï fya;=fjkawe;sjk ;dlaIKsl yd fufyhqï wjysr;d ouQ,sl wNHka;r hdka;%Khka fkd;sîu ydwkd.; ie,iqï u¢ùu o ksid jQ mßmd,kuhÿ¾j,;d" 6& ;SrK .ekSu" úêúOdkj,gwkql+,ùu yd isú,a fiajfha Woafhda.h wjysrlrñka mßmd,khg t,a, jk ndysr ueÈy;aùï"7& ;dlaIKsl msßú;r kshu lsÍfuys o fgkav¾,shú,s yd ,xiq ;nk ,shú,s iqodkï lsÍfuys o.eg¨¦ ;dlaIKsl we.hSï ksud lsÍfï m%udo¦meyeÈ,s" ksjerÈ ;dlaIKsl ;lafiare yd fgkav¾uKav, jd¾;d yd idlÉPd úia;r iemhSfïÿn,;d ksid jQ NdKav imhd .ekSfï ÿ¾j,lï"8& úYaj úoHd,j," úfYaIfhka fld<ôka yduykqjßka neyer msysá úYaj úoHd,j," wdpdhH_uKav, n|jd.ekSfï § ÿIalr;dj,g ;=vq fokwvq úoHd¾Ò jegqma" 9& Wmdê wfmalaIlhkagb.ekaùu flfrys wêl f,i keUqre fjñkam¾fhaIK" mYapd;a-Wmdê jevigyka" WmfoaYlyd m%cdfiajd we;=¿ úYaj úoHd,hl uq¿ ksuejqïmrdih u bgq lsÍug ;rï m%udKj;aj keUqrefkdjQ úYaj úoHd, mßmd,k yd l<ukdlrKjHqy yd 10& wjq,a jQ Ydia;%Sh jevigyka ydmdGud,d iudma;sfha m%udo we;s lrjk YsIHfkdikaiqka;dj hk fïjd we;=¿ jkafkah'

wOHdmk .=Kh yd bf.kqï m%;s,dN

24' Y%S ,xld wOHdmk moaO;sfha" úYsIag;dkue;s —¥m;a˜ ;sfí' Wiia;u mdi,aj,ska yd úYajúoHd,j,ska msgjk isiqkag f,dalfha m%uqL úYajúoHd,j,;a fm!oa.,sl iudh;kj,;a"cd;Hka;r ixúOdkj,;a by< b,a¨ula ,efí'tfia jqj;a" wOHdmkfha .=Kd;aul Ndjfha;abf.kqfï bmehqïj,;a idudkH uÜguwi;=gqodhl hehs m%;sm;a;s iïmdolfhda l,amkd

S 8

lr;s' [NEC ^1997&" ^2003& n,kak'] m%d:ñlmdi,a <uhska ms<sn| ixcdkk idOk mÍlaIKwkqj m%d:ñl pl%dka;h <Õdfj;au isiqkaf.awdjYHl NdId yd ixLHd l=i,;d m%.=K;ajfhaie,lsh hq;= W!k;d fy<súh' m<uq nfiys^isxy,$fou<& idudkH m%.=K;ajh 37]ls' ,sùu^28]& yd jdlH-ixfhdackh ^30]& uõ nfiysÿn,u l=i,;dh' wjfndaOh ^45]& o ÿ¾j,h'jpk l=i,;d ^70]& m%;sM, jvd fyd| jqj;a"fuys§ ;sfofkl=f.ka tla wfhla NdIdNdú;fhys wolaIlu fmkajhs' bx.%Sis NdIdl=i,;d w;sYhska ÿ¾j,h' b,lal l=i,;d uÜguidlaId;a lr .kafka m%d:ñl isiqkaf.ka 10]lamuKs' bx.%Sis NdIdfjys wfmalaIs; l=i,;d uÜguhï;ï 1] úiska oelaùfuka fuys,d NdId ,sùfïl=i,;d ke;a;gu ke;s;rï hhs lsj yelsfõ'bx.%Sis NdId wjfndaOh ^16]& yd jdlHixfhdackh ^20]& o ÿ¾j,h' bx.%Sis NdIdjpkud,d l=i,;d ^35]& ;rula Wiia jqj;a"isiqka ;sfofkl=f.ka fofofkl=g fuu uQ,sll=i,;dj mjd ke;s nj iaMqg fõ'

25' .Ks; úIhfha idOkfhys mjd iuia;m%.=K;dj 38]la muKs' .Ks; ixl,am m%.=K;dj45]ls¦ .Ks; l%u 51]ls¦ .eg¨ úi|Su 34]lamuKs' oaú;Shsl wOHdmkh;a úúO l=i,;dmßphka hk fï ish,a,g moku m%d:ñlwOHdmkh jk fyhska m%d:ñl isiqkaf.a my;auÜgfï ixcdkk m%.=K;dj m%;sm;a;s iïmdolwxYfha n,j;a lkiai,a,g fya;= jkakls'tneúka" m%d:ñl fY%aKsj, my;a m%.=K;d uÜgïksid iuia; wOHdmk moaO;sfha .=Kh;aidOkh;a wjysr jkafkah'

26' iuia; idOk uÜgï fuf,iska my;aùugw;sf¾lj kd.ßl yd .%dóh hk m%foaY w;r oidOk m%;sM, wdY%s; m%lg úIu;d mek keÕSwe;' kd.ßl m%foaYj, m<uq ni ^isxy,$fou<&m%.=K;dj 51] fj;au .%dóh m%foaYj, th 34]ls'bx.%Sis NdId l=i,;djkays kd.ßl <uhska 23]lam%.=K;dj oelajqj;a" .%dóh m%foaYj, tu iu;alïolajkafka 7]la muKs' kd.ßl <uhska 52].Ks;fhys m%.=K;d oelajQj;a wfmalaIs; iu;alïolajk .%dóh <uhska hï;ï 35]ls' m%d:ñlwOHdmk pl%fha idudkH bf.kqï idOkfhys oby< m%udKfha úúO;d Èiafõ' isxy, fyda fou<m<uq ni m%.=K;d bgqlr .kakd m%d:ñl

isiqkaf.a wkqmd;h W;=re-kef.kysr m<df;a23] isg niakdysr m<df;a 51]la olajd úysfoa'tfukau" m%d:ñl .Ks; m%.=K;dj W;=re-kef.kysr m<df;a 25] isg niakdysr m<df;a52] olajd o bx.%Sis NdIdfõ m%ùK;dj W;=re-kef.kysr m<df;a 5] isg niakdysr m<df;a 20]olajd o úysfohs' uOHdu" W!j yd W;=re-ueom<d;aj, NdId yd .Ks; ,l=Kq tys ÿ¾j,;ajhfy<s lrhs' fï wdldr m%dfoaYSh yd kd.ßl-.%dóhúúO;dj,g fya;=j myiqlï ysÕ m<d;aj, yd.%dóh m%foaYj, my;a .=Ke;s wOHdmk fiajd"ÿn,;r foudmsh Yla;sh yd wkq.%yh" bf.kqïixj¾Ol <ud l%shdldrlï i|yd wjldY ySk ùujeks idOl lsysmhl tla;eka ùula f,i oelaúhyelsh'

27' oaú;Shsl wOHdmk uÜgfï§ o wOHdmk.=KfhA wi;=gqodhl ;;Ajh meyeÈ<sj fmfka'wfmdi id$fm úNd.h iu;ajkakkaf.a wkqmd;h37] ;rï my;ah' fï úNd.hg fmkS isák yeu;sfofkl=f.ka fofofkl= wiu;a jk j.laolajhs' ;jo" fï wvq idu¾:H wkqmd;h 1998-2002 jljdkqj ;=<u ;rula wúp,Hj ;sìKs'isiqkaf.a jeä;r fldgila .Ks;h" bx.%SisNdIdj" úoHdj yd iudc wOHhk hk úIhhkaysÿn, igkl fhfokakka fia fj;s' wfmdiW$fm úNd.fhys o 1998ka miq 1998-2002 ld,iSudj ;=< idu¾:H wkqmd; 50]-55] uÜgfïmej;sKs' W$fm úNd.hg fmkS isák isiqkafofofkl= f.ka tla wfhl= muKla iu;a ùfïksh; ;;a;ajhla fuhska .uH fõ' wfmdi id$fmyd wfmdi W$fm úNd.h wrnhd fï iu;aùfïwkqmd; my;a hhs ie,lsh hq;af;a fï úNd.j,mdGud,d id¾:lj iudma; lsÍu úúO l=i,;dmqyqKq lsÍfï mdGud,d .Kkdjlg;a ;D;ShslwOHdmk jevigykaj,g;a msúiSu msKsi o Y%ufj<|fmdf<a /lshd mrdihlg we;=¿ùu msKsi oúfYaIfhka wjYHjk ksidh'

28' my;a bf.kqï m%;sM, fyda wêl m%udKfhaúNd. wiu;aùï ;=<ska uefkk ÿ¾j, wOHdmksl.=Kd;aulh kue;s .eg¨jg w;sf¾lj wOHdmk.=Khg n,mdk ixcdkk-úuqla; fjk;a wxY owi;=gqodhl hhs o tneúka ta wxY hqyq-hqyqj ÈhqKql< hq;= hhs o m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhka yd fiajH-iajdñ mlaIh ;¾l lr;s' [NEC ^1997&" ^2003&n,kak'] wOHdmk moaO;sh ;=<ska úkS; Y%udpdr

S 9

O¾u" hym;a lKavdhï yeÕSï" ks¾udK l=i,;dyd fm/Uqu" .eg¨ úi£fï wdl,amh" id¾:likaksfõokh" m%Yia; kdhl;ajh" iqkuH;dj"wkqj¾;kh" mqfrda.dó;Ajh" Woafhda.h ydmqrjeis ú{dkh jeks .;s-,laIK m%.=K lrùfïjeo.;alu wOHdmk m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhka úiskawjOdrKh lr ;sfí' [NEC ^2003& n,kak']

l=i,;d j¾Okh

29' ;dlaIKsl wOHdmkh yd jD;a;Sh mqyqKqj(TEVT) ;=<ska l=i,;d ixj¾Okh cd;slm%;sm;a;sud,dfõ jeo.;a wxYhls' wOHdmkh ydmqyqKqj Y%S ,xldfõ Y%u fj<|fmdf<ys wdfoaYlu fkdj wkqmQrl jk nj wd¾Ól úYaf,aIKhfmkajd fohs' fuh" Y%u f,dalhg fyd|u mokujkafka Wiia .=Kfhka fyì fmdÿwOHdmkhlehs wOHdmk m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhkaork u;h ;yjqre lrkakls' [NEC ^2003&n,kak'] jeämqr wOHdmkhla ,o mqoa.,fhdajeämqr mqyqKqj ,eîug;a l=i,;d ixj¾OkfhkaWiia m%;sM, N=la;s ú|Sug;a fhduq fj;s'fjfiiskau" wOHdmkh yd mqyqKqj Okd;auljtlsfklg n,mdñka /lshd fiùu wvq lrhs"bmehqï jeä lrhs' úêu;a mqyqKqj rdcH wxYfhysjvd úYd, m%;s,dN ,nk w;r" fm!oa.,slwxYfhys úêu;a mqyqKqfõ;a wúêu;a mqyqKqfõ;am%;s,dN iu-iuj jdf.au mj;S'

30' l=i,;d ixj¾Ok wxYh ;SrKd;aulwNsfhda. lsysmhlg uqyqK md isà' tajd w;r 1&m%dfoaYSh iu;=,s;;dj jeä lrkq jia fiajdm%;smdok mßY%h mq¿,a lsÍu 2& fm!oa.,slwdfhdckh Wkkaÿ lrùu yd fiajd m%odkfhys,dfm!oa.,sl-rdcH yjq,a iïnkaO;d ìys lsÍu 3&m%udKj;a fkdjQ b,a¨ula we;s TEVT mdGud,d;sîu;a m%n, b,a¨ula we;s TEVT mdGud,dysÕùu;a ksid jQ fkd.e<fmk mqyqKq l%u 4&mdGud,d msgm;alrKh" h,a mskQ WmlrK ydúIhud,d" olaI mqyqKqlrejka ysÕùu yd úYd,msßila l,ska bj;aùu wdÈh ksid wxYfhyswe;sjk wNHka;r wldhH_laIu;d 5& oekg;sfnk rdcHdxYfha lïy,a yd úoHd.dr w¾O-m%Yia; m%udKfhka Ndú; lsÍu yd wOHdmkh ydmqyqKqj hk wxY fol w;r in|;d m%udKj;afkdùu hk fïjd o we;=¿ fõ'

<ud ixj¾Okfha uq,a wjêh

31' uq,a <ud wjêfha ixj¾Okh m%;sm;a;siïmdokfhys§ wjOdkhg md;%ùug mgka f.kwe;' nd, orejkaf.a bf.kqï m%;sM, ÈhqKq lsÍuwjOdrKh ùu;a fud<fha ixj¾Okh ydixcdkk YlH;dj Wfoid uq,a fmr-mdi,ald,fha yrj;a jeo.;alu ms<sn| keÕS tkoekqj;alu;a ksid fuh úfYaIfhka ld,Skh'uE; jirj, § fmr-mdi,a yd <ore mdi,aweröu fõ.j;a ù ;sfí' 1970 .Kkaj, fmr-mdi,a yd <ore mdi,a 2000la ;sìKehsweia;fïka;= lrk ,§' 2003 jk úg fï ixLHdj11"000;a 12"000g;a w;r olajd jeä ù rfÜidudkH mdi,a ixLHdj blaujd .sfhah' fmr-mdi,aj,ska 80]g jeä .Kkla fm!oa.,slwxYfhah' fmr-mdi,a wOHdmkfhys ksr; jhi3-5;a jk <uhska .Kk 20]la muKehs 1980§weia;fïka;= l< o 1994 § 40]g;a 2001§ 60]gmuK jeä úh' ieugu wOHdmkh (EFA) i|ydjQ Y%S ,xld l%shdj,s flgqïm;a ie,iqu (DraftPlan of Action for EFA) wkqj 2004-2008 olajd62]l mdol f¾Ldjla we;sj 80] wdjrKksYaGdjla o b;sß 20]g .Dy-mdol m%;smdokhla ofhdað;h'

32' fmr-mdi,a moaO;sh bÈßfhys m%;sm;a;suhyd ixj¾Okh wdY%s; wNsfhda. lsysmhla ;sfí'tajd w;rg 1& fiajd iemhqu mq¿,a lsÍu 2&—ieugu wOHdmkfha˜ ksYaGdj,g <Õdùugjeäuk;a iyNd.s;ajh 3& .=Kd;aul m%ñ;Ska ydm%;sudk msysgqùu 4& fmr-mdi,a <uhska i|ydfhda.H úIhud,d yd b.ekakqï l%u ms<sn|oekqj;a lsÍu 5& fmr-mdi,a .=rejreka i|yd .=rewOHdmkh yd mqyqKq l%u ms<sfh< lsÍu 6& fmr-mdi,a l%shdldrlï yd m%d:ñl wOHdmkúIhud,dj iïnkaO lsÍu 7& fmr-mdi,aj,gwkqn," iydh yd ÈhqKqj Wfoid fhda.Hmßmd,k jHqyhla" úfYaIfhka m<d;a iNd ;=<ks¾udKh lsÍu' fï wNsfhda.j,g uqyqK §ugm%;sm;a;suh wjOdkh fkdmudj Èh hq;=h' ;jo"wkd.; m%;sm;a;s ixj¾Okfha§ rcfha hq;=luúh hq;af;a fm!oa.,sl wxYh úiska fmr-mdi,amoaO;sfhys oud we;s mq¿,a moku u;f.dvkeÕSuhs' fufia l< fyd;a wdfhdað;iïm;a fnfyúka jeä ù .=Kd;aul j¾Okhi|yd we;=<;skau ieliqKq hdka;%Khla ìysfõ'

S 10

ld,fha bÈß Woï r<( wkd.; úl,am

idOdrK m%fõY m%ia;d jeä lsÍu

i¾j;% m%fõYùï i,id wksjd¾h uQ,slwOHdmkh ^1-9 fY%aKs& iudma; lsÍu

33' 1-5 fY%aKsj,ska iukaú; m%d:ñlwOHdmkfhys 97]l iudma;s wkqmd; o" 1-9fY%aKsj,ska iukaú; uQ,sl wOHdmkfhys 83]liudma;s wkqmd; o bgqlr .ekSfï fya;=fjka Y%S,xldfõ wOHdmk ixj¾Okfha m<uq wjêhfyj;a m%d:ñl wOHdmkh;a uQ,sl wOHdmkh;afj; msúiSfï i¾j;% m%ia;d ie,iSuiïmQ¾Kfhkau jdf.a imqrd we;' m<uqjkmrïmrdfõ wjidk wNsfhda.fhka b;sßù we;af;a9 fjks fY%aKsh iudma; fkdlr bj;g yef<kwka;su 17]l YsIH ixLHdj uQ,sl wOHdmk pl%hiïmQ¾K lrk f;la úêu;a mdi,a moaO;shg fydafkdúêu;a wOHdmk jevigykaj,g fydafmd<Ujd r|jd .ekSuh' fï isiqyq rfÜ b;duÈ<s÷" b;du iïm;a-ySk mjq,aj,ska tk tkï"ÿrneyer msáir .ïudkj, <uhs" k.rj, —úÒ˜orefjda" yqol,d j;=lr m%cdjg whs;s isiqka ydigkaj,ska mSä; m%foaYj, <uhs wd§yq fj;s' fïisiqka fmd<Ujd mdif,a r|jd .ekSfuka mQ¾Km%fõYk yd i¾j;% uQ,sl wOHdmk pl%h ^1-9fY%aKs& iïmQ¾K lsÍu bgqlr .ekSu i|ydWmdhhka mq¿,a mrdihla rch i;=h' fï w;r 1&mdi,a isiqkag fkdñ,fha ,efnk fm<-fmd;af;dard .ekSfï jrKhla 2& mdi,a ks, we÷ïiemhSu 3& mdi,g meñKSu msKsi iykodhSm%jdyk ms<sfj;la 4& igkaj,ska mSä; m%foaYj,leã-ì|S .sh mdi,a h<s f.dv keÕSu yd 5& úêu;amdi,a moaO;sfhka neyerj úl,am jYfhkaúfYaI wOHdmkh" fkd-úêu;a wOHdmkh ydW!k-mQrK wOHdmkh hgf;a jevigykaiïmdokh hk fïjdo we;=<;ah'

fï Wmdhhka w;ßka úfYaI wOHdmkh"fkdúêu;a wOHdmkh yd W!k mQrK wOHdmkhhgf;a jevigyka fjfiiskau Yla;su;a lrldhH_laIuj l%shdjg keÕsh hq;=h' óg w;sf¾lj"m%dfoaYSh m%cd ixúOdk uÕska wd¾Ól wkqn,mEïyd iudc iÔùlrK lghq;= Ndú;h jeks wNskjb,a¨ï mlaIfha Wmdhhka o w;sYhska iïm;a-ySklKavdhï w;frys fhdod.; yelsfõ' bkaÈhdj"mdlsia:dkh" nx.a,dfoaYh jeks iómia: ol=Kqwdishdkq rgj,a we;=¿ rgj,a lsysmhlu

<Õdùug wmyiq <ud lKavdhï fmd<Ujd r|jd.ekSug fujka b,a¨ï mlaIfha Wmdhhkaid¾:l ù ;sfí'

34' b;du iïm;a-ySk m%cdj, orejka mdi,gwdl¾IKh lr.kq msKsi fhda.H hhs ms<s.;afjk;a rgj, w;aoelSï wkqj ie,lsh yelsb,a¨ï-mlaIfha l%shdud¾. w;r 1& mdi,a m%fõYkyd ks;H meñKsu jeäÈhqKq lsÍug m%dfoaYShm%cdjka W;aiql lsÍu 2& w,xldr mdi,a f.dv-ke.s,s" iqj-myiq mx;s ldur yd l%Svd N+ñ iemhSuo we;=¿j YsIH-ñ;% mßirhla ìys lsÍu yd 3&È<s÷lu wvqlsÍfuys,d rcfha jevigyfkyswdodhï mßmQrlfhka fldgila wod< jhialdKavfha <uhskaf.a ksh; mdi,a .ukg fydaúl,am wOHdmk jevigykaj, iyNd.Sùug fydaiïnkaO lsÍfuka È<s÷ mjq,aj, jev lrk<uhska w;r mdi,a wOHdmkfha wdjiaÓl msßjehwvqlsÍu hk fïjd .sKsh yel'

úfYaI wOHdmkh" fkd-úêu;a wOHdmkh ydW!k-mQrK wOHdmkh ;=< jev-igyka Yla;su;alsÍu

35' óg w;sf¾lj" úfYaI wOHdmkh" fkd-úêu;a wOHdmkh yd W!k-mQrK wOHdmkh ;=<jevigykaj, N+ñldj úêu;a mdi,a moaO;shgúl,amhla f,i Yla;su;a lsÍu rcfhaie,ls,a,g md;% l< yels fõ' fï wxYfhysm%uqL;d wkqj .; hq;= ixj¾Okd;aul mshjrw;r 1& úêu;a wOHdmkfhys yd ldhH_ia:mqyqKqfjys,d fï jevigykaj, mßmQrl N+ñldjmeyeÈ<sj ksYaph lr .ekSu 2& fuys,d úúOjevigykaj, úIhud,dj" bf.kqï m%;sM, ydb,lal ck fldgia úfYaIs;j kshu lrf.km%;sm;a;s iïmdolhkag miq-fmdaIKh msKsikshduk yd we.hSï moaO;shla msysgqjd,Su 3&hemqï-m%udK Èú fmfj;lg yd wdodhï Wmhkl¾;jHhkays wjYH olaI;d úfYaIfhka imhñkaY%u fj<|fmd< yd in|lï jeäÈhqKq lsÍu 4&fï jevigyka fufyhùu msKsi m%dfoaYShwOHdmk fomd¾;fïka;= yd l,dmSh wOHdmkldhH_d, ;=< wdh;ksl yelshdj jeä lsÍu 5& fïjevigyka bgqlr,k wOHdmk fiajd uKav,j,;dlaIKsl YlH;dj ÈhqKq lsÍu hk fïjd owe;=<;afõ'

S 11

wOHdmk .=Kfha úYsIag;dj yUdhdu

uQ,sl yd fcHIaG oaú;Shsl wOHdmkfha .=KhÈhqKq lsÍu

36' Y%S ,xldfõ wOHdmk m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhkauqyqK md we;s m%uqL;u wNsfhda.h jkafka Wiia.=Kfhka hq;a wOHdmk moaO;shla ÈhqKq lrmj;ajdf.k hduhs' ful, mdi,a moaO;sfha .=Khjeä lsÍu msKsi rch i;= ixj¾Okd;aul fm%arl.Kkdjla ;sfí' fïjd w;r 1& mdi,a úIhud,dkùlrKh 2& <ud-ñ;% b.ekaùï l%uj,g wkqn,§u 3& .=rejrekaf.a jD;a;Sh yelshd yd l=i,;dm%.=K lrùu 4& ldhH_laIu mdi,a kdhl;ajh ydmßmd,kh Yla;su;a lsÍu 5& YsIH Wm,íêkuHYS,Sj wLKavj we.hSu msKsi úNd. moaO;sixfYdaOkh lsÍu hk fïjd we;=<;afõ'

fï mshjr Y%S ,xldjg Wiia .=Ke;s wOHdmkmoaO;shla f.dvkÕd .ekSfuys,d M,odhS mokulai,id,hs' wOHdmk ixj¾Okh i|yd jQ fmd;-m;o fjk;a rgj, wOHdmk m%;sixialrK w;aoelSïfukau Y%S ,xldfõ wOHdmk w;aoelSï o mjdwOHdmkfha .=Kd;aulNdjh jeäÈhqKq lr rg;=< Wiia m%;sM, f.k fok mdi,a o úYaj úoHd,o ;dlaIKsl wOHdmk wdh;k o msysgqùu msKsijydu wjYH ;j;a ixj¾Ok fm%arl lsysmhlafmkajd fohs'

m%d:ñl wOHdmk úIhud,dfõ ksmqK;d ksYaGdms<sn| wjfndaOkh mdi,a uÜgfï§ ÈhqKq lsÍu

37' m%d:ñl mdi,a úIhud,dfõ ksmqK;d;al=i,;d;a wfmalaIs; bf.kqï m%;sM,;a ful,b;d meyeÈ<sj olajd we;' tfia jqjo" fï idOkuÜgï .ek úÿy,am;Skaf.a yd .=rejrekaf.awjfndaOh iSud iys;h" m%udKj;a fkdfõ' ;jo"fï m%d:ñl mdi,a idOk uÜgï mdif,a§ yd mx;sldurfha§ ldhH_laIu b.ekakqï Wmdh ud¾.j,gmßj¾;kh lr.ekSfuys,d úÿy,am;Skaf.a yd.=rejrekaf.a yelshd ÿ¾j,h' fï .eg¨j úi|kqjia rch úiska ;SrKd;aul fm%arl folla i,ldne,sh yelsh' 1& m%d:ñl mdi,a úIhud,dfõksmqK;d" l=i,;d yd wfmalaIs; bf.kqï m%;s,dNms<sn| wjfndaOh úÿy,am;Ska yd .=rejreka w;rmq¿,a f,i jHdma; ùug ie,iSu yd fï idOkuÜgïj, uqøs; msgm;a mdi,aj,g ,nd§u yd 2&úIhud,dfjys úYoj oelajQ idOk uÜgï fj;isiqka meñKùug .=rejrekaf.a YlH;dj Yla;su;alsÍu'

oaú;Shsl mdi,a úIhud,dj myod úia;r lr,Su

38' m%d:ñl mdi,a úIhud,dfjys fuka fkdjoaú;Shsl mdi,a úIhud,dfõ ksmqK;d" l=i,;d ydwfmalaIs; bf.kqï m%;s,dN meyeÈ<sj ksh;jolajd ke;' tys m%;sM,hla f,i oaú;Shsl mdi,aúIhud,dj wjq,a iy.;h' fY%aKs uÜgï yd pl%wkqj wkq-ms<sfj,lska .<md ke;' fï yer" tlatla fY%aKsfha idOk uÜgï i|yd wjidk wruqKqyd b,lal kshu lr .ekSug fyda meyeÈ<sjm%ldYs; úIhud,djla wdY%s;j mdif,a b.ekakqïl%u yd bf.kSfï Wmdh ud¾. ixúOdk lr.ekSug fyda mdi,a wiu;a ù ;sfí' tneúkawkd.;fha§ oaú;Shsl wOHdmkh Yla;su;a lsÍumsKsi rch úiska i,ld ne,sh yels flakaøShixj¾Ok fm%arl folla kï 1& tla-tla fY%aKsfhysyd úIhfhys ksmqK;d" l=i,;d yd wfmalaIs;bf.kqï m%;s,dN ksh;j olajñka oaú;Shsl mdi,aúIhud,dj myod ixúOdk lsÍu yd 2& wod< uqøs;oE mdi,aj,g iemhSu we;=¿ by; lS idOk uÜgïms<sn| wjfndaOh úÿy,am;Ska yd .=rejreka w;rúmq,;rj me;sr hdug ie,eiaùu hk fïjdh'

.=rejrejkaf.a jD;a;Sh ksmqK;d yd l=i,;dYla;su;a lsÍu

39' l=uk wOHdmk l%ufha;a b.ekaùïn,ldfha .=Kd;aul ;;ajh ;SrKd;aulj jeo.;afõ' mq¾j-fiajd .=re wOHdmkh ie,iSug cd;slwOHdmk mSG (NCOE) mQ¾K cd,hla o wLKav.=re wOHdmkh iemhSug .=re uOHia:dk (TC) obÈlr fiajd uKav, yd WmlrKdÈfhka wx.iïmQ¾K lsÍu msKsi Y%S ,xld rch úiska miq.shmia jir muK ld,h ;=<§ wêl f,iwdfhdackh lr ;sfí' fï jk úg .=rejrekaish,a,u jdf.a mqyqKqj ,nd we;' uq¿ bÈß fiajdld,h ;=<§u Tjqkag jD;a;Sh ÈhqKqj i|ydwjldY mE§ ;sfí' fï wdh;ksl wä;d,u u;.=rejrekaf.a jD;a;Sh yelshd yd l=i,;dixj¾Okh lsÍu rchg werôh yelsh' tawNsu;d¾:h idlaId;a lr .ekSug iydh jkm%Odk;u l¾;jHh jkafka 1& ia:dkSh mqyqKqjuÕska uq¿ mdi,lau kj uqyqKqjrlg m;a lrÈhqKq lsÍu wruqKq fldg.;a wLKAv .=re mqyqKqjevigyka y÷kajd§u" tla-tla .=rejrhdg;ukaf.a l=i,;d Wiia ;;a;ajhlg m;a lr.ekSug uÕ ie,fik mßÈ ful, .=reuOHia:dk ;=<ska flfrk úia:dkSh mqyqKq lghq;=

S 12

mßmQ¾Khg m;a lsÍu' 2& mdGud,d ie,iqu ydixúOdkh" mx;s ldur mßph" YsIH mejreï ydf.or jev" isiq oekqu yd l=i,;d we.hSu jeks.=re ldhH_hkays§ fuj,ï lÜg, yd ;dlaIKhNdú;d lsÍug .=rejre ikakoaO jk mßÈ mQ¾j-fiajd yd wLKav .=re mqyqKq jevigykaj,úIhud,d yd WmfoaYk mßp kùlrKh 3&m%d:ñl yd oaú;Shsl fY%aKs pl% ;=<§ <ud-flakaøShyd l%shdldrlï-mdol b.ekakqï-bf.kqï m%fõYkjeä-ÈhqKq lsÍu msKsi wjYH jk YslaIKúoHd;aul l=i,;d ,nd§ug mQ¾j-fiajd ydwLKav .=re wOHdmk jevigykaj, úIhud,d;aWmfoaYk p¾hdjkq;a ÈhqKq lsÍu 4& mdi,a .=KfhajeäÈhqKqj msKsi m%dfoaYSh m%cdjka iuÕiyfhda.s;d we;s lr .ekSug wjYH l=i,;d.=rejrekag ,nd§u 5& úÿy,am;Skaf.a kdhl;ajhhgf;a Wiia mdi,a idOk m%ñ;Ska kshu lrf.ktajd idlaId;a lr.ekSfï j.lSu Ndr.ekSug.=rejreka ikakoaO lsÍu 6& .=rejrekaf.ab.ekakqï Ôú;h mqrdu ksrka;r wLKav pl%hla;=< jD;a;Sh oekqu" úIh lreKq .ek wjfndaOhyd YslaIK l=i,;d Yla;su;a lsÍu'

úÿy,am;Skaf.a o m%OdkdpdhH_hkaf.a om%OdkdpdÍKSkaf.a o kdhl;aj yd l<ukdlrKyelshdjka Yla;su;a lsÍu

40' Wiia .=Kfha mdi,a kdhl;ajfha flakaøShjeo.;alu Y%S ,dxlsl wOHdmk m%;sm;a;siïmdolhka úiska w.h lrkq ,efí'úÿy,am;Skag;a uq,a.=re uy;au-uy;audjka jekswxY kdhl-kdhsldjkag;a kdhl;aj ydl<ukdlrK mqyqKqjla §u msKsi úÿy,am;SkamqyqKq lsÍfï uOHia:dkhla ilid f.k hkq,efí' ;jo" úÿy,am;Skag n,h foñka ie,lshhq;= m%udKhl l<ukdlrK n,h mdi,aj,gmejÍu msKsi m%;sm;a;suh mshjr o .kq ,en we;'mdi,a úÿy,am;Skaf.ao uq,a.=re uy;au-uy;audjkaf.ao kdhl;aj l=i,;d ydl<ukdlrK yelshd Yla;su;a lsÍu ixj¾OkhgNdckh úh hq;= ;SrKd;aul wxYhls' wkd.;fha§wjYH jk jeo.;a kdhl;aj yd l<ukdlrKolaIlï w;r 1& mdi,aj, o¾Ykh yd wOHdmkslwruqKq meyeÈ<sj m%ldY lsÍu 2& úIhud,djldhH_laIuj ls%hdjg keÕSug mdi,a ixúOdkhlsÍu 3& .=rejrekaf.a YslaIK ksmqK;d mx;sldurhg;a mdi,aj, úIhud,d-no wjYH;dj,g;a.<md .ekSu 4& fiajd uKav, - fjfiiska

.=rejre- ;lafiare lrñka Tjqkaf.a ksmqK;d ydl=i,;d l%u-l%ufhka ÈhqKq lsÍu 5& fiajd uKav,o isiqka o Wiia idOk uÜgï lrd fm<Uùu 6&mdi,a ksYaGd imqrd .ekSug fN!;sl iïm;a;ekg Tìk mßÈ fhdod Ndú;hg .ekSu 7& .=re-fo.=re ix.ï" wdÈ-YsIH ix.ï we;=¿ m%cd ixúOdkiuÕ ióm-iïnkaO;d j¾Okh lr .ekSu yd 8&isiqka" .=rejreka" foudmshka yd m%cdfõ fjk;aidudðlhka wd§kag myiqfjka oel.ekSug;ayuqùug;a ukd wjldY ie,iaùu hk lreKqwe;=<;afõ'

mdi,a i|yd Ydia;%Sh yd mßmd,k wdOdrl moaO;smsysgqùu

41' Y%S ,xldfõ mdi,aj,g Ydia;%Sh yd mßmd,kiydh yd uÕ-fmkaùu fhduq lrk wdOdrl cd,d;ju we;af;a fkdoshqKq wxl=r ;;a;ajfhah'mdi,aj,g wdOdrl iemhsug oeka mj;akdfiajdia: WmfoaYk moaO;sh b;d ÿ¾j,h' fïl%uh Yla;su;a lsÍu wkd.; wOHdmkixj¾Okhg Wmdh-ud¾.Sj jeo.;a fõ' wkd.;ixj¾Okh i|yd m%uqL;d ,efnk wxY w;r 1&fiajdia: WmfoaYljrekaf.a N+ñld yd j.lSïmeyeÈ,sj m%ldY lsÍu 2& ikd: jQ jD;a;ShksmqK;ajh yd idOkh mokï lr f.k fiajdia:WmfoaYljreka f;dard m;a lsÍu 3& mdi,aj,idOk uÜgï kexùu msKsi hym;a WmfoaYkp¾hdjka ms<sn| f;dr;=re iy mqyqKqj we;=¿fiajd mdi,aj,g iemhsug fiajdia:WmfoaYljreka ikakoaO lsÍu 4& mdi,aúÿy,am;Skaf.a o .=rejrekaf.a o Ydia;%ShidOkh;a m%h;ak;a .ek we.hSï mj;ajd ta wkqjM,j;a miq-fmdaIKh iemhSu ldhH_laIuj bgq lr.ekSu msKsi fiajdia: WmfoaYlhka Wmfhda.s lr.ekSu yd 5& mdi,aj,g ia:dkSh msájy< §um%dfoaYsh wOHdmk wêldÍkaf.a;a l,dmShwOHdmk ldhH_d,j,;a ks;H ixj¾Ok ldhH_hlajYfhka wka;¾.; lsÍu hk lreKq we;=<;a fú'

wOHdmk m%d.aOk iïNdrh mq¿,a lsÍu ydb.ekaùfï§;a bf.kSfï§;a fuj,ï lÜg, yd;dlaIK Ndú;h jeä lsÍu

42' Y%S ,xldj oeka wOHdmk ixj¾Okfhafofjks wÈhf¾ M<sm;af;ys isák ksid mdi,amoaO;sh —rg yqKq yd l;dj˜ flfrys wêlj/÷Kq u|-;dlaIK we;s mßirhlska bj;ajWmlrK yd ;dlaIK-iQlaIau kùk wOHdmk

S 13

moaO;shla lrd bÈßhg hd hq;=h' f;dr;=re;dlaIKh (IT) uOHia:dk yd WmlrK" õsoHd.dr"mqiaa;ld," l%shdldrlï ldur" WmlrK ydfuj,ï iys; wOHdmk m%d.aOk iïNdrhwjêfhka wjêhg l%ufhka mq¿,a l< hq;=h' taiuÕu" b.ekaùfï l%u" bf.kqï m%fõY yd úNd.wdÈfhys § WmlrKj,g yd ;dlaIKhg m%uqLN+ñldjla m%odkh úh hq;=h' ksoiqka jYfhka¦úoHd mdvï i|yd fjka l< ld,fhka jeäfldgila úoHd.dr jevg fhduq lrk w;ruwe.hSï hdka;%Kfha fldgila f,i úoHd.dria:mejreï Ndú; l< yelsh' tfukau .Ks;h"fN!;sl úoHdj jeks úIhhkays b.ekaùï l%uw;rg wOHdmk uDÿldx. fhdod .ekSfuka<uhskag iaj-fõ.fhka bf.kSug ie,ish yelsh'NdId --úfYaIfhka bx.%Sis-- b.ekaùfï§jpkud,dj" WÉpdrKh iy p;=rNdjh ÈhqKqlsÍug Y%jH-WmlrK Ndú; l< yelsfõ'mqia;ld, yd lshjk øjH jeämqr Ndú; lsÍubf.kqï m%;sM, ÈhqKq lr .ekSfï w;sYh M,odhsWml%uhls'

fm<-fmd;aj, .=Kd;aulNdjh ÈhqKq lsÍu

43' wOHdmk moaO;sh ;=< m%Odk bf.kqïiïm;ls" fm<-fmd;a' ;jo" fuh Y%S ,xldj jeksixj¾Okh jk rglg wkd.;fha§ o m%Odk.=Kd;aul fhoejqu úh yelsh' tneúka" Wiia.=Ke;s fm<-fmd;a iemhqu b;d jeo.;ah' uE;ld,fha§ rch úiska fm<-fmd;aj, .=Kh ÈhqKqlsÍug;a mdi,aj,g ,nd.; yels fm<-fmd;aud,dj mq¿,a lsÍug;a jeo.;a m%;sm;a;sfm%arlhla l%shdjg kÕd ;sfí' fuh lrk ,oafoarcfha taldêldrhla bj;a lr ;rÕldÍjl%shdlrk fm!oa.,sl fj<| iud.ïj,g fm<-fmd;a m%ldYkh újD; lsÍfuks' fm!oa.,slwxYfha fm<-fmd;a m%ldYkfha wkd.;ixj¾Okfhys,d my; oelafjk ;SrKd;aulmshjr we;=<;a úh yelsh( 1& rfÜ fm<-fmd;af,aLlhka" Ñ;% Ys,amSka yd ixialdrlhka i;=;dlaIKsl yelshdj ÈhqKq lsÍu 2& ;:H lreKqj,ksrjoH;dj .ek j. ne,Su;a hï lsis wd.ul fydack j¾.hl fyda lKavdhulg fõokd foklreKq bj;a lsÍu;a we;=¿j w;amsgm;aj, ydflgqïm;aj, .=Kh wfõlaIKh lrk l%uYla;su;a lsÍu 3& mdi,a j¾Ih weröug fmrl,g fõ,djg mdi,aj,g fmd;a fnod yeÍumsKsi .súiqï ieliSu yd fmd;a Ndr§u blauka

lsÍu 4& w;sf¾l lshùï øjH" jev fmd;a yd fm<-fmd;a i|yd uÕ-fmkakqï fmd;a ksueùugf,aLlhkaf.a ;dlaIKsl yelshdj ÈhqKq lsÍu'

<uhskaf.a fi!LH yd fmdaIK ;;a;ajh jeä-ÈhqKqlsÍu

44' ixcdkk ,l=Kq uÜgï yd mdi,a" .DySh iyfi!LH úp,Hhka w;r in|;dj ms<sn|úYaf,aIKh ;=<ska fmkS hkafka <uhskaf.a ÿ¾j,fi!LH yd my;a fmdaIK ;;a;aj bf.kqï m%;s,dNiuÕ iDKd;aulj .e<fmk njls' fï fya;=fjka"È<s÷ orejkaf.a fi!LH yd fmdaIK uÜgï ÈhqKQlsÍfï mshjr ;=<ska wOHdmk .=Kd;aulh ydbf.kqï uÜgï Wiia lsÍfï m%h;akj,ska hym;aM,-m%fhdack ,efnkq we;' ldhH_laIu mdi,afi!LH yd fmdaIK jev igykla i|yd jQ uQ,slrduqjla ;=< my; i|yka yrj;a wx. we;=<;aùujeo.;a jkafkah' 1& wdrlaIs;" ia:djr fN!;sljgmsgdjla o iqjodhS Okd;aul ufkda-iudÔhmßirhla o i,iajk w;r" YsIH wmpdrh" ,sx.sljOysxid" mdi,a m%pKav;ajh yd n,j;=kaf.a ìhjeoaÿï jeks .eg¨j,g úi÷ï imhk fi!LHdY%s;mdi,a m%;sm;a;s 2& msßisÿ mdkSh c,h yd m%udKj;amú;% ikSmdrlaIl myiqlï ;yjqre lrk ksfodiamdi,a f.dvke.s,s ks¾udKh yd ks;H kv;a;=lghq;= 3& fi!LHh ms<sn| b;du fhda.H ydOkd;aul jQ o ;SrKj,g t<U ta wkqj lghq;=lsÍug isiqkag wjYH oekqu" wdl,am" yrhka ydÔjk l=i,;d j¾Okh lsÍu msKsi l=i,;d-mdolfi!LH wOHdmkh yd 4& iQlaIu-fmdaIl W!K;dyd mKq oykh" id .skak" oka; jHikh"ñ,plaIqj fyj;a ufhdamshdj yd Y%jKdndO jeks.eg¨j,g ms<shï imhk mdi,a-mdol fi!LH ydfmdaIK fiajd hk wx.h'

wOHdmkh ;=<ska iudÔh ixila;sh j¾Okh lsÍu

45' rg ;=< úis jirla ;siafia mej;s ck-jd¾.sl fjkaùhdfï igk miqìï fldg f.kúúO;ajh" m%cd;dka;%Sh rdcH md,kh yd isú,aksoyi hk fïjd ms<sn| f.!rjh j¾Okh lsÍumsKsi isiqkaf.a fm!r oekqu yd wjfndaOh ÈhqKqlsÍu jeo.;a mshjrls' wOHdmkh ;=<ska iudÔhixila;sh jeä ÈhqKq lsÍug bjy,a jk w;sf¾lmshjr jYfhka úúO iudc lKavdhïj,ixila;shg ixfõ§ fm<-fmd;a ìys lsÍu"úIhud,dj yd úIhud,d-noaO l%shdldrlï fhdod.ksñka úúO;ajh j¾Okh lrk yeÕSï ;shqKq

S 14

lsÍu" úúO ckjd¾.sl lKavdhïj, <uhskagtlaù wOHhk lghq;=j, fh§ug bv i,ikmdi,a weröu yd iïnkaëlrK NdIdjla jYfhkabx.%Sis NdId Ndú;h jeä ÈhqKq lsÍu ie,lshyelsh' fïjdfha n,mEï úúO iudÔhlKavdhïj, iyfhda.h u; b÷rdu /f|;;a tajdm%fhdackj;a mshjr fõ' fï lghq;= ldhH_laIujjeäÈhqKq lsÍug kï igkaj,ska mSä; m%foaYj,m%n,;u lKavdhïj, iyfhda.h fjfiiskauwjYHh'

igka mej;=Kq m%foaYj, ydkshg m;a wOHdmkwdh;k m%;sixialrKhg md;% lsÍu

46' n|jd .ekSï yd bf.kqï uÜgï b;du wvqjkafka igkaj,ska mSä; m%foaYj,h' fï ;ekaj,wOHdmk há;,h úkdYùfï fya;=fjka úfYaIwNsfhda. t,a, ù ;sfí' igka mej;s ld,fha § tuigkaj,ska mßmSä; m%foaYj, rcfha wOHdmkwdh;k --úfYaIfhka mdi,a-- ydkshg m;aúh' fïm%foaYfha m%;sixialrK" mqkre;a:dmk ydixj¾Ok wjYH;d ms<sn| ;lafiarejlska[UNICEF-World Bank (2003) n,kak'] fïm%foaYfha wOHdmk m%d.aOk j;alï m%lD;s;;a;ajhg f.k taug wefußldkq fvd,¾ ñ,shk140la ú;r Wjukd fj;ehs .Kka n,d ;sfí'flfia fj;;a" fujka m%foaYj, wOHdmkm%;sixialrK yd mqkre;a:dmk lghq;= ksulsÍfuys m%Odk wNsfhda.h ;dlaIKsl yelshdjgt,a,fõ' fuys úfYaIfhkau bÈlsÍfï øjH;amqyqKq Y%uh;a ysÕh' ;jo" m%;sixialrK lghq;=i|yd fï m%foaYhg uqo,a .,d tau;a iuÕ nvq ñ,yd jegqma jeä ù ;sfí' igkaj,ska ydks jQm%foaYj, wOHdmk moaO;sh h<s msysgqùfï §¾>-ld,Sk msájy< i|yd YlH;d-j¾Ok ldhH_hkafndfyduhla ;sfí'

úYaj úoHd, wOHdmkfha .=Kh jeäÈhqKq lsÍu

47' úYaj úoHd, moaO;sh" mdi,a moaO;sh ;rïu;shqKq ixjdod;aul m%;sm;a;s ixj¾Okl%shdj,shlg Ndckh ù ke;' tfia jqjo" úYajúoHd, m%;smdok fldñiu;a tla tla úYajúoHd,h;a .=Kd;aul j¾Okh i|yd fm%arllsysmhla ilid ;sfí' úIhud,d yd úNd. l%um%;sixialrKhla --úfYaIfhka mdGud,d tallmoaO;s jgd Wmdê jev-igyka .e<mSu yd wLKavwe.hSfï l%u weröu we;=¿ úYaj úoHd, i|ydixia:dmk ie,iqï ieliSu" fiajd uKav, Wfoid

idOk we.hSï l%u weröu" iajdëk uKav,hlahgf;a m%ia:dmk l%shdj,shla msysgqùu yd idOH;d-mdol uqo,a m%;smdok ms<sfj;la y÷kajd§ufujdhska lsysmhls' fï fm%arl fï olajdumÍlaIKhg ,laù ke;' ta iuÕu mdGud,d talll%uh yd wLKav we.hSï hdka;%Kh jeks merKsfm%arl ms<sn|j M,j;a úu¾Yk meje;aùum%;sm;a;s iïmdolhkag;a úoHd¾Òkag;a iydh jkqwe;'

wOHdmk moaaO;sh Y%u f,dalhg keUqre lsÍu

48' wOHdmk moaaO;sh Y%u f,dalhg keUqrelsÍfï jeo.;alu Y%S ,xld wOHdmk m%;sm;a;srduqj ;=< wjOdrKh ù ;sfí' [NEC ^2003&n,kak'] Y%u f,dalhg fyd|u moku jkafka Y%ufj<|fmd<g mqyqKq l< yels mqoa.,hka iemhSugyd ;dlaIKsl" jD;a;Sh yd úYaj úoHd,wOHdmkhg msúiSug fhda.H m%n, mskqï mqjrejlaieliSug Yla;sh we;s Wiia .=Kfhka hq;= mdi,amoaO;shla nj m%;sm;a;s iïmdolfhda oek isá;s'oekSu yd .KSh l=i,;d" tkï" lKavdhï yeÕSu";SrK .ekSu" fm%arKh" .eg¨ úi|Su" j.lSu"kdhl;ajh yd ikaksfõokh jeks Y%u f,dalfhysjeo.;a .KSh l=i,;d ksueùfuka mdi,a moaO;shflakaøSh N+ñldjla orhs' ;jo" mdi,a moaO;sh o"oekSu;a Y%u fj<|fmdf,a b,a u we;s úfYAIs;l=i,;d;a ,nd.ekSug bjy,a jk mdol úIhud,drduq lÜgqfjka iukaú;h' Y%S ,xld wOHdmkmoaO;sh Y%u f,dalhg keUqreùu jeäÈhqKq lrkie,iqïj, úIhud,d" f;dr;=re ;dlaIKh (IT)yd ;dlaIK úoHdj wOHdmkfhys fhdod .ekSu"NdId l=i,;d yd m%ùK;dj" jD;a;Shud¾f.damfoaYkh yd wkqYdikh hk fuys,dm%uqL;dkq.; ixj¾Ok fm%arl wjYHfõ'

l%shdlrlï-mdol úIhud,djla ksujd l%shdjgkeÕSu

49' Y%S ,xldfõ m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhska úiskaoaú;Shsl wOHdmkh Wfoid m%ldYs; ls%hdldrlï-mdol úIhud,d m%fõYh b÷rdu ieliS we;af;amdi,a orejka ;=< hym;a Y%udpdr O¾u j¾Okhwe;s lrkq msKsih' [NEC ^2003& n,kak'] tneúka"ta uÕska wOHdmk moaO;sh Y%u f,dalhg keUqrelsÍfuys,d m%uqL N=ñldjla orkq we;' l%shdlrlï-mdol úIhud,d m%fõYfha wkd.; j¾Okh;al%shdjg keÕSu;a /|S we;af;a my; tk lreKq

S 15

ms<sn| m%uqL fm%arl flfrysh' 1& l%shdlrlï-mdolb.ekakqfuys,d .=rejreka mqyqKq lsÍu 2&l%shdlrlï-mdol úIhud,djla i|yd mdi,aixúOdkhg úÿy,am;Ska mqyqKq lsÍu 3&l%shdlrlï-mdol bf.kqu l%shdjg keÕSu msKsim%udKj;a mx;s ldur bv-lv yd l%shdldrlïldur iemhSu 4& l%shdlrlï-mdol b.ekaùug ydbf.kSug wkqn, jYfhka mdi,aj,g m%udKj;aWmlrK lÜg," ;dlaIKh yd lshjk øjHiemhSu'

f;dr;=re ;dlaIK-{dkh yd l=i,;d j¾Okh(f;dr;=re ;dlaIK-mdol b.ekaùu yd bf.kSuweröu

50' f;dr;=re ;dlaIK (IT) {dkh yd l=i,;dj¾;udk f,dalfha w;HdjYHl jk w;r" mdi,apl%h iudma; lrkakka yd úYaj úoHd,WmdêOdÍka i|yd iajfoaYSh yd f.da,Sh Y%ufj<|fmdf<ys msúiSï fnfyúka jeälrhs'f;dr;=re ;dlaIKfhys (IT) flakaøSh jeo.;aluokakd wOHdmk m%;sm;a;s iïmdolfhda wOHdmkmoaO;sfhys,d IT Ndú;h jHdma; lsÍu ia:djrlsÍug;a wkq.%y olaj;s' fuh w;sYhska jeo.;aWiia m%uqL;d we;s m%;sm;a;suh mshjrls' wOHdmkmoaO;sfhys IT Ndú;h jeälr IT-mdol b.ekaùuyd bf.kSu msKsi jQ ;SrKd;aul fm%arl w;frys1& mdi,aj,g IT myiqlï yd iïnkaOk l%uj;amshjßka iemhSu 2& IT-mdol wOHdmkfuj,ïj,g <Õdùfï wjldY Wmßuhg kexùumsKsi cd;sl wOHdmk cd,hla msysgqùu 3& ITWmlrK" wOHdmksl uDÿldx. yd wka;¾-cd,(on-line) wOHdmk iïm;a .ek .=rejreka mqyqKqlsÍu 4& wOHdmkfhys,d IT Ndú;h ms<sn|jmdi,a úÿy,am;Ska ;=< wjfndaOhla we;s lsÍu 5&mdi,aj, .=Kd;aulNdjh i|yd fjkajk fhoejqïw;frys f;dr;=re ;dlaIK (IT) -mdol wOHdmkiïm;a fjkqfjka m%;smdok ie,iSu hk lghq;=we;=<;ah'

bx.%Sis NdId l=i,;d ÈhqKq lsÍu

51' bx.%Sis NdId l=i,;d yd pd;=¾hh iajfoaYShY%u fj<|fmdf<ys n,j;a b,a¨ug md;%fõ'tmuKla fkdj" bx.%Sis NdId m%ùk;dj f,dalwd¾Ólfhys /lshd wfmalaIK ìys lrhs' fïfya;=fjka Y%u fj<|fmd< fj; mdi,a moaO;sfhakeUqrej jeälsÍu msKsi wOHdmk m%;sm;a;s rduqj;=< bx.%Sis NdId l=i,;d j¾Okh flakaøSh

wx.hla jkafkah' wkd.;h Wfoid jeo.;aixj¾Ok fm%arlhka w;frys 1& 1 fY%AKsfha isgby<g isxy, yd fou< fukau" b.ekaùfïudOHhla jYfhka bx.%Sis NdIdj f;dard .ekSfïjrKh fm!oa.,sl mdi,a isiqkag ,nd§u 2&m%udKj;a .=rejreka ,nd.; yelsùu wkqj rcfhamdi,aj, b.ekaùfï udOHh jYfhka bx.%SisNdIdj mshjßka mshjr fhdod .ekSu 3& bx.%SisúIhhla jYfhka b.ekaùug .=rejreka mqyqKqlsÍu yd moaO;sfhys —w;sf¾l .=rejrekag˜ h<s-mqyqKqjla ,nd§u 4& b.ekaùfï udOHhla jYfhkabx.%Sisfhka b.ekaùug .=rejreka mqyqKq lsÍu ydmoaO;sfhys —w;sf¾l .=rejrekag˜ h<s-mqyqKqjla,nd§u 5& bx.%Sis NdIdfjka bf.kSug;ab.ekaùug;a Y%jH-oDIH wOHdmk yd f;dr;=re;dlaIK-mdol (IT) wOHdmk øjH Ndú;h mq¿,alsÍu hk lghq;= we;=<;ah'

l=i,;d ixj¾Okh yd mqyqKqj Yla;su;a lsÍu

52' mdi,a yerhkakkaf.a /lshd NjH;d yd Y%uM,odhs;dj ÈhqKq lsÍu msKsi rch úiska Y%ufj<|fmd< wrnhd .kakd m%Odk il%Sh Wmdhud¾.h jkafka l=i,;d j¾Okhhs' m%;sm;a;siïmdolhka úiska fuys,d M,odhS ixj¾Okfm%arlhka yd m%;sm;a;suh mshjr lsysmhlafhdackd lr ;sfí' fï w;frys 1& ;dlaIKslwOHdmkh yd jD;a;Sh mqyqKqj (TEVT) i|yd jQw.%ia: wdh;kh jYfhka ;dlaIKsl yd jD;a;ShwOHdmk fldñiu (TVEC) Yla;su;a lsÍu 2&myiqlï i,ik" m%ñ;sodhl" mqyqKq ixúOdhljYfhka rch i;= N+ñldj j¾Okh lsÍu 3&mqyqKqfjys,d fm!oa.,sl wxYfha iyNd.s;ajhgwkqn,§u 4& l=i,;d j¾Okfhys,d rch ydl¾udka; wxY fol w;r yjq,a jHdmdr weröu 5&rdcH yd fm!oa.,sl mqyqKq wdh;khkays.=Kd;aulNdjhg m%ido;ajh mejÍu yd thwfõlaIdjg ,la lsÍu 6& rdcH wxYfha ;dlaIKslwOHdmkh yd jD;a;Sh mqyqKq (TEVT) moaO;shw¾:j;a lsÍu 7& mdi,aj,;a úYaj úoHd,j,;ajD;a;Sh ud¾f.damfoaYkh yd wkqYdikh msysgqùuwe;=¿j" ;dlaIKsl wOHdmkh yd jD;a;Sh mqyqKq(TEVT) moaO;sh iuÕ mdi,aj, yd úYaj úoHd,moaO;sfha in|;d jeäÈhqKq lsÍu 8& iq¿ jHdmdrwxYh Wfoid jD;a;Sh mqyqKqj iM, lsÍu 9&ixia:d wxYh b,lal lrf.k mqyqKqjg uQ,Hwkqn, iïmdokh hk mshjr we;=<;a fõ'

fïjd cd;Hka;r Ñka;kh yd Ndú;hka ms<sìUq

S 16

lrk nqoaêf.dapr yd M,odhS fmr-,l=Kq iys;woyiah' fï úúO m%;sm;a;suh fm%arl ;:Hjiq¿;r ixj¾Ok wjêhl mj;S' we;eï woyia;ju;a msUqrem;a wjêfhauh' fï m%;sm;a;suhwoyia ixj¾Ok Wmdh-ud¾.j,g fmr<d l%shdjgke.Su TEVT wxYfha ó<Õ m%Odk wNsfhda.hjkafkah'

jD;a;Sh ud¾f.damfoaYkh yd wkqYdikh

53' wOHdmkh Y%u f,dalhg iïnkaO lsÍumsKsi rcfha jeo.;a ks¾foaYhla jkafkaldhH_laIu jD;a;Sh ud¾f.damfoaYkh ydwkqYdikh ÈhqKq lsÍuhs' úYaj úoHd,j, jD;a;Shud¾f.damfoaYkh yd wkqYdikh wrUd ;sfí' tfiajqj;a" mdi,a moaO;sfhys jD;a;Sh ud¾f.damfoaYkhyd wkqYdikh ke;a;gu ke;s ;rïh' mdi,aj,jD;a;Sh ud¾f.damfoaYkh yd wkqYdikh ÈhqKqlsÍu wkd.;fhys l%shdjg keÕsh hq;= jeo.;afm%arlhls' fï fm%arlhg wkqn, jYfhka uq,aúhhq;= l¾;jHhka w;r 1& jD;a;Sh ud¾f.damfoaYkhyd wkqYdikh i|yd mdi,a wdpdhH_ uKav,j,flakaøSh lKavdhula mqyqKq lsÍu 2& È<s÷ m%foaYj,isiqkag Y%u fj<|fmdf<a f;dr;=re ,nd.ekSfïwjldY wvq ksid jD;a;Sh ud¾f.damfoaYkh ydwkqYdikh ÈhqKq lsÍfï § tn÷ m%foaYj,mdi,aj,g m%uqL;d iemhSu 3& jD;a;Sh mqyqKq yd;dlaIKsl wOHdmk wdh;k yd mdi,aj,ud¾f.damfoaYlhka w;r f;dr;=re cd, msysgqùuhk ldhH_hka we;=<;a fõ'

wOHdmk iïm;a fjka lsÍu yd fnodyeÍu

54' uQ,sl wksjd¾h wOHdmk pl%h ^1-9 fY%aKs&i¾j;%j iïmQ¾K lsÍu" wOHdmk .=Kh jeäÈhqKqlsÍu" wOHdmk moaO;sh Y%u f,dalhg keUqrelsÍu" rdcH úhoï iuj fn§hdu ;yjqre lsÍu"moaO;sh ;=< fiajd m%odkh Yla;su;a lsÍu" ydwOHdmk yd mqyqKq moaO;sfha wd¾Ól yd iudÔhwod<;ajh j¾Okh lsÍu hk fï ldhH_hkays rchbÈßmsg m%n, wNsfhda. lsysmhlau ;sfí' fïwNsfhda. mj;skafka ixj¾Ok rgj,aj,uÜgfuka n,k úg" wOHdmkfhys rdcHwdfhdack iq¿;r jQ o" ixrlaIl wh-jehm%;sm;a;shlg n, flfrk wêl;r uQ,HysÕhlska rch fmf<k fya;=fjka rcfhawOHdmk úhoïj, uQ¾; jákdlu ySk jQ old,hl§h' fï ;;ajh hgf;a oekg we;s iSñ;

rdcH iïm;a wOHdmk moaO;sh úiska idOdrK jQo ldhH_laIu jQ o whqßka Wmfhda.S lr.ekSuw;sYhska jeo.;a fõ'

m%;sudk-mdol tall msßjeh iïm;a fjkalsÍfïhdka;%Kfha wkd.; ÈhqKqj ;=<ska idOdrK;ajhyd .=Kh ÈhqKq lsÍu

55' miq.sh jir 4-5 ;=< mdi,a i|yd rdcHiïm;a fjkalsÍug Ndú;d jQ m%;sudk-mdol tallmsßjeh iïm;a fjkalsÍfï hdka;%KfhkawOHdmk moaO;sh ;=< iïm;a fjkalsÍfï ydfnodyeÍfï idOdrK;dj fnfyúka jeäù ;sfí'fï iQ;%h l%shdjg keÕSfï m<uq wÈhf¾§ mdi,aish,a,u iudk f,i i,lk ,ÿj o"mßudKdkq.; msßueiqï i|yd mdif,a úYd,;ajho b;d wvq iïm;a we;s mdi,aj, È<s÷lï uÜgï ob.ekafjk úIhhkaf.a úúO;ajh yd wod< fY%aKspl% o fjkqfjka muKla iq¿ fjkiaùï i,ik,§' oeka fï rgg m%;sudk-mdol tall msßjehiïm;a fjkalsÍfï hdka;%Kfha fojeks wÈhrgmsúish yelsh' fï i|yd 1& wOHdmk wjYH;d ydiudc-wd¾Ól ixj¾Okh wdY%s; m<d;a-no ydl,dmSh fjkialï we;=<;a lr .ekSu msKsi uqo,aiemhqï iQ;%fha fjkialïj,g bv ;eîu 2&f;dard.;a mdi,aj, úIhud,dfõ WmlrKNdú;h yd ;dlaIKsl ;Sj%;ajh jeälr IT-mdolwOHdmkh yd bx.%Sis udOH wOHdmkh iemhSug;afï iQ;%h mßfYdaOkh lsÍu 3& m%;sudk-mdoltall msßjeh iïm;a fjkalsÍfï hdka;%Kfhakùk;u wdlD;sh wkqj iïm;a fjkalr fnodyeÍu msKsi uOHu yd m%dfoaYSh wOHdmk uQ,Hn,OdÍkaf.a ;dlaIKsl yd wdh;ksl yelshdjYla;su;a lsÍu hk fïjd bjy,a fõ'

wOHdmk pl% yryd rdcH wOHdmk úhoïj,ldhH_laIu;dj;a idOdrK;ajh;a jeäÈhqKq lsÍu

56' wOHdmkfha iudÔh M,-m%fhdack WÉp;ujkafka wksjdhH_ uQ,sl wOHdmk yd fcHIaGoaú;Shsl wOHdmk pl%j,§h' fuhska yefÕkafka"wOHdmk wdfhdackfha úYsIag;u m%;s,dNh uQ,slwOHdmk yd fcHIaG oaú;Shsl wOHdmk uÜgïj,§idlaId;a jk njh' Wiia fY%aKs pl% ;=< isiqkan|jd .ekSfï rgdj;a fY%aKs uÜgï wkqj wOHdmktall msßjeh;a fmkajd fokafka uQ,sl yd fcHIaGoaú;Shsl wOHdmkfhys wdfhdackh idfmalaIjm%.dó nj;a" th my;a wdodhï yd uOH wdodhï,nk mjq,aj, isiqkag úmq,;r M,-m%fhdack Wod

S 17

lrk w;r" ;D;Shsl wOHdmkfha M,-m%fhdackby< wdodhï ,nk mjq,aj, isiqkag fnfyúkaujdisodhl jk nj;a fõ' tneúka" wOHdmkwxYfhys rdcH iïm;a fhoùu jeälrkq ,nk úgtys jeä fldgila uQ,sl yd fcHIaG oaú;ShslwOHdmkh Wfoid fjka lsÍug;a" rdcH úYajúoHd, moaO;sfha jHdma;sh ;shqKqj md,kh lr;D;Shsl wOHdmkhg msúiSï m%Odk jYfhkafm!oa.,sl wxYh fj; jHdma; ùug ie,iSug;afuh m%n, fya;=jla fjhs' È<s÷ isiqkag ;D;ShslwOHdmkhg msúiSu jeä l< hq;af;a iDcqm%;smdokfhkau fkdj" isiq jjqpr" isiq Kh l%ujeks m%;smdok ;=<sks'

wOHdmk .=Kd;aul j¾Okh i|yd iïm;a fjkalsÍfï§ wh-jeh ;=< ixfYdaOk

57' wOHdmk .=Kh ÈhqKq lsÍug yd wOHdmkmoaO;sh Y%u f,dalh fj; keUqre lrùug fhda.Hixj¾Ok fm%arl" tkï úIhud,dfõ WmlrKNdú;h yd ;dlaIKsl ;Sj%;dj jeä lsÍu"f;dr;=re ;dlaIK-{dkh yd f;dr;=re ;dlaIK-mdol wOHdmkh jeäÈhqKq lsÍu" bx.%Sis NdIdpd;=¾hh yd l=i,;d jHdma;sh jeks fm%arl i|ydwOHdmk m%d.aOk j;alïj, úmq,;rwdfhdackhla wjYHfõ' tneúka" bÈß ld,fha§wOHdmk wh-jeh ;=< m%d.aOk yd mqkrdj¾;kúhoï w;r ;=,kh m%d.aOk úhoï Wfoid jvdúYd, iïm;a fldgila fjka jk mßÈixfYdaOkh l< hq;=fõ' m%d.aOk wh-jeh ;=< of;dr;=re ;dlaIK uOHia:dk" úoHd.dr"mqia;ld," l%shdldrlï ldur" nyqúO Wmfhda.Sldur" fmd;a-m;a" iÕrd" mß.Kl" wOHdmksluDÿldx." WmlrK lÜg," ;dlaIKh yd fuj,ïjeks .=Kd;aul fhojqï i|yd jeä iïm;awkqmd;hla wdfhdackh l< hq;=h' m%d.aOk wh-jeh ;=< úYd,;u fldgi weo.kakd f.dvke.s,sbÈ lsÍfï yd mq¿,a lsÍfï wxYho keÕS tkb,a ula we;s kd.ßl mdi,a moaO;shg m%uqL;djlafoñka hqla;sfhda.H l< hq;=h' mqkrdj¾;k wh-jeh ;=< o mjd" jegqma yd mßmd,k úhoï wvq lr.=re wOHdmkh yd mqyqKqj" mdi,a úÿy,am;Skaf.amßmd,k yd Ydia;%Sh mqyqKqj" b.ekakqï øjH ydbf.kqï iïm;a ñ,hg .ekSu jeks .=Kd;aulj¾Ok l%shdj,s i|yd;a wêl;r m%d.aOkwdfhdackj, fufyhqï úhoï i|yd;a jeäuk;aiïm;a fjka l< hq;=h'

wOHdmkfhys,d fm!oa.,sl wdfhdackh ydiyNd.s;ajh jeä lsÍu

58' wOHdmk .=Kfhys Wiia uÜgï lrd rgbÈßhg h;au" wOHdmk moaO;sh o úl,am wdodhïm%Nj u;= lr .ksñka rcfha wh-jehg wkqmQrliydh Èh hq;=h' úYd, yd ksrka;r wh-jehysÕhla iys; wjdisodhl i¾j;%-wd¾Ól mßirhla;=< fuh fjfiiskau jeo.;ah" l,a oeñhfkdyelsh' fm!oa.,sl mdi,a msysgqùug tfryskS;s ndOl ,sys,a lr" wOHdmkfhys fm!oa.,slwxYfha iyNd.s;ajh flfrys foaYmd,k wd¾Ólmßirfhka kefÕk úfrdaOhg m%;smlaI jQ Wmdh-ud¾.sl fm%arl y÷kajd§u lsysmdldrhlska M,j;aúh yelsh' ta uÕska 1& wOHdmk wxYfhyswdfhdað; iuia; iïm;a m%udKh jeä lrkq,efí 2& fm!oa.,sl mdi,a yd fm!oa.,slwOHdmkdh;k lrd hk isiqka by< wdodhïmjq,aj,ska tkakka úh yels neúka" m%;sYS¾Imoku wkqj" jeäuk;a rdcH iïm;a È<s÷;rmjq,aj, isiqkag fn§ hhs 3& lD;%Su whqßkawdfhdack iSud lrk ,o wxYhl wd¾Ól l%shdj,swjÈlrjd jvd Wiia wd¾Ól j¾Okhlgodhl;ajhla ,nd .; yelsh 4& fm!oa.,sl mdi,ayd wdh;k jeks ;ks ;ks wOHdmk wdh;kuÜgfï§ ie,lsh hq;= n,hla yd j.lSula iys;úl,am fiajd iemhqï wdlD;shla i,ikq ,efí'ksoyia rdcH wOHdmk wdh;k iuÕ ;rÕfhafhfok wd¾Ól mßirhl ia:djrj isàu msKsifï fm!oa.,sl wOHdmk wdh;k úiska Wiia.=Kfha fiajd ,nd§u wksjd¾h jkafkah'

59' fm!oa.,sl úYaj úoHd, msysgqùu w;sYhskaújdodNsuqL .eg¨jla ù ;sfí' w;S; m%h;aklsysmhl§u isiq ieyeislï yd iudÔh úhjq,awdÈfhka fïjd fl<jr úh' tneúka" uOH-wjêms<sfj;la jYfhka Y%S ,xldfjys fm!oa.,sl úYajúoHd, werfU;ehs is;Su W.ygh' fm!oa.,slúYaj úoHd, msysgqùug tfrys úfrdaOhguqyqKfok rcfha m%;spdrh ù we;af;a fm!oa.,slwxYhg újdodmkak fkdjQ wxYj, iyNd.Sùugwkqn,§uhs' fuys,d m%Odkju fndfydaúg úfoaYShúYaj úoHd, yd ine|s fm!oa.,sl Wmdê wdh;kmsysgqùu;a jD;a;Sh mdGud,d jeks ;D;Shsl uÜgfïjevigykaj, yd ;dlaIKsl fCIa;%j, wdfhdacklsÍu;a we;=<;a fõ' fuys§ rcfha ldhH_h jkafkaúYaj úoHd, wOHdmkfhka neyer ;D;ShsluÜgfï --úfYaIfhka" furg ;=<;a ráka msg;;a

S 18

;on, Y%u b,a ula we;s-- jD;a;Sh yd ;dlaIKslfCIa;%j, fm!oa.,sl wxYfha iyNd.sl;ajhjHdma; l< yels úl,am fiùuh'

rdcH úYaj úoHd, wOHdmkfhys msßjehfnod.ekSug wkqn, §u

60' rdcH úYaj úoHd,hSh Wmdê wfmalaIlwOHdmkh iudÔh m%;s,dNj,g jvd fnfyúkawêl Wiia fm!oa.,sl m%;s,dN w;a lr fok njo rfÜ .DySh wxYfhka b;du Okj;a mxplhgúIudkqmd;slj Wiia m%;sM, ,nd fok nj o fïúYaf,aIKh meyeÈ,sj fmkajd fohs' fï ;;=hgf;a rgjeis mjq,aj,ska fm!oa.,sl úYajúoHd,j,g we§ tk wdodhï fldgi jeälsÍuguyÕ= wjia:djla mEfoa' ta iuÕu" oYl .Kkdjlamqrd Y%s ,xldfõ rdcH úYaj úoHd, wOHdmkhlsisÿ wh lsÍulska f;drj iemhSu m%;sudkhlaf,i mej;s foaYmd,k-wd¾Ól ;;a;ajh .Kka.; hq;=h' tfukau" cd;Hka;r ;,fhys ksoyiardcH úYaj úoHd, moaO;sj,g msßjehfnod.ekSfï ms<sfj; we;=¿ lsÍug tfrysjoelajqKq ;on, úfrdaOh --úfYaIfhkau YsIHlKavdhï ;=<ska u;= jQ úfrdaOh-- w;aoelSulaf,i .Kka .; hq;=h' tneúka" Y%S ,xldfõ rdcHWmdê wfmalaIl wOHdmkh ;=<g msßjehfnod.ekSfï ms<sfj; kqÿre wkd.;fha §lsisúgl we;=¿ l< yels fj;ehs is;sh fkdyelsh'tfia jqj;a" §¾>-ld,Skj --úfYaIfhkau wd¾Ólj¾Okhla we;s ù rgjeis mjq,aj, Okh jeäfj;au-- msßjeh fnod.ekSu Ôjudk m%;sm;a;súl,amhla f,i ms<s.ekSu wjYHjkq we;' fun÷;;a;ajhla ;=< wdm;sl wdodhï-mdol YsIH Khl%uh ful, ixl%dka;sl wd¾Ól mj;akd rgj,Wkkaÿfjka i,ld n,kq ,efnkakls' fïwdldrfha YsIH Kh l%uhla" mgka .ekaulajYfhka ndf.úg fm!oa.,sl ;D;Shsl wdh;kj,kshdul uÜgñka meje;aùug rcfha ie,ls,a,fhduq l< yelsh' ta w;ru" rdcH úYaj úoHd,wOHdmkfhys msßjeh fnod.ekSug bv we;s tlawxYhla kï" mYapd;a-Wmdê mdGud,dh' úYajúoHd,j, mYapd;a-Wmdê mdGud,d yodrkakkajeä msßila /lshdj, kshq;af;dah' Tjqyq .dia;= whlrk w¾O-ld,Sk mdGud,dj, iyNd.S fj;s'úYaj úoHd, wdodhï jeä lr .ksñka rfÜ WiiaW.;=ka kue;s udkj iïm;a iemhqu jeä ÈhqKqlsÍu Wfoid jQ Wmdhla f,iska ;jÿrg;a fndfydajHdma; lsÍug bv we;s wxYhls" fuh'

wOHdmk fiajd m%odkfha .=Kh;a

ldhH_laIu;dj;a ÈhqKq lsÍu

61' È<s÷lñka yd iïm;a ysÕfhka w;sYfhkamßmSä; wd¾Ól lKavdhïj,g wOHdmkhgmsúiSfï wjldY mq¿,a lsÍug;a wOHdmk .=Kh ydbf.kqï m%;s,dN ÈhqKq lsÍug;a wOHdmk moaO;shY%u f,dalhg keUqre lsÍug;a fhduqjk ixj¾Okfm%arl yd Wmdh ud¾. id¾:l ùug kï wOHdmkmoaO;sh ;=< fiajd m%odkfha .=Kh;aldhH_laIu;dj;a Yla;su;a lsÍu o wjYH fõ'fiajd m%odkh ÈhqKq lsÍu i|yd rch woyia lrkWmdh ud¾.fhys M,odhS wx. lsysmhlau we;=<;afõ'

mdi,a yd úYaj úoHd, jeks bÈß fmf<a fiajdm%odk wdh;k m%n, lsÍu

62' mdi,a yd úYaj úoHd, jeks bÈß fmf<afiajd m%odk wdh;kj,g l<ukdlrK n,hmejÍu oekg ie,ls,a,g n÷ka jq rcfha m%Odkm%;sm;a;s fm%arlhls' mdi,a moaO;sfhysl<ukdlrK wêldßh mejÍfï wruqK jkafka"úÿy,am;Ska" uq,a .=re uy;au-uy;audjka yd.=rejreka n,j;a lsÍuhs' tfukau" iïm;a Wlyd.ekSu yd uyckhd fj; j.lSu Yla;su;a lsÍumsKsi m%dfoaYSh m%cdj iuÕ in|;d we;slr.ekSug mdi,aj,g bv ie,iSu o mßmd,kia;r wvq fldg ;SrK .ekSfï fõ.h;aixfõ§;dj;a jeäÈhqKq lssÍu fuys,d wruqKqjkafkah' mdi,aj,g l<ukdlrK iajdëk;ajhmejÍfï§ úúO mdi,a ixj¾Ok uKav, wdlD;skshdul uÜgñka mÍlaIKhg ,la lsÍujeo.;afõ' ta ia:dkh" m%udKh" yd b;sydih jeksidOl wdY%s;j mdi,aj, md,k úêfhys Yla;shfnfyúka úp,H jk fyhsks' ksoiqkla( wE;msáir .ïudkj, l=vd mdi,aj,g jvd m%n,;rl<ukdlrK yelshd yd m%.dul iydhla o uydk.rj, yd iq¿ k.rj, rcfha m%Odk fmf<amdi,a i;=j ;sìh yelsh'

63' úYaj úoHd,j,g oekqÿ iEfykiajdëk;ajhla ysñj we;;a" mßmd,k fiajlhkan|jd .ekSu" wdpdhH_ uKav, idudðlhkaf.ajegqma mqoa.,-noaO l%uhlg k;= lsÍu yd YsIHn|jd .ekSï .ek ;SrK .ekSu jeks n,;, omejrej fyd;a úYaj úoHd, fiajd uKav,j, ydwêldÍkaf.a Wkkaÿj" j.lSu" yd wjxlNdjh

S 19

ÈhqKq jkq we;' tfy;a" fï mshjr foaYmd,kwd¾Ól oDIaáfhka újdoYS,s úh yelsh' ksoiqklajYfhka" iudkrEmS jegqma mßudj,g yqrejQúoHd¾Òka isák mßY%hl fm!oa.,sl ;,fhkajegqma kshu lsÍfï ksoyi úYaj úoHd,j,gmejÍu w;Hka;fhka újdoYS,s jkq we;' tfukau"isiqka we;=<;a lr .ekSfï j.lSu úYajúoHd,j,g fjk fjku mjrkq ,efí kï"jrm%ido-ySk Èia;%slalj,g YsIH ixLHd kshulsÍfï m%;sm;a;sh yd .e<fmk whqßka th l<hq;=h'

64' cd;sl wOHdmk mSG (NCOE) yd .=reuOHia:dk (TC) jeks fjk;a wOHdmkwdh;kj,g o md,k n,h mejÍfï m%;sm;a;shwod< lsÍu rcfha l,amkdjg Ndck úh yelsh'ful, kï cd;sl wOHdmk mSGj,gl<ukdlrK j.lSu yd iajdëk;ajh ke;sfiah'cd;sl wOHdmk mSGj,ska iïmdÈ; .=re wOHdmkmdGud,dj, úIhud,d ie,iqu o we.hSu ydiy;sl m;a m%odkh o bgq lrkq ,nkafka cd;slwOHdmk wdh;kh (NIE) úisks' fï mSGj,wOHhk fiajd uKav,j,g n|jd .ekSï lrkq,nkafka uOHu .=re wOHdmk fiajhla uÕsks' fïwdh;kj,g ,efnk wOHhk fiajd uKav,idudðlhka f;dard m;a lr .ekSfï§ Tjqkaf.algy~g bv ,efnkafka l,d;=frlsks' .=reuOHia:dk mejf;kafka ÿ¾j, mßmd,k jHqyhla;=<h' .=re uOHia:dk úiska iemfhk wLKav .=rewOHdmk jev igykaj, úIhud,d ie,iqïflfrkafka cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh úisks' .=reuOHia:dkj, wOHhk WmfoaYkh cd;slwOHdmk mSG úiska iemfhhs' uqo,a we;=¿mßmd,k wruqKq i|yd .=re uOHia:dk l,dmShldhH_d, hgf;a mj;S' fï ixlS¾K mßmd,k ydwOHhk jHqyh .=re uOHia:dkj, j¾Okhfnfyúka wjysr lr ;sfí' cd;sl wOHdmkmSGj,g;a .=re uOHia:dkj,g;a l<ukdlrKiajdëk;ajh;a j.lSu;a óg jeäuk;am%udKhlska mejÍfuka fuu wdh;kj,l¾;jHhkays ldhH_laIu;dj jeälr tajdfhafiajd iemhqfuys .=Kd;aulNdjh Wiia l<yelsh'

ldhH_idOk we.hSï l%u ieliSu yd ldhH_idOkhWfoid uQ,H wkqn, y÷kajd§u

65' ldhH_idOk we.hSï l%u m%n, lsÍu

Wiia;r .=Kd;aul fiajhla iïmdokfhys,dfnfyúka bjy,a fjhs' úYaj úoHd, moaO;sh ;=<ldhH_-idOk we.hSu --úfYaIfhka wdpdhH_uKav, i|yd-- werö we;' tfia jqj;a" mdi,amoaO;shg ldhH_idOk we.hSu y÷kajd§fï mshjrújdodmkakùfuka ÈhqKq lsÍug neßù ;sfí' mdi,amoaO;shg ldhH_idOk we.hSu id¾:lj we;=¿lsÍug rchg iydh jk m%Odk fm%arl ;=klaoelaúh yelsh' 1& ldhH_idOk we.hSï l%u fiajdm%odkh Yla;su;a lrkakg yd hym;aldhH_idOkhg mdßf;daI §u msKsi miq-fmdaIKhdka;%Khla ñi ÿn, ldhH_idOkhg o~qjï §fïl%uhla fkdjk nj fuys ,dNd¾Òkag" úfYaIfhkawOHdmk jD;a;Sh ix.ïj,g oekqï§u 2& wod<jD;a;Sh ix.ï we;=¿ Wm,íêlhka iuÕ iómidlÉPd uÕska .=re fiajh" wOHdmk mßmd,kfiajh" úÿy,am;s fiajh" .=re wOHdmk WmfoaYlfiajh jeks úúO wOHdmk fiajdj,g ldhH_idOkwe.hSï l%u ms<sfh< lsÍu yd 3& ldhH_idOkwe.hSï l%u md,kh lsÍu;a Ndú;h;a wrnhdwOHdmk wdh;kj, yd wOHdmk mßmd,lhkaf.a;dlaIKsl yelshdj ÈhqKq lsÍu hk ;=kh'

66' wdjYHl fiajdjka úfYaI fldgldhH_idOkhg wkqn, jYfhka uQ,H §ukdl%uhla y÷kajd§u o M,odhS fm%arlhla jkq we;'ksoiqkla jYfhka" ÿIalr m<d;aj, wi;=gqodhl.=re ia:dk.; lsÍï o .=rejreka mdi,gfkdmeñKsu wêl ùuo wOHdmk moaO;sh ;=<ldhH_laIu fiajd m%odkh wjysr lrhs' ;jo" ÿ¾j,.=re m;aùï l%uh ÿmam;a isiqka flfrys b;dwidOdrK f,i n,mdhs' .=rejrekaf.afkdmeñKsï wêl ckm%sh fkdjQ m%foaY isß;lafuka ¥ria:" wd¾Ól wxYfhka iïm;a-ySk .%dóhm%foaY jk fyhska ÿ¾j, .=re m;aùï l%uhln,mEu È<s÷ isiqka fj; úIudkqmd;slj jefghs'.=rejrekag m;aúï kshu lsÍu;a ffokslmeñKsu;a jvd id¾:l lsÍu msKsi ÿIalrm%foaYj, ia:dk.; jQ .=rejrekag uQ,H wkqn,§fï fhdackd [NEC ^2003& n,kak] rch úiskal%shdjg keÕsh yelsh' óg w;sf¾lj" .=rejrekaf.affoksl fkdmeñKsï wvq lrkq msKsi Tjqka ,ndfkd.;a ksjdvq uqo,aj,g yerùfï jrm%idoh Èhyelsh' ldhH_idOkhg uqo,a wkqn, §ug m%OdkndOdj jkafka jehdêl wNskj m%;sm;a;s mshjrj<lajk rcfha wh-jeh ÿn,;djhs' tfia jqj;a"wOHdmk moaO;sh ;=< msßjeh b;=re lsÍï ksmehqj

S 20

yels kï" tfia ,nd.;a iïm;a iuyrla fujkaldhH_idM,H;d wkqn, mshjrj,g fjka l<yelsfõ'

wOHdmk moaO;sh ;=< N+ñld" j.lSï ydhq;=lïNdrh iqix.; lsÍu

67' wOHdmk fiajd iïmdokh jeäÈhqKq lsÍumsKsi fhdað; Wmdh fndfyduhlgu uOHuwud;HdxYfha;a" m%dfoaYSh iNdj,;a" l,dmShldhH_d,j,;a rcfha ks,OdÍkag wNskj ydw;sf¾l N+ñld yd j.lSï oeÍug;a Tjqkaf.awe;eï j¾;udk n,;, iuyrla mdi,a" cd;slwOHdmk mSG yd .=re uOHia:dk jeks bÈß fmf<afiajd iïmdol wdh;kj,g mejÍug;a isÿfõ' fïúuOH.; lsÍfï yd m%dfoaYSh wdh;kj,g n,hmejÍfï l%shdj,sh mj;soa§ j¾;udk j.lSfï ydhq;=lïNdrfha rgdj o wkd.;fha§ wjYH wdlD;so ie,ls,af,ka úYaf,aIKh l< hq;=h'

uOHu" m%dfoaYSh yd l,dmSh wOHdmk wêldÍkaf.audkj iïm;a ixj¾Okh

68' uOHu" m%dfoaYSh yd l,dmSh uÜgïj,nyqúO mßmd,k ia;r iys; ixlS¾K wOHdmkmßmd,k moaO;sh Wfoid tla-tla ia;rfhys jevlrk ks,OdÍka mßmd,k" ;dlaIKsl ydfufyhqï wxYhkays mq¿,a mrdihl l=i,;dj,skayd ksmqK;dj,ska iukaú; úh hq;=h' uOHu"m%dfoaYSh yd l,dmSh wOHdmk ks,OdÍka wjYHmßmd,k" ;dlaIKsl yd fufyhqï l=i,;dj,skayd ksmqK;dj,ska ikakoaO lsÍu msKsi wOHdmkmoaO;sfha úúO ia;r yryd iuia; udkj iïm;aWmdh ud¾.hla ilid l%shdjg keÕSu wjYHh' Bgw;sf¾lj" ;dlaIKsl yd fufyhqï l=i,;djeäÈhqKq ù jefv;au" fujka l+i,;d ydksmqK;d ks;sm;d wLKavj hdj;a-ld,Sk lsÍugwjldY o fï Wmdh ud¾.fhys we;=<;a úh hq;=h'

uOHu" m%dfoaYSh yd l,dmSh wOHdmk wêldÍkawdh;kslj Yla;su;a lsÍu

69' uOHu" m%dfoaYSh yd l,dmSh wOHdmkwêldÍkaf.a fufyhqï l%shdj,s" olaIlï ydldhH_idOkh Yla;su;a lsÍu wkd.;fha §wOHdmk ie,iqï iE§u" mßmd,kh yd fiajdiïmdokh hk wxYj, .=Kd;aulNdjhg;aldhH_laIu;djg;a úmq,;r j odhl jkq we;'f,dal nexl=j" wdishdkq ixj¾Ok nexl=j jeksm%odhlhkaf.ka wkqn, ,o ixfYdaOk we;=¿j

uE;l§ .;a m%;sm;a;s mshjßka yd ixj¾Okfm%arlj,ska ,enqKq mdvï ;=<ska hqyqj wdh;ksljYla;su;a l< hq;= m%Odk wxY .ek bÕshla ,efí'

mßmd,kuh l%shdj,s l%u.; lsÍu

70' uOHu" m%dfoaYSh yd l,dmSh wOHdmkldhH_d,j, mßmd,kuh l%shdj,s b;d §¾>jQyeisrùu ÿIalr jQ uÕl hk fyhska fufyhqïlghq;= fnfyúka m%udo fõ' fï m%udoj,g tlam%Odk fya;=jla jkafka ,sms f,aLk" ,sms f.dkq"jd¾;d ;eîï yd NdKav f,aLk md,kh jekslghq;= we;=¿ jeo.;a mßmd,kuh l¾;jHhkai|yd h,a mskQ ldhsl Wml%u fhdod .ekSuh'ks;sm;d isß;a mßÈ flfrk idudkH mßmd,kl¾;jHhka i|yd mß.Kl.; fufyhqï moaO;sieliSu rcfha fufyhqïj, ldhH_laIu;djfndfydaÿrg jeälrkq we;'

imhd .ekSfï yelshd Yla;su;a lsÍu

71' cd;Hka;r m%ñ;Skag wkql+,j weKjqï,shlshú,s flgqïm;a lsÍu" ;dlaIKsl ñkqï iSudms<sfh< lsÍu" fhdackdj,s we.hSu" ;dlaIKslwe.hqï jd¾;d yd fgkav¾ uKav, ks¾foaYieliSu wdÈfhys§ rcfha ks,OdÍkaf.a yelshdiSñ;h' fuys m%;sM,h jkafka imhd .ekSï i|yd§¾> ld,hla .;ùuh' tneúka" rcfhaks,OdÍkaf.a imhd .ekSfï yelshd Yla;su;a lsÍuwkd.; wdh;ksl ixj¾Okh msKsi fhda.Hjeo.;a wxYhls'

foaYmd,k wd¾Ól ndOdj,g uqyqK §u

72' újdodmkak jqj;a jeo.;a jQ m%;sm;a;s mshjrms<sn| jQ fya;+ hqla;sh ,dNd¾Òkag ydWm,íê,dNSkag fmkajd§ ixfYdaOk ldhH_hkag ta,dNd¾Òkaf.A iyNd.s;ajh fhdod .eksfï § rcfhaÿ¾j,;ajh fudkjg meyeÈ,s fõ' ksoiqklajYfhka" 1998-2002 ld,fha§ rch úiska l%shdjgkeÕ+ mdi,a m%;sixúOdk jevigyk kshñ;b,lalfhka 75]la id¾:l úh' ixLHd;aulj thid¾:l m%;sixúOdkhla jQfhah' tfy;a" ;shqKqújdohg ,lajQ th .ek uOHu" m%dfoaYSh ydl,dmSh wOHdmk wêldÍka m%dfoaYSh m%cdjg fïjevigyfka fya;= hqla;sh myod§ug wiu;ajQfhkath 2003§ ;djld,slj keje;aùug isÿúh'tfukau f;dard.ekSfï wjldY mq¿,a lr .=KhÈhqKq lsÍu msKsi rch werUQ nyqúO fm<-fmd;am%;sm;a;sho oeä úfõpkhg md;% jQ fyhska th

S 21

l%shdjg keÕSu jir lsysmhlau m%udo úh' tjr ouOHu" m%dfoaYSh yd l,dmSh wOHdmk wêldÍkagfï m%;sm;a;sh id¾:lj myod §fï yelshdjfkd;snqfKah' tfiau" iuia;hla jYfhka rfÜmdi,a .=re w;sßla;hla ;sfí' we;eï úIhhkays--úfYaIfhka bx.%Sisfhys yd fou< udOHfhys .=reysÕhla we;;a" iuia;j rfÜ mdi,aj, .=rew;sßla;hla mj;S' tfia jqj;a" wksl=;a foa owe;=¿j /lshd úrys; W.;a ;reK fmf<ka tkn,mEu wvq lsÍu wruqKq lrf.k ;jÿrg.=rejreka n|jd .ekSug m%n, n,mEï t,a,jkqfmfkhs' fuys,d o rcfha wêldÍka fïn,mEïj,g uq¿ukskau Tfrd;a;= § ke;' tneúka"újdodmkak ùug bv we;s m%;sm;a;s mshjr wrnhdfya;=-hqla;s myod ,dNd¾Òkaf.a iydh ,nd.ekSfï yelshdj tla tla md,k ia;rfha rcfhawOHdmk wêldÍka ;=< Yla;su;a lsÍu wkd.;wdh;ksl Yla;sh jeälsÍfuys,d ;SrKd;auljjeo.;a wxYhla jkafkah'

wOHdmk m¾fhaIK yd úYaf,aIK" m%;sm;a;siïmdokh yd ie,iqïlrKh Ndr .ekSfï yelshdj¾Okh

73' úYaf,aIK" m%;sm;a;s iïmdok ydie,iqïlrK uÜgfuys,d" úfYaIfhkau WiiaidOk we;s wOHdmk moaO;shla j¾Okh lsÍugodhl jk m%Odk fm%arl ;=kla ;sfí'

wOHdmk m¾fhaIK" wfõlaIKh yd we.hSu Wiia;;a;ajhg kexùu

74' ixLHd úoHd;aulj j,x.= l%shdj,s yd ñkshyels o¾Yl mdol lr.;a id¾: m¾fhaIK"wfõlaIKh yd we.hSu wOHdmk m%;sm;a;siïmdolhkag w;sYfhka w.fkah' ÈhqKq wOHdmkmoaO;sj, bf.kqï m%;s,dN ms<sn| cd;sl we.hSuwe;=¿j úYaf,aIKsh j oeä jQ wOHdmk m¾fhaIKyd we.hSfï l%shdj,s wOHdmk m%;sm;a;siïmdokfha moku jkafkah' jd¾Isl mdi,aix.Kkh" cd;sl wOHdmk m¾fhaIK yd we.hSïfldñiu fyj;a NEREC úiska l< 4 fYa%Ksfhabf.kqï m%;s,dN ;lafiarej yd tu fldñiuúiskau meje;a jQ wOHdmk l<ukdlrKNdú;hka ms<sn| .=Kd;aul wOHhkh jeksM,odhS fm%arl lsysmhla ful, Y%S ,xld wOHdmkmoaO;sfhys olakg ,efí' fï fm%arl idrj;a ydúia;rd;aul wfõlaIK yd we.hSï rduqjlgmoku imhhs' fï wOHdmk m¾fhaIK" wfõlaIK

yd we.hSï moaO;sh wOHdmk idOkh yd m%;sm;a;sksuejqu i|yd jevodhS jQ fya;=ldrl idOlúYaf,aIKh flfrys úfYaI wjOdrKh we;sjÈhqKq l< yels fõ' wOHdmk m¾fhaIK"wfõlaIK yd we.hSï lghq;=j,§ m%udKd;aul yd.=Kd;aul hk l%u folu Ndú; lsÍug;am¾fhaIKd;aul ie,iqï" wyUq.; m%h;ak ydisria iólaIK jeks kQ;k m¾fhaIK Ys,amSh l%ufhdod .ekSug;a Wkkaÿjla we;súh hq;=h'

uOHu-ld,Sk wh-jeh ieliSu yd nyq-jd¾Islie,iqïlrK o¾Ykhla

75' wOHdmk ie,iqïlrKh yd iïm;al<ukdlrKh ÈhqKq lsÍfuys,d jeo.;afm%arlhla kï" nyq-jd¾Isl ie,iqï iE§u myiqlrjk uOHu-ld,Sk wh-jeh rduqjla ilid.ekSuh' uOHu-ld,Sk wh-jeh jir ;=kl muKld,hla wdjrKh lrk w;r" wNskj f;dr;=reyd wjYH;d fj; ie,ls,a, oelaùu msKsijd¾Islj hdj;a-ld,Sk lsÍug bv o ;eìh hq;=h'uOHu-ld,Sk wh-jeh wOHdmk ixj¾Okh i|ydjQ §¾>-ld,Sk m%j¾;k ie,iqula ;=< o we;=¿ l<yelsh' fuh iïm;a ms<sn| mq¾j-{dkh ;shqKq lrrcfha j¾;udk jd¾Isl wh-jefhka ie,fikjdgjvd §¾>-ld,Sk ixj¾Ok oDIaá m:hla ilidwOHdmk ie,iqïlrKh;a l<ukdlrKh;a myiqlrhs'

rdcH úhoï wkqne÷u

76' rdcH úhoï wkqne|Sfï moaO;shla wOHdmkm%;sm;a;s iïmdolhkag;a uQ,H ks,OdÍkag;ajeo.;a l<ukdlrK fuj,ula ù uOHu-ld,Skwh-jeh f,aLk moaO;shg wkqmQrlhla o jkafkah'fï uÕska wOHdmk moaO;sh ;=< uqo,a .,dhdu ydmdi,a" úYaj úoHd," cd;sl wOHdmk mSG yd .=reuOHia:dk jeks úúO fiajd iïmdol wdh;kfj; hk ;:H iïm;a uÜgu ms<sn| f;dr;=reuOHu rchg;a" m%dfoaYSh wdh;kj,g;a imhkqwe;' ;jo" th moaO;sh yryd iïm;a .,d hdfïúksúoNdjh ;shqKq lrkq we;' wOHdmk ixj¾OkwjYH;d u;= fj;au o uOHu rcfha ie,iqï ydm%dfoaYSh ie,iqï úYo fj;au o fujka f;dr;=rem%;sm;a;s iïmdokhg;a iïm;a fjkalsÍug;amiqfmjqula jYfhka l%shd lrhs'

S 22

T 1

epUthfr; RUf;fk;

xU ghHit> Kf;fpakhd Ma;T

KbTfSk; vjpHfhyj;jpw;fhd njhpTfSk;

mwpKfk;

1. ,yq;ifapd; fy;tp KiwikahdJ

Muk;g kw;Wk; ,ilepiyf; fy;tpf;fhd

tha;g;Gf;fis gutyhf toq;Ftjpy; fz;l

ntw;wpf;fhfTk; Fiwepiy tUkhd

ehnlhd;wpNy caHkl;lj;jpyhd

kdpjtpUj;jpia mile;Jnfhz;likf;fhfTk;

mgptpUj;jprhH nfhs;ifnewpf; FOf;fshYk;

nghUshjhu Vl;Lj;njhFjpfshYk;

Nghw;wg;gLfpd;wJ. 1990 fspd; Muk;gfhyk;

tiuapy; ,yq;ifahdJ rfy

mgptpUj;jpaile;JtUk; ehLfspilNa

jyhtUkhdk; njhlHghd caHe;j mbg;gilr;

r%f mgptpUj;jpapd; gyhgyd;fis

mDgtpj;Jf; nfhz;lJ. ,j;jifa

ngWNgWfs; fy;tp> Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; Vida

r%f Nritfspy; gy jiyKiwfshf

je;jpNuhgha Kiwapy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l

nghJf;nfhs;ifj; jPHkhdq;fspd;

tpisthFk;. 1930 fspYk; 1940 fspYk;

fy;tpKiwapd; mbg;gil mikg;gpid

cUthf;Ftjpy; <Lgl;l ,yq;ifapd;

nfhs;if cUthf;FNthH jkJ fhyj;ijAk;

fle;J Kf;fpakhd nghUshjhu kw;Wk; r%f

ed;ikfis gutyhf cUthf;Ftjpy; kdpj

%yjdj;ij ek;gpf;ifA+l;Lk; xU KjyPlhf

fUjpdH.

2. mjp];ltrkhf fle;j 50

Mz;Lfhykhf> ehl;bd; nghUshjhug;

ngWNgWfs; fy;tprhH mgptpUj;jpapYk;

ghHf;fg; gpd;jq;fpaikahy; fy;tp Kiwapy;

gy gpujp$ykhd tpisTfs; Njhd;wpd.

ehl;bd; twpa nghUshjhu tsHr;rp

fhuzkhf> fhyg;Nghf;fpy; ,yq;ifahdJ

kpfj;Jhpjkhf tsHr;rp ngWk; ehLfshd

njd;nfhhpah> rpq;fg;G+H> n`hq;n`hq;>

kNyrpah kw;Wk; jha;yhe;J Nghd;w

ehLfs;Nghy fy;tpapy; NghjpasT KjyPL

nra;Ak; tskpd;wp ,Ue;jJ. NkYk;

fy;tpfw;w njhopyhsUf;fhd Nfs;tpapy;

cz;lhd nkJthd tsHr;rp>

njhopw;re;ijapy; GFk; fw;w,isQHfspd;

epuk;gYld; nghUe;Jk; tifapy;

Nghjpastpy; tphpthf;fk; ngwj;jtwptpl;lJ.

,J fw;w,isQH Ntiyapd;ikg;

gpur;ridia epiyj;jpUf;fr; nra;jJ.

jw;fhy ,yq;ifapy; fy;tpf;nfhs;if

cUthf;FNthH> ehl;bd; ,oe;j fy;tp

mD$yq;fisAk; gpur;ridfisAk;

mwpthHfs;. mjd; tpisthf

mz;ikf;fhyj;jpy; fy;tpahdJ kf;fspd;

MHtj;jpw;Fupa> tpthjj;jpw;Fhpa kw;Wk;

nfhs;if mgptpUj;jpf;Fhpa Jiwahf

cUthapw;W. [ghHf;f NEC (1997)> (2003)]

mgptpUj;jpf; nfhs;if khjphpfs;

njhlHghd fy;tp xOq;fikg;G.

3. ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpKiwahdJ ,uz;L

Kf;fpakhd tplaq;fspNy gioa

Kiwapyhd mgptpUj;jpf; nfhs;ifiag;

gpd;gw;wpaJ. Kjyhtjhf> mur

epjpaPl;lq;fspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpidAk;> Muk;g

kw;Wk; ,ilepiyf; fy;tpia

KOr;rdj;njhiff;F toq;FtijAk;

typAWj;jpw;W. 1930 fspYk; 1940 fspYk;

,lk;ngw;w ,j;jifa Nehf;Fila

typAWj;jy;fs;> mf;fhyr; re;jjpapdUf;Fj;

Njitahd mstpypUe;Jk; Kd;Ndhf;fpajhf

mike;jd. ,uz;lhtjhf> ,yq;ifahdJ

%d;whk; epiyf; fy;tpf;F xJf;fpa mur

tsq;fis kl;Lg;gLj;jpaJld; Muk;g kw;Wk;

,ilepiy tl;lq;fSf;fhd

Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijAk; nfhLj;jJ. ,j;jifa

nfhs;iffspd; gyhgyd;fis mLj;Jte;j

re;jjpapdh; mDgtpj;Jf; nfhz;ldH. Muk;gf;

fy;tpailTfSk;> Muk;g Rfhjhu

tpisTfSk; r%f mgptpUj;jpf;

Fwpfhl;bfSk; caH kj;jpa tUkhd

kl;lj;jpw;Fk; tsHr;rpaile;j ehLfSf;Fk;

mz;kpajhf ,Ue;jd.

4. ,yq;ifAk; mjd; gioa

KiwapypUe;J xU Kf;fpakhd tplaj;jpy;

NtWgl;bUe;jJ. xd;W njhlf;fk; xd;gjhk;

juk; tiuapyhd jdpahH ghlrhiyfspd;

cUthf;fk; 1960 fspd; Muk;gj;jpy;

jilnra;ag;gl;bUe;jJ. ,j;jifa rl;l

hPjpahd jil ,d;Wtiu

eilKiwapYs;sJ. ghlrhiyfis

cUthf;Ftjidr; rl;lhPjpahf jLj;J

epWj;Jk; ehLfs; rpytw;Ws; ,yq;ifAk;

xd;whf mlq;Fk;. Vida FiwtUkhd

ehLfSk; muRfSk; mtw;wpd; caH

Muk;gf;fy;tp milTfspdhy;

gpugy;akile;j ehLfshd Nfh];Nlhwpf;fh

kw;Wk; ,e;jpahtpYs;s Nfuskhepyk;

Nghd;wit ngUksTf;Fj; jdpahH

JiwapNyNa jq;fpAs;sd. Nfusj;jpy;>

cjhuzkhf ghlrhiyr; NrHtpy;

miuthrpf;F Nkw;gl;ltHfs; jdpahH

ghlrhiyfspNyNa cs;sdH.

,yq;ifapd; murpaw; nghUshjhu

epiyikfs;$l> ntspg;gilahd

rl;lhPjpahd jilfs; ,y;yhjpUe;Jk;

jdpahH gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; KjyPL

nra;tjidr; rhj;jpakhf;fpaJ. MapDk;>

1990 fspypUe;J jdpahH gl;lq;fis kl;Lk;

toq;Fk; epWtdq;fis cUthf;Fjy;

rhj;jpakhapw;W. vdpDk; mit

gy;fiyf;fofk; vd;w ngaiug;

ngw;wpUf;ftpy;iy. ,yq;ifapd;

fy;tpKiwapy; KiwrhH jdpahH

gy;fiyf;fofq;fisj; jLj;jyhdJ> njd;

nfhhpah Nghd;w cyfpy; cah;

tpidahw;wy; nfhz;l rpy ehLfs;

gpd;gw;Wk; khjphpapypUe;J tpyfpapUe;jJ.

mit mur tsq;fis Muk;g kw;Wk;

mbg;gilf;fy;tpapYk; mjidj; njhlHe;J

,ilepiyf; fy;tpapYk; <LgLj;Jk;

mNjNtisapy; gy;fiyf;foff; fy;tpiag;

ngUksTf;F jdpahHJiwf;F tpl;Ls;sd.

mz;ikf; fhyj;jpy; ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpf;

nfhs;ifia cUthf;FNthH jdpahH

gy;fiyf;fofq;fisAk; jdpahH

ghlrhiyfisAk; mDkjpf;Fk; rl;lq;fis

,izg;gjw;Fg; ghpe;Jiu

nra;Js;sd.[ghHf;f NEC (1997 - 2003)] ,J

topia khw;wpaikf;Fk; gupe;Jiuahf

cs;sJ> ,J eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;lhy;

fy;tpKiwapYs;s gpujhd Rakhfj;

jpzpf;fg;gl;l jlq;fy; ePf;fg;gLtJld;

,yq;ifahdJ Vida ehLfSld;

kpff;$Ljyhd mstpYk; Nghl;baplKbAk;.

Ml;NrHTf; Nfhyq;fSk; nry;newpfSk;

fl;lhaf; fy;tp tl;lk; (juk; 1 - 9)

5. Kjyhk; juj;jpy; Njwpa NrHTtPjk;

Mz;fSk; ngz;fSk; Vwf;Fiwa 97%MFk;. mj;Jld; Vwf;Fiwa vy;yhg;

gps;isfSk; juk; 5 ,idg; g+Hj;jp

nra;fpd;wdH. fl;lhaf; fy;tp tl;lj;jpd;

Kbtpy;> juk; 9 ,y;> g+Hj;jp nra;Ak; tPjkhdJ

Mz;fspy; 81% khfTk; ngz;fspy; 84%khfTk; cs;sJ. caHMuk;gf; fy;tp (juk; 1-

5) ,ilepiyf;fy;tp (juk; 6-9) NrHTtPjkhdJ

gy $l;L kw;Wk; gu];gu kPstypAWj;jy;

nfhs;iffshd gpd;jq;fpa khztHfSf;fhd

tpN\l fy;tp epfo;r;rpj; jpl;lq;fs;> ,ytr

ghlE}y;fs;> ,ytr rPUil kw;Wk; khdpa

mbg;gilapyhd Nghf;Ftuj;J> fy;tpf;Fhpa

tYthd tPl;Lj;Njit vd;gdtw;wpd;

tpisthFk;. ,yq;ifahdJ vy;NyhUf;Fk;

fl;lhaf; fy;tp vd;w ,yf;fpid

milatpy;iy vd;gjidr; rhd;Wfs;

vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wd. 18% khd gps;isfs;

juk; 9 ,id epiwTnra;tjpy;

jtwptpLfpd;wdH. ,jdhy;> 6-14 tajpw;F

,ilg;gl;l rfy gps;isfSf;Fk; 9 tUlf;

fy;tpia toq;Fk; ,yf;fpid miltjpy;

fzprkhd rthy; ,d;Dk; epyTfpwJ. NkYk;

,d;DnkhU Kf;fpakhd epahaj;jd;ikg;

gpur;rid cs;sJ. twpa FLk;gq;fs;>

gpd;jq;fpa fpuhkpag;Gwq;fs;> gpzf;Ffshy;

ghjpf;fg;gl;l gFjpfs; kw;Wk;

ngUe;Njhl;lj;Jiw Nghd;w gpd;jq;fpa

Gtpapaw; gpuNjrq;fs; my;yJ Mw;wy;

Fiwe;j kw;Wk;; FiwghLila gps;isfs;

18% jpdH 9 Mk; juj;jpidg; G+Hj;jp nra;aj;

jtwptpLfpd;wdH. ,j;jifa tpLgl;l r%f -

T 2

nghUshjhuf; FOf;fspd; G+uz NrHT kw;Wk;

fl;lhaf; fy;tp tl;lj;ijg; G+uzg;gLj;jy;

vd;w ,yf;fpidAk; miltjw;F tYthd

nfhs;ifr; nraw;ghLfs; mtrpakhfpd;wd.

rpNu\;l ,ilepiyf; fy;tp> f.ngh.j rhjhuz

juk; kw;Wk; f.ngh.j caHju tl;lq;fs;

6. rpNu\;l ,ilepiy tl;lj;jpy;

ghlrhiyg; G+Hj;jp tPjkhdJ> Fiwe;j

jpUg;jpiaNa jUfpwJ. f.ngh.j rhjhuz ju

(juk; 11) f.ngh.j caHjug; (juk;

13)ghPl;irfspyhd rpj;jp tPjKk; xg;gPl;lstpy;

Fiwthf cs;sJ. f.ngh.j rhjhuz jug;

ghPl;irapy; ruhrhpr; rpj;jp tPjk; 37 MFk;.

xt;nthU 3 ghPl;rhj;jpf;Fk; Vwf;Fiwa

xUtNu f.ngh.j rhjhuz jug; ghPl;iria

ntw;wpfukhfg; G+Hj;jp; nra;fpd;whH. ehl;bd;

kpf twpa kw;Wk; kpfg;gpd;jq;fpa

gpuNjrq;fshd tlfpof;F> tlkj;jpa> Cth

kw;Wk; kj;jpa khfhzq;fspd; rpj;jptPjk; 31%- 32% w;Fk; ,ilapYs;sJ. kpftskhd>

Kd;Ndwpa Nky; khfhzkhdJ Vida

Gtpapay; gpuNjrq;fspd; kj;jpapy; f.ngh.j

rhjhuz juj;jpy; 48% j;jpid ngw;Ws;sJ.

,q;F xt;nthU ,uz;L ghPl;rhj;jpf;Fk; xUth;

ghPl;iria ntw;wpfukhfg; G+Hj;;jp nra;fpd;whH.

f.ngh.j caHjug; ghPl;irapy; ruhrhpr; rpj;jp

tPjk; 56% MFk;. ,g;ghPl;irapYk; ,uz;L

khztHfSf;F xUtH rpj;jpailfpd;whH. ,J

Fiwe;j gf;fj;jpy; cs;sJ vd;ifapy;>

f.ngh.j caHju tl;lj;jpD}lhf rpwe;j

khztHfNs jg;gpj;Jf;nfhs;fpd;whHfs;.

khfhzhPjpahfg; ghHf;Fk;NghJ rpj;jptPjk;

Xustpw;F xj;jj; jd;ikahdjhf ,Ug;gJld;

Cth khfhzj;jpy; 52% njhlf;fk; tlNkw;F

kw;Wk; tlfpof;F khfhzq;fspy; 58% tiu

NtWgLfpd;wJ. Xg;gPl;lstpy; f.ngh.j

caHjug; ghPl;irr; rpj;jptPjk; ehlhshtpa

hPjpapy; xj;jjd;ikahff; fhzg;gLtjw;F

,uz;L Kf;fpakhd fhuzpfs; gq;fspg;Gr;

nra;Js;sd. (1) rfy khfhzq;fspYk;

jukhd ,ilepiyf; fy;tp

tiyg;gpd;dyikg;ig cWjpnra;Ak;

nfhs;if Mf;fq;fs;. (2) njhptpw;Fhpa

tpisTfs;: f.ngh.j caHju tl;lj;jpy;

cs;s khztHfs;> mtuJ taJg;gphptpdUs;

kpfTk; Mw;wy; tha;e;jtHfshf cs;sdH.

7. f.ngh.j rhjhuz juk; kw;Wk; f.ngh.j

caHjur; rpj;jptPjq;fspd; fhyr;

nry;newpahdJ> fle;j 10 Mz;Lfhyj;jpy;>

f.ngh.j rhjhuzju rpj;jptPjj;jpy;

Kd;Ndw;wq;fs; cs;sd vd;gjidAk;>

Mdhy; f.ngh.j caHjuj;jpd; rpj;jp tPjk;

ngUk;ghYk; khwhky; ,Ug;gjidAk; vLj;Jf;

fhl;Lfpd;wd. f.ngh.j rhjhuz jur;

rpj;jptPjq;fs; 1993 ,y; 22% ,Ue;J 2002 ,y;

37% khf caHe;Js;sd. ,tw;Ws; mNefkhd

Kd;Ndw;wq;fs; 1990 fspd; eLf;$w;wpd;

gpw;gFjpapy; epfo;e;Js;sd. f.ngh.j caHju

tl;lj;jpy; rpj;jptPjq;fs; 1994 f;Fk; 2002 w;Fk;

,ilg;gl;l fhyj;jpy; kpf caHe;j tUlkhd

1995 ,idAk; kpff; Fiwe;j tUlkhd 1999

IAk; jtpu Vwf;Fiwa xUrPuhf ,Ue;Js;sd.

,yq;ifapd; nfhs;if cUthf;FNthH>

ehlhdJ fy;tpj;juj;jpid mjpfhpg;gjw;fhd

rthiy vjpHNehf;Ffpd;wJ vd;gjid

mq;fPfhpg;gJld;> f.ngh.j rhjhuzjuk; kw;Wk;

f.ngh.j caHjug; ghPl;rhj;jpfSf;fhd

juhjuq;fis miltjw;Fk; khztHfis

Maj;jk; nra;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

%d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpapy; NrHT

8. jFjp ngw;w rdj;njhifapy;

Vwf;Fiwa 11% %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpapy;

cs;s NrHTtPjkhFk;. ,J njd;dhrpahtpd;

ruhrhpapYk; (10%) ghHf;fr; rw;Wf;

$LjyhdJ. ,e;jpah> nkhwf;Nfh>

tpal;ehk;> nkhwp]pa]; Nghd;w ehLfSf;F

Vwf;Fiwa ,izahfTKs;sJ.

njd;nfhhpah> rpq;fg;G+H> n`hq;nfhq;>

kNyrpah kw;Wk; jha;yhe;J Nghd;w ehLfs;

,yq;ifapd; jw;Nghija nghUshjhu

mgptpUj;jp epiyf;Fr; rkdhf ,Ue;j

fhyj;jpy; me;ehLfSf;F ,izahfTk;

,Ue;jJ. %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpr;

NrHTtPjj;jpd; gpujhd tpfpjk; cs;ehl;Lg;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fSf;F ntspapYs;s

fw;if newpfspYk; KiwrhH njhopEl;gf;

fy;Y}hpfspYk; Vwf;Fiw 6% khFk;.

,t;thwhd khztHfs; jfty; njhopEl;gk;

(IT)> Kfhikj;Jtk;> fzf;fpay;>

re;ijg;gLj;jy;> rl;lk;> tHj;jfKk; epjpAk;

Nghd;w jdpahH JiwapYs;s gy;tifg;gl;l

njhopd;ikf; fw;ifnewpfspy; my;yJ

Nkiyehl;Lg; gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; NrHe;J

nfhs;fpd;wdH. gy;fiyf;fofr; NrHTtPjk;

Vwf;Fiwa 3%; caHju njhopEl;gf;fy;tp

NrHTtPjk; Vwf;Fiwa 2% Vwf;Fiwa 70%khd %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tp NrHTtPjk;

jdpahH Jiwapy; cs;sJld; kpFjp

T 3

nghJj;JiwapYk; cs;sJ.

%d;whk;epiyapy; jdpahH Jiwapyhd

NrHTtPjk; caH epiyapy; ,Ug;gJ> Muk;g

kw;Wk; ,ilepiyapypUe;J

NtWgl;bUj;jYld;> %d;whk;epiyapy;

jdpahH KjyPlhdJ rl;lhPjpahfj;

jilnra;ag;gltpy;iy vd;w nfhs;ifr;

rl;lfnkhd;wpw;Ff; fw;gpjk;

$WtjhfTs;sJ. mz;ika fhyq;fspy;

%d;whk;epiyf; fy;tpapy; cs;s NrHtpy;

fhyr;nry;newp vLj;Jf;fhl;LtJ ahnjdpy;

NrHTtPjkhdJ 1997 ,y; 8% ,ypUe;J 2002

,y; 11% khf caHe;Js;sJ vd;gjhFk;.

1997 - 2002 ,ilg;gl;l fhyj;jpy;

%d;whk;epiyf; fy;tpr; NrHTtPjk;

Vwf;Fiwa 38% khf tphptile;jJ. ,t;

tsHr;rptPjkhdJ kpf mz;ikf;fhyj;jpy;

jdpahHJiw %d;whk;epiyf;

fy;tpepiyaq;fspy; JhpjkhfTs;sJ.

fy;tpapy; KjyPL nra;tjdhy;

cz;lhFk; nghUshjhu kw;Wk;

r%fed;ikfs;.

Gwepiy tpisjpwDk; fy;tpf;Fhpa tpisT

tPjKk;

9. fy;tpapy; KjyPL nra;jy; ,yq;ifapy;

caH kdpj KjyPL> Cjpak;> Kd;Ndw;wkhd

njhopy;rhH milTfSk; r%f efHTk;>

mjpfhpj;j ngz;fs; Ntiyg;gilg; gq;Nfw;G>

caHe;j FLk;g Rfhjhu epiy> kw;Wk;

Foe;ijg; Ngh\hf;F tpisTfs; cs;spl;l

thpirahd nghUshjhu> r%f ed;ikfis

cUthf;FfpwJ. fy;tpf;fhd r%f

tpisTtPjk; caHthdJ. Fwpg;ghf fl;lha

mbg;gil kw;Wk; rpNu\;l ,ilepiyf;fy;tp

epiyfspy; caHthfTs;sJ. Mz;fs;

kj;jpapy;> rpNu\;l ,ilepiyf;fy;tp epiyapy;

fy;tpf;fhd r%f tpisTtPjk; 20% MFk;.

mj;Jld; ,J fl;lha Muk;gf;fy;tpapy; 15%MFk;. ngz;fs; kj;jpapy;> fy;tpf;fhd r%f

tpisTtPjk; fl;lhaf; fy;tp epiyapy; 20%khfTk; rpNu\;l ,ilepiyapy; 18% khfTk;

fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. fl;lha mbg;gilepiyapYk;

rpNu\;l ,ilepiyapYk; fhzg;gLk;

caHtpisTfshdJ ,yq;if ,e;j

epiyfspy; Fiwthf KjyPL nra;fpwJ

vd;gjid vLj;Jf;fhl;LfpwJ. Gwtakhd

tpisTfshd Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; Ngh\hf;F

ed;ikfs; Muk;g kw;Wk; ,ilepiyf;fy;tp

fw;w jha;khhpilapy; tYthfTs;sJ.

%d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpahdJ> jdpahSf;Fhpa

caH jdpahH tpisTfisg; gpwg;gpf;fpd;wJ.

,J Mz;fspy; 26% khfTk; ngz;fspy; 24%khfTk; cs;sJ. MapDk; %d;whk;

epiyf;fy;tpf;fhd r%f tpisTfs;

Mz;fspy; 11% khfTk; ngz;fspy; 10%khfTk; fhzg;gLjy; jdpahs; tpisTfSk;

fzprkhd mstpy; Fiwthf ,Ug;gJld;

fl;lha kw;Wk; rpNu\;l ,ilepiyf;

fy;tpapYk; ghHf;f FiwthfTk; cs;sJ.

fy;tp> epahaj;jd;ik kw;Wk; tWikf;Fiwg;G

10. fy;tpahdJ tWikf;Fiwg;gpYk;

twpNahhpd; nghUshjhu eyd;fspYk;

rf;jptha;e;j ghjpg;ig cz;Lgz;Zfpd;wJ.

FLk;gj;jiythpd; my;yJ gpujhd tUkhdk;

<l;Lgthpd; fy;tpepiy caUk;NghJ

FLk;gj;jpd; tWiktPjk; ntFthf

tPo;r;rpailfpwJ. tWiktPjj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;

Vw;wkhdJ> FLk;gj;jiythpd; my;yJ

gpujhd tUkhdk; <l;Lgthpd; Muk;gf;fy;tp>

f.ngh.j rhjhuzjuk; kw;Wk; f.ngh.j caHju

tl;lj;ijg; g+Hj;jpnra;Ak;nghOJ Jhpjg;

gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. khfhz thhpahf mur fy;tp

%jyPLfspy; caHkl;lj;jpyhd epahaj;jd;ik

epyTfpwJ. fy;tphPjpahfg; gpd;jq;fpa

gpuhe;jpaq;fspy; khztd; xUtDf;fhd

xJf;fPLfs; caHthf fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

ghlrhiyr; NrHT> tuT kw;Wk;

ghlrhiyiag; G+Hj;jpnra;jy; tpN\lkhf

Muk;g kw;Wk; fl;lha mbg;gilf;fy;tp

epiyfspy; fhzg;gLk; gutyhd nfhs;if

eltbf;iffs; gue;jstpyhd ntw;wpia

mDgtpj;jd. mj;Jld; ntFrd kw;Wk;

ntw;wpfukhd nfhs;ifahd epakmbg;gil

myFr; nryT xJf;fPl;Lg; nghwpKiwahdJ

ghlrhiyfSf;Fupa tsq;fisg; gfpHjypy;>

ngUkstpy; epahaj; jd;ikia

cWjpg;gLj;jpaJ. nghUshjhuf;

FOf;fspilNa nghJf;fy;tpr;

nryTfSf;fhd xJf;fPL Muk;g> mbg;gil

kw;Wk; ,ilepiyf;fy;tp epiyfspy; rpy

ed;ikfSld; rhHgstpy; rfy nghUshjhuf;

FOf;fspilNaAk; gfpug;gl;bUe;jJ. MapDk;

%d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpapy; nghJf;fy;tpr;

nryTfspd; Nfhyk; gpd;Ndhf;fpajhf

,Ue;jJld; caH nghUshjhu tFg;gpdH

tpfpjrkdw;w Kiwapy; ed;ikfisAk;

mDgtpj;jdH.

T 4

fw;w ,isQH Ntiyapd;ik

11. mur nfhs;if Mf;FNthH

vjpHnfhs;Sk; gpujhd gpur;rpid

Ntiyaw;w fw;w jdpahl;fs;> Fwpg;ghf

ngz;fshf ,Uj;jyhFk;. Ntiyapd;ik

tPjkhdJ> gy;fiyf;fofg; gl;ljhhpfs;

kj;jpapYk; f.ngh.j rhjhuzjuk;> f.ngh.j

caHjuj;ijg; G+Hj;jpnra;NjhH kj;jpapYk;

caHthfTs;sJ. fw;w Ntiyg;gilapy;

gq;Nfw;gtHfspd; caH Ntiyapd;ik

tPjkhdJ njhopw;re;ijapy; Gjpjhf

EioNthhpd; njhopy;NjLk; fhy

ePl;rpapdhy; cz;lhdJ. ,j;jifa

njhopy;NjLk; fhyePl;rp Fwpg;ghfg;

gy;fiyf;fofg; gl;ljhhpfs; kj;jpapy;

fle;jfhyq;fspy; fzprkhd mstpy; r%f

mikjpapd;ikiaj; Njhw;Wtpj;Js;sJ.

fw;w ,isQhpilNa

caHNtiyapd;ikf;Fk; ePz;lfhy

NtiyNjlYf;Fkhd Kf;fpa fhuzpahf>

nghUshjhuj;jpd; nkJthd tsHr;rptPjk;

,Ue;jJld;> mJ tpiuthf mjpfhpf;Fk;

fw;w ciog;gpw;fhd Nfs;tpiaAk;

jilnra;jJ. njhopw;re;ijap;y; EioAk;

fw;w ,isQhpd; mjpfhpj;JtUk; epuk;giy

cs;thq;FtjidAk; ,J jilnra;jJ.

fw;w ,isQu; Ntiyapd;ikf;fhd

,uz;lhtJ fhuzpahf ghlrhiyiag;

G+Hj;jp nra;Nthupd; ngUf;fj;ijAk; njhopw;

re;ijap;y; Nfs;tpAs;s jpwd;fshd

Mq;fpynkhopia ruskhfg; NgRjy;>kw;Wk;

jfty; njhopEl;gj;jpwd;fisf; Fiwthff;

nfhz;l gl;ljhupfisAk; Fwpg;gplyhk;.

rpy gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; cs;s gl;lg;gbg;G

epfo;r;rpj; jpl;lq;fspd; kpjkhd

juhjuq;fs;>NtiyAyFf;Fj;

jpirKfg;gLj;Jtjpy; fy;tpapd; Nghjhik>

Fwpg;ghFk; rpy mgptpUj;jpj; jpwd;fshf

fl;Lg;ghLila Ntiy xOf;fq;fs;> rpwe;j

FOg;gzp> Mf;fj;jpwd;>

nefpo;r;rpj;jd;ikAk; ,zq;fpr; nry;yYk;>

tpidj;jpwd;kpf;f njhlHghly;> gpur;rpid

jPHj;jy; vd;gtw;iwAk; Fwpg;gplyhk;.

fy;tpapy; mur kw;Wk; jdpahH

KjyPLfs;

12. ,yq;ifapy; mur fy;tpr; nryTfs;

jw;nghOJ tUlhe;jk; Vwf;Fiw 40>000

kpy;ypad; (415 kpy;ypad; If;fpa mnkhpf;f

nlhyH) ,yq;if &ghthFk;. mz;ika

tUlq;fspy;> fy;tpf;fhd ghjPL Njrpa

tUkhdj;jpy; Vwf;Fiw 3 rjtPjkhfTk; mur

nrytpy; 7% - 9% MFk;. xg;gPl;lstpy;> ,J

mgptpUj;jpaile;JtUk; ehLfspd;

juhjuq;fspd;gb> nghJf;fy;tp KjyPl;by;

kpjkhd epiyia vLj;Jf;fhl;LfpwJ.

,yq;ifapy; nghJf;fy;tp KjyPl;bd; kpjkhd

mstpw;F ehd;F Kf;fpa fhuzpfisf;

Fwpg;gplyhk;. (1) vy;NyhUf;Fk; ,ytr

Rfhjhug; guhkhpg;Gg; Nghd;w gue;jstpyhd

nghJr; Nritfs;> rKHj;jp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lk;

Nghd;w tWikrhHe;j ghJfhg;gpw;fhd gue;j

tha;g;Gf;fs; Nghd;wit Vida gy

mgptpUj;jpaile;JtUk; ehLfspy;

nghJthff; fpilg;gjpy;iy. (2) caH

ghJfhg;Gr; nrytpdq;fs;: ,it nkhj;j

cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; 5 tPjj;jpid

cl;nfhs;tJld; Vida KjyPLfisAk;

ftHe;JtpLfpd;wd. (3) Fiwthd nghJ

tUkhdk;: ,J ghhpa ghjPl;Lg;

gw;whf;Fiwf;Ff; fhuzkhf ,Ug;gJld;> mur

nrytpdq;fisAk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. (4)

xg;gPl;lstpy; Fiwthd MrphpaH rk;gsk;:

,yq;ifapYs;s MrphpaHfs; ,e;jpah>

tq;fshNjrk;> kNyrpah> jha;yhe;J kw;Wk;

njd;nfhhpah Nghd;w ehLfspYs;s MrphpaH

ngWk; rk;gsj;jpYk; ghHf;f miuthrp my;yJ

mjdpYk; Fiwe;j rk;gsj;ijNa

ngWfpd;wdH.

%yjdr; nryTfs;: jw;nghOJs;s

nryTfSk; vjpHfhy Kd;DhpikfSk;

13. mz;ikf;fhyq;fspYs;s ,Wf;fkhd

ghjPl;Lj; jilfs;> %yjdr; nrytpid

ghuJ}ukhfg; ghjpj;Js;sd. fy;tpf;fhd

%yjdg; ghjPLfs; mur %yjdr;

nrytpdq;fspy; 1999 ,y; 5% j;jpypUe;J 2002

,y; 2.5% khf ntFthf tPo;rpaile;jJ.

fy;tpg;ghjPl;bd; gq;Ffs; vd;w mbg;gilapy;

%yjdg; ghjPLfs; 1998 -2000 ,y; 20% khf

,Ue;J> 2001 - 2002 ,y; 16% khff;

Fiwe;Js;sJ. %yjd KjyPl;byhd

,j;jifa tPo;r;rpahdJ> fy;tpKiwapd;

tphpthf;fj;jpidAk; mgptpUj;jpiaAk;

jilnra;jd. nrytpdq;fspd; njhFg;Gj;

njhlHghf ghlrhiyfspy; my;yJ

gy;fiyf;fof Kiwapyhd %yjdj;jpd;

gpujhd gq;Ffs; my;yJ KjyPl;Lr;

T 5

nrytpdq;fs; %yjdf; fy;tp KjyPl;by; 80%epUkhzg;gzpfSf;fhf gpujhdkhf ghlrhiy

tFg;giwf;fl;blq;fs; tphpTiu kz;lgq;fs;>

epUthfj; njhFjpfs;> gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy;

tjptpltrjpfisf; mjpfhpj;jy;

Nghd;wtw;wpd;kPJ cs;sd. xg;gPl;lstpy; rpwpa

tpfpjj;jpyhd %ytsq;fs; kl;LNk juhju

cs;spLiffshd rhjdq;fs;> njhopy;El;gk;>

jsghlq;ffs; kw;Wk; fUtpfSf;Fk; nryT

nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. ,J 20% j;jpYk;

FiwthFk;. ghlrhiy Kiwapy; cs;s

tFg;giw epUkhz nraw;ghLfSk;

re;jHg;gj;jpw;Fhpa gzpahf cs;sdNtjtpu>

NrHTj; Njitfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l

jpl;lq;fs; ,d;wpNa eilngWfpd;wd. ,jd;

tpisthf> gy fpuhkg;Gwg; ghlrhiyfs;

ntWikahd tFg;giwfis Nkyjpfkhff;

nfhz;Ls;sd. mNjNtisapy; efHg;Gwg;

ghlrhiyfs; kpfneUf;fkhf cs;sd.

gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYs;s epUkhzr;

nraw;ghLfSk; ,iaGgLj;jg;glhky;

,Uf;fpd;wd. gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; KOtjpYk;

Njitfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l

njspthd jpl;lq;fs; vitAkpd;wpf;

fl;blq;fSf;fhfg; ngUk;nryTfs;

nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. rhjdq;fs; kw;Wk;

njhopy;El;gk; Nghd;w juhju KjyPLfs;

Fiwe;j mstpyhd KjyPL fhuzkhf>

,yf;fKiw NtWghLfs; (Digital Devide)gw;wpa jtwhd gf;fj;jpy; ehL ,Ug;gJld;

mwpT> jpwd;> NjHr;rpfs; Nghd;w jw;fhy

cyfshtpa mwpTg; nghUshjhuj;jpw;Fj;

Njitahdtw;iw vjpHfhyr; re;jjpapdUf;F

toq;Ftjpy; nghpJk; rpukq;fisf;

nfhz;Ls;sd.

14. fy;tp %yjdg; ghjPL vjpHnfhs;Sk;

gpujhd rthy;fs;

((m) ghlrhiy KiwapYk;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYk;

epUkhzr;nraw;ghLfis

epahag;gLj;jy;.

(M) tphpthf;fk; ngWk; kw;Wk;

mjpfhpj;JtUk; efHg;Gw

ghlrhiyfSf;Fhpa tsq;fisg;

ngUkstpy; xJf;Fjy;.

(,) ghlrhiyfspYk;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYk; jfty;

njhopy;El;g epiyaq;fs;> tpQ;Qhd

Ma;T$lq;fs;> E}yfq;fs;> gapw;rpg;

gl;liwfs;> nraw;ghl;L miwfs;>

gyNehf;F miwfs;> fzpdpfs;>

E}y;fs;> rQ;rpiffs;> nrtpg;Gy fl;Gy

rhjdq;fs;> fy;tprhH nkd;nghUl;fs;>

rhjdq;fSk; fUtpfSk; Nghd;w

caHkl;l ju cs;sPLfSf;Fhpa

tsxJf;fPLfis cWjpnra;jy;.

(<) mbg;gil trjpfshd ePH toq;fy;>

Rj;jk; Ngzy;> kpd;rhuk; Nghd;wtw;iw

fpuhkpa kw;Wk; ngUe;Njhl;lg;

ghlrhiyfspy; Nkk;gLj;Jjy;.

kPz;nlOk; nrytpdq;fs;: eilKiwr;

nryTfSk; vjpHfhy Kd;DhpikfSk;

15. fle;j fhyj;jpy;> nghJf;fy;tpr;

nrytpdj;jpy; Vwf;Fiwa 79% - 84%kPz;nlOk; fy;tpg; ghjPl;Lf;nfd

xJf;fg;gl;bUe;jJ. kPz;nlOk; fy;tpr;

nrytpdq;fspd; Kf;fpa $whdJ kj;jpa

kw;Wk; khfhz kPz;nlOk; ghjPLfspy;

Vwf;Fiw 85% - 90% rk;gsk; kw;Wk;

Ntjdkhff; ,Ue;jd. rk;gsj;jpd; gpujhd

gq;F> MrphpaHfs; kw;Wk; gy;fiyf;fof

cj;jpNahfj;jpdhpd; rk;gskhfTk; mjidj;

njhlHe;J mjpgHfs;> fy;tp epUthfpfs;

kw;Wk; Vida juq;fspYs;s

cj;jpNahfj;jHfspd; rk;gskhhfTk;

,Ue;jd. kPz;nlOk; fy;tpg;ghjPl;by;

rk;gsq;fis mLj;J caHe;j nrythdJ

ghlE}y;fSf;FhpajhFk;. nkhj;j kPz;nlOk;

ghjPl;by; ,J 3% khFk;. ghlrhiyr;

rPUilf;F 2% nrythfpwJ. kpFjpg;gzk;

Kf;fpakhf epHthf kw;Wk; eilKiwr;

nrytpdq;fshd kpd;rhuk;> njhlHghly;> ePH>

jghw;fl;lzq;fs; kw;Wk; cj;jpNahfg;

gazq;fSf;Fk; nrythfpd;wd.

16. kPz;nlOk; fy;tpg; ghjPL vjpHNehf;Fk;

Kf;fpa rthy;fs;

(m) rk;gsq;fSk; epUthfr; nryTfSk;

G+Hj;jpnra;ag;gl;l gpd;dH MrphpaHfs;>

mjpgHfspd; njhopd;ik mgptpUj;jp>

fy;tp epWtdq;fSf;Fhpa fy;tprhuh

kw;Wk; epHthf cjtpfis toq;Fjy;.

(M) ghlrhiyfspYk;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYk; %yjdf; fy;tp

KjyPl;L eilKiwr; nryTfis

epiwT nra;tjw;Fk; Nghjpa epjpia

xJf;fPL nra;jy;.

17. rHtNjrj; juhjuq;fspd;gb> ,yq;ifapy;

xU khztDf;Fhpa ruhrhp kPz;nlOk; fy;tpr;

T 6

nrytpdq;fs; Muk;g kw;Wk; ,ilepiyfspy;

rhjhuzkhfTs;sd. Mdhy;> %d;whk;

epiyapy; caHthf cs;sd. Muk;g kw;Wk;

,ilepiyf; fy;tp kPjhd xU khztDf;Fhpa

ruhrhp kPz;nlOk; fy;tpr; nryT jyh

NjrpatUkhdj;jpd; gq;F vd;w tifapy;

Vwf;Fiwa 9% khfTk;; 11% khfTk;

cs;sJld; ,it njd;dhrpah kw;Wk;

fpof;fhrpah ehLfs; kj;jpapy; kpff;Fiwe;j

mstpdjhFk;. ,jw;F Kuzhf xU

khztDf;Fhpa ruhrhp %d;whk; epiyf;

fy;tpr; nryT> jyh NjrpatUkhdj;jpy; 100%khf ,Ug;gJld;> ,e;jpahtpYk; ghHf;fr; rw;W

caHthfTk; njd;nfhhpah> rpq;fg;G+H>

kNyrpah> jha;yhe;J> ,e;NjhNdrpah>

gpypg;igd;]; Mfpa fpof;fhrpa ehLfspYk;

ghHf;f kpff;$LjyhfTk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.

%d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpapy; nghJ kPz;nlOk;

nrytpd; gq;F caHthff; fhzg;gLtjw;Fhpa

Kf;fpakhd fhuzk; murhq;fg;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fspd; ghhpa myFr;

nrythFk;. xl;Lnkhj;jkhfg; ghHf;Fk;NghJ>

fy;tpepiyfs; KOtjw;Fkhd ruhrhp

kPz;nlOk; nrytpdq;fspd; NfhykhdJ>

caH ngWNgWfisf; nfhz;l fpof;fhrpa

ehLfspypUe;J NtWgl;L ,yq;ifapd; nghJ

tsr;rkepiyahdJ Muk;g kw;Wk;

,ilepiyfspd; nryTfSf;Fg; nghUe;jhj

tifapy; %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpf;Fr; rhHghf

,Uf;fpd;wJ.

myFr; nryTk; cs;sf tpidj;jpwDk;.

18. Muk;gg; ghlrhiy nry;yy; (juk; 1 - 5)

fdp\;l ,ilepiyg;ghlrhiy nry;yy; (juk;

6 - 9) cl;gha;r;ry; tPjq;fspd; mbg;gilapy;

mstplg;gLtJld; mit caHthfTk;

cs;sd. kPz;Lk; fw;Fk; tPjq;fSk;

,iltpyfy; tPjq;fSk; 2% - 7% tiuapy;

NtWgLtJld;> ngz;fspYk; ghHf;f Mz;fs;

kj;jpapy; ,it rpwpjsT $LjyhfTk;

cs;sd. khztH cl;gha;r;rypd;

cau;tPjj;jpw;Fg; gy nfhs;ifrhH

eltbf;iffs; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Js;sd. (1)

Muk;g kw;Wk; ,ilepiyg;ghlrhiyfspy;

elhshtpa tiyg;gpd;dyikg;gpd; %yk;

khztH kw;Wk; ngw;Nwhhpd;

fy;tpj;Njitfisg; G+Hj;jp nra;Ak; tifapy;

ghlrhiyfSf;F NghJkhd tsq;fis

toq;Fjy;. (2) Cf;Ftpg;Gj;jpl;lq;fs;> ,ytr

ghlE}y;fs;> ghlrhiyr; rPUilfs;> khdpa

mbg;gilapyhd Nghf;Ftuj;J Nghd;wit

ghlrhiy Kiwapy; NrHjy; kw;Wk; njhlHjy;

Mfpatw;Wf;fhf toq;fg;gLfpd;wd. (3) 1 Mk;

juj;jpypUe;J 11 Mk; juk; tiu

jd;dpr;irahd tFg;Ngw;wk;. khztHfs;

jhkhf tFg;Gfspy; fw;ftpUk;gpdhyd;wp>

mtHfspd; rpj;jpia jilnra;tjw;F KiwrhH

nghwpKiwfs; vitAkpy;iy. ,ilepiy

tl;lj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; gpujhd Nrhjidf;Fhpa

juq;fspy; (juk; 11 kw;Wk; 13) kPsf;fw;NghH

tPjk; mjpfkhFk;. 11 Mk; juj;jpy; Vwf;Fiwa

27% khNdhH kPsf;fw;NghuhtH. kPsf;fw;NghH

tpfpjk; Mz;fs; kw;Wk; ngz;fspilNa

fpl;ba mstpy; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,J kpf

caHthf ,Ug;gJld; 11 Mk; juj;jpy;

xt;nthU ehd;F khztUf;Fk; xUtH

mt;tFg;gpy; ,uz;lhk; Kiw fw;fpwhH. 13

Mk; juj;jpy;> kPsf;fw;Fk; khztH njhif

,d;Dk; mjpfhpf;fpwJ. f.ngh.j caHju

tpQ;Qhd khzthpilNa 35% khNdhH

kPsf;fw;NghH Mth;. f.ngh.j caHjuf;fiy

khztH kj;jpapy; 37% khd khztHfs;

,uz;lhk;Kiw fw;fpd;wdH. f.ngh.j caHju

tzpf khzthpy; 35% khNdhH

,uz;lhk;Kiw fw;fpd;wdH. ,uz;lhk;Kiw

fw;Fk; Mz;fSf;Fk; ngz;fSf;Fkhd tPjk;

11 Mk; 13 Mk; juq;fspy; xj;jitahf

cs;sJ. ghlq;fspilNaAk; mt;thNw

f.ngh.j caHju kPsf;fw;NghH tPjg;gb

xt;nthU %d;W khztUf;Fk; xUtH

,uz;lhk;Kiw tFg;gpy; fw;fpwhH. 11 Mk; 13

Mk; juq;fspyhd caH kPsf;fw;wy;

tPjkhdJ> fy;tpKiwapy; ,j;jifa

epiyfspy; fzprkhd mstpy; fhzg;gLtJ

nryTg;gad; Fiwghl;bid

vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ. 11 Mk; 13 Mk;

juq;fspy; kPsf;fw;NghH tPjk; caHthff;

fhzg;gLtjw;Fhpa gpujhd fhuzk; Muk;g

kw;Wk; 11 Mk; juk; tiuapyhd ,ilepiy

tl;lk; tiuapy; khzthpd; fw;Fk; epiy

Fiwthf ,Ug;gJld;> ,it ghPl;irfspYk;

ntspg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.

ghlrhiyfspd; gUkDk; guk;gYk;

19. ,yq;ifahdJ ghhpa kw;Wk; Gtpapay;

hPjpahf kpfg;gue;j tiyg;gpd;dyikg;igf;

nfhz;l murhq;fg; ghlrhiyfisf;

nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,it fpuhkg; Gwq;fspy;

trpg;NghUf;Fr; Nritahw;wntd fle;j gy

Mz;Lfshf Muk;gpf;fg;gl;ld. MapDk;>

nghUshjhu mgptpUj;jp kw;Wk; Nrit>

ifj;njhopy; Jiwfspy; Vw;gl;l tphpthf;fk;

T 7

fhuzkhf ngUefuq;fspYk; efuq;fspYk;

trpf;Fk; ;kf;fspd; tpfpjhrhuk;

mz;ikf;fhyq;fspy; mjpfhpj;J te;Js;sJ.

NkYk;> rpwe;j Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk;

njhlHghly; tiyg;gpd;dyhdJ efu

ikaq;fspy; cs;s ghlrhiyfSld;

fpuhkq;fisAk; ,izj;Js;sJ. ,jd;

tpisthf> efuq;fspYs;s kpfg;gpugy;akhd

ghlrhiyfSf;fhd Nfs;tp ntFthf

mjpfhpf;fpd;w Ntisapy;> fpuhk kw;Wk;

cgefHg;Gwq;fspYs;s gpugy;akw;w

ghlrhiyfSf;Fhpa Nfs;tp Fiwe;Jk;;

nry;fpwJ. Nfs;tpapy; Vw;gl;Ls;s ,j;jifa

khw;wk; kpfr;rpwpa ghlrhiyfspd; njhif

mjpfhpf;ff; fhuzkhapw;W. Vwf;Fiwa 5>900

ghlrhiyfs; (60% ghlrhiyfs;) 300

khzthpYk; Fiwe;j njhifiaf;

nfhz;Ls;sd. NkYk; Vwf;Fiwa 2>700

ghlrhiyfs; (27% ghlrhiyfs;) 100 NghpYk;

FiwthfTk; 1>360 ghlrhiyfs; (14%ghlrhiyfs;) 50 ,Yk; Fiwthd

khztiuAk; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. ,t;thwhd

rpwpa ghlrhiyfisg; guhkhpg;gJk;

elj;JtJk; nryTf;FhpaJ. Fwpg;ghf> rpwpa

ghlrhiyfspy; MrphpaH khztH tpfpjk;

Fiwthf ,Ug;gJld;> myFf;fhd

kPz;nlOk; nryTk; $LjyhfTs;sJ.

Vwf;Fiwa 1>000 (10% ghlrhiyfs;)

ghlrhiyfspd; MrphpaH khztH tpfpjk; 1:7

my;yJ mjdpYk; FiwthfTs;sJ.

Vwf;Fiwa 1>700 ghlrhiyfspy; (17%ghlrhiyfs;) MrphpaH khztH tpfpjk; 1:10

Mf cs;sJ. 6>000 ghlrhiyfspy; (60%ghlrhiyfs;) MrphpaH khztH tpfpjk; 1:15

my;yJ mjdpYk; Fiwthff; fhzg;gLfpwJ.

MrphpaH khztH tpfpjk; Fiwthf cs;s

ghlrhiyfis elhj;Jjy; kpfTk;

nryTf;FhpajhFk;. khztH MrphpaH tPjk;

Vwf;Fiwa 25:1 MfTs;s ghlrhiyfspd;

myFf;Fhpa kPz;nlOk; nrytpYk; ghHf;f

rpwpa ghlrhiyfspy; nryT 100%$LjyhdjhFk;.

20. ,yq;ifapy; nghJg; gy;fiyf;foff;

fy;tpAk; nryTf;FhpajhFk;. Vida

mgptpUj;jpaile;JtUk; ehLfSld;

xg;gpLk;nghOJ myFf;Fhpa eilKiwr;

nryT caHthdJ. NkYk; murhq;fg;

ghlrhiyfspd; myFr; nrytpdq;fspYk;

NtWghLfs; epyTfpd;wd. ,t;NtWghL xU

khztDf;F xU tUlj;jpy; Vwf;Fiw 40>000

- 120>000 &gh tiuapy; cs;sJ. nghJthf

myFr; nrythdJ> khztH NrHTj;

njhifAld; njhlHGilaJ. rpwpa

gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; ngUQ;nryTfis

mDgtpf;fpd;wNghJ nghpa

gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; nghUshjhu ed;ikfis

mDgtpg;gJld; Fiwe;j myFr;

nrytpidAk; nfhz;Ls;sd. kpff;$ba

nryTf;Fhpa gy;fiyf;fofq;fs;

kpff;Fiwthf cs;sd. Gjpa epWtdq;fshd

tak;g> fpof;F kw;Wk; njd; fpof;Fg;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fis ,q;F Fwpg;gplyhk;.

fsdp> = n[tHj;jdGu> nfhOk;G kw;Wk;

aho;g;ghzk; Nghd;w gioa

gy;fiyf;foq;fspd; myFr; nryTfs;

kpff;Fiwe;jit. tpN\lkhfj; jpwe;j

gy;fiyf;fofj;ij nghWj;jtifapy;> ,J

njhiyf;fy;tpia toq;Ftjhy;> caH

NrHTtPjj;jpidAk; kpff;Fiwe;j myFr;

nrytpidAk; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. ,tw;Wf;Fg;

Gwk;ghf Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofj;jpy;

myFr; nryTf;Fk; NrHTtPjj;jpw;Fkpilapy;

vjpHkiwahd njhlHG fhzg;gLtJld;> ,jd;

myFr; nryTfs; rpwpa njd;fpof;Fg;

gy;fiyf;fofj;Jld; xg;gplf;$batifapy;

cs;sd. Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofk;

khztH NrHTj;njhifapy; ,uz;lhtJ nghpa

gy;fiyf;fofk; MFk;. myFf;fhd

kPz;nlOk; nrytpidj; jPHkhdpf;Fk;

,d;ndhU Kf;fpakhd fhuzp>

khztHfSf;Fk; fy;tprhuh CopaUf;FKs;s

tpfpjkhFk;. gy;fiyf;fofr; rk;gsj;jpw;fhd

xJf;fPLfs; fy;tprhuh CopaHfshy; ed;F

ghjpf;fg;gl;lJld;> mjdhy; kPz;nlOk;

nryTk; ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ. murhq;fg;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; khztH fy;tprhuh

CopaH tpfpjk; kpfkpff;FiwthdJ.

,t;tpfpjk; tak;g> fpof;F> njd;fpof;F

kw;Wk; Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; 3:1

,ypUe;J = n[tHj;jdGuj;jpy; 8:1 tiu

NtWgLfpwJ. khztH fy;tprhuh

cj;jpNahfj;jH tpfpjk; gl;lq;fis toq;Fk;

12 gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYk; 4:1 MFk;.

fy;tprhH - fy;tprhuh cj;jpNahfj;jiug;

nghWj;jkl;by; ,t;tpfpjk; 1:4 MFk;.

ngUksthd tsq;fs; fy;tprhuh

cj;jpNahfj;jhpd; rk;gsj;jpw;fhf

nghUj;jkw;wtifapy; xJf;fg;gLtJld;>,it

nryT tpidj;jpwd; Fd;wpa mikg;G

vd;gjidAk; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wd.

T 8

jdpahH fy;tpr; nrytpdq;fs;

21. fy;tpapd;kPJ fzprkhd tsq;fisf;

FLk;gq;fSk; %jyPL nra;fpd;wd. FLk;gf;

fy;tpr; nrytpdk; vd;w tifapy; jw;NghJ

fpilf;fpd;w kpf mz;ikf; fhykhd 1995/96Mk; Mz;Lfspd; jftypd; gb> 7

khfhzq;fspd; jdpahH nrytpdk;

Vwf;Fiwa 4>688 &ghthFk;. 1995/96 ,y;nghJf;fy;tp KjyPl;L epiy> murhq;ff;

fy;tp nrytpd; Vwf;Fiwa 23% Fr;

rkdhf ,Ue;jJ. nghJ %yjdf; fy;tpr;

nryTfspYk; ghHf;f 13% j;jpw;Ff;

$LjyhfTk; fhzg;gl;lJ. fy;tpf;fhd

Nfs;tpapd; tUkhd nefpo;r;rpiaf;

fUj;jpw;nfhz;l rpy vLNfhs;fspd;

mbg;gilapy;> 2002 Mk; Mz;byhd

jdpahH FLk;gf; fy;tpr; nrytpdk; 2002

Mk; Mz;L tpiyapy; Vwf;Fiwa 10>600

kpy;ypad; vd kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ. nkhj;j

nghJf;fy;tpr; nrytpdj;jpy; ,J 26%j;jpw;Fr; rkkhdJ vd;gJld; nghJ

%yjdf; fy;tpg; ghjPl;by; 62% j;jpw;F

Nkw;gl;lJkhFk;. ,j;jifa

ngUe;njhifahd FLk;gr; nrytpdq;fs;

rl;lhPjpahd kw;Wk; murpay; nghUshjhur;

#oypy; fy;tpapd;kPjhd jdpahH

KjyPLfSf;Fr; rhjfkw;witahFk;. Njrpa

fy;tp Mizf;FOtpd; (2003)

MNyhridfs; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;lhYk;

jdpahH ghlrhiyfs; kPjhd rl;lhPjpahd

jilfs; ePf;fg;gl;lhYk; jdpahH

KjyPLfspd; kl;lk; ngUkstpy;

mjpfhpf;ff;$Lk;.

Nrit tpepNahfj;jpd; juhjuKk;

tpisjpwDk;

22. fy;tpapd; kPjhd nghJr;nrytpd; msTk;

NfhyKk; xU ehl;bd; fy;tpailTfisAk;

fw;wiyAk; jPHkhdpf;Fk; Kf;fpakhd

tplaq;fspy; xd;whFk; MapDk;> juhjuKk;

Nrit tpepNahfj;jpd; juhjuKk;

tpisjpwDk; rk msthd

Kf;fpaj;JtKilait. ,t;tplaj;jpy;

,yq;if rhjfkhd mk;rq;fisf;

nfhz;Ls;sJ. nfhs;if cUthf;fj;jpw;nfd

Vw;fdNtAs;s fy;tp epWtdq;fspd; tiyg;

gpd;dyikg;ghdJ> gy;fiyf;fofKiw kw;Wk;

ghlrhiy cj;jpNahfj;jUk;> jpl;lKk;

epUtfpj;jYk;> ghlrhiyf;Fhpa

fiyj;jpl;lKk; ghlj;jpl;l tpUj;jpAk;>

gy;fiyf;fofg; gl;lg;gbg;Gf;fhd

epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fSk>; ghlrhiy mjpgHfs;>

gFjpj; jiytHfs; kw;Wk; MrphpaHfs;>

gy;fiyf;foff; fy;tprhHe;jtHfspd;

njhopd;ik mgptpUj;jpf;fhd tha;g;Gf;fis

toq;Fjy;;> Nrhjidfis elj;JjYk;

nghJkf;fspd; ek;gpf;iff;Fhpa rhd;wpjo;fis

toq;FjYk;> MrphpaH Nrit> MrphpaH

fy;tpapayhsH Nrit> fy;tp epUthfr; Nrit

Nghd;w Kf;fpakhd NritfSf;Fhpa

njhopw;gilia rl;lhPjpahf tiuaiw

nra;jYk; Ntz;Lk;. murhq;fKk; epahakhd

epjpKfhik xOq;F tpjpfisf;

nfhz;bUg;gJld; ,ul;ilg; gjpTKiwfSld;

$ba fhRf; fzf;fpidAk; NgZjy;

Ntz;Lk;. NkYk; kPAaH fzf;fha;T

epWtdk;> fzf;fha;thsu; ehafk;

jpizf;fsKk; cs;sff; fzf;fha;T

vd;gdTk; fy;tpKiwapy; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

,Ug;gpDk; fy;tpKiwapd; NrittpepNahf

tiyg;gpd;dyhdJ cWjpahdnjhU

mj;jpthuj;ijf; fl;bnaOg;GjYk; Ntz;Lk;.

23. MapDk;> Nrit tpepNahf

tiyg;gpd;dYk; gpujhd mikg;Gr; rhHe;j

rthy;fis> Fwpg;ghf caH juhjuj;ijf;

nfhz;l fy;tpKiwf;fhd nfhs;if

Kaw;rpfSf;F MjuT toq;Fjiy

vjpHnfhs;sNtz;bAs;sJ. ,j;jifa

rthy;fs; gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;.

(1) kypdkhd MrphpaH mkHj;Jif:

gpugy;akhd efHg;Gw ghlrhiyfspy;

MrphpaH kpifAk;> gpd;jq;fpa fpuhkg;Gwg;

ghlrhiyfspy; MrphpaH gw;whf;FiwAk;

epyTjy; (2) caH MrphpaH tutpd;ik:

ruhrhpahf xU ghlrhiy ehspy; Ie;jpy;

xU gq;fpdH tUtjpy;iy. (3) Fiwe;j

MrphpaH rk;gsKk; Fiwe;j MrphpaH

Cf;Ftpg;Gk;> 1978 ,y; ,Ue;j rk;gsj;jpy;

Vwf;Fiw 85% kl;LNk <l;Lfpd;wdH. (4)

ghlrhiyfs; Njrpa fy;tpf; fy;Y}hpfs;

(NCOEs) kw;Wk; MrphpaH kj;jpa

epiyaq;fs; (TCs) Nghd;w Kjy;epiyf;

fy;tpr; Nrit tpepNahf epiyaq;fspy;

Kfhikj;Jtk;rhH kw;Wk; fy;tprhH

tYT+l;ly; Nghjhik (5) epUthff;

FiwghLfs;> jhdpaq;ff;$ba>

fzpdpkakhd KiwfSf;Fg; gjpyhf

T 9

clYiog;gpy; mjpfstpy; jq;fpapUg;gjhy;

Vw;gLk; njhopy;El;g kw;Wk; elj;ijf;Fhpa

jilfSk;> mbg;gil cs;sfg;

nghwpKiwfs; ,y;yhikAk; (6)

epUthfj;jpy; ntspthhpahd jiyaPL ,it

jPHkhdk; Nkw;nfhs;sy; rk;kjtpjp>

rptpy;Nrit kdTWjp vd;gtw;iwj;

jilnra;fpwJ. (7) nfhs;tdTf;

FiwghLfs;> njhopy;El;g tpguq;fis

toq;fy;> xg;ge;jj;ij Maj;jk; nra;jy;>

Mtzq;fis Vyk; tpLjy;>njhopEl;g

kjpg;gPLfis nkJthf epiwNtw;Wjy;>

njspthdJk; kpfr;rhpahdJkhd

kjpg;gPLfisr; nra;tjpYk; xg;ge;jr; rig

mwpf;if kw;Wk; Fwpg;GfspYKs;s

FiwghLfs; (8) fy;tprhH Copahpd;

Fiwe;j rk;gsq;fs;> gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy;

Ml;fis mkHj;Jk; gpur;ridfSf;F ,l;Lr;

nry;fpd;wd. Fwpg;ghf nfhOk;G kw;Wk;

fz;bf;F ntspNa cs;stHfs; (9)

gy;fiyf;fof epUthf kw;Wk;

Kfhikj;Jt mikg;Gf;fs; gl;lg;gbg;G

fw;gpj;jYf;F kpff;$ba Kf;fpaj;Jtk;

nfhLg;gJld; KOikahd gy;fiyf;fof

ntspaPLfs; vd;wtifapy; mlq;Fk;

Muha;r;rp> gl;lg;gbg;G epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lk;>

MNyhrid fyj;jy; kw;Wk; rKjha

Nritfs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; MjuT

Nghjpastpy; jpirKfg;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy

(10) gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; khztH

mikjpaPdkhdJ> fy;tprhh; epfo;r;rpj;

jpl;lq;fSf;Fj; jilahf tpsq;FtJld;>

fw;ifnewpia epiwTnra;jiyAk;

jilnra;fpd;wJ.

fy;tpj; juhjuKk; fw;wy; tpisTfSk;

24. ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpKiw cd;djkhdJ.

rpwe;j ghlrhiyfspYk; gy;fiyf;fof

epfo;rpj;jpl;lq;fspYk; ,Ue;JtUk; khztHfs;

cyfpd; Kjw;jukhd rpwe;j

gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; jdpahH

$l;Lj;jhgdq;fspd;> rHtNjr mikg;Gf;fspd;

caH Nfs;tpiag; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wdH.

MapDk; nfhs;if cUthf;FNthH fy;tpapd;

ruhrhp epiyAk; fw;wy; tpisTfSk;

jpUg;jpaw;wd vd;Nw fUJfpd;wdH. [ghHf;fNEC (1991)> (2000)] Muk;gg; ghlrhiyfs;

kj;jpapyhd mwpifrhH milTr;Nrhjidfs;

mbg;gilnkhop> vz;rhHjpwd;fs;

Nghd;wtw;wpy; Muk;gtl;lj;jpd; KbtpNy

NjHr;rpapy; tPo;r;rpapid vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wd.

Kjd;nkhopapy; (rpq;fsKk; jkpOk;) ruhrhpg;

ghz;bjpa epiy 37% khFk;. vOJjy;

,yf;fzk; (30%) vd;gd kpff;Fiwthd

jha;nkhopj;jpwd;fshFk;. fpufpj;jy; (45%)

jpwDk; kpff;FiwT. nrhw;fsQ;rpaj; jpwd;fs;

(70%) ed;W. Mq;fpy nkhopj;jpwd;fs;

kpff;FiwT. 10% khd Muk;gepiyg;

gps;isfs; kl;LNk ghz;bj;jpa epiyf;Fhpa

,yf;Fkl;lj;ij milfpd;wdH. Mq;fpy

nkhop vOJk; jpwd; ,y;yNtapy;iy. 1%khd gps;isfs; kl;LNk Njitahd

jpwd;fis ntspg;gLj;Jfpd;wdH. Mq;fpy

nkhopf;fpufpj;jy; (16%) ,yf;fzk; (20%)

vd;gdTk; FiwthfTs;sd. Mq;fpy

nrhw;fsQ;rpaj; jpwd;fs; (35%)

caHthfTs;sd. %d;W Nghpy; xUth;

,j;jifa jpwd;fspYk; gpd;jq;fpAs;sdH.

25. fzpjj;jpYk; ghz;bj;jpaepiy 38%kl;LNk. fzpj vz;zf;fUtpyhd

ghz;bj;jpak; 45%> xOq;F Kiwfs; 51%gpur;rid jPHj;jy; 34% Muk;gepiy khzthpd;

mwpifrhH milTfspy; fhzg;gLk; fPo;epiy

ftiyjUtjhf ,Uf;fpwJ. nfhs;ifrhH

Nehf;fpy; Muk;gf; fy;tp> ,ilepiyf;fy;tp

kw;Wk; %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpf;Fhpa

mbg;gilfSk; gy;NtW tifahd

jpwd;gapw;rpAk; fl;bnaOg;gg;gLfpd;wd.

,Ug;gpDk; KOf;fy;tpapdJk; juhjuKk;

ngWNgWfSk; Muk;gj;juq;fspy; fhzg;gLk;

Fiwe;j milTkl;lq;fshy; jilg;gLfpd;wd.

26. ,j;jifa fPo;epiy milT kl;lj;jpw;F

Nkyhf> fpuhk kw;Wk; efHg;gpuNjrg;

ghlrhiyfSf;fpilNa milTkl;lj;jpy;

Kf;fpakhd NtWghLfSk; epyTfpd;wd.

Kjy; nkhopapyhd (rpq;fsk; kw;Wk; jkpo;)

ghz;bj;jpakhdJ efHg;Gwg; ghlrhiyfspy;

51% khfTk; fpuhkg;gpuNjrq;fspy; 34%khfTk; cs;sJ. Mq;fpy nkhopj;jpwd;fspy;

efHg;Gw gps;isfs; ghz;bj;jpa epiyia

milAk;NghJ fpuhkg;gpuNjrq;fspy; 7%khNdhH kl;LNk ,jid milfpd;wdH.

fzpjj;jpy; 52% khd efHg;gpuNjr khztHfs;

ghz;bj;jpaepiyia milAk;NghJ> 35% khd

fpuhkpag; gps;isfNs Njitahd

NjHr;rpkl;lj;ij milfpd;wdH. Muk;gf;

fy;tptl;lj;jpd; ruhrhpf; fw;wy; milTfSk;

gpuhe;jpahPjpahd NtWghLfisf;

nfhz;Ls;sd. Kjy; nkhopapy;

T 10

ghz;bj;jpaj;ij milAk; Muk;gepiy

khztHfspd; tpfpjk; (rpq;fsk; kw;Wk; jkpo;)

tlf;F fpof;F khfhzj;jpy; 28%tPjj;jpypUe;J Nky; kfhzj;jpy; 52% tiu

NtWgLtJld; Mq;fpy nkhopj;NjHr;rpapy;

ghz;bj;jpakhdJ tlf;F fpof;F kfhzj;jpy;

5 tPjj;jpypUe;J Nky; kfhzj;jpy; 20% tiu

NtWgLfpd;wJ. kj;jpa> Cth kw;Wk; tl

kj;jpa kfhzq;fs;$l nkhop> fzpjg;

Gs;spfis Fiwe;jstpNy ngWfpd;wd.

,j;jifa gpuhe;jpa hPjpahd kw;Wk; efu fpuhk

NtWghLfSf;F gpd;jq;fpa khtl;lq;fspYk;

fpuhkg; Gwq;fspYKs;s Fiwe;j

juhjuKila fy;tpr;Nritfs; kypdkhd

ngw;NwhH Mw;wYk; cjtpfSk; fw;wiy

Nkk;gLj;Jk; gps;isfspd; nraw;ghLfSf;fhd

twpjhd re;jHgq;fSk; Nghd;w fhuzpfs;

$l;lhf gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Js;sd.

27. ,ilepiyf; fy;tpapYk; fy;tpj;; juhjuk;

jpUg;jpfukhf ,y;iy vd;gjw;fhd

rhd;WfSk; cs;sd. f.ngh.j

rhjhuzjuj;jpy; rpj;jpailAk; khztH

tPjKk; FiwthfTs;sJ. ,J 37% kl;LNk.

ghPl;irf;F Njhw;Wk; %d;W khztHfSf;F

,Uth; rpj;jpailtjpy;iy vd;gjpid ,J

vLj;Jf;fhl;LfpwJ. NkYk; ,j;jifa Fiwe;j

rpj;jptPjkhdJ 1998 - 2002 fhyg;gFjpapy;

epiyahff; fhzg;gl;lJ. khztUs;

ngUe;NjhifahNdhH fzpjk;> Mq;fpy nkhop>

tpQ;Qhdk; kw;Wk; r%ff; fy;tp Mfpa

ghlq;fspy; rpukg;gLfpd;wdH. f.ngh.j

caHjuj;jpy; Vwf;Fiw 50% - 55%tPjkhdth;fNs 1998 - 2002 fhyg;gFjpapy;

rpj;jpaile;Js;sdH. xt;nthU ,uz;L

khztUf;Fk; xUtNu ,g;ghPl;irapy;

rpj;jpaile;Js;shH vd vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ.

f.ngh.j rhjhuzjuk;> f.ngh.j caHjuj;jpy;

epyTk; Fiwe;j rpj;jptPjkhdJ> Fwpg;ghf

,j;jifa ghPl;irfis ntw;wpfukhfg; G+Hj;jp

nra;jyhdJ gy;NtW jpwd;fspy; gapw;rp

ngWk; fw;if newpfSf;Fk; my;yJ %d;whk;

epiyf;fy;tp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fspd;

tha;g;Gf;fis ngWtjw;Fk; my;yJ

njhopw;re;ijapy; gy njhopy;fisg;

ngwtjw;Fk; mtrpakhdJ.

28. Fiwe;j fw;wy; milTg; Gs;spfs;

%yk; mstplg;gl;lJ Nghd;w Fiwe;j

fy;tpj; juhjug; gpur;rpid my;yJ caH

ghPl;irr; rpj;jpapd;ik tPjk; vd;gtw;wpw;F

Nkyhf Vida fy;tpj; juhjuj;jpd;

mwpifrhuhg; ghpkhzq;fSk;

jpUg;jpfukw;witahf ,Ug;gNjhL mit

cldbahf Nkk;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lnkd

nfhs;ifahf;FNthUk;> njhopy;

toq;FeUk; tpthjpj;Js;sdH [ghHf;f NEC(1997)> (2003)]. fy;tpf;nfhs;if Mf;FNthH

fl;Lg;ghLila Ntiy xOf;fk; rpwe;j

FOg;gzp> Mf;fj;jpwd; kw;Wk;

njhlq;Fjpwd;> gpur;rpid jPHj;jy;

mZFKiw> tpidj;jpwd;kpf;f rpwe;j

njhlHghly;> nefpo;r;rpj;jd;ik> ,zq;fpr;

nry;yy;> ce;Jif kw;Wk; FbrhH

czHTfs; Nghd;w gz;Gfis

fy;tpKiwapd; %yk; cUthf;fNtz;Lk;

vd;gij typAWj;jp cs;sdu;. [ghHf;f NEC(2003)]

jpwd; mgptpUj;jp

29. njhopy;El;gf;fy;tp kw;Wk;

njhopw;gapw;rpapD}lhf jpwd;fis mgptpUj;jp

nra;jy; (TEVT) Njrpa nfhs;ifapd;

Kf;fpakhdnjhU ghpkhzkhFk;. fy;tpAk;

gapw;rpAk; ,yq;ifapd; njhopw;re;ijapy

gpujpaPLfs; vd;gjpYk; ghHf;f

Fiwepug;gpfshf cs;sd vd nghUshjhug;

gFg;gha;Tfs; %yk; vLj;Jf;fhl;Ljy; Ntiy

cyfpw;fhd rpwe;j mbj;jskhf miktJ

caHjuhjuKila nghJf;fy;tpNa vd;Dk;

fy;tpf; nfhs;if cUthf;FNthhpd;

epiyg;ghl;bid cWjp nra;tjhf

mike;Js;sJ [ghHf;f NEC (2003)]. ngUksTfy;tp fw;w jdpahl;fs; mjpfstpy;

gapw;rpiag; ngWtNjhL jpwd; mgptpUj;jpapd;

%yk; mjpf ed;ikfisAk; ngwyhk;.

Fwpg;ghf fy;tpAk; gapw;rpAk; rhjfkhd

Kiwapy; ClhLtjdhy; NtiyNjLjy;

Fiwf;fg;gLtJld; rk;ghj;jpaj;ijAk;

mjpfhpf;fpwJ. KiwrhH gapw;rpahdJ jdpahH

Jiwapy; ghhpa tUkhdj;ij jUfpwJ.

Mdhy; KiwrhH kw;Wk; Kiwrhuh gapw;rpfs;

kPjhd tpisTfs; jdpahH Jiwapy;

Vwf;Fiwa rkdhf cs;sd.

30. jpwd;fs; mgptpUj;jpj; JiwahdJ gy

Kf;fpakhd rthy;fis vjpHnfhs;fpwJ.

,it gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;. (m)

ngUkstpy; gpuhe;jpa hPjpahf

toq;Ftjw;fhd Nrit Vw;ghLfis

tphpTgLj;jy; (M) Nrit tpepNahfj;jpy;

jdpahH KjyPLfisAk; ntspehl;Lj;

T 11

jdpahH - nghJ gq;FjhuHfisAk;

Cf;Ftpj;jy; (,) TEVT fw;ifnewpfSld;

gapw;rpfs; nghUe;jhjpUj;jy; ,tw;wpw;fhd

Nfs;tp Nghjpastpy; ,y;iy vd;gJld;

Fiwe;j mstpyhd TEVT fw;ifnewpfs;

tYthd Nfs;tpia mDgtpf;fpd;wd. (<)

,j;Jiwapy; fhzg;gLk; fw;if newpfs;

,Ukbahf cs;sJld; cs;sf tpisjpwd;

,d;wpAk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. rhjdq;fSk;

fiyj;jpl;lq;fSk; tof;nfhope;jit> rpwe;j

gapw;rpahsUf;fhd gw;whf;FiwAk; caH

,iltpyfy; tPjKk; (c) jw;nghOJs;s

nghJj;Jiw Ntiyj;jsq;fspdJk; Ma;T

$lq;fspdJ cg cj;jk gad;ghLk; fy;tp

kw;Wk; gapw;rpj; JiwfspilNa cs;s

,izg;GfSk; NghjhJ ,Uj;jy;.

Muk;g gps;isg;gUt tpUj;jp

31. Muk;g gps;isg;gUt tpUj;jpahdJ

nfhs;ifapd;ghy; ftdj;ij

<Hf;fj;njhlq;fpAs;sJ Fwpg;ghf ,sk;

gps;isfs; kj;jpapy; fw;wy; tpisTfis

Nkk;gLj;jy;> %istpUj;jp Fwpj;J Muk;g

Kd;gs;sp taJfspy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; kw;Wk;

mwpifrhH Mw;wy; kPjhd tpopg;GzHT

gw;wpAk; ,q;F typAWj;jg;gLfpd;wd.

mz;ika tUlq;fspNy Kd;gs;spYk; kw;Wk;

ghyHghlrhiyfspYk; Jhpjkhd tsHr;rp

Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. 1970 fspy; 2000 Kd;gs;spfSk;

ghyHghlrhiyfSk; ,Ue;jd vd

kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ. 2003 Mk; Mz;by;

,j;njhifahdJ 11>000 - 12>500 mstpy;

mjpfhpj;jNjhL ehl;bYs;s ghlrhiyfspd;

njhifiaAk; kpQ;rpAs;sJ. 80% w;Fk;

Nkw;gl;l Kd;gs;spfs; jdpahH Jiwapy;

cs;sd. Kd;gs;spfspy; gq;Fgw;Wk; 3 - 5

taJg;gps;isfspd; njhif 1980 fspy;

20%,y; ,Ue;J 1994 ,y; 40% MfTk; 2001

,y; 60% MfTk; caHe;Js;sJ.

vy;NyhUf;Fk; fy;tpf;fhd (EFA),yq;ifapd; nray;epiy tiuTj;jpl;lkhdJ

2004 njhlf;fk; 2008 tiuAs;s fhyj;jpy; 80%khztHfis cs;slf;Fk; ,yf;fpid

cUthf;FtJld; kpFjp 20% tPl;bid

mbg;gilahfTk; nfhz;Ls;sJ.

32. Kd;gs;sp KiwahdJ gy

nfhs;ifrhHe;j mgptpUj;jprhHe;j> rthy;fis

vjpHNehf;FfpwJ. ,it gpd;tUtdtw;iw

cs;slf;Fk;.

(m) Nrit Vw;ghLfis tphpthf;Fjy;

(M) vy;NyhUf;Fk; fy;tp vd;Dk; ,yf;fpid

milAk; tifapy; gq;Nfw;gpid

mjpfhpj;jy;

(,) ju Nkk;ghl;bw;fhd juhjuq;fisAk;

epakq;fisAk; cUthf;Fjy;

(<) Kd;gs;spg; gps;isfSf;Fg;

nghUj;jkhd fiyj;jpl;l kw;Wk;

fw;gpj;jy; gw;wpa tpopg;GzHit

cUthf;Fjy;

(c) Kd;gs;sp MrphpaUf;fhd MrphpaH fy;tp

kw;Wk; gapw;rp Kiwfis

tpUj;jpnra;jy;

(C) Kd;gs;spr; nraw;ghLfisAk;

Muk;gf;fy;tpf; fiyj;jpl;lq;fisAk;

,izj;jy.;

(v) nghUj;jkhd epUthf mikg;gpid

cUthf;Fjy; Fwpg;ghf

khfhzrigfspy; Kd;gs;spfis

Cf;Ftpj;jYk;; mgptpUj;jp nra;jYk;.

,j;jifa rthy;fSf;F Kfq;

nfhLg;gjw;fhd nfhs;ifrhH ftdq;fSk;

mtrpak; Njitg;gLfpd;wd. vjpHfhyf;

nfhs;if mgptpUj;jpapy; Kd;gs;sp Kiwapy;

jdpahH Jiwapduhy; ,lg;gl;l gue;j

mbj;jsj;ij murhq;fKk;

fl;bnaOg;gNtz;baJ mtrpakhFk;.

T 12

T 13

Kd;Ndhf;fpg; ghAk; fhynts;sk;: vjpHfhyj;jpw;fhd njhpTfs;

rktha;g;gpy; epahaj;jd;ikia

cWjpnra;jy;

fl;lha Muk;gf; fy;tpapy; vy;NyhUk;

NrHtjid miljYk; fl;lha

Muk;gf;fy;tpiag; G+h;j;jpnra;jYk; (juk; 1-9)

33. ,yq;ifahdJ fy;tp mgptpUj;jpapd;

KjyhtJ fl;lj;jpid Vwf;Fiwa

epiwTnra;Js;sJ. Muk;g kw;Wk;

mbg;gilf; fy;tp tha;g;Gf;fis

vy;NyhUf;Fk; toq;Fjy;>

Muk;gf;fy;tpiag; G+h;j;jpnra;NthH 97%.

mbg;gilf;fy;tp (juk; 1-9) G+h;j;jpnra;NthH

83% vd;w mbg;gilapy; epiwTnra;Js;sJ

vdyhk;. filrp 17% khd khztHfs;

,WjpahdJk; KjyhtJ re;jjpapdhpd;

rthyhfTk; tplg;gl;Ls;sdH. ,tHfs;

,g;nghOJ 9Mk; juj;jpidg;

G+h;j;jpnra;tjw;FKd; KiwrhH

fy;tpaikg;gpy; my;yJ Kiwrhuhf; fy;tp

epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lj;jpypUe;J ,ilapy;

tpyfptplhky; mbg;gilf; fy;tp

tl;lj;jpidg; G+Hjpnra;Ak; tiu mtHfisf;

ftHe;J njhlHe;J itj;jpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

,t;thwhd khztHfs; ehl;bYs;;s kpf

twpa kw;Wk; gpd;jq;fpa FLk;gq;fisr;

rhHe;NjhuhthH. ,jDs; gpd;jq;fpa

fpuhkq;fspYs;s rpWtHfs;>efuq;fspYs;s

njUNthur; rpWtHfs;> jdpikahd

ngUe;Njhl;;lr; r%fq;fisr; NrHe;j

gps;isfs;> gpzf;Ffshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l

gpuNjrq;fspYs;s gps;isfs; mlq;Fth;.

murhq;fkhdJ ,j;jifa gps;isfis

ghlrhiyfspy; ftHe;J> njhlHe;J

itj;jpUg;gJld; G+uz NrHtpid

va;Jtjw;Fk; vy;NyhUk; Muk;gf;fy;tp

tl;lj;ij (juk; 1-9) epiwTnfhs;sr;

nra;tjw;Fk; gutyhd Kaw;rpfis

Nkw;nfhz;Ls;sd. ,it

gpd;tUtdtw;iwAk ;cs;slf;Fk;.

(m) ghlrhiyg; gps;isfs; njhpTnra;j

,ytr ghlE}y;fis toq;Fjy;.

(M) ,ytr rPUilfis toq;Fjy;

(,) ghlrhiyfSf;Fr; nry;y Nghf;Ftuj;J

khdpaq;fisf; nfhLj;jy;

(<) gpdf;Ffshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l

gpuNjrq;fspy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l

ghlrhiyfisg; Gduikj;jy;.

(c) KiwrhH ghlrhiy Kiwf;F mg;ghy;>

khw;W topKiwahf> tpN\l fy;tp>

Kiwrhuhf; fy;tp kw;Wk; tpLgl;l

fy;tpia ngWk; (Catch Up) fy;tp

epfo;r;rpfis toq;Fjy;.

,t;thwhd Kaw;rpfs; Fwpg;ghf tpN\l fy;tp>

Kiwrhuhf; fy;tp kw;Wk; tpLgl;l fy;tpia

ngWk; (Catch Up) fy;tp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fisg;

gyg;gLj;jTk; mtw;iw

tpidj;jpwd;kpf;fdthf eilKiwg;gLj;jTk;

Ntz;Lk;. NkYk;> Gjpa Nfs;tpg; gf;fKs;s

Kaw;rpfshd nghUshjhu Cf;Ftpg;Gf;fspd;

gad;ghL> cs;SHr; rKjha epWtdq;fshy;

Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; r%f mirTr;

nraw;ghLfs; Nghd;wtw;iw kpfTk; gpd;jq;fpa

r%fq;fspilNa gad;gLj;jpg; ghHf;fyhk;.

,j;jifa Nfs;tprhH Kaw;rpfs; Vida gy

ehLfshd ,e;jpah> ghfp];jhd;>

tq;fshNjrk; Nghd;w njd;dhrpa may;

ehLfspYk; ntw;wpfz;Ls;sd.

34. kpfTk; gpd;jq;fpa rKjhaq;fspypUe;J

ghlrhiyfSf;Fg; gps;isfis <Hg;gjw;fhd

Nfs;tpg;gf;fr; nraw;ghLfSk; Vida

ehLfspypUe;J ngw;Wf;nfhz;l ntw;wpfukhd

rHtNjr mDgtq;fspd; mbg;gilapy;

mike;jitAk; ,q;F jug;gl;Ls;sd.

(m) ghlrhiyr; Nrh;tpidAk; tutpidAk;

Cf;Ftpf;Fk; tifapy; cs;SHr;

r%fq;fis mirar; nra;jy;.

(M) khztH Near; #oiy cUthf;Fjy;.

,it ftHr;rpfukhd ghlrhiyf;

fl;lq;fis cUthf;Fjy;>

nrsfhpakhd tFg;giw> tpisahl;L

,lq;fs; vd;gdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;.

(,) twpa FLk;gq;fspYs;s Ntiy nra;Ak;

gps;isfs; kj;jpapy; ghlrhiy

nry;tjw;fhd re;jHg;gr; nrytpidf;

Fiwj;jy;> tUkhdj;jpd; xU gFjpia

ghlrhiy tuTf;F my;yJ

khw;Wf; fy;tp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fspy;

nghUj;jkhd taJg;gphptpdH

gq;Nfw;gjw;fhf murhq;f tWikf;

Fiwg;G epfo;r;rpj; jpl;lq;fspDlhf

,izj;jy; %yk; ,jidr;

nra;ayhk;.

(<) tpN\l fy;tp>Kiwrhuhf; fy;tp kw;Wk;

tpLgl;l fy;tpia ngWk; (Catch Up)

T 14

fy;tp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fq;fis

tYg;gLj;Jjy;.

35. NkYk; murhq;fkhdJ KiwrhH

ghlrhiy Kiwf;F khw;whf tpN\l fy;tp>

Kiwrhuhf; fy;tp kw;Wk; fy;tp

epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fspd; tfpgq;fpidg;

gyg;gLj;Jjy; gw;wpf; ftdj;jpy; nfhs;syhk;.

,j;Jiwapyhd Kd;Dhpikf;Fhpa mgptpUj;jp

eltbf;iffs; gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;.

(m) KiwrhH fy;tp kw;Wk; Ntiyf;fhyg;

gapw;rpfspy; ,t;thwhd tfpgq;fpidj;

njspTgLj;Jjy;.

(M) fiyj;jpl;lj;ijf; Fwpg;gpLjy; gy;NtW

epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fspd; tpisTfs; kw;Wk;

,yf;Fr; rdj;njhifiaf; Fwpg;gpLjy;.

nfhs;ifahf;FNthUf;Fg; gpd;D}l;liy

toq;Ftjw;F fz;fhzpg;G kw;Wk;

kjpg;gPl;L Kiwapid epWTjy;.

(,) njhopw;re;ijAldhd njhlHGfis

Nkk;gLj;Jjy; Fwpg;ghf> ePbj;J

epiyf;ff; $ba

capNuhl;lKs;s tho;f;if kw;Wk;

tUkhdk; jUfpd;w nraw;ghLfis

Nkk;gLj;Jjy;.

(<) ,j;jifa epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fis

Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;tjw;F> khfhzf;

fy;tpj;jpizf;fsq;fs; tyaf; fy;tp

mYtyfq;fspd; epWtd Mw;wiy

mjpfhpj;jy;.

(c) ,t;thwhd epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fis

toq;Ftjpy; <Lgl;Ls;s fy;tp

mYtyhpd; njhopy;El;g Mw;wiy

tpUj;jp nra;jy;.

fy;tpj; juhjuj;jpy; cd;dj;jijg;

NgZjy;

mbg;gilf;fy;tp> rpNu\;l

,ilepiyf;fy;tpapd; juhjuj;ij mgptpUj;jp

nra;jy;

36. ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpf;

nfhs;ifahf;FNthH vjpHnfhs;Sk;

mbg;gilahd rthy; caHjukhd

fy;tpKiwia tpUj;jpnra;jYk; NgDjYk;

MFk;. jw;nghOJ ghlrhiy Kiwapd;

juNkk;ghl;bw;fhd gue;jstpyhd mgptpUj;jp

Kaw;rpfis murhq;fk; Nkw;nfhz;Ls;sJ.

gpd;tUtd mtw;Ws; mlq;Fk;>

(m) ghlrhiyf; fiyj;jpl;lj;ij

etPdkag;gLj;Jjy;

(M) gps;isNeaf; fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfis

Nkk;gLj;Jjy;

(,) Mrphpahpd; njhopd;ik Mw;wy;fs;

kw;Wk; jpwd;fis Kd;Ndw;Wjy;

(<) tpidj;jpwd;kpf;f ghlrhiyj;

jiyikj;Jtk; kw;Wk;

Kfhikj;Jtj;jpid Nkk;gLj;Jjy;.

(c) ghPl;ir Kiwfis nefpo;r;rpahdjhfTk;

khztH tpidahw;wy; gw;wpa njhlH

fzpg;gPLfisAk; rPHjpUj;Jjy;.

,t;thwhd eltbf;iffs; %yk; ey;y

vjpHfhyj;jpw;fhd mbg;gilia

toq;FtNjhL ,yq;ifapy;

caHjuhjuKila fy;tpKiwiaAk;

fl;bnaOg;gyhk;. fy;tp mgptpUj;jp gw;wpa

E}y;fs;> Vida ehLfspd; fy;tpr; rPHjpUj;jk;

gw;wpa mDgtq;fs;> ,yq;ifapd; fy;tprhH

mDgtq;fs; mgptpUj;jpw;fhd Kaw;rpfs;

gytw;iw tpje;Jiuf;fpd;wd. mit fy;tpj;

juhjuj;ij Nkk;gLj;jTk; ehl;by; caH

tpidahw;wy; nfhz;l ghlrhiyfs;>

gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; kw;Wk; njhopy;El;gf;fy;tp

epWtdq;fis cUthf;fTk; kpfTk;

mtrpakhdit.

Muk;gf; fy;tpf; fiyj;jpl;lj;jpy;

milaNtz;ba NjHr;rpfis

tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tijg; ghlrhiy kl;lj;jpy;

Nkk;gLj;Jjy;

37. jw;nghOJ Muk;gg; ghlrhiyf;

fiyj;jpl;lj;jpd; NjHr;rpfs; jpwd;fs; kw;Wk;

vjpHghHj;j fw;wy; tpisTfs; njspthff;

Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sd. MapDk; mjpgHfs;

MrphpaHfs; kj;jpapy; ,j;jifa

milTkl;lq;fis Ghpe;J nfhs;Sjy;

kl;Lg;gLj;jg; gl;Ls;sJ. NkYk; ,j;jifa

Muk;gg; ghlrhiy milTkl;lq;fis

khw;WjYf;Fhpa Mw;wy;fs; mjpgHfsplKk;

MrphpaHfsplKk; Fiwthf cs;sd

,g;gpur;rpidia vjpHj;Jg; NghuhLtjw;F

murhq;fk; ,uz;L Kf;fpa Kaw;rpfis

ftdj;jpy; nfhs;sKbAk;.

(m) Muk;g ghlrhiyf; fiyj;jpl;lj;jpd;

NjHr;rpfisAk; jpwd;fisAk;

vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; fw;wy; tpisTfisAk;

mjpgHfs; kw;Wk; MrphpaHfs; kj;jpapy;

gutr;nra;jYld; mtw;iw tpsq;fpf;

nfhs;tijAk; cWjpnra;jy;. ,t;

tplakhdJ milTkl;lq;fspd;;

mr;;Rg;gpujpfs; ghlrhiyf;F

fpilg;gijAk; cs;slf;Fk;.

(M) fiyj;jp;l;lj;jpy; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s

milTkl;lq;fis khztHfs;

miltjw;F Ntz;ba MrphpaHfspd;

Mw;wy;fis tYg;gLj;Jk;.

,ilepiyg;ghlrhiy fiyj;jpl;lj;jpid

njspT gLj;jYk; tpgukhff; $WjYk;.

38. Muk;g ghlrhiyf; fiyj;jpl;lk;

Nghyd;wp ,ilepiyf; fiyj;jpl;lj;jpy;

NjHr;rpfSk; jpwd;fSk; kw;Wk;

vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; fw;wy; tpisTfSk;

njspthff; Fwpg;gplg;gltpy;iy. ,jd;

tpisthf ,ilepiy fiyj;jpl;lkhdJ

Kiwahf xOq;FgLj;jg;gltpy;iy. tFg;G

epiyapYk; tl;lj;jpYk; njhlHr;rp Fiwthf

cs;sJ. NkYk; ghlrhiyfs; xt;nthU

juj;jpw;Fk; chpa ,yf;FfisAk;

Nehf;fq;fisAk; cUthf;f Kbatpy;iy

my;yJ njspthf ,izf;fg;gl;l

fiyj;jpl;lj;jpw;F Vw;w jkJ fw;gpj;jy;

KiwfisAk; fw;gpj;jy; cghaq;fisAk;

xOq;FgLj;j Kbatpy;iy ,Ue;jhYk;

,ilepiyf;fy;tpia tYg;gLj;Jtjw;F

murhq;fkhdJ ,uz;L Kf;fpakhd

mgptpUj;jp Kaw;rpfis ftdj;jpy;

nfhs;syhk;. mitahtd

(m) ,ilepiyg;ghlrhiyf; fiyj;jpl;lj;ij

njspTgLj;jYk; xOq;FgLj;jYk;:

,it xt;nthU juj;jpw;Fk;

ghlj;jpw;Fk; chpa Njh;r;rpfs;>

jpwd;fisAk; vjpHghHj;j fw;wy;

tpisTfisAk; Fwpg;gdthf ,Uj;jy;

Ntz;Lk;.

(M) mjpgHfs; kw;Wk; MrphpaHfs; kj;jpapy;

,j;jifa milT kl;lq;fisg; gutr;

nra;jy;> Ghpe;JzHit cWjpnra;jy;.

,it nghUj;jkhd mr;Rr; rhjdq;fs;

ghlrhiyf;F fpilg;gij cWjpnra;Ak;.

MrphpaHfspd; njhopd;ikj; NjHr;rpfisAk;

jpwd;fisAk; tYg;gLj;jy;

39. fw;gpj;jypy; <LgLNthhpd; juhjuk;

ahjhapDk; xU fy;tpKiwapy; kpfTk;

Kf;fpakhdnjhd;whFk;. fle;j 5

Mz;Lfhyg;gFjpapy; ,yq;ifahdJ Njrpa

fy;tpapay; fy;Y}hpfis epWTtjw;Fk;

cj;jpNahfj;jHfisAk; G+uzkhd

tiyg;gpd;dy; mikg;ig cUthf;Ftjw;Fk;>

Kd;Nrit MrphpaH fy;tpia toq;Ftjw;Fk;>

njhlUW MrphpaH fy;tpia toq;Ftjw;Fk;

chpa MrphpaH kj;jpa epiyaq;fis

mikg;gjw;Fk; ngUkstpy; KjyPL

nra;Js;sJ. eilKiwapy; rfy ghlrhiy

MrphpaHfSk; ,g;nghOJ gapw;wg;gl;Ls;sdH.

jkJ njhopy; tho;f;ifapd; NghJ njhopd;ik

tpUj;jpf;fhd tha;g;Gf;fis mDgtpf;fpd;wdH.

murhq;fkhdJ MrphpaHfspd; njhopd;ik

Mw;wy;fisAk; jpwd;fisAk; mgptpUj;jp

nra;tjw;F ,j;jifa epWtd

mbg;gilfisf; fl;bnaOg;gyhk;. ,j;jifa

Nehf;fq;fis miltjw;Fhpa gpujhd nray;

Kiwfs; gpd;tUkhW>

(m) njhopyplg; gapw;rpapD}lhf

KOg;ghlrhiyfisAk; kw;wpaikj;jy;

kw;Wk; mgptpUj;jp nra;jiy

,yf;fhff; nfhz;L njhlUW MrphpaH

gapw;rp epfo;r;rpj; jpl;lq;fis mwpKfk;

nra;jy;> jdpg;gl;l MrphpaHfs; jkJ ju

cah;it cWjpnra;tjw;F MrphpaH

epiyaq;fspD}lhf jw;nghOJ

toq;fg;gLk; njhopyplj;jpw;F ntspNa

As;s gapw;rpr; nraw;ghLfisj;

Jizahff; nfhs;SjYk;.

(M) fw;if newpia jpl;lkplYk;

xOq;fikj;jYk;> tFg;giw

eilKiwfs;> khztH xg;gilfSk;

tPl;LNtiyfSk; khztH mwpitAk;

jpwd;fisAk; fzpg;gpLjy; Nghd;w

fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfisAk;

rhjdq;fisAk; njhopy; El;gq;fisAk;

gad;gLj;Jtjw;F MrphpaHfis

Maj;jk; nra;tjw;fhd Kd;Nrit

kw;Wk; njhlUW MrphpaH gapw;rp

epfo;r;rpj; jpl;lq;fisAk; Nghjid

eilKiwfisAk; etPdkag;gLj;jy;.

(,) Muk;g kw;Wk; ,ilepiy tFg;G

tl;lj;jpy; khztHikar;

nraw;ghl;bid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l

fw;gpj;jy; fw;wy; mZFKiwfis

Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;F Njitahd

fw;gpj;jypay; jpwd;fSld;

$batHfshf MrphpaHfis Maj;jk;

nra;tjw;F chpa Kd;Nrit kw;Wk;

njhlUW MrphpaH fy;tp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;l

fiyj;jpl;lj;ijAk; Nghjid

T 15

eilKiwfisAk; mgptpUj;jp nra;jy;.

(<) ghlrhiyfspd; juhjuj;jpid

Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;F cs;SH

r%jhaq;fSld;

gq;Nfw;gjw;fhd jpwd;fSld;

$batHfshf MrphpaHfis

cUthf;Fjy;.

(c) mjpgHfspd; jiyikj;Jtj;jpd; fPo;

MrphpaHfs; nghWg;Gffis Vw;gjw;F

tha;g;Gfs; nfhLj;jYld;

caHjukhd ghlrhiy ngWNgw;Wj;

juhjuq;fis miljYk;.

(C) ghltplaq;fspYk; fw;gpj;jypay;

jpwd;fspYk; MrphpaHfspd; njhopd;ik

mwpT kw;Wk; Ghpe;JzHit xOq;fhfTk;

tl;l mbg;gilapYk; MrphpaH

njhopypYs;s fhyk; tiu tYT+l;Ljy;.

mjpgHfs;> jiyik MrphpaHfs;> jiyik

Mrphpiafspd; jiyikj;Jt kw;Wk;

Kfhikj;Jt Mw;wiy tYg;gLj;jy;

40. caHjuj;jpyhd ghlrhiyj;

jiyikj;Jtj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;

,yq;ifapd; fy;tpf;nfhs;if Mf;FNthuhy;

n;ghpJk; kjpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mjpgHfs;>

ghlrhiyg; gphpTj; jiytHfshd jiyik

MrphpaHfs;> jiyik MrphpiafSf;fhd

jiyikj;Jt kw;Wk; Kfhikj;Jt

gapw;rpfis toq;Ftjw;fhd mjpgHfs; gapw;rp

kj;jpa epiyankhd;W cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.

NkYk; mjpgHfSf;F tYT+l;Ltjw;Fk;

ghlrhiyfSf;Ff; fzprkhd mstpy;

Kfhikj;Jt mjpfhuq;fis

gutyhf;FjYf;Fk; ghlrhiy mjpgHfs;>

jiyik MrphpaHfs;> jiyik

Mrphpiafspd; jiyikj;Jtj; jpwd;fisAk;

Kfhikj;Jtj; NjHr;rpfisAk; tYg;gLj;Jjy;

mgptpUj;jpapd; Kf;fpa mk;rkhFk;.

vjpHfhyj;jpy; Njitg;gLk; Kf;fpakhd

jiyikj;Jt> Kfhikj;Jtj; jpwd;fs;

gpd;tUk; Mw;wy;fis cs;slf;Fk;.

(m) ghlrhiyfspd; njhiyNehf;fpidAk;

,yf;FfisAk; njspthf ,izj;jy;.

(M) fiyj;jpl;lj;ij

eilKiwg;gLj;Jtjw;F ghlrhiyia

rpwe;jKiwapy; xOq;fikj;jy;.

(,) tFg;giw kw;Wk; ghlrhiyapd;

,ize;j fiyj;jpl;lj; NjitfSld;

MrphpaHfspd; fw;gpj;jypay; NjHr;rpfis

,izj;jy;.

(<) cj;jpNahfj;jHfis> Fwpg;ghf

MrphpaHfis kjpg;gpLtJld;

mtHfSila NjHr;rpfisAk;

jpwd;fisAk; Kd;Ndw;Wjy;.

(c) caHngWNgWfis Nehf;fp

cj;jpNahfj;jiuAk; khztHfisAk;

Cf;Ftpj;jy;.

(C) ghlrhiyapd; ,yf;Ffis

Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;F ngsjPf tsq;fisg;

gfpHjYk; gad;gLj;jYk;.

(v) ngw;NwhH Mrphpa rq;fq;fs;> gioa

khztH rq;fq;fs; cs;spl;l rKjha

mikg;GfSld; neUq;fpa cwTfis

tpUj;jp nra;jy;.

(V) khztHfs;> MrphpaHfs;> ngw;NwhHfs;

kw;Wk; Vida rKjha cWg;gpdHfspd;

caHe;j Nehf;fpid

Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$ba jd;ikiag;

NgZjy;.

ghlrhiyf;fhd fy;tprhH kw;Wk; epUthf

cjtpfis mgptpUj;jp nra;jy;

41. ,yq;ifapy; ghlrhiyfSf;fhd

fy;tprhHe;j kw;Wk; epHthfk; rhHe;j

topfhl;liy toq;Fk; cjtp tiyg;gpd;dy;

mikg;ghdJ mbepiyapNyNa cs;sJ.

ghlrhiyfSf;F cjtp toq;Fk;

jw;NghJs;s Nritf;fhy MNyhrfH Kiw

Fiwe;jstpNyNa mgptpj;jpaile;Js;sJ.

,e;j Kiwikia tYT+l;Ljy; vd;gJ

vjpHfhyf; fy;tp mgptpU;j;jpf;fhd

Kd;DhpikrhHe;j tplaq;fs;

gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;.

(m) Nritf;fhy MNyhrfHfspd;

tfpgq;fpidAk; nghWg;Gf;fisAk;

njspthf vLj;Jf;fhl;Ljy;.

(M) Nritf;fhy MNyhrfHfis njhpT

nra;jYk; gzpf;fkHj;jYk; njhopd;ikj;

NjHr;rpapd; mbg;gilapy; ,Uj;jy;

Ntz;Lk;.

(,) Fwpg;gpl;l Nritf;F Nritf;fhy

MNyhrfHfis mkHj;Jjy;. ,J rpwe;j

Nghjid eilKiwfs; njhlHghd

jfty; kw;Wk; gapw;rpg; ngWNgWfis

caHj;JjiyAk; cs;slf;Fk;.

(<) Nritf;fhy MNyhrfHfis

tpidj;jpwd; kpFe;jthW ghlrhiy

mjpgHfs; kw;Wk; MrphpaHfspd;

fy;tprhH ngWNgWfis kjpg;gplTk;

T 16

T 17

Mf;fG+Htkhd gpd;D}l;ly;fis

toq;Ftjw;Fk; gad;gLj;jy;.

(c) ghlrhiyf;Fhpa njhopypl cjtpfis>

khfhzf; fy;tp mjpfhuq;fs;> tyaf;

fy;tp mYtyfq;fspd; toikahd

mgptpUj;jpr; nraw;ghLfSld;

,izj;jy;.

42. ,yq;ifahdJ fy;tp mgptpUj;jpapy;

,uz;lhtJ fl;lj;jpd; Muk;g epiyapy;

,Uf;fpd;wnghOJ ghlrhiy KiwahdJ

ntz;fl;bAk; Ngr;Rk; (Chalk and Talk) vd;gjpy;ngUkstpy; jq;fpapUf;fpwJ. ,J Fiwe;jgl;r

njhopy;El;gr;#oypUe;J njhopy;El;gr;

nrwpthd fy;tpKiwf;F Kd;NdWjy;

Ntz;Lk;. jfty; njhopy;El;g epiyaq;Sk;

rhjdq;fSk; tpQ;Qhd Ma;T $lq;fs;

E}yfq;fs; nraw;ghl;L miwfs;

cgfuzq;fSf;Fk; fUtpfSf;Fkhd fy;tp

%yjd ,Ug;G fl;lq;fshf mjpfhpf;fg;gLjy;

Ntz;Lk;. fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;> fw;wy;

mDFKiwfs; kw;Wk; ghPl;irfspy;

rhjdq;fSf;Fk; njhopy;El;gj;jpw;Fk;

Kjd;ikahd tfpgq;F toq;fg;gLjy;

Ntz;Lk;. cjhuzkhf tpQ;Qhdk;

Nghjpf;Fk; fhyj;jpy; mjpfkhd gq;fpid

Ma;T$l NtiyfSf;F toq;FtJld;

Ma;T$lj;ij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l

xg;gilfisf; fzpg;gPl;Lg; nghwpKiwapd; xU

gFjpahfTk; gad;gLj;jyhk;. mt;thNw

fzpjk;> ngsjPfk; Nghd;w ghlq;fisf;

fw;gpf;Fk; Kiwfspy; fy;tprhH

nkd;nghUl;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;

gps;isfspd; Rafw;wYf;F cjtyhk;. nkhop

fw;gpj;jypy; Fwpg;ghf Mq;fpyk; fw;gpj;jypy;

nrhw;fsQ;rpak;> cr;rhpg;G> ruskhd

tha;nkhop Mfpatw;iw tpUj;jpnra;tjw;F

Nfl;ly; rhjdq;fisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.

E}yfq;fisAk; thrpg;Gr; rhjdq;fisAk;

mjpfstpy; gad;gLj;Jjy; fw;wy;

tpisTfis cWjp nra;Ak; tpidj;jpwd;

kpf;f KiwahfTk; tpsq;Fk;.

ghlE}y;fspd; juhjuj;jpid Nkk;gLj;Jjy;

43. ghlE}y;fs; fy;tp Kiwapy; Kf;fpakhd

fw;wy; tskhFk;. NkYk; ,yq;if Nghd;w

xU mgptpUj;jp mile;JtUk; ehl;bw;F

vjpHfhyj;jpy; gy tUlq;fSf;fhd

Kf;fpakhd juhju cs;spLif

Nghd;wJkhFk; mjdhy; caHjukhd

ghlE}y;fis cWjpnra;jy; kpf

Kf;fpakhdJ. mz;ikf;fhyq;fspNy

ghlE}y;fspd; juhjuj;ij mjpfhpg;gjw;fhd

Kf;fpakhd nfhs;ifrhH Kaw;rpfis

murhq;fk; eilKiwg;gLj;jpAs;sJld;

ghlrhiyfSf;F fpilf;fNtz;ba

ghlE}y;fspd; njhpitAk; VfNghf

chpikapy; ,Ue;J tpyf;fpaJld; Nghl;b

mbg;gilapyhd jdpahH epWtdq;fsplk;

ghlE}y; gpuRuj;jpid xg;gilj;Js;sJ.

jdpahH Jiwg; ghlE}y; gpuRuj;jpd; vjpHfhy

mgptpUj;jpahdJ gpd;tUk; Kf;fpakhd

eltbf;iffis cs;slf;Fk;.

(m) ehl;bYs;s ghlE}y; vOj;jhsHfs;>

glq;fs; tiuNthH kw;Wk;

gjpg;ghsHfspd; njhopy;El;g

Mw;wiy cWjpnra;jy;.

(M) ifnaOj;Jg; gpujp kw;Wk; tiuGfspd;

juf;fl;L;g;ghLfis tYg;gLj;jy;. ,it

tplaq;fspd; cz;ikj; jd;ikiar;

rhpghHj;jy;> gy;NtW rka kw;Wk;

,df;FOf;fis Gz;gLj;Jk;

tplaq;fis tpyf;Fjiyf; fUJk;.

(,) xg;ge;jg; gzpfis tpiuTgLj;jYk;

fy;tpahz;L epfo;tjw;F Kd;dH

Gj;jfq;fisf; fhyNeuj;Jld;

gfpHe;jspj;jiy cWjpnra;jYk;.

(<) Jiz thrpg;G E}y;fs;> nray;E}y;fs;

kw;Wk; ghlE}y; topfhl;bfs;

Mfpatw;iw vOJNthhpilNa

njhopy;El;g Mw;wiy mgptpUj;jp

nra;jy;.

gps;isfspd; Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; Nghrhf;F

epiyikfis cWjpg;gLj;jy;.

44. mwp;ifrhH Gs;spfSf;Fk;

ghlrhiyf;Fk;> tPl;bw;Fk; Rfhjhu

khwpfSf;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s njhlHGfs;

gw;wpa gFg;gha;thsHfs; Rfhjhuf; FiwTk;

Ngh\hf;F FiwTk; nfhz;l gps;isfs;

fw;wy; tpisTfSld; vjpHkiwahd

njhlHGfisf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;whHfs;

vd;gij vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;whHfs;. ,jd;

tpisthf fy;tpapd; juhjuj;ijAk; fw;wy;

kl;lj;ijAk; Nkk;gLj;Jk; Kaw;rpfs; twpa

gps;isfspd; Rfhjhuj;ijAk; Ngh\hf;F

epiyikfisAk; Nkk;gLj;j vLf;fg;gLk;

eltbf;iffspshYk; ed;ik ngwKbAk;. xU

tpidj;jpwd; kpf;fghlrhiyapd; Rfhjhuk;

kw;Wk; Ngh\hf;F epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lj;jpd;

mbg;gilr; rl;lfkhdJ gpd;tUk; Kf;fpakhd

$Wfisf; nfhz;bUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

(m) ghJfhg;ghdJk; cWjpahdJkhd

ngsjPfr; #oiy toq;Fk; Rfhjhuk;

njhlHghd ghlrhiyf; nfhs;if>

rhjfkhd kw;Wk; cld;ghlhd

csr;#oiyAk; khztH

J\;gpuNahfk;> ghypay; Jd;GWj;jy;fs;

ghlrhiy td;Kiwfs; nfhLikg;

gLj;jy; Nghd;w gpur;ridfSf;F Kfk;

nfhLj;jiyAk; cUthf;Fjy;.

(M) rpwe;j epHkhzg;gzpfSk; guhkhpg;G

eilKiwfSk;: ,jdhy;

ghJfhg;ghdJk; NghjpastpyhdJkhd

FbePH> Rj;jkhd Rfhjhu trjpfis

cWjpnra;jy;.

(,) mwpT> kdg;ghq;F tpOkpaq;fs; kw;Wk;

tho;f;ifj; jpwd;fs; vd;gdtw;iw

tpUj;jpnra;jy; Rfhjhuj;ij

mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l jpwd;fis

toq;fp kpfg;nghUj;jkhdJk; Rfhjhuk;

njhlHghd rhjfkhd jPHkhdq;fis

khztHfs; Nkw;nfhs;sTk; mjd;gb

xOfTk; cjTjy;.

(<) Ez;ghfg; Ngh\hf;F FiwghLfs;>

Gwj;njhw;W> grp> gy;rhHe;j

FiwghLfs;> FWk;ghHit

Nehahsh;> Nfl;ly; FiwghL Nghd;w

gpur;ridfisj; jPHf;Fk; ghlrhiykl;lr;

Rfhjhu kw;Wk; Ngh\hf;F Nritfs;.

fy;tpapd; %yk; r%f xl;Lwit

Nkk;gLj;Jjy;

45. khztH kj;jpapy; FbrhH mwpitAk;

Ghpe;JzHitAk; tsHj;jy;: ehl;by; 20

tUlfhy ePz;l Aj;jj;jpd; tpisthf

[dehaf MSif kw;Wk; FbrhH Rje;jpuk;

vd;gtw;wpd; gy;tifikia Nkk;gLj;Jk;

Kf;fpakhdnjhU eltbf;ifahfTk; r%f

xl;Lwit fy;tpapd; %yk; Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;Fk;

chpa Nkyjpf eltbf;ifahf gy;NtW

FOf;fspd; fyhrhuj;ij kjpf;Fk;

ghlE}y;fis cUthf;Fjy; gy;tifikia

kjpf;Fk; fiyj;jpl;lj;ijAk;

,izf;fiyj;jpl;lr; nraw;ghLfisAk;

gad;gLj;jy;> gy;NtW ,df;FOf;fisr;

NrHe;j gps;isfs; xd;W NrHe;J gbf;Fk;

ghlrhiyfis mwpKfk; nra;jy;>

Mq;fpyj;ij ,izg;G nkhopahf

gad;gLj;Jtjid Cf;Ftpj;jiyAk;

Nkk;gLj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk; ,j;jifa

eltbf;iffs; gaDilaitahf ,Ue;jhYk;>

mtw;wpd; ghjpg;Gf;fs; gy;NtW r%ff;

FOf;fspd; xj;Jiog;gpNyNa jq;fpapUf;Fk;.

Fwpg;ghf gpzf;Ffshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l

gpuNjrq;fspy; cs;s Kf;fpa FOf;fspd;

xj;Jiog;G ,e;eltbf;iffis

Nkk;gLj;Jtw;F mtrpakhFk;.

gpzf;Ffshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l gpuNjrq;fspy;

rpije;JNghd fy;tp epWtdq;fis

GzHepHkhdpj;jy;

46. NrHT kw;Wk; fw;wy; kl;lq;fs; vd;gd

gpzf;Ffshy;; ghjpf;fg;gl;l gpuNjrq;fspy;

kpff;FiwthFk;. ,it fy;tp epWtdq;fs;

mope;jikahy; Vw;gl;l tpN\l rthy;fis

cUthf;fpAs;sd. gpzf;Ffshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l

gpuNjrq;fspy; cs;s murhq;ff; fy;tp

epWtdq;fs; Fwpg;ghfg; ghlrhiyfs;>

gpzf;Ff; fhyq;fspy; mopTf;Fs;shapd.

,g;gpuNjrq;fspd; Gzuikg;G> GzUj;jhuzk;

kw;Wk; mgptpUj;jpj; Njitfs; gw;wpa

kjpg;gPLfs;> ,g;gpuNjrj;jpd; %yjd ,Ug;Gf;

fzf;fpid 140 If;fpa mnkhpf;f

nlhyHfshf kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ. [ghHf;fUNICEF-WORLD BANK (2003)]. MapDk;

gpzf;fpdhy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l gpuNjrq;fspd;

fy;tpg;GzHepHkhz> Gzuikg;Gg; gzpfis

eilKiwg;gLj;Jjy; xU ngUQ;rthyhf

mike;Js;sJ.Fwpg;ghfg; nghUl;fSf;Fk;

NjHr;rpngw;w njhopyhsUf;Fk;

ngUe;jl;Lg;ghLfs; epyTfpd;wd.

,g;gpuNjrq;fspy; Gzuikg;Gg; gzpfSf;fhd

epjp fpilf;fpwJ. nghUl;fspd; tpiyfSk;

$ypfSk; caHe;Js;sd. gpzf;Fshy;

ghjpf;fg;gl;l gpuNjrq;fspy; fy;tpKiwiag;

Ngzpg;ghJfhf;fTk; ePz;lfhy Mw;wiy

fzprkhdstpy; fl;bnaOg;Gtjw;Fk;; gy

nraw;ghLfis Ntz;bepw;fpd;wd.

gy;fiyf;foff; fy;tpapd; juhjuj;jpid

Nkk;gLj;jy;

47. gy;fiyf;fof KiwikahdJ>

ghlrhiyKiwik Nghy MNyhridf;

nfhs;if mgptpUj;jpr; nray;Kiwfisr;

nrwpthd Kiwapy; mDgtpf;ftpy;iy.

MapDk; gy;fiyf;fof khdpa

Mizf;FOTk; jdpg;gl;l

gy;fiyf;fofq;fSk;> juhjuj;jpid

cWjpg;gLj;Jk; gy Kaw;rpfis mgptpUj;jp

nra;Js;sd. ,it fiyj;jpl;lr; rPh;jpUj;jk;>

ghPl;ir Kiwfs;> Fwpg;ghf fw;if Kiw

T 18

T 19

rhHe;Js;s gl;lg;gbg;G epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fis

xOq;fikj;jy;> njhlH kjpg;gPl;L Kiwia

mwpKfQ;nra;jy;> gy;fiyf;fofq;fSf;fhd

xj;Jiog;Gj; jpl;lq;fis mgptpUj;jpnra;jy;>

cj;jpNahfj;jHfSf;fhd ngWNgw;W

kjpg;gPl;bid mwpKfg;gLj;jy;> Rje;jpukhd

rigapd;fPo; rhd;wpjo; toq;Fk;

nray;Kiwfis cUthf;Fjy;. ngWNgw;W

mbg;gilapy; epjp toq;Fk; %yfq;fis

mwpKfg;gLj;Jjy; vd;gdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;.

,e;j Kaw;rpfs; ghPl;rpf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;@ ed;F

kjpg;gplg;glNtz;Lk;;; tpN\lkhf> gioa

Kaw;rpfshd fw;if myF KiwikfisAk;

njhlHkjpg;gPl;Lg; nghwpKiwfisAk;

mwpKfg;gLj;jy; Nghd;wit nfhs;if

tFg;NghUf;Fk; fy;tprhHe;NjhUf;Fk;

cjtpahf ,Uf;Fk;.

fy;tp Kiwikia NtiyAyFf;Fj;

jpirKfg;gLj;jy;

48. ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpf;nfhs;ifr;

rl;lfkhdJ fy;tp Kiwikia

NtiyAyfpw;Fj; jpirKfg;gLj;Jtjd;

Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpid typAWj;Jfpd;wJ [ghHf;fNEC (2003)] Ntiy cyFf;fhd rpwe;j

mj;jpthukhf caH juj;jpyhd ghlrhiy

KiwikahdJ gapw;wg;glf;$ba

jdpegHfis njhopw;re;ijf;F

toq;Fnkd;Wk; njhopy;El;g> njhopd;ik

kw;Wk; gy;fiyf;fof fy;tpf;fhd

njhopw;re;ijia toq;Fnkd;Wk;

nfhs;ifahf;FNthH mwptH. ghlrhiy

KiwikahdJ mzpahfg; gzpapy; <Lgly;>

jPHkhdk; Nkw;nfhs;sy;> njhlf;fpitj;jy;>

gpur;rid jPHj;jy;> nghWg;Ngw;wy;>

jiyikj;Jtk;> njhlHghly; Nghd;w

jpwd;fisAk; mwpitAk; cUthf;FtjpYk;

Kf;fpakhd tfpgq;fpid Vw;fpd;wd. ,it

NtiyAyfpw;F kpfTk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;

tha;e;jit. ghlrhiy Kiwik$l mwpT

kw;Wk; njhopw; re;ijf;Fj; Njitahd

Fwpg;ghd Mw;wy;fSf;fhd

rl;ljpl;lj;jpidAk; cs;slf;Fk;. ,yq;ifapd;

Ntiy cyfpw;fhd fy;tpKiwapd;

jpirKfg;gLj;jy;fis Nkk;gLj;Jk;

jpl;lq;fs;> fiyj;jpl;lj;jpy; mjd;

mgptpUj;jpf;fhf Kd;Dhpik> fy;tpapy;

njhopEl;gg; gad;ghL> nkhopj;jpwd;fSk;

ruskhf nkhopiag; gad;gLj;JjYk;> njhopy;

topfhl;lYk; MNyhridAk; vd;gdtw;wpw;F

Kd;Dhpikaspj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf; fiyj;jpl;lj;ij

mgptpUj;jp nra;jYk; eilKiwg;gLj;jYk;

49. ,ilepiyf;fy;tpf;fhd ,yq;ifapd;

fy;tpf; nfhs;if Mf;FNthuhy;

Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf;

fiyj;jpl;l mZFKiwahdJ

ghlrhiyg;gps;isfs; kj;jpapy; rpwe;j Ntiy

xOf;fj;ij mgptpUj;jp nra;tjw;fhf

tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ [ghHf;f NEC (2003)].,J fy;tpKiwia Ntiy cyfpw;F

jpirKfg;gLj;Jtjpy; Kf;fpa gq;fpid tfpf;f

KbAk;. nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf; fiyj;jpl;l

mZFKiwapd; vjpHfhy mgptpUj;jpAk;

eilKiwg;gLj;jYk; gpd;tUk; Kf;fpa

Kaw;rpfspy; jq;fpapUf;fpwJ>

(m) nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf; fw;gpj;jYk;

Mrphpaiug; gap;w;Wtpj;jYk;

(M) ghlrhiyia mbg;gilahff; ihz;l

fiyj;jpl;lj;jpw;fhf ghlrhiyfis

xOq;FgLj;Jtjw;F mjpgHfisg;

gapw;Wtpj;jy;

(,) nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf; fw;wYf;Fg;

NghjpasT tFg;giw ,ltrjpiaAk;

nraw;ghl;L miwfisAk;

toq;Fjy;.

(<) nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf;fw;gpj;jy; kw;Wk;

fw;wYf;F cjt ghlrhiyfspy;

Njitahd rhjdq;fs;

njhopy;El;gk; kw;Wk; thrpg;G E}y;fs;

fpilf;fr; nra;jy;.

jfty; njhopy;El;g gbg;gwptpidAk;

jpwidAk; mjpfhpj;jy; kw;Wk; jfty;

njhopy;El;g mbg;gilapyhd fw;gpj;jiyAk;

fw;wiyAk; mwpKfg;gLj;jy;;.

50. jfty; njhopy;El;g gbg;gwpTk;

jpwd;fSk; etPd cyfpw;F mbg;gilahdit.

mj;Jld; ghlrhiyiag; G+Hj;jp

nra;NthUf;Fk; gy;fiyf;fofg;

gl;ljhhpfSf;Fkhd Njrpa kw;Wk;

cyfshtpa njhopw;re;ij tha;g;Gfs;

ngUkstpy; mjpfhpf;fpd;wd. fy;tpf;

nfhs;ifahf;FNthH jfty; njhopy;El;gj;jpd;

Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpid ed;F mwpe;jpUg;gJld;

fy;tpKiwapNy jfty; njhopy;El;gj;jpd;

gad;ghl;bid tphpTgLj;jpAk; Mog;gLj;jpAk;

tUfpd;wdH. ,J Kf;fpakhdJk; caH

Kd;Dhpik toq;fg;glNtz;baJkhd

nfhs;if eltbf;if MFk;. ghlrhiy

T 20

Kiwikapy; jfty; njhopy;El;gg;

gad;ghl;bid mgptpUj;jp nra;tjw;fhd

Kf;fpa Muk;gpg;Gf;fSk; jfty;

njhopy;El;gj;jpid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l

fw;gpj;jy; kw;Wk; fw;wiy

eilKiwg;gLj;JjYk; gpd;tUtdtw;iw

cs;slf;Fk;

(m) jfty; njhopy;El;g trjpfs; kw;Wk;

fl;lq;fl;lkhd ,izg;G Mfpatw;iw

ghlrhiyfs; nfhz;bUj;jy;.

(M) jfty; njhopy;El;g mbg;gilapyhd

fy;tpr; rhjdq;fSf;F chpa

tha;g;Gf;fis mjpfg;gLj;Jk; Njrpa

fy;tp tiyg;gpd;dy; mikg;ig

cUthf;Fjy;.

(,) MrphpaHfis jfty; njhopy;El;g

rhjdq;fs;> fy;tprhH nkd;nghUl;fs;

kw;Wk; On line fy;tp; Mfpatw;wpw;Fg;

gapw;Wtpj;jy;.

(<) ghlrhiy mjpgHfs; kj;jpapy; jfty;

njhopy;El;gj;jpid fy;tpapy;

gad;gLj;Jk; tpopg;GzHit

cUthf;Fjy;.

(c) ghlrhiyfspd; jucs;sPLfSf;fhd

xJf;fPLfspy; jfty; njhopy;El;g

rhjdq;fisAk; jfty; njhopy;El;g

mbg;gilf; fy;tprhH tsq;fisAk;

toq;f Vw;ghL nra;jy;.

Mq;fpy nkhopj;jpwd;fis Nkk;gLj;jy;

51. Mq;fpy nkhopj;jpwd;fSk; mjd;

rusKk; Njrpa njhopw;re;ijapy; tYthd

Nfs;tpiaf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. NkYk;

Mq;fpy nkhopj; NjHr;rpahdJ cyfshtpa

nghUshjhuj;jpy; njhopy; tha;g;Gf;fisj;

jpwe;JtpLfpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf Mq;fpy

nkhopj;jpwd;fis tpUj;jp nra;jy; ghlrhiy

Kiwikapy; njhopw;re;ijapd;

jpirKfg;gLj;jiy Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;Fhpa

fy;tprhH nfhs;ifr; rl;lj;Jf;fhd gpujhd

%yfkhf tpsq;FfpwJ. vjpHfhyj;jpw;fhd

Kf;fpakhd mgptpUj;jp Kaw;rpfs;

gpd;tUkhW>

(m) Nghjdhnkhopahf Mq;fpyj;ij

khztHfs; njhpTnra;tjw;F jdpahH

ghlrhiyfis mDkjpj;jy;. ,jid

rpq;fs kw;Wk; jkpo; nkhopNahL

Kjyhk; tFg;gpypUe;Nj Muk;gpj;jy;.

(M) Mq;fpyj;ij Nghjdhnkhopahf

murhq;fg; ghlrhiyfspy;

fl;lq;fl;lkhf Nghjpastpy;

MrphpaH fpilg;ghuhapd; mwpKfQ;

nra;jy;.

(,) fy;tpKiwikapy; cs;s

MrphpaHfSfLk;> Nkyjpf

MrphpaHfSf;Fk; kPs; gapw;rp toq;Fjy;

cl;gl Mq;fpyj;ij xU ghlkhf

fw;gpf;f gapw;rpaspj;jy;.

(<) Mq;fpyj;ijg; Nghjdh nkhopahff;

nfhz;L fw;gpg;gjw;F MrphpaHfisg;

gapw;Wtpj;jy; “NkyjpfMrphpaHfSf;fhd” kPs; gapw;rpAk; ,jpy;

mlq;Fk;.

(c) Mq;fpynkhop fw;gpj;jy;> fw;wYf;fhf

fl;Gy nrtpg;Gy rhjdq;fisAk; fy;tp

tsq;fisAk; jfty; njhopy;El;g

mbg;gilf; fy;tpr; rhjdq;fisAk;

gutyhfg; gad;gLj;Jjy;.

jpwd; mgptpUj;jpiaAk; gapw;rpiaAk;

tYg;gLj;jy;

52. jpwd; mgptpUj;jpahdJ murhq;fk;

Ntiy tha;g;Gf;fis Cf;Ftpg;gjw;fhd

gpujhd njhopw;re;ij cghaq;fisAk;

ghlrhiyiatpl;L tpyFNthhpd; Ntiyg;gil

cw;gj;jpj;jpwidAk; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ.

nfhs;ifahf;FNthuhy; gy mgptpUj;jp

Kaw;rpfSk; nfhs;ifrhH eltbf;iffSk;

Kd;itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. mit gpd;tUkhW>

(m) TEVT f;fhd jiyik mikg;ghd

njhopy;El;g kw;Wk; njhopw;fy;tp

Mizf;FOtpid (TVEC)tYg;gLj;jy;.

(M) murhq;fk; xU topfhl;bahf>

juhjuq;fis cUthf;FNthuhf>

gapw;rpfis xOq;F gLj;JNthuhfj;

njhopw;gLtjw;F mjd; tfpghfj;jpid

tpUj;jp nra;jy;.

(,) gapw;rpfspy; jdpahH Jiwapd;

gq;Nfw;gpidg; NgZjy;.

(<) jpwd; mgptpUj;jpapy; murhq;ff;

ifj;njhopy;fisg; gq;Fjhuuhf

Cf;Ftpj;jy;.

(c) mur kw;Wk; jdpahH gapw;rp

epWtdq;fspd; juhjuj;jpid

cWjpg;gLj;JjYk; Cf;Ftpj;jYk;.

(C) nghJj;Jiwapy; TEVT Kiwikia

epahag;gLj;jy;.

T 21

(v) TEVT Kiwikapd; njhlHGfis

ghlrhiy kw;Wk; gy;fiyf;fof

KiwikAld; Nkk;gLj;Jjy;.

ghlrhiyfspYk;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYk; njhopy;

topfhl;ly; kw;Wk; MNyhridia

cUthf;Fjy;.

(V) Kiwapy; JiwfspYk; njhopw;gapw;rpia

Cf;Ftpj;jy;

(I) nghJj;Jiwia ,yf;fhff; nfhz;l

gapw;rpfSf;F epjprhH Cf;Ftpg;Gf;fis

toq;Fjy;.

,itahTk; epahakhd kw;Wk; cs;shHe;j

cw;gj;jprhH rpe;jidfshFk;. ,it

rHtNjr rpe;jidfisAk;

eltbf;iffisAk; gpujpgypf;fpd;wd.

,j;jifa gy;NtW nfhs;ifrhH

Kaw;rpfspd; mgptpUj;jpapd; cz;ikahd

epiy kpjkhdJ. ,it ,d;Dk; gy

rpe;jidfSld; $baitahfg; G+Hthq;f

epiyapNyNa cs;sd ,j;jifa

nfhs;ifrhH rpe;jidfis mgptpUj;jp

cghaq;fshf khw;WjYk; mtw;iw

eilKiwg;gLj;jYk; TEVT vjpHnfhs;Sk;

,d;ndhU Kf;fpa rthyhFk;.

njhopy; topfhl;liyAk; MNyhridAk;

tpUj;jp nra;jy;

53. fy;tpia Ntiy cyFld; ,izf;Fk;

Kf;fpakhd murhq;f ghpe;Jiuahf

tpidjpwd;kpf;f njhopy; topfhl;ly; kw;Wk;

MNyhrid mgptpUj;jpiaf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.

gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; njhopYf;F topfhl;ly;

kw;Wk; MNyhridr; nraw;ghLfisj;

njhlq;fpAs;sd. MapDk; ghlrhiy

Kiwikapy; njhopy; topfhl;ly; kw;Wk;

MNyhrid xOq;fhf ,lk;ngwtpy;iy.

ghlrhiyfspy; njhopy; topfhl;lYk;

MNyhrid mgptpUj;jpAk; vjpHfhy

eilKiwg;gLj;jYf;fhd xU Kf;fpakhd

Kaw;rp MFk;. ,e;j Kaw;rpia Cf;Ftpf;Fk;

gpujhd nraw;ghLfs; gpd;tUtdtw;iw

cs;slf;Fk;.

(m) ghlrhiyapd; Kf;fpa gjtpazpapdiu

njhopy; topfhl;ly; kw;Wk;

MNyhridf;F gapw;Wtpj;jy;.

(M) gpd;jq;fpa gpuNjrq;fspy; cs;s

ghlrhiyfspy; topfhl;ly; kw;Wk;

MNyhrid mgptpUj;jpf;F Kd;Dhpik

nfhLj;jy;. Vnddpy; ,j;jifa

gpuNjrq;fspy; cs;s khztHfs;

njhopw;re;ij njhlHghd jfty;fisg;

ngwf;$ba tha;g;G FiwthfTs;sJ.

(,) njhopw;gapw;rp kw;Wk; njhopy;El;gf;fy;tp

epWtdq;fSf;Fk; ghlrhiyfspy;

cs;s topfhl;ly; MNyhrfUf;Fk;

,ilNa jfty; tiyg;gpd;dy;

mikg;gpid mgptpUj;jp nra;jy;.

fy;tp ts xJf;fPLk; gfpHe;jspg;Gk;

54. murhq;fkhdJ mbg;gilf;fy;tp

tl;lj;ij vy;NyhUk; G+Hj;jpnra;jiy

cWjpnra;jy;> (juk; 1 - 9)> fy;tpapd;

juhjuj;jpid cWjpnra;jy;>

fy;tpKiwikia NtiyAyfpw;Ff;

jpirKfg;gLjy;> nghJr;nryTfspy;

epahaj;jd;ikia Nkk;gLj;jy;> Nrit

tpepNahfj;jpid Kiwikf;Fs; tYg;gLj;jy;>

fy;tp kw;Wk; gapw;rp Kiwikapd;

nghUshjhu> r%fg;nghUj;jg;ghl;bid

tpUj;jpnra;jy; Nghd;w gy Kf;fpa

rthy;fis vjpHnfhs;sNtz;bAs;sJ.

fy;tpapy; nghJ KjyPlhdJ

mgptpUj;jpaile;JtUk; ehLfs;Nghy

kpjkhfTk; cz;ik tUkhdj;jpy; murhq;f

fy;tpr; nryTfs; tPo;r;rpaile;J nry;yy;

kw;Wk; ghhpanjhU gzg;gw;whf;;FiwAldhd

mur nrytpdq;fSk; ,Ue;j Ntisapy;

,j;jifa rthy;fs; Njhd;wpAs;sd. ,it

khw;wKwhj ghjPl;Lf; nfhs;ifia type;J

epiwNtw;Wfpd;wJ. ,r;re;jHg;gj;jpy;

fy;tpKiwahdJ tiuaWf;fg;gl;l nghJ

tsq;fis epahakhfTk; tpidj;jpwDlDk;

gad;gLj;Jjy; ,d;wpaikahjJ.

epak mbg;gilapyhd vjpHfhy mgptpUj;;jp>

myFr; nryT ts xJf;fPl;Lg; nghwpKiw

vd;gdtw;wpDlhf epahaj;jd;ikAk;

juhjuj;ijAk; Nkk;gLj;jy;.

55. murhq;fk;; fle;j 4 - 5 Mz;Lfshfg;

nghJ tsq;fis xJf;fPL nra;tjw;Fg;

gad;gLj;jpa epak mbg;gil kw;Wk;

xJf;fPl;Lg; nghwpKiwahdJ fy;tp

Kiwikapy; tsxJf;fPl;by;

epahaj;jd;ikAk; gfph;e;jspg;igAk;

fzprkhdstpy; mjpfhpf;fr; nra;jJ. ,e;jr;

rkd;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; Kjyhk; fl;l

eilKiwg;gLj;jy;fs; rfy

ghlrhiyfisAk; xNutpjkhff; fUjpd.

T 22

nghUshjhur; rpf;fd msTj;jpl;lj;jpw;F

,lkspf;Fk; tifapy; ghlrhiyapd;

gUkidg; nghWj;Jr; rpy rPuhf;fq;fisAk;

Nkw;nfhs;Sjy;> kpfg;

gpd;jq;fpaghlrhiyfspd; tWik kl;lq;fs;>

fw;gpf;fg;gLk; ghlq;fspYs;s NtWghLfs;

kw;Wk; mit nfhz;bUf;Fk; juhju

tl;lq;fs; vd;gdTk; ftdj;jpy;

nfhs;sg;gl;ld. jw;nghOJ ehL ,uz;lhtJ

fl;lkhd epak mbg;gil myFr; nryT ts

xJf;fPl;Lg; nghwpKiwf;F efh;fpd;wJ. ,it

gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;.

(m) fy;tpj; Njitfspd; khfhz kw;Wk;

r%f nghUshjhu mgptpUj;jpiaAk;

cs;slf;Fk; epjpg;gLj;jypy;

NtWghLfSf;F ,lkspj;jy;.

(M) njhpTnra;ag;gl;l ghlrhiyfspy;

fiyj;jpl;lj;ij NkYk;

gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fhpa tsxJf;fPl;L

Kiwfisj; njspthf;Fjy;.

(,) kj;jpa kw;Wk; khfhzf; fy;tp>

njhopy;El;gk;> epWtd Mw;wiyAk;

epjp mjpfhu rigfisAk; kpfTk;

Kd;Ndw;wfukhd khjphpfshd epak

mbg;gil> myFr; nryT tsxJf;fPl;Lg;

nghwpKiwapd;gb ts xJf;fPL kw;Wk;

gfph;e;jspg;ig tYg;gLj;jy;.

fy;tptl;lq;fs; KOtjpYKs;s nghJf;fy;tpr;

nryTfspd; tpisjpwidAk;

epahaj;jd;ikiaAk; cWjpg;gLj;Jjy;

56. fy;tpapd; r%f ed;ikfs; fl;lha

mbg;gilf; fy;tpapYk; rpNu\;l ,ilepiyf;

fy;tp tl;lj;jpYk; kpf mjpfkhf

cs;sd. fy;tp KjyPl;Lf;fhd rpwe;j

tpisTfs; mbg;gilf;fy;tpapYk; rpNu\;l

,ilepiyf; fy;tpepiyfspYk; cs;sd

vd;gjid vLj;Jf; fhl;LfpwJ. gpujhd jur;

Rw;Wf;fspy; khzth; Nrh;tpd; Nfhyq;fSk;

jukl;lj;jpyhd fy;tpapd; myFr;

nryTfSk; mbg;gil kw;Wk; rpNu\;l

,ilepiyf; fy;tpapyhd KjyPLfSk;

rhh;gstpy; Kd;dNdw;wfukhfTs;sd

vd;gJld; ,jd;%yk; Fiwe;j> ,ilj;ju

tUkhdq;fisf; nfhz;l FLk;gq;fspypUe;J

tUk; khzth;fs; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fstpy;

ed;ikailAk; NghJ %d;whk;epiyf;

fy;tpapyhd KjyPLfs; cah; tUkhdf;

FLk;gq;fspypUe;J tUk; gps;isfSf;F

ed;ikjUtdthf cs;sd. mNjNtisapy;

nghJg; gy;fiyf;fof Kiwikapd;

tphpthf;fk; ftdkhff; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLtJld;

jdpahHJiwapYs;s %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpapy;

NrHTtPjj;jpid tphpTgLj;Jfpd;wJ. twpa

khztHfspd; %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpf;fhd

tha;g;Gf;fis khztH cWjpg;gj;jpuq;fs;>

khztH fld;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; %yk;

tphpTgLj;jyhk;.

fy;tpj;juhjuj;ij cWjpg;gLj;Jk; ts

xJf;fPl;by; ghjPLfSf;Fs; fhzg;gLk;

ngaHTfs;

57. fy;tpj;juhjuj;ij Nkk;gLj;Jk;

mgptpUj;jprhH Kaw;rpfisAk; fy;tpKiwia

NtiyAyfpw;F jpirKfg;gLj;Jk;

fiyj;jpl;lr; rhjdk;> kw;Wk; njhopy;El;gr;

nrwpitAk; mjpfhpj;jy;> jfty; njhopy;El;g

gbg;gwpT> jfty; njhopy;El;g

mbg;gilapyhd fy;tp> Mq;fpy nkhop

tphpthf;fk;> ruskhfg; NgRjy;> jpwd;fs;

Nghd;wit %yjd ,Ug;gpy; mjpfstpyhd

KjyPLfis vjpHghHf;fpd;wd. ,Ue;jhYk;

fhyg;Nghf;fpy; fy;tpg; ghjPl;by; cs;s

KjyPl;L kw;Wk; kPz;nlOk; nryTfspd; kPjp

Kyjdr; nrytpdq;fspy; ngUk;gq;fpid

vjpHghh;f;fpd;wJ. jfty; njhopy;El;g kj;jpa

epiyaq;fs; tpQ;Qhd Ma;T$lq;fs;> E}y;

epiyaq;fs;> nraw;ghl;L miwfs;>

gyNehf;F miwfs;> E}y;fs;> rQ;rpiffs;>

fzpdpfs;> fy;tprhH nkd;nghUl;fs; vd;gd

%yjdg;ghjPl;by; $Ljyhd gq;fpid

cl;nfhs;fpd;wd. ,it epahakhd Kiwapy;

,lk;ngWjy; Ntz;Lk; vd;gJld; efug;

ghlrhiy Kiwikf;F Kd;Dhpik

nfhLj;jYk; Ntz;Lk; ,jdhy; mit

mjpfhpj;JtUk; Njitia mDgtpf;fpd;wd.

kPz;nlOk; ghjPl;by; cs;s rk;gsk;> epUthfr;

nryTfspy; ,Ue;J juhjur; nraw;ghLfSf;F

kPs; xJf;fPL nra;ag;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;. ,it

MrphpaH fy;tpAk;> Kfhikj;Jtk;> ghlrhiy

mjpgHfspd; fy;tprhH gapw;rp> fw;gpj;jy;;

rhjdq;fisAk; fw;wy; tsq;fisAk;

nfhs;tdT nra;jy;> caH %yjd KjyPl;bd;

eilKiwr; nryTfis epiwNtw;Wjy;

vd;gtw;iwAk; Fwpf;Fk;.

fy;tpy; jdpahHJiw KjyPl;bidAk;

gq;Nfw;gpidAk; mjpfhpj;jy;

58. ehlhdJ caH kl;lj;jpyhd

fy;tpj;juj;ij Nehf;fp Kd;NdWtjdhy;

fy;tpKiwikf;fhf murhq;fg; ghjPl;bw;F

T 23

tUkhdj;jpd; khw;W tsq;fis mjpfhpg;gjd;

%yk; kpifepug;gp xd;W Njitg;gLfpwJ. ,J

kpf Kf;fpakhdJk; mtrukhdJkhd

rhjfkw;w Ngupdg; nghUshjhur; #oypy;

fhzg;gLk; ghhpa kw;Wk; cWjpahd ghjPl;Lg;

gw;whf;FiwahFk;. jdpahH ghlrhiyfis

cUthf;Fk;. jilr;rl;lq;fis jsHj;jYld;>

fy;tpapy; jdpahH Jiwapd; gq;Nfw;gpw;Fs;s

vjpHkiw murpay; nghUshjhur; #oYf;F

vjpuhf cghaj;Jld;$ba Kaw;rpfis

mwpKfg;gLj;jy; gy ed;ikfis

cUthf;Fk;.

(m) fy;tpj;Jiwapy; KjyPLnra;ag;gl;l

ngUe;njhifahd tsq;fis ,J

mjpfhpf;Fk;

(M) khztHfs; jdpahH ghlrhiyfSf;Fr;

nry;tjd; fhuzkhfTk; caH

tUkhdKs;s FLk;gq;fspypUe;J

<Hg;gjd; fhuzkhfTk; nghJtsq;fis

xU khztUf;Fhpa mbg;gilapy; twpa

FLk;gq;fspypUe;J tUk;

khztDf;Ff; $Ljyhf toq;Fk;.

(,) %jyPLfs; nraw;ifahff;

fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLtJld;; caH

tsHr;rpf;Fg; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak; xU

Jiwapy; nghUshjhur; nraw;ghl;bidj;

J}z;Lk;.

(<) jdpahH fy;tp epWtdq;fshd jdpahH

ghlrhiyfSk; epWtdq;fSk;

fzprkhd mjpfhuq;fSk;

nghWg;Gf;fSk; nfhz;l Nrit

tpepNahfj;jpw;Fhpa khw;W khjphpfis

,J toq;Fk;. ,j;jifa jdpahH fy;tp

epWtdq;fs; xU nghUshjhu

epiyikapy; Rje;jukhd

nghJf;fy;tp epWtdq;fSld;

Nghl;bapl;Lf;nfhz;L caHjukhd

Nritfisj; njhlHe;Jk; toq;f

fl;lhag; gLj;jg;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;.

59. jdpahH gy;fiyf;fofq;fis

cUthf;Fjy; njhlHe;Jk; epytptUfpd;w xU

gpur;rpidahFk;. fle;jfhy Kaw;rpfs; gy

khztH fpsHr;rpfisAk; r%f

mikjpaPdq;fisAk; Njhw;Wtpj;Js;sd.

,Ue;jhYk; ,ilf;fhyj;jpw;$l ,yq;ifapy;

jdpahH gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; cUthf;fg;gLjy;

,ayhjnjhd;whFk;. murhq;fkhdJ

rr;ruTfs; mw;w gpuNjrq;fspy;

gq;Fgw;Wtjw;Fj; jdpahH Jiwia

Cf;Ftpg;gjd; %yk; jdpahH

gy;fiyf;fofq;fSf;fhd jdJ vjpHg;ig

ntspg;gLj;jpAs;sJ. ,it jdpahH

gl;lq;fis toq;Fk; epWtdq;fshf

cUthdit>tof;fkhf ntspehl;Lg;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fSld;

njhlHGiladthdTk; caHnjhopy;rhH

fw;ifnewpfs; kw;Wk; njhopy;El;gj;Jiwfs;

Nghd;w %d;whk; epiy epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fspy;

KjyPL nra;tdthfTk; cs;sd.

murhq;fkhdJ> %d;whk;epiyg;

gy;fiyf;fofk;rhuhf; fy;tpapy; jdpahH

gq;Nfw;gpid tphpthf;fk; nra;tjw;fhd>

Fwpg;ghf ehl;bd; cs;NsAk; ntspNaAk;

ciog;gpw;fhd Nfs;tpAs;s

caHnjhopy;El;gj; Jiwfspy; Njbawpa

Ntz;bAs;sik gykhfTs;sJ.

nghJg; gy;fiyf;foff; fy;tpapy; nryTg;

gfpHtpid Cf;Ftpj;jy;

60. mur gy;fiyf;fof gl;lg;gbg;Gf;

fy;tpapd; gad;fs; caH jdpahH

tpisTfisAk;> mghpkpj r%f

tpisTfisAk; tpfpj rkdw;w Kiwapy;

nry;te;jf; FLk;gq;fSf;F ed;ikiaAk;

jUtjhfg; gFg;gha;T njspthf

vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ. gy;fiyf;fof

tUkhdj;jpd; gq;Fk; mjpfhpj;J tUjy;

tYthd tplakhf cs;sJ. ,it

jdpg;gl;l FLk;gq;fspypUe;J

ngwg;gLfpd;wd. ,yq;ifapd; murpaw;

nghUshjhu epiyikfisf; ftdj;jpy;

vLj;jYk; ,q;F Kf;fpakhdJ. myFf;

fl;likg;G> nghJg; gy;fiyf;foff; fy;tp

gy jrhg;jq;fshf epakkhf ,Ue;jd>

ehLfspd; rHtNjr mDgtq;fs; ,ytr

nghJg;gy;fiyf;fof Kiwapy; nryTg;

gfpHtpid mwpKfQ;nra;jiy> Fwpg;ghf

khztH FOf;fspyilNa ,it gy

vjpHg;ig Njhw;Wtpj;jikiaAk;

mtjhdpf;fyhk;. ,Ue;jhYk;

,yq;ifahdJ nryTg; gfpHtpid

vjpHfhyj;jpy; ve;Neuj;jpYk; mwpKfQ;

nra;Ak; epiyapy; ,y;iy. MapDk;

ePz;lfhykhf> Fwpg;ghfg; nghUshjhuk;

tsHtjhYk; FLk;gq;fspd; nry;tk;

mjpfhpg;gjhYk; nryTg; gfpHthdJ> xU

MAl;fhg;Gj; njhpthf tuNtz;ba

NjitAs;sJ. ,r;re;jHg;gj;jpy;> khWepiyg;

nghUshjhuj;jpy; fzprkhd MHtj;ijf;

fhl;bAs;s Jiwahf> tUkhd

epiyf;Nfw;w khztH fld;fisf;

Fwpg;gplyhk;. murhq;fKk; ,e;jtifahd

rpy khztH fld;fspd; Kd;Ndhbg;

ghPl;rpg;Gf;fisf; ftdj;jpy; nfhs;sKbAk;.

,it Kjw;juj;jpNyNa jdpahH

%d;whk;epiy epWtdq;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;

gLjy;; Ntz;Lk;. mNjNtisapy;> nghJg;

gy;fiyf;foff; fy;tpapy; rhj;jpakhf;$ba

nryTg;gfpHT gl;lg;gbg;G kl;lq;fspYk;

epfoyhk;. gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYs;s

ngUk;ghyhd gl;lg;gbg;G khztHfs;

NtiyfspYk; gFjpNeu fl;lzk; mwtpLk;

fw;ifnewpfspYk; <Lgl;Ls;sdH.

gy;fiyf;fof tUkhdj;ij NkYk;

tphpTgLj;jf;$ba fzprkhd Mw;wy;tha;e;j

JiwahfTk; ,J tpsq;FtJld;

,jd;%yk; ehl;by; ed;Ffw;w

kdpjtsq;fspd; epuk;giyAk;

Nkk;gLj;jyhk;.

fy;tpr;Nrit tpepNahfj;jpd;

juhjuj;ijAk; tpidj;jpwidAk;

Nkk;gLj;jy;

61. twpa kw;Wk; kpfg;gpd;jq;fpa

nghUshjhuf; FOf;fspd; fy;tp

tha;g;Gf;fis tphpTgLj;Jtjw;fhd

mgptpUj;jp Kaw;rpfSk; cghaq;fSk;

fy;tpj;ju Nkk;ghLk; fw;wy; tpisTfSk;>

NtiyAyfpw;Ff; fy;tpia jpirKfg;

gLj;jYk; vd;gd fy;tpKiwapy; Nrit

tpepNahfj;jpd; tpisjpwidAk; juhjuj;ijAk;

tYg;gLj;jiy Ntz;bepw;fpd;wd.

NrittpepNahfj;jpid Nkk;gLj;Jk; murhq;f

cghak; gy ek;gpf;ifA+l;Lk; %yfq;fisf;

nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd.

ghlrhiy kw;Wk; gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; Nghd;w

Kjy;epiyr; NrittpepNahf epWtdq;fis

tYT+l;ly;.

62. ftdj;jpw;Fs;shd Kf;fpa murhq;ff;

nfhs;if Kaw;rpfs; Kjy;epiyr; Nrit

tpepNahf epWtdq;fshd ghlrhiyfspYk;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fspdJk; Kfhikj;Jt

rf;jpiag; gutyhf;fk; nra;tjhFk;. ghlrhiy

Kiwikapy; Kfhikj;Jt mjpfhuj;ij

tpUj;jpnra;tjd; ,yf;fhf mjpgHfs;>

jiyikahrphpaHfs;> jiyikahrphpiafs;>

Mrphpiafspd; tYT+l;lyhdJ

tsmirtpidAk; nghJ tifnrhy;yiyAk;

Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;F cs;SHr; rKjhaq;fSld;

ghlrhiyfs; njhlHGfisg; NgZtij

cWjpnra;jy;@ Fiwe;J nry;Yk; epUthf

mLf;Ffspy;> jPHkhdk; Nkw;nfhs;Sk;

czHtpidAk; mjd; Ntfj;ijAk;

Nkk;gLj;Jjy; vd;gd mike;Js;sd.

ghlrhiyfSf;fhd mgptpUj;jpailAk;

Kfhikj;Jtj; jd;dhjpf;fk; gy;NtW

ghlrhiyfspd; mgptpUj;jpr; rigfspd;

khjphpfis Kd;Ndhbahf nfhz;L

ghPl;rpf;fg;gl Ntz;ba ghlrhiyfspd;

MSif Mw;wyhdJ ,ltikT gUkd;

kw;Wk; tuyhw;iwg; nghWj;J

Fwp;g;gplj;jf;fstpy; NtWgLtijf; fhzyhk;.

cjhuzkhf> efuq;fspYk; ngUefuq;fspYk;

cs;s nghJg;; ghlrhiyfs;> rpwpa

ghlrhiyfspYk; ghh;f;fg; ngUkstpyhd

ghhpa Kfhikj;Jt Mw;wy;fisAk;

trjpahd rKjha tpisTfisAk;

$Ljyhff; nfhz;bUf;f tha;g;Gz;L.

63. gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; fzprkhdsT

jd;dhjpf;fj;ij VyNt mDgtpf;fpd;wd.

Mdhy; epUthf cj;jpNahfj;jHfis

Ml;NrHg;gjw;fhd Nkyjpf mjpfhurigAk;

jdpg;gl;l cj;jpNahfj;jUf;fhd rk;gsj;ij

fy;tprhH cj;jpNahfj;jh; rk;gsj;Jld;

,izj;jy;> kw;Wk; khztH mDkjp vd;gd

gy;fiyf;fof cj;jpNahfj;jHfs; kw;Wk;

mjpfhhpfspd; Cf;fiyAk; nghWg;igAk;

tifnrhy;yiyAk; mjpfhpf;Fk; vdyhk;.

,j;jifa eltbf;iffs; murpay;

nghUshjhu Nehf;fpy;

Kud;ghl;Lf;Fhpaitahf ,Uf;fyhk;.

vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> fy;tprhH cj;jpNahfj;jhpd;

rk;gsq;fisj; jdpg;gl;l cj;jpNahfj;jHfspd;

; rk;gsj;Jld; ,izf;Fk; Rje;jpuj;ijg;

gy;fiyf;fofq;fSf;F toq;FjyhdJ>

fy;tprhHe;jtHfs; xUikg;ghLila rk;gs

msTj;jp;l;lj;jpw;F gof;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;

re;jHg;gj;jpy; nghpJk; Kud;ghlhdjhf

,Uf;fyhk;. mJNghyNt> khztH

mDkjpiaj; jdpg;gl;l

gy;fiyf;fofq;fSf;F gutyhf;Fk;

nghWg;gpid gpd;jq;fpa khtl;lq;fspd;

khztH gq;fPl;bw;F mika xJf;fPL nra;Ak;

nfhs;iffSld; cld;ghLilajhf Mf;Fjy;

Ntz;Lk;.

T 24

T 25

64. murhq;fkhdJ MSifiag;

gutyhf;Fk; Nfhl;ghl;bid Vida fy;tp

epWtdq;fshd Njrpa fy;tpaw; fy;Y}hpfs;

MrphpaH kj;jpa epiyaq;fs; (TCs)vd;gdtw;wpw;Fk; gpuNahfpg;gjpYk; ftdk;

nrYj;jyhk;. jw;nghOJ Njrpa fy;tpf;

fy;Y}hpfs; rpwpjsT Kfhikj;Jt

nghWg;igAk; jd;dhjpf;fj;ijAk;

nfhz;Ls;sd. Njrpa fy;tpf; fy;Y}hpfshy;

toq;fg;gLk; MrphpaH fy;tpf; fw;ifnewpfis

kjpg;gpLjy; kw;Wk; rhd;wpjo; toq;Fjy;

vd;gd Njrpafy;tp epWtdj;jhy;

nghWg;Ngw;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

kj;jpakag;gLj;jg;gl;l MrphpaH fy;tpahsH

Nritf;Fk; mtHfSf;nfd xJf;fg;gl;l

fy;tprhH cj;jpNahfj;jhpd; njhptpy; chpik

nfhz;Ls;sJ. MrphpaH kj;jpa

epiyaq;fspd; epUthf mikg;G tpidj;jpwd;

nfhz;ljy;y. MrphpaH kj;jpa epiyaq;fshy;

toq;fg;gLk; njhlUW MrphpaHfy;tp

epfo;r;rpj;jp;l;lq;fSf;fhd fiyj;jpl;lq;fis

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; tbtikf;fpd;wJ.

Njrpa fy;tpf; fy;Y}hpfs; MrphpaH kj;jpa

epiyaq;fSf;fhd fy;tprhH MNyhrfuhfr;

nraw;gLfpd;wd. epUthf Nehf;fpy; epjpAl;gl

MrphpaH ikaq;fs; tyaf;fy;tp

mYtyfHfspd;fPo; tUfpd;wd. ,j;jifa

rpf;fyhd fy;tp kw;Wk; epUthf mikg;G

MrphpaH kj;jpa epiyaq;fspd; mgptpUj;jpia

ed;F ghjpj;Js;sd. Njrpa fy;tpf;

fy;Y}hpfSf;Fk; Mrphpah; kj;jpa

epiyaq;fSf;Fk; ngUkstpyhd

Kfhikj;Jt jd;dhjpf;fj;ijAk;

njhopEl;gj;ijAk; gutyhf;fk; nra;tJ

epWtdq;fspd; eilKiwrhH tpidj;jpwid

mjpfhpg;gJld; Nrit tpepNahfj;jpd;

juhjuj;jpidAk; cWjpg;gLj;Jk;.

ngWNgWfis kjpg;gpLk; Kiwfis

mgptpUj;jp nra;jYk; ngWNgWfSf;fhf

epjprhH Cf;Ftpg;Gf;fis mwpKfQ; nra;jYk;

65. ngWNgWfis kjpg;gpLk; Kiwikia

tYg;gLj;jyhdJ> caHjukhd Nrit

tpepNahfj;jpw;F ed;F gq;fspg;Gr;

nra;aKbAk;. gy;fiyf;fof Kiwikapy;

NgWNgw;W kjpg;gPLfs; Fwpg;ghf fy;tprhH

cj;jpNahfj;jHfSf;Fk; ,lk;ngw;Ws;sd.

MapDk; ghlrhiy Kiwikapy; NgWNgw;W

kjpg;gPl;L Kiwikia mwpKfg;gLj;Jk;

eltbf;iffs; Kuz;ghLilaitahf

,Ue;jJld; mit tpUj;jpnra;ag;glTkpy;iy.

gpd;tUk; %d;W Kf;fpakhd Kaw;rpfs;

ngWNgw;W kjpg;gPl;bid tpidj;jpwd;

kpf;fitahfg; ghlrhiy Kiwikapy;

mwpKfQ; nra;tjw;F murhq;fj;jpw;F

cjtyhk;.

(m) gad;ngWNthH Kf;fpakhf fy;tprhH

njhopw;rq;fq;fSf;F ngWNgw;W

kjpg;gPl;L Kiwikapd;

ngWkhdj;ij>NrittpepNahfj;jpidg;

gyg;gLj;Jk; gpd;D}l;lyhf

toq;FtJld;> Fiwe;j

ngWNgWfSf;F jz;lid toq;Fk;

eltbf;ifahfahftd;wp ey;y

NgWNgWfSf;F ntFkjp

toq;Ftjw;Fnkd mwpKfQ; nra;jy;.

(M) MrphpaH Nrit> fy;tp epUthfpfs;

Nrit> mjpgHfs; Nrit kw;Wk;

MrphpaH fy;tpahsH Nrit Nghd;w

gy;jug;gl;l fy;tpr; NritfSf;fhd

ngWNgw;W kjpg;gPl;L Kiwikfis

njhlHGila njhopw;rq;fq;fs; cl;gl

gad;ngWNthhpd; neUf;fkhd

MNyhridfSld; tbikj;jy;.

(,) ngWNgw;W kjpg;gPl;L Kiwikiag;

Kfhik nra;aTk; gad;gLj;jTk; fy;tp

epWtdq;fspdJk; fy;tp

epUthfpfspdJk; njhopy;El;g Mw;wiy

cWjpnra;jy;.

66. ngWNgWfSf;fhd epjprhH

Cf;Ftpg;Gf;fis Fwpg;ghf Kf;fpakhd

Nritfspy; mwpKfg;gLj;JjyhdJ>

Kf;fpakhd Kaw;rpahfTk; ,Uf;Fk;.

cjhuzkhf f\;lg;gpuNjrq;fspy; fhzg;gLk;

FiwghLila MrphpaH mkHj;JifAk;

$Ljyhf MrphpaH tutpd;ikAk;

fy;tpKiwapy; tpidj;jpwd;kpf;f

NrittpepNahfj;jpw;fhd gpujhd jilahFk;.

NkYk; kypdkhd MrphpaH mkHj;Jif

tpfpjrkdw;w Kiwapy; twpa khztHfisNa

ghjpf;fpd;wJ. mit gpugy;akw;w gpuNjrq;fs;

vd;w fhuzj;jhy; mq;F MrphpaH tutpd;ik

$Ljyhf ,Uf;fpd;wJ. ,it cs;SHg;

gpuNjrq;fisAk; nghUshjhu hPjpahfg;

gpd;jq;fpa fpuhkq;fisr; rhHe;jitAkhFk;.

MrphpaH mkHj;JifiaAk; tutpd;ikiaAk;

fl;Lg;gLj;j murhq;fkhdJ Njrpa fy;tp

Mizf;FOtpd; (2003) MNyhridahd>

f\;lg;gpuNjrq;fspYs;s ghlrhiy Mrphpah;

tutpd;ikiaf; Fiwg;gjw;F mtHfsJ

gad;gLj;jg;glhj yPTfisg; gad;gLj;j

,lkspf;f Ntz;Lk;. ngWNgw;wpw;fhd

gzhPjpahd Cf;Ftpg;gpid mwpKfg;

gLj;Jtjw;F> ,Wf;fkhd ghjPl;L epiyikfs;

gpujhd jilahfTs;sd. ,it Gjpa

nfhs;ifrhH eltbf;iffis eilKiwf;F

xt;thjitahf;Ffpd;wd. MapDk;

fy;tpKiwapy; nryTr; Nrkpg;Gf;fs;

Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLkhdhy;> mjd; %yk;

ngwg;gLk; rpy tsq;fis mj;jifa

ngWNgw;W Cf;Ftpg;G eltbf;iffis

mwpKfQ;nra;tjw;F xJf;fyhk;.

fy;tpKiwapy; tfpgq;fpidAk;

tifnrhy;yiyAk; xOq;fikj;jy;

67. fy;tpr;Nrit tpepNahfj;ij

Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;nfdg; ghpe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l

eltbf;iffisg; gy kj;jpa mikr;R>

khfhzrigfs; kw;Wk; tya mYtyfq;

fspYs;s murhq;f cj;jpNahfj;jiug;

nghWj;jtiuapy; mtHfSila jw;Nghija

mjpfhuq;fs; ,tw;iwg; ghlrhiyfs;> Njrpa

fy;tpf; fy;Y}hpfs; kw;Wk; MrphpaH kj;jpa

epiyaq;fs; Nghd;w Kjy;epiyr; Nrit

epWtdq;fSf;Fg; gutyhf;Fk;nghOJ

GjpaJk; NkyjpfKkhd tfpgq;fpidAk;

nghWg;Gf;fisAk; Ntz;bepw;fpd;wd. cs;SH

epWtdq;fsJ ,j;jifa gutyhf;fy;

nrad;Kiwapd;NghJk; tYT+l;Lk;NghJk;

jw;NghJs;s nghWg;Gf;fSk; tifnrhy;Yk;

Nfhyq;fs; kw;Wk; vjpHfhy khjphpfSk;

kpff;ftdkhfg; gFg;gha;T

nra;ag;glNtz;Lk;.

kj;jpa> khfhz kw;Wk; tyaf; fy;tp

mjpfhurigfspd; kdpjts mgptpUj;jp

68. kj;jpa> khfhz kw;Wk;

tyakl;lq;fspYs;s epUthfj;jpy; gy;epiy

mLf;FfSld; $ba fy;tp MSifapd;

rpf;fyhd Kiwikapdhy; kpfg;gue;j epUthf

njhopy;El;gk; kw;Wk; eltbf;ifj; jpwd;fSk;

NjHr;rpfSk; xt;nthU mLf;fpYk; gzpahw;Wk;

cj;jpNahfj;jHfSf;Fj; Njitg;gLfpd;wd.

fy;tp KiwikapYs;s gy;NtW mLf;Ffspy;

vy;yhk; tpUj;jpnra;ag;gLk;>

eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; kdpjts cghaq;fs;

ahTk; kj;jpa> khfhz kw;Wk; tyaf; fy;tp

cj;jpNahfj;jHfSf;F mtrpakhd epUthf

njhopy;El;g kw;Wk; eilKiwj; jpwd;fisAk;

NjHr;rpfisAk; toq;fNtz;Lk;. NkYk; ,e;j

cghakhdJ toikahdJk; njhlHe;J

,w;iwepiyg;gLj;Jk; jpwd;fisAk;

NjHr;rpfisAk; njhopy;El;g kw;Wk;

eilKiwj;jpwd;fs; vd;w tifapy;

toq;fNtz;ba NjitAKs;sJ.

kj;jpa> khfhz kw;Wk; tyaf;fy;tp

mjpfhurigfspd; epWtdhPjpahd

tYg;gLj;jy;fs;

69. kj;jpa kw;Wk; khfhz mjpfhurigfspd;

eilKiw xOq;Ftpjpfs; Mw;wy;fs; kw;Wk;

ngWNgWfisg; tYg;gLj;jyhdJ

fy;tpj;jpl;lkply; epUthfk; kw;Wk; vjpHfhyr;

Nrit tpepNahfk; Mfpatw;wpd;

juhjuj;jpw;Fk; tpidj;jpwDf;Fk; Kf;fpa

gq;fspg;ig toq;f KbAk;. mz;ikf;fhyf;

nfhs;if eltbf;iffs; kw;Wk; mgptpUj;jp

Kaw;rpfspypUe;J ngw;w gbg;gpidfs;> cyf

tq;fp> Mrpa mgptpUj;jp tq;fp Nghd;w

cjtptoq;FNthuhy; Mjutspf;fg;gl;l

rPHjpUj;jq;fs; mlq;fyhf> epWtd hPjpahd

tYg;gLj;jy;fSf;F mtrukhfj; Njitg;gLk;

rpy Kf;fpa gFjpfis

vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.

epWtdhPjpahf epuw;gLj;jy;fs;

70. kj;jpa> khfhz kw;Wk; tya

mYtyfq;fspd; epUthfr; nray;Kiwfs;

ePz;litahfTk; ngUk;gSthdjhfTk;

,Ug;gjhy;> mit eilKiwr;

nraw;ghLfspy; fzprkhd jhkjq;fis

cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. ,j;jifa

jhkjq;fSf;fhd xU gpujhd fhuzkhf

tof;nfhope;j Kiwfs; Kf;fpakhd epUthfg;

gzpfspy;; gad;gLj;jg;gLjiyf; $wyhk;.

,it fbjj; njhlHGfs;> Nfhitg;gLj;jy;>

mwpf;iffs; NgZjy;> gjpNtl;Lf; fl;Lg;ghL

vd;gdtw;iwAk; cs;slf;Fk;. toikahd

kw;Wk; rhjhuz epUthfg; gzpfSf;F fzdp

kag;gLj;jg;gl;l eilKiwfs; ngUkstpy;

tpidjpwid mjpfhpf;Fk; vdyhk;.

nfhs;tdTr; nray;ty;yikia tYg;gLj;jy;

71. murhq;f cj;jpNahfj;jhpd;

tpiyf;Nfs;tp Mtzq;fis tiujy;>

njhopy;El;g tpguf;Fwpg;Gfis Maj;jk;

nra;jy;> MNyhridfis guhl;Ljy;>

njhopy;El;g kjpg;gPLl;L mwpf;iffisAk;

Nfs;tpr;rigg; ghpe;JiufisAk; rHtNjr

kl;lj;jpy; ghpe;Jiuj;jy; gw;wpa Mw;wy;fs;

kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. murhq;f

cj;jpNahfj;jhpd; Mw;wy;fisg; gyg;gLj;Jjy;

T 26

T 27

vjpHfhy epWtd mgptpUj;jpf;F kpfTk;

Kf;fpakhd tplakhFk;.

murpay; nghUshjhuj; jilfSf;F

Kfk;nfhLj;jy;

72. gad;ngWNthUf;Fk;

ed;ikngWNthUf;Fk; Kuz;;ghlhd Mdhy;

Kf;fpakhd nfhs;if eltbf;iffspd;

epahaq;fis vLj;Jf;$Wjy; rPHjpUj;jq;fspy;

gad;ngWNthhpd; gq;Nfw;gpidf;

fl;bnaOg;Gjy; vd;Dk; Kf;fpakhd

tplaq;fspy; murhq;f Mw;wy; ,g;nghOJk;

kpjkhfNtAs;sJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> 1998-2002

fhyg;gFjpapy; murhq;fk; eilKiwg;gLj;jpa

ghlrhiy mjpthh;w;j (rationalisation)epfo;r;rpj;jp;l;lkhdJ mjd; ,yf;fpy; 75% Nky;

va;jpaJ. ,J ed;F tbtikf;fg;gl;l kw;Wk;

ntw;wpaspj;Js;s (rationalisation)epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lkhFk;. MapDk; ,J gy

nrwpthd Kud;ghLfisj; Njhw;Wtpj;jJld;>

kj;jpa kw;Wk; khfhz mjpfhurigfshy;>

me;epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lj;jpd; epahaq;fis cs;SHr;

rKjhaq;fSf;F tpsf;fKbahky;

Nghdikahy; 2003 ,y; mjidj;

jw;fhypfkhf epWj;jNtz;bNaw;gl;lJ.

mt;thNw murhq;fk; gy ghlE}y; nfhs;ifj;

njhpT kw;Wk; juhju Nkk;ghL Fwpj;J

Nkw;nfhz;lnghOJ mJTk; gy

Kud;ghLfisj; Njhw;Wtpj;jJld;> mjid

eilKiwg;gLj;JtjidAk; gy

Mz;LfSf;Fj; jhkjpj;jJ. kPz;Lk; kj;jpa

kw;Wk; khfhz mjpfhhpfs; tpidj;jpwDld;

nfhs;ifis vLj;Jf;$Wk;

nray;ty;yikapd;wpf; fhzg;gl;ldH. rpy

ghlq;fspy; gw;whf;Fiw epyTfpd;wNghjpYk;

Fwpg;ghf Mq;fpyk; kw;Wk; jkpo;nkhop

%yj;jpYk; gw;whf;Fiw cs;sNghjpYk;

nkhj;jj;jpy; MrphpaH njhifia kpifahf;

nfhz;Ls;sJ. MapDk; ,d;Dk;

MrphpaHfis epakpg;gjw;fhd mOj;jk;

$Ljyhf cs;sJ. mNjNtisapy;

Ntiyaw;w fw;w,isQHfspd;

mOj;jq;fisAk; Fiwf;fNtz;bAs;sJ.

,Ug;gpDk; epUthf mLf;fpy; xt;nthU

khtl;lj;jpYKs;s murhq;ff; fy;tp

KftHfspdJk; nray;ty;yikia

tYg;gLj;jy; rf;jptha;e;j Mdhy;

Kuz;ghLila nfhs;if eltbf;iffspd;

tpsf;fj;ij vLj;Jf;$wy;> gad;ngWNthhpd;

Mjuitf; fl;bnaOg;Gjy; vd;gd vjpHfhy

epWtdhPjpahd tYg;gLj;jy;fSf;F

kpfKf;fpakhd tplaq;fshFk;.

fy;tp Muha;r;rpg; gFg;gha;Tk;

nfhs;ifahf;fKk; jpl;lkplYk; kw;Wk;;

nghWg;Ngw;Fk; nray; ty;yikiaAk;

tpUj;jpnra;jy;

73. caHkl;lj;jpy; tpidahw;Wk;

fy;tpKiwapd;; mgptpUj;jpapy; Fwpg;ghf

gFg;gha;T nfhs;if cUthf;fk; kw;Wk;

jpl;lkply; Mfpa epiyfspy; gq;fspg;Gr;

nra;af;$ba %d;W Kf;fpa Kaw;rpfs;

cs;sd.

fy;tp Muha;r;rp fz;fhzpg;G kw;Wk;

kjpg;gPl;bid Nkk;gLj;jy;

74. Gs;sptpguhPjpahfj; jFjpngw;w

xOq;FtpjpfisAk; kw;Wk; mstplf;$ba

Fwpfhl;bfisAk; mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l

rpwe;j Muha;r;rp> fz;fhzpg;G kw;Wk; kjpg;gPL

vd;gd nfhs;ifahf;FNthUf;F

ngWkjpahdit. Kd;Ndwpa fy;tpKiwfspy;

gFg;gha;T hPjpahf jPtpukhd fy;tp

Muha;r;rpAk; kjpg;gPLk; fw;wy; gw;wpa Njrpaf;

fzpg;gPLfs; cl;gl nfhs;ifahf;fj;jpw;fhd

mbg;gilfisf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd.

,yq;ifapy; fy;tpKiwikahdJ jw;nghOJ

gy Kf;fpakhd Kaw;rpfshd tUlhe;j

ghlrhiy Fbkjpg;G> Njrpa fy;tp Muha;r;rp

kjpg;gPl;L epiyaj;jpdhy; (NEREC)Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l 4Mk; juj;jpyhd fw;wy;

tpisTfs; gw;wpa fzpg;gPL> NEREC ,d;fy;tp Kfhikj;Jt eilKiwfs; gw;wpa

mstwp Ma;T vd;gd nropg;ghd kw;Wk;

jfty; tpsf;fKs;s fz;fhzpg;G kw;Wk;

kjpg;gPl;Lr; rl;lfj;jpw;fhd mbg;gilfis

toq;Ffpd;wd. fy;tp Muha;r;rp> fz;fhzpg;G

kw;Wk; kjpg;gPl;L Kiwfshd fy;tprhH

ngWNgWfspd; gFg;gha;T> nfhs;if

Mf;fj;jpw;fhd fhuzpfs; vd;gdtw;wpw;F

tpN\l Kf;fpaj;Jk; nfhLj;J mgptpUj;jp

nra;ag;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;. fy;tp Muha;rp

fz;fhzpg;G kw;Wk; kjpg;gPl;L nraw;ghLfs;

msT kw;Wk; gz;G hPjpahd Kiwfisg;

gad;gLj;Jtjw;F Cf;Ftpf;fg;gLtJld; etPd

Muha;r;rp El;gq;fshd ghpNrhjidrhH

tbtikg;G vOkhw;wha; mike;j

NrhjidKiw kw;Wk; neLq;Nfhl;L mstPL

vd;gdtw;iwAk; gad;gLj;j Cf;Ftpj;jy;

Ntz;Lk;.

eLj;juf;fhy ghjPL jahhpj;jy; kw;Wk; gy

Mz;LfSf;fhd jpl;lkply; vy;iyfs;.

75. fy;tpj; jpl;lkpliyAk; ts

Kfhikj;Jtj;ijAk; Nkk;gLj;Jk; Kf;fpa

Kaw;rpahf gy Mz;Lj; jpl;lkpliy

,yFgLj;Jk; eLj;jug; ghjPl;Lr;

rl;lfnkhd;wpid Fwpg;gplyhk;. eLj;juf;fhyg;

ghjPlhdJ %d;W tUl fhyj;jpidf;

nfhz;bUg;gJld; Gjpa jfty;fisAk;;

Njitfisf; ftdj;jpw; nfhz;l tUlhe;j

,w;iwepiyg;gLj;jy;fSf;fhd

Vw;ghLfisAk; nfhz;ljhFk;. eLj;juf;fhyg;

ghjPlhdJ> fy;tp mgptpUj;jpf;fhd ePz;lfhy

$l;Lj; jpl;lj;jpidAk; Nrh;j;Jf; nfhs;Sk;.

,J tsq;fspd; vjph;T$wiy Nkk;gLj;Jtjd;

%yk; Kfhikj;Jtj;ijAk; ,yFgLj;Jk;

.mj;Jld; jw;nghOJs;s tUlhe;jg;

ghjPl;bdhy; ,lkspf;fg;gl;ljpYk; ghh;f;f

ePz;lfhy mgptpUj;jp mDgtq;fis

toq;fTk; cjTk;.

nghJr; nrytpdj; jlk;gjpj;jy;.

76. nghJr;nrytpdj; jlk;gjpj;jy;

KiwikahdJ> fy;tpf; nfhs;if

Mf;FNthUf;Fk; epjp mYtyh;;f;Fkhd

Kf;fpakhd Kfhikj;Jtf; fUtpfisf;

nfhz;bUg;gJld; eLj;juf;fhyg; ghjPl;L

Kiwf;Fk; Fiwepug;gpahf tpsq;Fk;. ,J

kj;jpa murhq;fj;Jf;Fk; khfhzq;fSf;Fk;

fy;tpKiwapd; %yk; Vw;gLk; epjpg;gha;r;ry;>

ghlrhiyfs;> gy;fiyf;fofq;fs;> Njrpa

fy;tpf; fy;Yhhpfs; kw;Wk; Mrphpah; kj;jpa

epiyaq;fs; Nghd;w gy NrittpepNahf

epiyaq;fis milAk; cz;ik tsepiy

gw;wpa jfty;fisAk; toq;fKbAk;. ,e;j

KiwfspD}lhd tsg;gha;r;rypd;

ntspg;gilahd jd;ikiaAk; mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

fy;tp mgptpUj;jpahdJ gbtsh;r;rp

ngwNtz;bajhYk; kj;jpa murhq;f kw;Wk;

khfhzj; jpl;lq;fisr; nrg;gdpl

Ntz;bajhYk; mj;jifa jfty;fs;

nfhs;ifahf;fj;jpw;Fk; ts xJf;fPl;Lf;Fkhd

gpd;D}l;lyhf mikAk;.

T 28

1

Chapter One

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM:POLICIES, ENROLMENT ANDORGANIZATION

1.0 Introduction1.1. The Sri Lankan educationsystem has been celebrated indevelopment policy circles andthe economic literature for itssuccess in providing widespreadaccess to primary andsecondary education andenabling the country to attaincomparatively high humandevelopment levels for a lowincome economy. Up to theearly 1990s Sri Lanka enjoyedthe highest basic socialdevelopment outcomes relativeto per capita income amongvirtually all developingcountries [see Kakwani (1993),UNDP (1998),]. Thisachievement was the result ofstrategic public policydecisions, over severalsuccessive generations, toinvest resources in education,health and other social services.

The Sri Lankan policy makerswho designed the basicframework of the educationsystem, in the 1930s and 1940s,

were far ahead of their time inviewing human capital as apromising investment with thepotential to produce a wide

y = 17.58Ln(x) - 53.323

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Sri Lanka 13

2

1. Sri Lanka2. India3. Pakistan4. Nepal5. Bangladesh6. Maldives7. Bhutan8. Malaysia9. Thailand10. S. Korea11. Hong Kong12. Singapore13. Costa Rica

8

5

9

4

3

2

National Income per Capita (US$)

Adu

lt Li

tera

cy R

ate

%

Source: World Bank estimates, calculated from UNDP (2003).

Figure 1.1. Adult Literacy Rates in Relation to National Income perCapita, 1987-1990

range of important economicand social benefits [seeSumathipala (1968) Jayasuriya(1969)].

1.2. The leading positionamong developing countriesenjoyed by Sri Lanka ineducation, up to the early 1990s,is illustrated in Figure 1.1,which shows the adult literacyrates of developing economiesagainst their per capita incomes.Actual literacy rates are plottedon the graph, and the predictedliteracy rates based on per capitaincomes are shown by theregression line. Among alldeveloping countries, asrecently as 1987-1990, SriLanka had the highest literacylevel relative to per capita

income, with an actual literacyrate more than two standarddeviations above the predictedrate given by the regression line.More recently, however, thisadvantage in education andliteracy has been lost as othercountries also invested heavilyin basic education and attainedhigh levels of literacy. The lostadvantage is illustrated in Figure1.2, which shows the adultliteracy rates of developingeconomies against their percapita incomes in 2001. At thisrecent date, there are severalcountries with higher actualliteracy rates relative to theirpredicted rates than Sri Lanka1.Sri Lankan policy makers areaware of the country's lost

education advantage, and are inthe process of producing a set ofwide-ranging policy initiativesto advance and develop theeducation system to aninternationally prominent levelagain [see NEC (2003)].

1.1 The PolicyFramework andOrganization of theEducation SectorOverarching policy objectives.

1.3. The education sector hasthree cardinal policy objectives.

a. Providing universalaccess to primary andsecondary education,combined with fullenrolment and completionof the compulsory basiceducation cycle (grades 1-9).

b. Attaining high levels ofeducation quality,measured in terms ofcognitive achievement,subject content mastery,and broader outcomessuch as good team work, adisciplined work ethic, apositive, solution orientedapproach to problems,ability to take initiativeand display dynamism,able leadership, effectivecommunication, andrespect for diversity in thecontext of a multi-ethnic,multi-religious society.

2

y = 12.819Ln(x) - 10.54

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Sri Lanka

1. Sri Lanka2. India3. Pakistan4. Nepal5. Bangladesh6. Maldives7. Bhutan8. Malaysia9. Thailand10. S. Korea11. Hong Kong12. Singapore13. Costa Rica

53

2

6

8

9

13

National Income per Capita (US$)

Adu

lt Li

tera

cy R

ate

(%)

Figure 1.2. Adult Literacy Rates in Relation to National Income perCapita, 2001

1. Some of the low income countries above Sri Lanka in Figure 1.2 are former planned economies whose per capita incomelevels fell from much higher levels during their transition to market economies during the 1990s. Hence, the number ofcountries which have actually overtaken Sri Lanka is overestimated in Figure 1.2. However, the leading position occupiedby Sri Lanka up to the early 1990s has indeed been eroded, as other countries have caught up and surpassed Sri Lanka.

Source: World Bank estimates, calculated from UNDP (2003).

c. Producing high qualityhuman capital and humanresources capable ofmaking a powerfulcontribution to humandevelopment, economicgrowth and povertyreduction.

Organization of the educationand training system

1.4. The education sector isorganized into four major stages[see Figure 1.3]. The earlieststage, catering to children aged3-5, is that of Early ChildhoodDevelopment. This stage ismainly outside the formalgovernment education system,with virtually all pre-schools,such as nurseries, kindergartensand Montessories being in theprivate sector. The second stageis that of formal schooling, withprimary (grades 1-5), juniorsecondary (grades 6-9) andsenior secondary (grades 10-13)education cycles. Compulsorybasic education covers theprimary and junior secondaryeducation cycles, grades 1-9.The third stage is that ofvocational training and technicaleducation. Entry is open to thevocational and technical levelsof the training sector from twopoints in the formal schoolsystem, at grade 9 uponcompleting basic education andat grade 11 upon passing theGCE O/L examination. Thefourth stage is that of tertiaryeducation and training, withentry open to studentssuccessfully completing theGCE A/L examination, the

highest level of senior secondaryeducation, or graduating from atechnical institution. There isconsiderable horizontal mobilityat the tertiary education level,with only entrance to publicuniversities restricted to GCEA/L completers.

Education organization inrelation to development policymodels

1.5. The Sri Lankan educationsystem has followed theclassical recipe of developmentpolicy in two important respects.First, it has emphasized theimportance of public financingand provision of primary andbasic education to the entirepopulation. This visionaryemphasis, commencing in the1930s and 1940s, wasgenerations ahead of its time.Second, Sri Lanka limitedpublic resources devoted totertiary education, awardingemphasis to the primary andbasic cycles. The fruits of thesepolicies have been reaped insubsequent generations, withbasic education attainment,primary health outcomes andsocial development indicatorsclose to levels observed inupper-middle income anddeveloped countries.

1.6. Sri Lanka has alsodeviated from the classicalrecipe in one important respect.The establishment of privateschools from grades 1-9 waslegally banned in the early1960s. This legal prohibitionremains in force to date. This

has made Sri Lanka one of thefew countries in the world tolegally forbid the establishmentof schools. Other low incomecountries and states famous fortheir high basic educationattainment levels, such as CostaRica and the state of Kerala inIndia, rely heavily on the privatesector. In Kerala, for instance,more than half of schoolenrollment is in private schools.The political economy contextof Sri Lanka also makes itimpossible to invest in privateuniversities, although there is noexplicit legal barrier. However,from the 1990s onwards it hasbeen possible to establishprivate degree awardinginstitutions, as long as they donot carry the title “university”.In preventing formal privateuniversities the Sri Lankaneducation system deviated fromthe model adopted by some ofthe highest performingeducation systems in the world,such as South Korea, whichconcentrated public resources onprimary and basic education,followed by secondaryeducation, while leavinguniversity education largely tothe private sector. Recently,however, Sri Lankan educationpolicy makers haverecommended amendinglegislation to allow privateschools and private universitiesto be established [see NEC(2003)].

3

4

Early Childhood Development

Figure 1.3. Organizational Structure of the Sri Lankan Education and Training System

Primary and Secondary Education

Nursery

Kindergarten, Montessori

Junior Secondary EducationGrades 6-9

Primary EducationGrades 1-5

Vocational Training

Technical Education

Senior Secondary EducationGCE O/L Cycle (Grades 10-11)

Senior Secondary EducationGCE A/L Cycle (Grades 12-13)

UniversityUndergraduate

Education

Tertiary Education

Professional andNon-University

Tertiary Education

AdvancedTechnicalEducation

Postgraduate Education

The Training System

1.2 The EducationSystem: Enrolment, GradeCycle Transition andCompletion The school system

1.7. The public sectordominates primary andsecondary education, accountingfor 93% of schools and 95% ofstudent enrolment. Overall,approximately 4 million schoolchildren are enrolled in about9,800 public schools, around97,000 students are enrolled inabout 80 private schools, andapproximately 55,000 studentsare enrolled in around 600 statefunded pirivena (temple)schools. These students followthe national school curriculumand sit national examinations. Inaddition, about 70,000 studentsare enrolled in around 150-200international schools, whichoffer foreign curricula andprepare students to sit overseasexaminations. The main reasonfor the dominance of the publicsector in the school system is the

policy framework, with theestablishment of new privateschools forbidden by law sincethe early 1960s.

1.8 The network ofgovernment schools has beenlaid to provide universal accessto primary and secondaryeducation. This cardinal policyobjective has largely beenachieved, with a comparativelyeven distribution of schools andteachers, in relation to studentenrolment, across the country[see Table 1.1]. The averagestudent-teacher ratio for thecountry is low, 21:1, and rangesfrom 19:1 in the North-WesternProvince to 23:1 in the Westernand North-Eastern Provinces.The average school size in SriLanka is about 410 students,with the relatively rural andsparsely populatedSabaragamuwa, North-Easternand North-Central provincescontaining just under 350students per school, while thelargely urban, densely populated

Western Province has 627students per school.

The compulsory education cycle(grades 1-9)

1.9. Net enrolment in grade 1is about 97% for both boys andgirls, and nearly all childrencomplete grade 5 [see Figure1.4]. At the end of thecompulsory education cycle,grade 9, completion rates are81% for boys and 84% for girls.The high primary education(grades 1-5) and juniorsecondary education (grades 6-9) enrolment rates are theoutcome of severalcomplementary and mutuallyreinforcing policies, such astuition free schooling, specialeducation programs fordisadvantaged students, freetextbooks, free uniforms andsubsidized transport, and ofstrong household demand foreducation.

1.10 The evidence also showsthat Sri Lanka has not yet

5

Table 1.1. Government Schools, Student Enrolment and Teachers, by Province, 2002.

Source: World Bank estimates, based on Ministry of Education, School Census, 2002.

Province Number of Number of Number of Average StudentSchools Students Teachers School Size Teacher Ratio

Western 1,393 873,434 38,187 627 23Central 1,483 539,262 27,447 364 20Southern 1,151 544,109 26,984 473 20North-Eastern 1,802 628,195 27,361 349 23North-Western 1,250 481,510 24,839 385 19North-Central 783 269,380 13,010 344 21Uva 829 299,897 14,464 362 21Sabaragamuwa 1,135 391,288 19,520 345 20Sri Lanka 9,826 4,027,075 191,812 410 21

achieved universal compulsoryeducation, with about 18% ofchildren failing to completegrade 9. Hence, there still existsa considerable challenge to meetthe target of providing allchildren between ages 6-14 with9 years of schooling. Further, animportant equity issue exists, asthe 18% of children who fail tocomplete grade 9 are drawn

from poorer homes,economically disadvantagedgeographical regions such as therural hinterland, conflictaffected areas and the estatesector, or are disabled andhandicapped children. Strongpolicy action is needed to reachthese vulnerable socio-economic groups, and achievethe target of universal enrolment

and completion in thecompulsory education cycle. Inthis context, the government'sspecial education programs,non-formal education programsand programs for disabledchildren are likely to beparticularly important.

The senior secondaryeducation, GCE O/L and GCEA/L cycles

1.11 School completion ratesare less satisfactory in thesenior secondary cycle, withcomparatively low examinationpass rates at the GCE O/L(grade 11) and GCE A/L (grade

13) examinations [see Table1.2]. The average pass rate atthe GCE O/L examination forthe country as a whole is 37%,implying that only about one outof every three candidatessuccessfully completes the GCEO/L examination. Pass rates inthe poorer and moredisadvantaged areas of thecountry, such as the North-

6

Province Number of Number of Proportion of Number of Number of Proportion ofStudents Students Students Students Students Students

Appearing Completing the Successfully Appearing Completing the Successfullyfor the GCE O/L Examination Completing the for the GCE A/L Completing the

GCE O/L and Qualifying for GCE O/L GCE A/L Examination GCE A/LExamination the GCE A/L Cycle Examination % Examination Examination %

Source: Ministry of Education, National Evaluation and Testing Service.

Western 78,832 37,674 48 49,051 26,543 54

Central 48,641 15,757 32 24,564 13,491 55

Southern 48,390 17,801 37 27,337 15,599 57

North-Eastern 41,659 13,088 32 28,088 16,254 58

North-Western 41,609 15,779 38 22,226 12,892 58

North-Central 22,180 6,769 31 10,305 5,413 53

Uva 26,262 8,104 31 11,684 6,120 52

Sabaragamuwa 34,743 11,842 34 18,681 10,597 57

Sri Lanka 342,316 126,814 37 191,936 106,909 56

Table 1.2. GCE O/L and GCE A/L Examination Pass Rates, by Province, 2002

Source: Ministry of Education, School Censuses, various years.

80

85

90

95

100

105

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Grade

Com

plet

ion

rate

s (%

)

Girls

Boys

Figure 1.4. Net Compulsory Education Completion Rates,Grades 1-9, 2001

Eastern, North-Central, Uva andCentral Provinces, range from31%-32%. The prosperous andadvanced Western Provincealone stands out among thegeographical regions, with GCEO/L pass rates of 48%,indicating that about one out ofevery two candidates in this areasuccessfully completes the GCEO/L examination.

1.12. GCE A/L examinationpass rates average about 56% forthe country as a whole,suggesting that about one out ofevery two candidates issuccessful at this examination.This is on the low side, giventhat only the best studentssurvive through to the GCE A/Lcycle. The pass rates across theprovinces are fairly similar,

ranging from 52% in the UvaProvince to 58% in the North-Western and North-EasternProvinces. The relatively evendistribution of GCE A/Lexamination pass rates acrossthe country can be attributed totwo key factors: (i) policyinitiatives to ensure a widenetwork of good qualitysecondary schools in allprovinces; and (ii) selectivityeffects, as students in the GCEA/L cycle are the most ablepupils in their age cohorts.

1.13. The time trend of GCEO/L and GCE A/L pass rates

shows that, over about the pastten years, there has beenimprovement in GCE O/L passrates, but that GCE A/L passrates have been relativelyconstant [see Figure 1.5]. GCEO/L pass rates have risen fromabout 22% in 1993 to 37% in2002, with much of theimprovement occurring in themid-late 1990s. In the GCE A/L

7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Year

Pas

s R

ates

(%

)

GCE O/L

GCE A/L

Figure 1.5. Time Trend of GCE O/L and GCE A/L Pass Rates,1993-2002

Source: Ministry of Education, National Evaluation and Testing Service.

Source: World Bank estimates, based on Department of Census and Statistics Labor Force Survey data. No estimates are presented forthe North-Eastern Province as the survey did not cover this region. Note: Numbers may not add up due to rounding.

Province Total Tertiary University Professional and TechnicalEnrolment % Enrolment % Other Courses % Education %

Western 16 5 9 3 Central 8 3 3 2 Southern 10 3 6 2 North-Eastern n/a n/a n/a n/aNorth-Western 7 2 4 1 North-Central 6 1 4 1 Uva 7 3 2 2 Sabaragamuva 9 3 4 2 Sri Lanka 11 3 6 2

Table 1.3. Tertiary Education Enrolment Rates, 2002

cycle, pass rates have remainedfairly steady between 1994 and2002, except for one unusuallyhigh year, 1995 and one pooryear, 1999. Sri Lankan policymakers have recognized that thecountry faces an importantchallenge to increase the qualityof education and enable studentsto achieve the standards set forthe GCE O/L and GCE A/Lexaminations [see Wijesuriya(2003), Perera et al (2003),Karunaratne (2003) andWijeratne et al (2003)].

Tertiary education enrolment

1.14. The overall tertiaryeducation enrolment rate isabout 11% of the eligiblepopulation [see Table 1.3]. Thisis slightly above the South Asiaaverage (10%), andapproximately equal to countries

such as India, Morocco,Vietnam and Mauritius. Themajor proportion of tertiaryenrolment, about 6%, is incourses outside the universityand formal technical educationsector. These students areenrolled in the private sector in avariety of professional courses,such as IT, management,accounting, marketing, law,business and finance. Universityenrolment is approximately 3%,and advanced technicaleducation enrolment about 2%.

1.15. The majority of universitystudents, about four-fifths ofenrolment, attend publicuniversities, while the balanceattend private degree awardinginstitutions. The exactdistribution of advancedtechnical education between the

private and public sector isuncertain, but can be assumed tobe about evenly shared.2 On thisassumption, about 70% oftertiary education enrolment isin the private sector, and thebalance in the public sector. Thehigh proportion of private sectorenrolment at the tertiary level, incontrast to the primary andsecondary levels, can beattributed to the policyframework, which does notlegally prohibit privateinvestment at the tertiary level.3

1.16. The regional distributionof overall tertiary educationenrolment shows that theWestern Province enjoys higherlevels than other provinces. Thiscan be attributed to the wealth ofthe Western Province, whichcontains a greater number ofhigh income households whocan afford to pay for privatetertiary education. The UvaProvince, which is one of thepoorest regions of the country,has the lowest enrolment inprofessional and other courses,which are mainly supplied byprivate providers. This isplausible, as private investmentis likely to be small in poorregions. The North-CentralProvince has the lowestenrolment in both university andtechnical education. This isconsistent with other studieswhich show that the North-Central Province is one of the

8

Early childhood development is not formally part of the Sri Lankaneducation system. However, policy makers have shown interest inintegrating early childhood development into the education system andlinking it with the primary school curriculum [see NEC (1997), (2003),Ministry of Social Welfare (2003)]. Further, there has been rapid growthof pre-schools and nurseries in the private sector. In the 1970s, therewere an estimated 2,000 pre-schools and nurseries. By 2003, thisnumber had increased to be between 11,000 and 12,500, exceeding inquantity the number of schools in the country [see Abhayadeva (2003),Wijetunge and Wickremaratne (2003)]. The participation of childrenaged 3-5 in pre-school education, estimated to be about 20% in the1980s, rose to 40% in 1994 and to 60% in 2001. The NEC (2003)recommends connecting learning activities for children aged 3-5 withthe more formal school system from age 6 upwards and establishingquality standards. This represents an important area for future analysisand policy development for Sri Lankan education policy makers.

Box 1.1. Early Childhood Development:a Special Case of Private Service Delivery

2. There are over 900 registered private training institutions. While the majority of these institutions specialize in skillsdevelopment activities for less educated individuals, some offer courses at tertiary level, too.

3. The political economy context has prevented private universities from being established, with violent opposition from somestudent groups and political forces. However, there is no such opposition to private non-university tertiary educationprograms.

most educationallydisadvantaged regions of thecountry [see NEC (2003)].4

1.17. The time trend of tertiaryeducation enrolment shows that,over the recent past, enrolmenthas risen from about 8% in 1997to 11% in 2002 [see Figure 1.6].The increase has come, overtime, from all three componentsof tertiary education,professional and other courses,universities and technicaleducation. The initial increase,in 2000, came from theuniversity system, mainly due toexpansion of public universitiesand private degree awardinginstitutions. This was succeededby an increase in private non-degree tertiary educationcourses in 2002. Overall, tertiary

education enrolment rates haveexpanded about 38% over theperiod 1997-2002.

1.3 The GovernanceFramework of theEducation System1.18. The education sector has acomplex governanceframework, combining elementsof deconcentration, delegationand devolution of functions andpowers between the centralgovernment and the eightprovincial councils. The centralgovernment is responsible fornational education policy at alllevels, covering pre-schools,primary and basic education,secondary education, universityeducation, vocational training

and technical education.However, provincial councilsplay an important role in theflow of public educationfinances and in theadministration of the schoolsystem [see Figure 1.7]. In fact,education is the mostdecentralized sector in thecountry, with education budgetstypically accounting for overhalf of all provincialexpenditures.

1.19. Education policy makersand legislators have sought tocombine the advantages ofcentralized academic systems,which facilitate goals such asnation-building, increasingsocial cohesion and establishingquality standards, with theadvantages of delegatedmanagement systems, such asincreased proximity ofadministrative services tobeneficiaries, especiallystudents, parents and guardians.Current policy thinking is tofurther devolve educationmanagement down to the levelof individual educationinstitutions, especially schools,to empower front line serviceproviders such as principals,section heads and teachers, andinvolve local communitiesclosely, to increase schooleffectiveness and performance[See NEC (2003)].5

9

-

2

4

6

8

10

12

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Total Tertiary

Private Tertiary

Public University

Years

Enr

olm

ent (

%)

Advanced Technical

Source: World Bank estimates, based on Department of Census and Statistics LaborForce Survey data, various years.

4. Tertiary enrolment in the North-Eastern Province can be assumed to be about the same rate or slightly less than the North-Central and Uva Provinces. This region, which has been damaged by over 20 years of secessionist conflict, is the mostdisadvantaged in the country.

5. Sri Lanka has a long history of school based management and administration, going at least as far back as the Town SchoolsOrdinance of 1902. Centralization away from schools to higher levels of government, however, took place during the 1950sand 1960s, especially as the public education system became formalized and expanded rapidly.

Figure 1.6. Tertiary Education Enrolment Trends, 1997-2002

Central government functions

1.20. Within the school system,central government institutionsare responsible for: (i)establishing the schoolcurriculum; (ii) setting thecurricula of teacher educationinstitutions; (iii) accreditingtextbooks published by privatefirms, publishing textbooks andsupplementary readers, anddistributing textbooks;(iv) providing incentives, suchas school uniforms and transport

subsidies, to increase schoolattendance; (v) administerprofessional developmentprograms and courses forprincipals, section heads andteachers; (vi) conductexaminations; (vii) administerabout 360 national schools; and(viii) conduct a range ofeducation developmentmeasures and initiatives, such asspecial education programs,non-formal education programs,adult education programs, and

library and reading habitsdevelopment programs. Theactual delivery of these servicesoften combine centralgovernment education staff andprovincial education staff, withthe latter operating within amatrix management structure ofcentral and provincialresponsibility.

1.21. Within the universitysystem, the central governmentis responsible for nationalpolicy, financing, allocation of

10

ProvincialSchool

ProvincialSchool

ZonalEducation Office

ProvincialEducation Director

Provincial CouncilChief Minister

Chief SecretaryEducation Secretary

ProvincialCouncil

Own Revenues

Finance Commission

Ministry of Finance

Ministry of Provincial Councils

Figure 1.7. Flow of Government Education Resources in the School System

staff cadre to universities,national level accreditation andstandards setting, and placementof students among universities.Within these broad parameters,however, individual universitiesenjoy considerable autonomy.The universities select andemploy academic staff withinthe approved cadre, producecurricula and design syllabi,accredit courses, deliver degreeprograms and other tertiary levelcourses, conduct examinations,certify graduates, and undertakeresearch and consultingactivities. In addition, fundsraised by universities are used toemploy staff, conduct researchand engage in academicactivities without needingsanction from externalgovernment authorities.Essentially, universities operateas highly autonomous agentswithin a deconcentratedgovernance system.

1.22. In the vocational trainingand technical education systemthe main institutions delivering

training services come under thecentral government. Theseoperate chiefly as governmentdepartments, with responsibilityfor course and programdevelopment, curriculumdesign, standard setting,accreditation and certificationunder the central authorities.However, as in the case ofuniversities, vocational trainingand technical educationinstitutions enjoy considerableautonomy over academicactivities within institutions, andchiefly operate as semi-autonomous agents within adeconcentrated framework.Provincial councils, too, operateskills development institutions,although these are typicallysmall and less developed thancentral government institutions.

Provincial council functions

1.23. The provincial councilsplay an important role within theschool system. About 9,500schools (97% of public schoolsand 88% of all schools) areadministered by eight provincial

councils and their intermediaryeducation agencies, 94 zonaleducation offices and 365divisional education offices.Provincial councils developeducation plans and budgets,employ and deploy educationadministrators, principals andteachers at the provincial level.Zonal education authoritiestransfer and deploy principalsand teachers within zones.Provincial councils also supportsmall vocational training andtechnical education activities,especially for school completersat grade 9 and grade 11.However, the relationshipbetween the central andprovincial authorities indelivering vocational trainingservices tends to be lessorganized and structured than inthe school education system.

Performance incentives withinthe public education system

1.24. The incentives faced bykey agents within thisinstitutional framework, such ascentral education ministry

11

UniversitiesNational SchoolsNational Institute

of EducationNational Colleges

of Education

Ministry of Education

Ministry of Finance

Figure 1.8. Flow of Resources to Central Government Education Institutions

officials, provincial and zonaleducation staff, principals,school teachers, universityacademics and administrators,are critical factors affecting theperformance of the educationsystem. Within governmentorganizations, explicit andimplicit performance incentivesexist through a reward system,such as appointments topositions of high status,promotions, greaterresponsibility, job security, moreinteresting and stimulatingwork, and decreasedsupervision. Such performanceincentives exist, in principle, atall levels of the Sri Lankaneducation system. For instance,high performing teachers canbecome principals, teachereducators or curriculumdevelopers; good schoolprincipals can assumeresponsible positions in zonaleducation offices or provincialeducation offices; and provincialand zonal officials can seekpositions in the centralministries. University lecturerswho acquire postgraduateresearch degrees can get tenureand promotion as seniorlecturers; senior lecturers withgood publication and teachingrecords can be promoted asassociate professors andprofessors; and senior universityacademics who demonstrategood administration skills canbecome heads of departments,deans of faculties and vice-chancellors of universities. Theactual operation of this incentivesystem, however, has been

weakened by two key factors.First, financial incentives forperformance are low within thepublic service. The governmentwage and salary structure ishighly compressed, with smallannual increments. Hence, theopportunity cost of non-performance is low. Second,promotions are mainly senioritybased, which further weakensperformance incentives. Theseare system-wide problemswithin the public service as awhole, and not specific to theeducation sector.

The institutional foundation foreducation service delivery

1.25. The basic institutionalfoundation to deliver publiceducation services exists, inprinciple, between the centralgovernment and provincialcouncils. Several characteristicsof good first stage public serviceinstitutions, such as: (i) input-oriented line-item budgeting; (ii)legal cadres of public educationofficials, like principals,teachers, educationadministrators, teachereducators and universityacademics; (iii) opportunities forprofessional development andcareer progress of academic andadministrative staff; and (iv)cash accounting systems, arealready established. In addition,characteristics of good secondstage public service institutions,such as institutionalizedperformance auditing within asupreme audit institution, theAuditor General’s Department,and an internal audit within the

education system, also exist.The government is currently inthe process of developingfurther important components ofa good quality service deliveryframework, such as: (i) amedium-term programbudgeting framework with amulti-year planning horizon;and (ii) performance appraisalsystems for principals, teachers,university academics andeducation administrativeofficials.

12

13

Chapter Two

ECONOMIC AND SOCIALBENEFITS OF INVESTMENTIN EDUCATION

2.0 Introduction2.1 Investment in educationhas played a central role in SriLankan government policy forseveral generations. Key aims ofpublic education policy haveincluded: (i) enhancingeconomic equity; (ii) promotinginter-generational socialmobility; (iii) increasing laborproductivity and earningsthrough human capitalaccumulation; and (iv)

producing a healthy andprosperous society. Theeconomic and developmentpolicy literature identifies twoimportant streams of socialbenefits that flow frominvestment in education,efficiency gains and equityimprovements. This chapteranalyzes the performance of theSri Lankan education system interms of both these streams ofbenefits, efficiency and equity.

2.1 Economic Benefits ofInvestment in Education:External EfficiencySocial and private rates ofreturn to education

2.2. The external efficiency ofhuman capital investment issubstantial. The three maineducation levels, compulsoryschooling, senior secondaryschooling and universityeducation, yield generous

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey 2002. Social and private rates ofreturn to education have been computed by the elaborate method, where earnings streams are simulated for individuals at differentlevels of education. The public cost of education is included in the computation of social returns. Regression equations underlyingthe simulations are controlled for other factors affecting earnings, such as experience, technical training, labor supply, employmentsector and economic sector. The life-cycle earnings streams for the various education levels were set to commence after the averagejob search duration for each level of education. Values in the table have been rounded to the nearest integer.

Education Level Social Rates of Private Rates ofReturn to Education Return to Education

Men % Women % Men % Women %

Table 2.1. Social and Private Rates of Return to Education, 2002

Compulsory Education 15 20 19 25Senior Secondary 20 18 25 22University 11 10 26 24

14

economic benefits [see Table2.1]. Among men, social rates ofreturn to education are highest atthe senior secondary schoolinglevel, 20%, followed bycompulsory schooling, 15%, anduniversity education, 11%.Among women, social rates ofreturn to education are highest atthe compulsory schooling level,20%, followed by seniorsecondary schooling, 18%, anduniversity education, 10%.Private rates of return toeducation are also considerable.Among men, the private rate ofreturn is largest for universityeducation, 26%, followed bysenior secondary education,25%, and compulsory schooling,19%. Among women, theprivate rate of return is highestat the compulsory schoolinglevel, 25%, followed byuniversity education, 24% andsenior secondary schooling,22%. The difference betweenprivate and social rates of returnto education at the compulsoryschooling and senior secondaryschooling levels is modest,mainly due to the low unit costsof education at these schoolinglevels. In contrast, the differencebetween private and social ratesof return to education at theuniversity level is considerable,chiefly due to the high unit costof university education, whichlowers the social return.

2.3. The estimated levels andpattern of social rates of returnto education produce threeimportant policy conclusions.First, education is clearly aneconomically profitableinvestment, with a high socialrate of return.6 In consequence,there is a strong case forincreasing investment ineducation. Second, the socialbenefits of education are highestat the senior secondary andcompulsory education levels.Hence, when extra publicresources become available foreducation, these funds should beallocated to expand enrolmentand completion, and increase thequality of education, at thecompulsory basic schoolinglevel and the senior secondaryeducation level. Third, at theuniversity level, as well-knownin the economic literature, themajor portion of benefits accrueas private gains to universitygraduates. Further, these privatebenefits to university educationare substantial. In consequence,from a policy perspective,further expansion of universityeducation should be left mainlyto private investment.

Education and earnings

2.4. The relationship betweeneducation and earnings isstatistically significant andstrongly positive, for both men

and women, over a large range ofthe education system [see Table2.2]. Among men, all levels ofeducation are significantly andpositively associated withearnings. In addition, therelationship between educationand male earnings increases asthe level of education rises,implying positive incrementalprivate returns to education overall education grade cycles.Among women, too, alleducation levels are significantlyand positively related toearnings, provided the individualhas at least completed primaryeducation. Further, theassociation between educationand female earnings rises as theeducation level increases fromprimary schooling upwards,indicating favorable privatemarginal returns to education.Overall, the findings stronglysupport the notion that educationis a profitable investment, forboth men and women, in termsof increasing earnings. Thesefindings are consistent with theidea that education enablesindividuals to accumulate humancapital, increase laborproductivity and improveearnings. The findings are alsoconsistent with the notion thateducation enables individuals tosignal innate abilities to potentialemployers during job search.

6. Research studies have shown that the returns to education, measured in terms of education attainment, also contains a returnto education achievement, if education quality indicators are not explicitly incorporated into the regression equations [seeGlewwe (2002)]. The Sri Lankan labor force data sets from which returns to education have been measured do not containeducation quality measures. Hence, the estimated rates of return above combine returns to education attainment andeducation achievement. This implies that the country can benefit from both expanding education access and increasingeducation quality, especially at compulsory basic and senior secondary education levels, where the social returns are high.

15

Private marginal rates of returnto various education levels

2.5. The private marginal ratesof return to various levels ofeducation, derived from theearnings functions above, areshown in Figure 2.1. below.Among men, private returns arehighest for university graduates,13%, followed by GCE A/Lqualified individuals, 12%.7

Among women, private returns

are largest for junior secondaryeducated women, 13%, followedby GCE O/L qualified women,11%, and university graduates,10%. The pattern of marginalreturns across education levelssuggests that men benefit morefrom the higher levels of theschool system and universityeducation, which provide accessto lucrative professional andmanagerial careers.8 Women, in

contrast, entered the labormarket relatively recently, andbenefit from junior secondaryeducation and GCE O/L, whichprovide opportunities to work intechnical jobs. Women alsobenefit from universityeducation, which enables themto enter professional andmanagerial occupations.

7. The earnings function method normally produces lower estimates of private returns to education than the alternativeelaborate method, mainly due to the larger number of educational levels defined, which increase the opportunity costs ofschooling between successive education levels. This difference between the elaborate method and earnings function methodis seen in the estimates for Sri Lanka, too.

8. One reason for lower private returns to female employees is that they tend to have interrupted careers, with a dip in femalelabor force participation in the age range 30-34 [see Appendix Table A1] when small children are being brought up. Labormarket interruptions constrain promotions and career progress, and reduce private returns to education.

Table 2.2. Earnings Functions Corrected for Selection Effects, 2002.Two Stage Least Squares Estimates.

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey 2002.

Variable Men WomenCoefficient 'T' statistic Coefficient 'T' statistic

Constant 8.576 63.47 8.517 40.94

Primary education incomplete 0.093 3.00 -0.008 -0.23

Primary education 0.225 7.28 0.128 3.48

Junior secondary education 0.354 11.00 0.379 9.54

GCE O/L 0.497 15.20 0.621 15.78

GCE A/L 0.739 21.36 0.765 18.70

Graduate 1.156 26.05 1.146 23.00

Postgraduate 1.287 17.86 1.158 16.28

Experience 0.027 14.46 0.021 9.33

Experience squared -0.0001 -12.58 -0.0001 -8.21

Training 0.198 12.84 0.157 7.26

Log of weeks worked 0.460 13.76 0.428 8.16

Private sector employee -0.123 -9.12 -0.164 -7.73

Urban sector employee 0.145 10.74 0.167 8.55

Estate sector employee -0.271 -13.01 -0.016 -0.60

Selection effect 0.052 2.53 0.069 4.80

Adjusted R squared 0.409 0.523

F 357.49 254.87[15, 7,702] [15, 3,454]

Sample size 7,718 3,470

2.6. Overall, the privatemarginal rates of return toeducation show that both menand women enjoy substantialeconomic benefits frominvesting in education. This islikely to be the outcome of

multiple causal channels,including human capitalproduction and accumulation,the role of education as asignaling-screening mechanismthrough which ability levels ofjob seekers are communicated

and assessed in the labor market,and the certification effects ofeducation.

Education and occupationalattainment

2.7. The impact of educationon an individual's occupationalattainment can be an importantsource of economic benefit, as itfacilitates inter-generationalsocial mobility. The impact ofeducation on occupationalattainment, controlling forfamily background factors suchas parental earnings, educationand occupational attainment, isshown in Table 2.3. Educationclearly has a strong and positiveeffect on occupationalattainment. Among men, theprobability of working in a highlevel occupation, such as amanagerial, senioradministrative or professionalposition, is positively andsignificantly affected by seniorsecondary and tertiary educationattainment. Among women, too,

16

Table 2.3. The Impact of Education on the Occupational Attainment of Men and Women, 2002.Marginal Effects Derived from a Multinomial Logit Model, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates.

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey. The base occupation category,against which the log-odds ratios of the multinomial logit model have been calculated, is elementary occupations. Values havebeen rounded to the nearest second decimal. The marginal effects marked with an * are statistically significant at the 5% level.

Occupational group Men WomenCompulsory Senior secondary Tertiary Compulsory Senior secondary Tertiary

education education education education education education

Legislators, seniorofficials and managerialoccupations 0.01 0.76* 0.91* 0.11 0.77* 0.89*Professionals 0.01 0.79* 0.95* 0.07 0.82* 0.97*Technicians, clerical,sales and service workers 0.34* 0.57* 0.01 0.31* 0.52* 0.12Skilled workers,crafts persons and artisans 0.56* 0.24* 0.01 0.72* 0.21* na

20

6

77

13

7

11 12

6

13

10

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

PrimaryIncomplete

PrimarySchooling

JuniorSecondary

GCE O/L GCE A/L Graduate

MenWomen

Percent

Source: World Bank estimates, derived from Selectivity Corrected Earnings Functions,Two-Stage Least Squares Estimates. The regression equations underlying thecomputations are controlled for other factors affecting earnings, such asexperience, technical training, labor supply, employment sector and economicsector. Controls for innate ability were not available in the data. Hence, theestimated returns to education may be slightly upward biased, including abilitycomponents. Note: Values have been rounded to the nearest integer.

Figure 2.1. Private Marginal Rates of Return to Education,Men and Women, 2002

17

the likelihood of reaching a highlevel occupation is positivelyand significantly influenced bytertiary and senior secondaryeducation. The probability ofholding a middle-classoccupation, such as a technical,clerical, sales or service job, andthe likelihood of being in aworking class-occupation, suchas a skilled craft or artisan job,are also positively andsignificantly affected bycompulsory basic education andsenior secondary education, forboth men and women. Overall,education has a strong positiveimpact on the occupationalattainment of men and women.This favorable relationshipbetween education attainmentand occupation class representsthe central avenue of socialmobility for individuals fromdisadvantaged and low statushousehold backgrounds.

Education and female laborforce participation

2.8. The role of education inpromoting female labor force

participation constitutes animportant element of economicmodernization and genderempowerment. The impact ofeducation on female labor forceparticipation is shown in Table2.4. below. Education exerts apositive and statisticallysignificant effect on femalelabor force participation amongwomen with GCE A/Lqualifications, graduates andpostgraduates. The incrementalimpact of these education levelson the likelihood of labor forceparticipation increases fromslightly over 1% among GCEA/L qualified women to about6% for postgraduate qualifiedwomen. Among women withGCE O/L qualifications or less,the impact of education on laborforce participation is statisticallyinsignificant, althoughnegatively signed. Past studiesof female labor forceparticipation in Sri Lanka haveshown a similar pattern, with thehigher education levels exertinga positive effect and the lowereducation levels a negative or

statistically insignificant effect[see Glewwe (1985), Sahn andAlderman (1987), Aturupane(1993)]. There are two sets ofreasons for the higher laborforce participation probabilitiesof women with GCE A/L orabove. First, there are self-selection effects, as women whostudy to these levels are likely topossess greater ability andmotivation to work. Second,highly educated women enjoyhigher life-cycle earningsprospects. Hence, theopportunity cost of non-participation is greater for suchwomen.

Unemployed educated youngpeople

2.9. The central challengefaced by Sri Lankan policymakers since the late 1950s hasbeen the absorption of anincreasingly educated younglabor force into productiveemployment [see Rodrigo et al1987, Alailima (1997),Aturupane (1997) and WorldBank (2000)]. The pattern of

Table 2.4. The Impact of Education on Female Labor Force Participation,Marginal Effects Derived from a Probit Model, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates (2002)

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey. The probit model is controlled forother factors affecting female labor force participation, such as age, technical training, demographic composition of household,family socio-economic conditions and marital status.

Education level Marginal Effect % T Statistic

Primary education incomplete -0.3 -0.93

Primary complete -0.7 -1.63

Junior Secondary -0.9 -1.75

GCE O/L qualified -0.2 -0.60

GCE A/L qualified 1.4 3.80

Graduate 5.2 3.09

Postgraduate 6.1 3.45

18

unemployment across educationlevels is given in Table 2.5. Theunemployment rate for the fulllabor force aged 19-60 is clearlylower, at 6% for men and 11%for women, than for youngpeople aged 19-29, where maleunemployment is 17% andfemale unemployment 27%. Themain source of unemploymentamong young people is thetransition from school oruniversity to work, with theaverage length of job searcharound one year. Unemploymentrates of young people areespecially high among educatedgroups, such as GCE O/L andGCE A/L qualified individualsand university graduates, withunemployment ranging from26%-34% for both sexescombined. Within gendergroups, unemployment isespecially high among women,especially GCE O/L, GCE A/L

and university qualified women,where unemployment rates areas high as 30%-40%. Economicanalysis of the factors associatedwith unemployment rates havealso shown that the upper levelsof education are positivelyrelated to unemployment.

2.10. The economic literaturehas advanced many reasons forthe phenomenon of unemployededucated young people,including skills mismatch andjob queuing for public sectoremployment [see World Bank(2000)]. The principal reason,however, has been structuralunemployment caused by theslow pace of economic growth,which prevented the creation ofadequate jobs to match thesupply of educated youth. Inconsequence, the governmenthas stepped in regularly over thepast three decades to absorbeducated young people,

especially university graduates,into public employment toforestall political discontent andsocial unrest.9 The large genderdifferential in unemploymentcan be attributed mainly tohigher reservation wages amongwomen and the narrower bandof occupations within whichfemale job seekers receive andaccept employment offers [seeAturupane (1997), Jayaweeraand Sanmugam (2002)]. Themain government strategies toincrease employment, especiallyamong educated young people,have been to promote skillsdevelopment and to increaselabor market flexibility. Theformer strategy, developingvocational training and technicaleducation, is a supply sidemeasure and, while important,cannot fully combat structuralunemployment caused bysluggish economic growth,

9. Educated unemployed young people played a leading role in the civil disturbances of 1971 and 1987-89 and in the separatistmovement in the northern parts of the country from the 1970s onwards.

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey (2002). Note: The unemploymentrates for postgraduate educated individuals in the age range 19-29 were not calculated due to the small sample of observationsavailable.

Table 2.5. Unemployment Rates by Education Level, Men and Women

No schooling 2 1 1 6 1 4Primary education 2 3 2 6 10 7Junior secondary education 4 7 5 11 15 12Secondary education 9 13 10 18 21 19GCE O/L qualified 8 17 11 21 36 27GCE A/L qualified 10 21 15 27 40 34Graduates 6 12 9 21 30 26Postgraduates 3 2 3 na na naAll education groups 6 11 8 17 27 20

Education level Age 19-60 Age 19-29Male % Female % Total % Male % Female % Total %

19

which results in insufficientdemand for educated labor. Thelatter strategy, improving labormarket flexibility, is a promisingdemand side measure. However,it is also a measure that has beenintroduced very recently,January 2004, and has not yethad time to affect the labormarket fully.

2.2 Social Benefits ofInvestment in Education:Externality EffectsImpact on nutrition and familyhealth outcomes

2.11. The externality effects ofmaternal education on childnutrition and family health areamong the key social benefits ofinvesting in education. Therelationship between mother’seducation and child nutrition inSri Lanka is presented in Table2.6. below. Maternal educationclearly plays a strong andsignificant role in reducing thelikelihood of child under-

nutrition. The probability of achild being severely ormoderately underweightdecreases progressively andsignificantly as maternaleducation rises from middlesecondary (grades 6-10) levelthrough GCE O/L and GCE A/Land higher. Similarly, thelikelihood of a child beingseverely or moderately stunteddeclines continuously andsignificantly as the mother’seducation increases fromprimary (grade 5) through GCEA/L and above. The positiverelationship between maternaleducation and child nutrition isthe result of superior nutritionknowledge and greater ability toimplement favorable nutritionpractices among educatedwomen. Studies have shown thateducated mothers adopt betterpre-natal and neo-natalpractices, obtain and respondfaster to new information onchild nutrition, and utilize healthcare services for respiratory and

water-borne diseases morefrequently and effectively [seede Silva (2003a), Rajapaksa(2003)]. For instance, motherswith primary and secondaryeducation were more likely toseek treatment from medicalfacilities and to use medicinesover the prescribed cycle oftreatment than uneducatedmothers. Similarly, secondaryeducated mothers had a higherpropensity to use necessarynutrition supplementation ininfancy [see Table 2.7] and toadopt appropriate weaningpractices. This externality effectof education did not seem tocarry through to tertiaryeducated mothers, however,supporting the view that thegains of tertiary education aremainly appropriated bygraduates as private benefits.One important reason for theabsence of a significantrelationship between tertiaryeducation attainment of mothersand family health may be that

Table 2.6. The Impact of Maternal Education on Child Nutrition, 2000.Regression Coefficients from Probit Models, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Demographic and Health Surveys 1993 and 2000.Values within brackets are 't' statistics. A "child" is defined as children under 5 years. The probit regressions are controlled forhousehold consumption, age of child, gender of child and local public and community facilities.

Primary educated mother -0.082 -0.470(grade 5 completed) (-0.49) (-2.55)

Middle secondary educated mother -0.311 -0.757(grade 6-10) (-1.93) (-3.92)

GCE O/L completed -0.397 -0.920(-2.29) (-4.36)

GCE A/L completed or higher -0.920 -1.101(-4.69) (-4.58)

Education level of mother Probability of being Probability of beingseverely or moderately severely or moderately

underweight stunted

20

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, Demographic and Health Surveys, 1993 and 2000.

Table 2.7. Proportion of Babies given Colostrum atBirth by Mother’s Education Level, 1993 and 2002

Education 1993 2000% %

No schooling 34 65

Primary 45 66

Junior Secondary 54 74

GCE O/L 69 83

GCE A/L na 92

women educated to these levelsnormally go to work, so thattheir time at home is too limitedto help improve health andnutrition outcomes.

2.3 Social Benefits ofInvestment in Education:Equity and DistributiveJustice2.12. A cardinal principle of SriLankan public policy, rangingover several generations andsuccessive governments, hasbeen the promotion of equityand distributive justice throughinvestment in education.Important education legislation,such as the EducationOrdinances of (1939) and(1947), stressed the central roleof education in achievingeconomic and social equity.Recent policy statements, suchas NEC (1997) and NEC(2003), have restated thatadvancing equity througheducation is a fundamentalprinciple of national policy. Insupport of this principle, GOSLmaintains and financiallysupports several policyinitiatives and measures. Theseinclude the island-wide network

of free government primary andsecondary schools; incentiveschemes such as free textbooks,free uniforms and transportsubsidies to promote schoolattendance, especially amonglow-income families; tuitionfree public universities withadmission quotas for studentsfrom disadvantaged districts; aregionally widespread systemof vocational training centers,many of which offer tuition freeinstruction; and a publiclyfunded apprenticeship training

scheme through which on-sitefactory and firm placements canbe received for skillsdevelopment through on-the-job training.

Education and deprivation:poverty rates by educationattainment of household heads

2.13. The developmentexperience of many countrieshas amply demonstrated thepower of human capital toexpand economic opportunitiesand reduce poverty. In Sri

Source: Gunewardena, 2000.

Figure 2.2. Poverty Incidence by Education Level ofHousehold Head (1985/86 and 1995/96)

45

40

44

38

3331

2422

1011

65

1 1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

NoSchooling

Primary LowerSecondary

UpperSecondary

GCE O/L GCE A/L Graduateand Above

Percent

21

Lanka, too, education attainmentis strongly correlated with lowerpoverty rates [see Figure 2.2].The incidence of poverty ishighest among households withuneducated heads, 45% in1985/86 and 40% in 1995/96.Poverty rates are marginallylower among households withprimary educated heads, 44% in

1985/86 and 38% in 1995/96. Asthe education level of thehousehold head increaseshousehold poverty ratesdecrease continually, falling tojust 1% among households witha tertiary educated head. Povertyrates fall most sharply whenhousehold heads move throughthe secondary education cycle,

from junior secondary throughto GCE O/L and GCE A/L. Thispattern of declining poverty asthe education level of thehousehold head increases is alsosupported by studies whichshow the same decreasingpattern between poverty ratesand education levels of principalincome earners of households

Table 2.8. Multiple Regression Analysis of Economic Welfare,Generalized Least Squares Estimates

Source: Aturupane, Harsha (1998).Note: F is a Wald test for joint significance of regression coefficients. X2 is the Breusch-Pagan Test for heteroscedasticity.

All 't' values have been estimated using heteroscedasticity consistent standard errors.

Dependant Variable is the Logarithm of per capita Consumption ExpendituresVariable Female Headed Households Male Headed Households

Coefficient T Ratio Coefficient T Ratio

Constant 6.38 134.95 6.54 85.56

Variables related to the head of household

Age 41-50 years 0.03 0.89 0.04 1.04Age 51-60 years 0.06 1.61 0.08 1.72Age 61-70 years 0.11 2.71 0.20 2.82Age71-80 years 0.09 1.78 0.11 1.46Primary education (grade 1-5) 0.08 2.63 0.18 3.18Junior secondary education (grade 6-9) 0.24 7.12 0.20 3.50Secondary education (grade 10) 0.28 6.51 0.37 5.88GCE O/L 0.54 12.45 0.59 8.91GCE A/L 0.45 7.18 0.88 11.34Unemployed 0.19 3.49 -0.12 -1.66Homemaker 0.10 3.36 0.13 1.01Unable to work 0.10 2.97 -0.04 -0.80Widow/Widower 0.09 3.96 0.09 -0.36Separated/ Divorced -0.09 -2.18 -0.08 0.44Unmarried 0.10 1.72 0.04 2.20

Household Variables

Household size -0.09 -8.23 -0.11 -6.40Number of primary earners 0.10 5.39 0.08 2.20Number of secondary earners 0.09 4.41 0.11 3.96Number of dependants -0.01 -0.57 -0.09 -1.08Urban sector 0.29 11.86 0.38 10.97Estate sector -0.06 -1.36 -0.05 -1.19

Test Statistics

Adjusted R2 0.22 0.32F 38.22 30.88

[21,2801] [21,1337]X2 158.41 89.64

[21] [21]Sample Size 2823 1359

22

[see Gunewardena (2000)]. Thehigher earnings received byeducated household heads orprincipal income earners clearlyhelp to lift households above thepoverty thresholds. Otherfactors are also likely tocontribute, such as betterfertility control and smallerfamily size, more regularemployment, and informedconsumption choices, amongeducated households.

Education and economicwelfare of poor households

2.14. The economic welfarelevels of poor families areclosely related to the educationattainment of the householdhead. A study of householdexpenditures among householdsin the poorest regions of SriLanka showed that consumptionincreased sharply as theeducation level of the householdhead rose, among both femaleand male headed households

[see Table 2.8]. All educationregression coefficients fromprimary education upwards arepositively signed andstatistically significant atconventional levels ofconfidence. Further, thecoefficients generally increaseas the education level rises. Theregression coefficients suggestthat, among male headedhouseholds in poor regions,families with primary educatedheads consume 20% more thanhouseholds with uneducatedheads. This consumptiondifferential rises continuously,with households containingheads educated up to GCE A/Lenjoying consumption levels142% higher. Among femaleheaded households, familieswith primary educated headsconsume 8% more thanhouseholds with uneducatedheads. Among households withheads educated up to GCE O/L,this difference in consumption is

72% greater. These findingsshow that poor households enjoystrong welfare gains fromeducation.

Education enrolment acrosseconomic groups

2.15. Enrolment rates ofchildren across economic groupsshow that in the primaryeducation cycle there is a highdegree of equity betweenfamilies from various economiclevels [see Table 2.9]. Netprimary enrolment among poorhouseholds is 95% and netprimary enrolment among therichest quintile 97%.10 At thejunior secondary and seniorsecondary levels, too, thedistribution of net enrolment isfairly equitable, with enrolmentrates ranging from 63%-71%and 32%-47% between poor andnon-poor households. Thesevalues imply that net enrolmentamong non-poor households isonly 8% higher for junior

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Household Income and Expenditure Survey, Department of Census and Statistics, 1995/96.

Table 2.9. Net Enrolment Rates in Major Education Cycles by Economic Groups

Consumption quintiles Net primary Net junior Net enrolment Net tertiaryenrolment secondary enrolment (grades 10-13) % enrolment %

(grades 1-5) % (grades 6-9) %

10. The quality of education in public schools attended by rich children and poor children can, of course, vary. However, thevolume of public investment in schools attended by poor children may well be higher than in schools attended by richchildren. The former tend to be disproportionately small schools, with high student teacher ratios, and are more expensiveto operate and maintain in per student terms.

Lowest 1-20 95 61 31 2Quintile 21-40 96 66 35 2Quintile 41-60 95 67 41 4Quintile 61-80 96 77 47 5Highest 81-100 97 76 60 13Poor 95 63 32 2Non-Poor 96 71 47 6Sri Lanka 96 68 42 5

23

secondary education and 15%higher for senior secondaryeducation in comparison to poorhouseholds. Further, theseenrolment rates by economicquintile are calculated from1995/96 data, as this is the mostrecent household income andexpenditure survey available.Evidence from other sources,such as school censuses, showthat secondary enrolment ratesamong poorer households haverisen considerably since then, sothat the school enrolment gapbetween low income and highincome households is likely tohave narrowed further. Overall,GOSL policy to provideuniversal access to free publicprimary and secondaryeducation, reinforced byincentives to enroll in school,appears to have benefitedchildren from poor householdssubstantially.

2.16. Enrolment in tertiaryeducation, however, revealssharp disparities between poorand non-poor households. Thetertiary enrolment rate amongnon-poor households is aboutthree times higher than amongpoor households. Further, themost affluent consumptiongroup accounts for about half ofall enrolment. These findingssuggest that the benefits oftertiary education accrue mainlyto prosperous households. Thisis plausible, as overall tertiaryenrolment levels in Sri Lankawere about 5% in 1995/96 andare currently about 11%. Thevast majority of students from

poor households do not survivethrough the secondary educationsystem to reach the tertiaryeducation cycle. The disparity intertiary education enrolmentbetween poorer households andwealthier households is likely tohave remained constant or evenwidened since 1995/96, asenrolment expansion in tuitionfree public universities has beenmoderate. The main increase intertiary education enrolmentover the past 8 years or so hasbeen in fee levying privatedegree awarding institutions andprofessional courses andprograms. These private tertiaryeducation programs and coursesare likely to be too expensive forlower income households,especially as many of theseprograms are examined andcertified from overseasinstitutions in developed

countries such as the U.K.,Australia and Singapore.

2.4 Equity of PublicEducation ExpenditurePublic education spendingacross economic groups

2.17. Public expenditure onprimary and secondaryeducation is distributed amongdifferent economic classes witha high degree of equity [seeFigure 2.3]. The Lorenz curvesfor primary education and juniorsecondary education, whichdenote the degree of equality ofpublic education spendingacross consumption quintiles, lieclose to the 45% degree line ofperfect equality. The Lorenzcurve for senior secondaryeducation lies somewhat furtherfrom the 45% degree line, but isnonetheless fairly close to it.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6

Tertiary education

Senior Secondary Education

Junior Secondary Education

Primary Education

Cumulative percentage of individuals orderedby per capita consumptions

Cum

ulat

ive

perc

enta

ge o

fpu

blic

edu

catio

n sp

endi

ng

Figure 2.3. Lorenz Curves of Shares of Public EducationExpenditure among Economic Groups

Source: World Bank estimates.

24

This implies that publicinvestment in education over theprimary and secondaryeducation cycles are sharedfairly evenly between affluent,middle class, working class andpoor households. This isespecially the case for primaryschooling and junior secondaryschooling.11 Public expenditureon tertiary education, incontrast, is distributedinequitably across economicgroups, with increasing sharesof expenditure accruing toprosperous households. TheLorenz curve of tertiaryeducation spending deviatessubstantially from the 45%degree line of equality. Thisimplies that the incidence ofpublic tertiary educationspending is quite unequallydistributed. Further, the largestshare of tertiary educationspending benefits only therichest 20% of households.

2.18. These findings areconfirmed by two otherinequality measures, the Ginicoefficient and the coefficient ofvariation, of public educationexpenditure [see Table 2.10].

The Gini coefficient ofinequality for primary educationis less than 1%, and for juniorsecondary education about 5%,implying a very high degree ofequality of spending acrosseconomic classes at theseeducation levels. The Ginicoefficient of inequality forsenior secondary education isabout 17%, which again impliesconsiderable equity of publicexpenditure. These findings aresupported by the coefficient ofvariation of public educationspending, which ranges from0.1% for primary schooling to3% for senior secondaryeducation. At the tertiaryeducation level, however, thereis a high degree of inequality ofpublic education spending, witha Gini coefficient of 48% and acoefficient of variation of 44%.

2.5 Regional Dimensionsof Equity: GeographicalVariations in EquitableAccess to EducationThe compulsory education cycle

2.19. School participation ratesreveal a high degree of regional

equality over the primaryeducation cycle (grades 1-5)[see Figure 2.4]. Primaryparticipation ranges between98% in provinces such asWestern, Central, Southern andUva to 92% in the conflictaffected North-East. Theaverage primary participationrate for the country as a whole is97%. Participation rates in thejunior secondary educationcycle (grades 6-9), however,display considerably greatervariation than at the primarylevel. The Western and SouthernProvinces attain the highestlevels of junior secondaryparticipation, 87%, butparticipation in the North-Western Province is only 78%and the North-Eastern Provincejust 73%. There are alsosubstantial intra-provincevariations in junior secondaryparticipation. The Vavuniya andBatticaloa districts of the North-Eastern Province, for instance,attain participation rates of just55% and 65% respectively. ThePuttalam District of the North-Western Province and NuwaraEliya District of the Central

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Household Income and Expenditure Survey, Department of Census and Statistics, 1995/96.

Table 2.10. Inequality Measures of Public Education Expenditure

Public education Gini Coefficient of Inequality Coefficient of Variationspending by level % %

11. The quality of public schools attended by poor and affluent students can, of course, vary in favor of the rich. However, thegovernment has several policy measures in place to allocate public resources across schools equitably. Additional resourcesreceived by wealthier schools tend to be from private sources, such as past students’ association, parents’ associations andlocal philanthropists.

Primary 0.4 0.1Junior Secondary 5.1 0.3Senior Secondary 16.5 3.1Tertiary 48.4 44.0

Province, too, reachparticipation rates of only 69%and 73% respectively. Incontrast, the Colombo Districtof the Western Province and theJaffna District of the North-Eastern Province achieve veryhigh participation rates of 93%and 92% respectively.

2.20. Average learning achieve-ments in the primary educationcycle also show high regionalvariations [see Table 2.11]. Theproportion of primary studentsattaining mastery of their firstlanguage, Sinhalese or Tamil,varies from 23% in the North-Eastern Province to 51% in the

Western Province. Similarly,mastery of primary mathematicsranges from 25% in the North-Eastern Province to 52% in theWestern Province, and masteryof English languagecompetencies varies from 5% inthe North-Eastern Province to20% in the Western Province.The Central, Uva and North-Central Provinces, too, tend toperform poorly on language andmathematics scores. Intra-regional variations withinprovinces are also high. In theNorth-Eastern Province, forinstance, mastery of firstlanguage ranges from 11% in theKilinochchi District to 26%-27% in the Vavuniya, Amparai,Jaffna and TrincomaleeDistricts. Within the CentralProvince, mastery ofmathematics varies from 22% inthe Nuwara Eliya District to41% in the Kandy District.Overall, Kilinochchi andMullaitivu, the two districtsmost severely affected by the

25

Table 2.11. Primary Education Learning Outcomes by Province, 2003

Source: National Assessment of Grade 4 Cognitive Achievement, National Education Research and Evaluation Center, University ofColombo.

Province Proportion of students Proportion of students Proportion ofachieving mastery of achieving mastery of students achievingtheir first language mathematics mastery of the

(Sinhalese or Tamil) % % English language %

Western 51 52 20Central 34 33 8Southern 43 44 13North-Eastern 23 25 5North Western 42 43 9North Central 36 41 8Uva 34 35 8Sabaragamuva 40 43 10Sri Lanka 37 38 10

98

87

98

82

98

87

92

73

97

78

97

81

98

81

97

85

97

83

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Wes

tern

Centra

l

South

ern

North

-Eas

tern

North

-Wes

tern

North

-Cen

tral

Uva

Sabar

agam

uva

Sri La

nka

Figure 2.4. Participation Rates in the Compulsory Education Cycle(Grades 1-9), 2001 (Two bars: Grades 1-5 & Grades 6-9).

Source: World Bank estimates, based on Ministry of Education, School Census, 2001.

secessionist conflict, performworst in the country, while theColombo District performs best.

2.21. The comparatively highregional variations inparticipation rates within thejunior secondary educationcycle and the substantialgeographical disparities inlearning achievements can beattributed to several factors,such as: (i) variations in thequality of education acrossregions, including teachercapabilities, availability andattendance, classroom practices,school leadership, physicalfacilities and quality inputs; (ii)variations in social andeconomic conditions ofhouseholds and students, withlower education participationand achievement in poorerdistricts and provinces, andhigher education participationand achievement in wealthierdistricts and provinces; and (iii)the impact of the secessionist

conflict, which disrupted theeducation system in the North-Eastern Province and thesurrounding regions ofneighboring provinces.

Senior secondary education

2.22. The pattern of netenrolment across the seniorsecondary education cycle(grades 10-13) shows onlymodest regional variation,ranging from 46%-52% [seeTable 2.12]. The highestenrolment is in the WesternProvince, with 52% of childrenin the age-group 15-18 enrolledin senior secondary education,followed by the CentralProvince 51% and SouthernProvince 50%. Net enrolment islowest in the North-Central andUva Provinces, with 46% ofchildren aged 15-18 enrolled insenior secondary schools. Whilehousehold survey data for theNorth-Eastern Province is notyet available to estimate netenrolment rates, school census

information suggests that theoverall level of enrolment islikely to be slightly less than inthe Uva and North-CentralProvinces. The relatively evendistribution of senior secondaryenrolment across provinces canbe attributed to several factors:(i) widespread access to seniorsecondary education, with about6,600 government schools (67%of all public schools) offeringclasses at least up to GCE O/L;(ii) the policy of automaticpromotion up to grade 11, whichfacilitates enrolment; and (iii)the provision of incentives forschool attendance, such as freetextbooks and uniforms, andsubsidized transport.

2.23. Pass rates at the GCE O/Lexamination show sharpvariations in achievementbetween the Western Provinceand the rest of the country. In theWestern Province, about one outof every two students passes theGCE O/L; however, in the other

26

Source: Net enrolment rates calculated from the Labor Force Survey 2002, Department of Census and Statistics, and examination ratesobtained from the Department of Examinations, Ministry of Education.

Table 2.12. Net Enrolment in Senior Secondary Education andGCE O/L and GCE A/L Examination Pass Rates, 2002

Province Senior secondary Proportion of students Proportion of students(grades 10-13) successfully completing the successfully completing the

net enrolment rate % GCE O/L examination % GCE A/L examination %

Western 52 48 54Central 51 32 55Southern 50 37 57North-Eastern na 32 58North Western 49 38 58North Central 46 31 53Uva 46 31 52Sabaragamuva 47 34 57Sri Lanka 50 37 56

provinces only one out of everythree students passes the GCEO/L examination. Pass rates arelowest in the North-Central andUva Provinces, with only 31%of candidates passing the GCEO/L examination. There are twomain reasons for the steepdifference between the WesternProvince and the rest of thecountry. First, the WesternProvince has some of the besteducational facilities in thecountry, and is a popularlocation with principals,teachers and educationadministrators. In consequence,the education system in theWestern Province is superior,both in terms of humanresources and the stock ofphysical capital, to the rest of thecountry. Second, the WesternProvince is considerablywealthier and better developedthan the rest of the country, andstudents come from moreeducated families and investgreater private resources ineducation. Hence, householdand student specificdeterminants of educationoutcomes are more favorable inthe Western Province.

2.24. GCE A/L examinationpass rates are fairly even acrossprovinces, ranging from 52% inUva to 58% in the North-Western and North-EasternProvinces. The low regionalvariation in GCE A/L pass ratesacross provinces can beattributed to several factors: (i)students who appear for thisexamination are among the

brightest and best motivated intheir age cohort and belong toabout the top 25% of the abilitydistribution; (ii) GCE A/Lclasses are chiefly offered inschools located in cities andtowns, where differences inschool facilities and theavailability of educationalresources are modest; and (iii)households incur substantialprivate expenses to support GCEA/L students, especially throughprivate tuition. The mainregional inequality in the GCEA/L cycle is in access to sciencesubjects and mathematics [seeNEC (2003)]. Only 600 schoolsin the country offer GCE A/Lscience classes. Further,effective GCE A/L scienceteaching is confined to about200 urban schools. Inconsequence, access to GCEA/L education in sciencesubjects is tightly constrained.In the distribution of suchschools, the North-Central, Uvaand North-Eastern Provinces areparticularly disadvantaged.

2.6 Regional Dimensionsof Equity: GovernmentPolicies to OvercomeRegional Variations inEducation Access, Qualityand Opportunity2.25. Government policy toreduce regional disparities andincrease education access andquality in disadvantaged areascontains two main components:(i) progressive centralgovernment financing, with

favorable treatment for poorprovinces and regions; and (ii)special policy measures topromote equity of educationaccess, quality and opportunity,especially: (a) a norm-based unitcost resource allocationmechanism to distribute publicresources to schools equitably;(b) a scholarship examination atgrade 5 to provide poor buttalented children access tohigher quality schools; and (c)district and special quotas forstudents from disadvantagedregions to attend universities.

Progressive governmentfinancing

2.26. One of the cardinalpolicies guiding governmenteducation expenditure is thedevelopment of educationsystems in the poorer provinces;especially those, such as theNorth-Eastern, Uva and North-Central Provinces, whoseprovincial revenue raisingcapabilities are either low ornon-existent. In contrast,affluent areas of the countrysuch as the Western Province areawarded considerably lowerresources for education by thecentral government. Forinstance, the share of centralgovernment financing ofprovincial educationexpenditure ranges from about45%-50% in the WesternProvince to 100% in the North-Eastern Province. The pattern ofpublic primary and secondaryeducation expenditure perstudent as a proportion ofprovincial per capita income, is

27

clearly progressive [see Figure2.5 and Figure 2.6].

2.27. The poorest provincecontaining the lowest educationoutcomes, North-Eastern,enjoys the highest proportionategovernment expenditure per

student on education. Therichest province with the highesteducation outcomes, Western,experiences the lowestproportionate governmentexpenditure per student oneducation. Also, publiceducation spending per student

as a proportion of provincialincome per capita is about 300%greater in the North-EasternProvince than in the WesternProvince. Other poor provincesor provinces containing verypoor areas, such as Uva, North-Central, Central and Southern,also receive generous centralgovernment grants for educationwhich enable them to investconsiderably higher resources inhuman capital accumulationthan can be financed throughprovincial resources alone.Central government spending oneducation, health and othersocial services constitutes one ofthe chief income re-distributionmechanisms in the country.About 75%-80% of governmentrevenue is generated in theWestern Province, the mostaffluent region of the country,and re-distributed through thecentral government to the otherprovinces. The educationsystem, which accounts forabout half or more of provincialspending, is one of the chiefbeneficiaries of progressivepublic investment.

Special policy measures topromote equity of access, qualityand opportunity

The norm-based unit costresource allocation mechanismfor schools.

2.28. The allocation ofresources to schools, up to themid-1990s, was chiefly based onhistorical budgeting and theinitiative and dynamism ofindividual principals. Thisresulted, over time, in large

28

25

30

35

40

45

50

- 5 10 15 20 25

North-EasternGC

E O

/L P

ass

Rat

es 2

002

(%

)

Government Secondary Education Spendingas a Proportion of GDP per capita (%)

North-Central

Central

North-Western

Sabaragamuwa

Southern

Uva

Sri Lanka

Western

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Government of Sri Lanka Budget Estimates,Finance Commission and Provincial Councils’ Financial Statistics and CentralBank of Sri Lanka National Income Accounts.

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Western

UvaCentral

North-Central

Sri Lanka

North-Western

Prim

ary

Firs

t Lan

guag

e A

chie

vem

ent,

2003

(%

)

Public Primary Education Spending Across Provincesas a Proportion of GDP per Capita (%)

Sabaragamuwa

Southern

North-Eastern

Figure 2.5. Progressive Government Financing of Provinceswith Low Average Primary Education Achievement Levels

Figure 2.6. Progressive Central Government Financing ofProvinces with Low GCE O/L Pass Rates

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Government of Sri Lanka Budget Estimates,Finance Commission and Provincial Councils’ Financial Statistics and CentralBank of Sri Lanka National Income Accounts.

29

budgetary disparities betweenschools, with funding variationsbetween schools of similarcharacteristics as large as 1:300in 1996 [see GOSL-ADB (1996),Aturupane andAbeygunawardena (2000)]. Toaddress this issue, thegovernment adopted a policy offunding schools based on anorm-based, unit cost resourceallocation formula [seeAturupane and Abeyguna-wardena (2000)]. This formulais built on five criteria: (i)quality input norms produced bycurriculum developers, teachereducators and master teachers;(ii) a central equation to allocateresources for recurrentexpenditures to schools on a perstudent basis; (iii) fine tuning ofthe central equation toaccommodate economies ofscale enjoyed by large schoolsand diseconomies of scaleexperienced by small schools;(iv) variations across gradecycles, based on quality inputnorms; and (v) the application ofa stock adjustment principle forcapital investments, whereschools are allocated resourcesto enable gradual developmentfrom their existing capital stockto the desired capital stockimplied by the quality inputnorms. This resource allocationformula was pilot tested in a fewprovinces during 1999, andintroduced island-wide from2000 onwards. The formula hasproved highly successful,reducing disparities betweenschools with similarcharacteristics from 1:300 in

1996 to about 1:15 by 2002 [seeFinance Commission (2002)].Poor schools have enjoyed largeinflows of quality inputs andcentral government andprovincial council educationstaff members have welcomedthe increased equity of resourceallocation to schools. Educationpolicy makers have affirmed theuse of the norm-based unit costresource allocation mechanismas the basis on which publicresources should be distributedto schools in the future [see NEC(2003)].

Grade 5 scholarship for poorbut talented pupils

2.29. The variations ineducation quality, obviously,reach deeper than thegeographical boundaries ofprovincial councils. The qualityof education varies amongschools within provincialboundaries as much as acrossprovinces. Students from poorrural homes tend to bedisadvantaged, in particular, asschools located in cities andtowns are on average of higherquality than schools in ruralareas. The government has aspecial policy measure, theGrade 5 scholarship scheme, toincrease educationalopportunities for talentedchildren from poor householdsand schools. Students uponreaching grade 5 are allowed tosit a national scholarshipexamination, and successfulpupils from disadvantagedschools are entitled to transfer,with state assistance, to better

schools for their secondaryeducation. The Grade 5scholarship scheme has beenextremely popular amongparents and families, andgovernment policy is to continuethis scheme, with periodic finetuning [see NEC (2003)].

University quotas to providepreferential access to studentsfrom poor districts

2.30. The government allocatesa proportion of university placeson the basis of district quotas, tocompensate for educationaldisadvantages to students frompoorer districts. For subjectssuch as Medicine, Engineering,Science, Agriculture, Law andCommerce only 40% ofuniversity places are allocatedpurely on GCE A/L marks. Afurther 55% of places areawarded on a district quotasystem, with each districtreceiving a quota proportional toits population. Within thedistrict quotas, allocation ofuniversity positions is again onthe basis of GCE A/L marks.The final 5% of universityplaces are reserved for studentsfrom educationallydisadvantaged districts. Atpresent, the disadvantageddistricts, which receivepreferential treatment in theallocation of university quotas,are: (i) seven of the eightdistricts of the North-EasternProvince, Jaffna, Kilinochchi,Mullativu, Vavuniya, Mannar,Trincomalee and Amparai; (ii)the two districts of the UvaProvince, Moneragala and

Badulla; (iii) the two districts ofthe North-Central Province,Anuradhapura and Pollonaruwa;and (iv) one district each fromthe Southern and CentralProvinces, Hambantota andNuwara Eliya, respectively.However, university admissionis based purely on marks at theGCE A/L for arts subjects, aseducational opportunities areconsidered fairly even acrossdistricts for arts subjects.

2.7 Conclusions andOptions for the Future2.31. The preceding analysisshows that investment ineducation produces a wide arrayof economic and social benefits,ranging from increased laborproductivity, occupationalattainment and earnings tosuperior family health and childnutrition outcomes. The socialrate of return to education ishigh, especially at thecompulsory basic and seniorsecondary education gradecycles, and suggests that SriLanka under-invests ineducation at these levels.Externality effects, such ashealth and nutrition benefits, arealso strong among primary andsecondary educated mothers.Tertiary education generateshigh private returns toindividuals, through suchoutcomes as higher female laborforce participation, superioroccupational attainment andincreased earnings. However,social returns to tertiaryeducation are considerably

smaller than for compulsorybasic and secondary education,suggesting that the benefits oftertiary education accrue chieflyto individuals as private gains.

2.32. The potential benefits ofinvestment in education havenot been fully utilized, as sloweconomic growth has resulted inpoor expansion of the demandfor educated labor, resulting inseveral episodes of social unrestand political instability led byfrustrated, unemployed educatedyoung people. The main causesof slow growth were economicpolicies that, over a long periodof time from the 1950s to the1970s, stifled markets andreduced incentives, and thesecessionist conflict in theNorth-Eastern area from the1980s onwards. Currently, thepro-market policies of the majorpolitical parties and the ceasefirein the North-Eastern region offerpromise of faster economicgrowth and higher demand foreducated labor. Peace wouldespecially benefit householdsand students in the North-Eastern province, which is nowthe least developed region in thecountry.

2.33. Education exerts apowerful effect on povertyreduction and the economicwelfare of the poor. There is alsoa high degree of equity ofgovernment educationinvestment across provinces,with progressively higher perstudent allocations foreducationally disadvantagedregions. The wide range of

policy measures to promoteenrolment, attendance andschool completion, especially atprimary and compulsory basiceducation levels, have enjoyed ahigh measure of success. Andsuccessful and popular policies,such as the norm-based unit costresource allocation mechanism,have greatly enhanced the equityof resource distribution amongschools. The allocation of publiceducation spending acrosseconomic groups is progressiveat the primary and secondaryeducation levels, with benefitsrelatively evenly distributedamong all economic groups.However, at tertiary educationlevel the pattern of publiceducation spending isregressive, with benefitsaccruing disproportionately tothe highest economic class.

2.34. These findings, especiallythe pattern of social and privaterates of return to education, theexternality benefits ofschooling, and the equity ofgovernment educationexpenditure among economicclasses, suggest four importantpolicy directions for futurepublic investment in education.

a. Expansion of publicinvestment in primary andsecondary education,while controllingexpenditure on tertiaryeducation, especiallycostly universityeducation. This can beaccomplished byallocating the largest shareof any increase in

30

budgetary resources foreducation to primary andsecondary education. Inaddition, resourcesgenerated within theeducation system throughcost saving measures canalso be channeled towardsthe school system.

b. Increased resources forprimary and secondaryschooling could beallocated to meet the extracost of achievinguniversal enrolment andcompletion in thecompulsory schoolingcycle, grades 1-9, and toraise the quality ofprimary and secondaryeducation. Policymeasures to attract the last18% of the populationaged 6-14 into theeducation system caninclude expanding anddeveloping the specialeducation and non-formaleducation programs,reconstructing andrehabilitating thedamaged schools in theconflict affected regions,improving facilities fordisabled children, andincreasing the coverage ofbasic services in schoolslocated in disadvantagedareas, such as watersupply and sanitation.Increasing the quality ofeducation can includeinvesting greaterresources in qualityinputs, such as teachingmaterial, learning

resources, equipment andtechnology, and qualityprocesses, such asprofessional developmentof teachers, training ofprincipals to provideeffective schoolleadership, and on-siteacademic and managerialsupport to schools.

c. Creating a favorableenvironment for privateinvestment in education.The private sector cancontribute considerableresources to the educationsystem. However, thelegal restriction onestablishing privateschools over the grade 1-9cycle needs to be lifted toexploit this potentialsource of additionalinvestment into theeducation sector. Inaddition, the governmentneeds to take steps tolighten the limitations onprivate investmentimposed by the politicaleconomy environment,which is highly negativetoward privateinvestment. Removing thelegal barrier to privateinvestment in the basiceducation cycle would beone important step. Afurther key step would bean official publicendorsement of therecommendations madeby the NEC (2003) toallow the establishment ofprivate schools,international schools and

private degree awardinginstitutions, under suitablequality assurance criteriaand measures.

d. Expansion of tertiaryeducation, especially theexpensive universitysystem, could be leftchiefly to the privatesector. To furtherencourage privateinvestment in tertiaryeducation the governmentneeds to advance policymeasures to counter thepresent negative politicaleconomy environmentsurrounding the tertiarysystem. Currently, severalpromising policy actionshave been initiated,including reform of thelegislative frameworkgoverning the universitysystem to provide greaterautonomy to individualinstitutions, financialstipends for tertiary levelskills developmentactivities, and the creationof an accreditationframework to cover bothprivate degree awardinginstitutions and publicuniversities. Furthermeasures could includedeveloping a student loanscheme, especially forpoor but talented students,and introducing a vouchersystem that tertiary levelstudents can use in eitherprivate or public tertiaryeducation institutions.

31

32

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey, 2002.

Appendix Table A1.Male and Female Labor Force Participation Rates, 2002

19-24 years 74 4425-29 years 92 4530-34 years 96 4135-39 years 95 4640-44 years 94 4645-49 years 92 4450-54 years 88 3955-59 years 77 2760-70 years 50 12

Age Men Women% %

33

Chapter Three

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION:RESOURCES AND SERVICEDELIVERY

3.0 Introduction3.1. Investment in education isone of the central pillars ofgovernment policy in Sri Lanka.The objectives of investingpublic resources in education areto promote equity and socialmobility, contribute to high andsustained economic growth, andenhance human development. Inaddition, private householdsinvest resources in education toimprove employment prospects,earnings and social status. Threekey factors determining thequantity and quality ofeducation outputs are the level,composition and distribution ofeducation expenditures, theinternal efficiency of theeducation system and theeffectiveness of educationservice delivery mechanisms.This chapter analyzes educationinvestment in Sri Lanka, with a

special focus on publicinvestment, internal efficiencyand the quality of servicedelivery. The magnitude andpattern of private investment ineducation is also examined.

3.1 Public Investment inEducationPublic education expenditure ininternational perspective

3.2. Government educationexpenditure in Sri Lankacurrently amounts to about LKR40,000 million (USD 415million) annually [see Table3.1]. In recent years, theeducation budget has accountedfor approximately 3% ofnational income and 7%-9% ofgovernment spending. Thisrepresents a comparativelymodest level of public educationinvestment by developing

country standards [see Table3.2]. Sri Lanka devotes thelowest share of the publicbudget to education of the entireset of countries, shown in Table3.2, mostly high performingEast Asian countries orneighboring South Asiannations. The group of lowermiddle-income countries, towhich Sri Lanka is expected tobelong in the near future,allocate about 4% of theirnational income to publiceducation. Countries such asSouth Korea, Malaysia,Thailand and Singapore, whichact as models for Sri Lankanpolicy makers, devote 18%-31%of government expenditures toeducation. South Asiancountries and low incomenations allocate, on average,about 3.2% of national incomeand 11% of government

expenditures to education.Further, in South Asia, onlyPakistan and Bangladesh spend

a lower proportion of nationalincome on public education.There are five main reasons for

the relatively modest level ofpublic education investment inSri Lanka: (i) the broad range of

34

Table 3.1. Public Investment in Education as a Proportion of National Income andGovernment Expenditure, 1998-2002

Source: Calculated from Revenue and Expenditure Statements and Budget Estimates, Government of Sri Lanka and Provincial Councils,and Annual Reports, Central Bank of Sri Lanka.

1998 28,689 3.1 8.4 11.5 4.11999 29,368 2.9 8.9 11.2 5.02000 35,348 3.1 7.8 11.4 3.52001 39,995 3.2 8.2 11.7 3.32002 40,017 2.9 6.8 10.3 2.5

Year Public education Education Education Education recurrent Education capitalexpenditure expenditure as a expenditure as a expenditure as a expenditure as a

(nominal prices) percentage of percentage of percentage of percentage ofGDP government government government

expenditure recurrent capital(rupees million) % % expenditure % expenditure %

Table 3.2. Education Expenditure as a Share of National Income andGovernment Expenditures, Sri Lanka and Selected Other Countries

Source: Sri Lanka, calculations from Government of Sri Lanka Budget Estimates, Central Bank of Ceylon Annual Reports, various issues;Other Countries, World Development Indicators (World Bank) and UNESCO Statistics, various issues. The information above forSri Lanka is computed from 2002 data. Other countries and regions are from the closest available year in the late 1990s andearly 2000s.

Country Education Education Education Recurrent Average Expenditure as a Expenditure as a Expenditure per Teacher Salaries

Proportion of Proportion of Student as a as a Proportion ofNational Income Government Proportion of National Income

Expenditure National Income per capita% % per capita % %

Sri Lanka 2.9 6.8 9.7 1.5India 4.1 12.7 16.3 3.0Bangladesh 2.5 15.7 3.3Pakistan 1.8 7.8Nepal 3.7 14.1 14.5Malaysia 6.2 26.7 20.7 2.9Maldives 3.9 11.2Bhutan 5.2 12.9Thailand 5.4 31.0 25.3 3.1South Korea 3.8 17.4 4.1Singapore 3.7 23.6Phillipines 4.2 20.6Costa Rica 4.4 22.8South Asia 3.2 11.2 14.5 2.8Low Income Countries 3.2 16.3Lower Middle Income Countries 4.1 18.5Upper Middle Income Countries 5.0 23.0

public services, such asuniversal free health care andwide-ranging access to povertyoriented safety nets, such as theSamurdhi program, which aregenerally not available in mostother developing countries, andcompete for governmentresources; (ii) high defenseexpenditure, which absorbs over5% of GDP and crowds outother investments; (iii) lowpublic revenue, which hascontributed to large budgetdeficits and constrainedgovernment expenditures; (iv)comparatively low teachersalaries, with Sri Lankanteachers receiving salaries abouthalf or less, as a proportion ofnational income per capita, thanteachers in countries such asIndia, Bangladesh, Malaysia,Thailand and South Korea; and(v) the fact that Sri Lanka builtup its capital stock of schoolsduring the 1950s-1970s, so thatthere is now no need for majorinvestment in the construction ofclassrooms and new schoolbuildings.

3.3. The tight budgetconstraint in recent years hasfallen especially heavily on thecapital budget. The educationcapital budget declined steeplyfrom 5% of government capitalspending in 1999 to 2.5% in2002. In terms of shares of theeducation budget, the capitalbudget decreased from about20% in 1998-2000 to 16% in2001-02 [see Figure 3.1]. Thisfall in capital investmentconstrained expansion and

development of the educationsystem. In particular, it restrictedinvestment in physical facilitiesto expand and increase urbanschools; supply basic services,such as water supply andsanitation, to rural schools; andinvest in quality inputs, such asIT centers, science laboratories,libraries, activity rooms andmulti-purpose rooms. As a resultof the decline in governmentcapital resources to education, ahigh proportion of investmentexpenditure has been financedthrough donor funded projects.For instance, in 2002, thecontribution of donor assistanceto the Ministry of HumanResources, Education andCultural affairs was equal toapproximately 68% of thecapital budget. Whengovernment counterpart fundingto donor projects is included,this share rises to about 81%.

The trend and composition ofpublic education expenditure

3.4. The recent trend of publiceducation expenditure showsconsiderable fluctuation in realspending [see Table 3.3].Overall, public educationspending per student declined in2002 by about 4 percent incomparison to the level in 2001.Further, both recurrent andcapital spending per studentdecreased between 2001 and2002. However, educationexpenditure per studentincreased sharply in 2000 and2001 in relation to the levels in1998 and 1999, mainly due toinvestment in new publicuniversities. As such, the levelof expenditure in 2002 wasabove the spending levels in1998-99, despite the declinerelative to 2001. The decline inper student public educationspending in 2002 can partly beattributed to the fiscal

35

81 79 80 84 84

19 21 20 16 16

-

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Per

cent

Share of the Recurrent Education Budget Share of the Capital Education Budget

Years

Figure 3.1. Shares of Public Capital andRecurrent Education Spending, 1998-2002.

Source: World Bank estimates, calculated from UNDP (2003).

difficulties of the period, whichforced a tight budgetary policy.Such major fluctuations within ashort span of time make itdifficult for education policymakers, managers andadministrators to develop long-term investment decisions andplans.

3.5. The recurrent educationbudget accounts for about 79%-84% of public educationexpenditure. The chiefcomponent of recurrenteducation expenditure,accounting for about 85%-90%of the combined central andprovincial recurrent educationbudgets, is salaries and wages.The major share of the salarybill is on teacher salaries,followed by the salaries ofprincipals, educationadministrators and other grades.After salaries, the next highestshares of recurrent educationspending are on textbooks,which receive about 3% of thetotal recurrent budget, andschool uniforms, which accountfor about 2% of the total

recurrent education budget. Thebalance funds are mainly usedfor administrative and operatingcosts such as electricity,communications, water andpostal charges, and staff travel.The main challenge faced by therecurrent education budget is toallocate sufficient funds, oncesalaries and administrative costshave been met, to supporteducation quality processes,such as professionaldevelopment of teachers andprincipals and delivery of on-site academic and administrativesupport to schools, and meet theoperating costs of capitaleducation investment.

3.6. The main share of capitalor investment expenditure in theschool system, accounting forover 80% of capital educationinvestment, is on constructionactivities, mainly building ofclass room blocks. Only arelatively small proportion ofresources, less than 20%, areinvested in quality inputs, suchas equipment, technology,furniture and tools. The

classroom constructionactivities in the school systemalso appear ad hoc, withoutsound forward planning basedon enrolment needs. Inconsequence, many ruralschools carry excess capacitywith empty classrooms, whileurban schools are heavilycongested and over-crowded.Construction activities in theuniversity system, too, appearuncoordinated, with heavyexpenditure on buildingswithout a clear plan based onneeds assessments ofuniversities. As a result of thelow investment in quality inputs,such as equipment andtechnology, the country couldfind itself on the wrong side ofthe digital divide and beseriously constrained inequipping future generationswith the knowledge, skills andcompetencies required in themodern global knowledgeeconomy. The main challengesfacing the education capitalbudget are to rationalizeconstruction activities in the

36

Year Real Public Real Public Real PublicEducation Recurrent Education Capital Education

Expenditure Expenditure Expenditureper Student per Student per Student(1996 = 100) (1996 = 100) (1996 = 100)

Source: Calculated from Revenue and Expenditure Statements and Budget Estimates, Government of Sri Lanka, Central Bank Reports,School Census Statistics and UGC Statistical Handbook, various issues.

Table 3.3. Time Trend of Public Education Expenditureper Student in Real Terms, 1998-2002

1998 5,747 4,631 1,1161999 5,626 4,467 1,1592000 6,241 4,963 1,2772001 6,286 5,284 1,0022002 6,032 5,046 987

school system and universities,allocate greater resources toexpanding and increasing urbanschools, and devote more fundsto high level quality inputs, suchas IT centers, sciencelaboratories, libraries, activityrooms, equipment andtechnology.

Distribution of public educationexpenditure by education leveland international comparisons

3.7. Total public educationspending is about LKR 40,000million. Out of this sum,approximately 32% (13,000million rupees) is spent onprimary education, 50% (20,000million rupees) on secondaryeducation, 14% (5,600 millionrupees) on tertiary education,and 3% (1,400 million rupees)on technical education [seeTable 3.4].

3.8. Unit recurrent costs perstudent are lowest for primaryschooling, about 6,500 rupeesper student, followed bysecondary schooling,

approximately 7,500 rupees perstudent. Technical education, at15,000 rupees per student, ismore expensive than primaryand secondary education.

Unit recurrent costs are highest,by a long way, for universityeducation, costing around66,000 rupees per student. As aproportion of GDP per capita,primary and secondaryschooling cost 8% - 9% perstudent and technical educationabout double that at 18% perstudent. University education isconsiderably more expensive,costing 79% of national incomeper capita per student.

3.9. This pattern of costs isfairly typical for educationsystems, with primary educationbeing the least costly anduniversity education the mostexpensive. These expenditurelevels, unit costs andproportions reflect enrolmentnumbers and shares, andvariations in production costsacross education cycles.

University education is normallythe most expensive level ofeducation, requiring highlyqualified staff, sophisticatedtechnology and advancedequipment and material,resulting in higher humancapital and physical resourcecosts. Technical education alsotends to be expensive, as itrequires highly specializedequipment and staff resources.Primary and secondaryeducation are less expensivethan university or technicaleducation as they afford greaterscope for economies of scaleand require less sophisticatedtechnology and capital inputs.However, secondary educationis normally more expensive thanprimary education, as secondaryteachers tend to be betterqualified and paid, and theproduction technology is morecapital intensive, especially atthe senior secondary level.

3.10. By internationalstandards, average recurrenteducation expenditures per

37

Table 3.4. Education Investment by Education Level, 2002

Source: Calculated from Government of Sri Lanka, Revenues and Expenditure Statements, Statistics of the Ministry of Education, Ministryof Higher Education, Provincial Councils and University Grants Commission. Note: Numbers may not add up precisely due torounding.

Primary 12,904 11,001 1,903 32 6,471 8Secondary 20,184 17,207 2,977 50 7,481 9University 5,577 4,416 1,161 14 65,697 79Technical 1,352 848 503 3 14,834 18Total 40,016 33,472 6,545 100 8,064 10

Education Total Recurrent Capital Share of Unit UnitLevel Expenditure Expenditure Expenditure Education Recurrent Recurrent

Expenditure Costs Costs as aby Level Proportion of

(Rupees (Rupees (Rupees GDP per capita million) million) million) % (Rupees) %

student in Sri Lanka are modestat primary and secondaryeducation levels, but high at thetertiary education level [seeTable 3.5]. Average recurrenteducation expenditure perstudent as a share of nationalincome per capita on primaryand secondary education, atabout 9% and 11% respectively,are among the lowest in SouthAsia and East Asia. In contrast,average tertiary educationexpenditure per student as ashare of national income percapita, at 100%, is slightly

higher than India, andsubstantially above the level inEast Asian countries such asSouth Korea, Singapore,Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesiaand the Philippines. The mainreason for the high share ofpublic recurrent spending ontertiary education is the largeunit cost of governmentuniversities. Overall, the patternof average recurrent expenditureacross education levels suggeststhat, in contrast to highperforming East Asiancountries, the balance of public

resources in Sri Lanka may betilted unduly in favor of tertiaryeducation, at the expense ofprimary and secondaryschooling.

3.2 Private Investment inEducation3.11. Households investconsiderable resources oneducation. In 1995/96, the mostrecent date for whichinformation on householdeducation expenditure iscurrently available, private

38

Country Primary education Secondary education Tertiary educationexpenditure per expenditure per expenditure per

student as a student as a student as aproportion of proportion of proportion of

national income national income national incomeper capita % per capita % per capita %

Source: Sri Lanka, calculations from Government of Sri Lanka, Revenue and Expenditure Statements and Budget Estimates, Central Bankof Ceylon Annual Reports, various issues; other Countries, World Development Indicators (World Bank), UNDP HumanDevelopment Reports, and UNESCO Statistics, various issues. The information above for Sri Lanka is computed from 2002 data.Other countries and regions are from the closest available year in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Note: Numbers may not addup precisely due to rounding.

Table 3.5. Unit Recurrent Expenditure on Major Education Cycles:Sri Lanka and Selected Countries

Sri Lanka 9 11 100India 8 16 93Bangladesh - - -Pakistan - - -Nepal 9 12 111Malaysia 11 17 54Maldives - - -Bhutan - - -Thailand 12 11 25South Korea 17 12 6Hong Kong 8 13 -Singapore - - 34Indonesia - - 12Phillipines 9 10 15Costa Rica - 18 -South Asia - - 84Low Income Countries - - -Lower Middle Income Countries - - -Upper Middle Income Countries - - -

expenditure in seven provinces12

was about 4,688 million rupees[see Table 3.6]. At 1995/96public education investmentlevels, this was equal to about23% of government educationexpenditure. It was also greaterthan public capital educationexpenditure by about 13%. 13

3.12. The major proportion ofhousehold education spending isby the richest consumptionquintile, which accounts forabout 52% of total householdeducation expenditure. Theshare of private educationinvestment then progressivelydeclines as the consumptionquintiles become less affluent,with the poorest quintileaccounting for only about 6% oftotal private educationexpenditure. The poor, whowere 25% of the population in

1995/96, account for 7% ofhousehold education spending,while the non-poor spend thebalance 93%. These findings canbe attributed to several factors,including: (i) the higherdiscretionary income availableto prosperous households toinvest in child quality througheducation; (ii) the survival ofstudents from wealthy homes tohigher levels of the educationsystem, which require greaterexpenditure and, at the tertiarylevel, is comparatively open toprivate investment, especiallyoutside the university system;and (iii) the normally highereducation levels of affluentparents, which induces them toinvest more heavily in theeducation of their children.

3.13. The largest component ofannual private education

expenditure, about 590 rupeesper student (45% of total unitprivate education expenditure),is on tuition fees [see Figure3.2]. This is followed byequipment and stationary, 360rupees per student (28%) andschool fees, 103 rupees perstudent (8%). Other types ofexpenditure, such as textbooks,boarding fees, facility fees,donations and miscellaneousexpenses, account for about 246rupees per student or 19% oftotal private education spending.The dominance of tuition inprivate household educationspending is the outcome ofseveral factors, such as: (i)extreme competition to enteruniversity; (ii) the high stakesgrade 5 scholarshipexamination; (iii) perceivedinadequacies in teaching and

39

12. Information for the conflict affected North-Eastern Province was not collected in the 1995/96 household income andexpenditure survey, due to the armed secessionist conflict in the area.

13. Note that these estimates underestimate total private education spending, as information for the North-Eastern Province isnot available. This is the poorest province, with about 72% of the per capita income of the next poorest province, North-Central. On the assumption that household education spending in the North-Eastern Province is equal to 72% of the North-Central Province, private education expenditure in the former would be about 162 million rupees. This would have raisedtotal household education expenditure to 4,830 million rupees in 1995/96.

Table 3.6. Household Education Expenditure, 1995/96

Source: World Bank estimates, calculated from the Department of Census and Statistics Household Income and Expenditure Survey,1995/96. Note: Figures may not add up due to rounding.

Consumption Annual Household Share of ExpendituresQuintile Expenditures Across Economic Groups

(Rupees '000) %

Quintile 1-20 290,400 6Quintile 21-40 400,800 9Quintile 41-60 602,400 13Quintile 61-80 925,200 20Quintile 81-100 2,448,000 52Poor 331,200 7Non-poor 4,344,000 93Sri Lanka 4,668,000 100

examination preparation byschools, especially for majorpublic examinations such as theGCE O/L and GCE A/L; and (iv)a culture of attending tuitionclasses, which has now becomevirtually institutionalized [seeNEC (2003)]. The problem oflow teacher salaries, too, hasforced many teachers to searchfor secondary income sources,and private tuition is an obvioussecond job for school teachers.

Current Levels of PrivateEducation Expenditure

3.14. The present level ofhousehold educationinvestment can be estimatedbased on certain assumptionsabout the income elasticity ofdemand for education. Aconservative assumption is thathousehold education spending

per student increases at the samerate as per capita consumption.Based on this assumption, andthat households in the North-

Eastern Province spend 72% ofthe level in the North-CentralProvince14, total privatehousehold educationexpenditure in 2002 can beestimated to be about 10,600million rupees in 2002 prices.This would be equal to about26% of total public educationexpenditure, and is 62% higherthan the public capital educationbudget. In fact, privatehousehold education spending islikely to be greater than thisconservative estimate, as theincome elasticity of demand foreducation is typically higherthan unitary. Hence, at present,it is likely that private householdeducation spending may benearer 30%-35% of publiceducation spending and aboutdouble the government capitalbudget for education. This level

40

ProvincialCouncils

8%

CentralGovernment

65%

Donors6%

Households21%

Figure 3.3. Shares of Education Financing by Source, 2002.

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Government of Sri Lanka Budget Estimates,and estimated private education expenditure.

Stationary,equipment

28%

Texbooks4%

Boardingfees4%

Tution fees45%

Facilities fees3%

School fees8%

Other4%Donations

4%

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics,Household Income and Expenditure Survey 1995/96.

Figure 3. 2. Shares of Private Education Expenditureper Student by Spending Category.

14. The North-Central Province is the poorest province, next to the North-Eastern Province. The per capita income of the North-Eastern Province was about 72% of the per capita income of the North-Central Province in 2002.

of private investment could beincreased if the NEC (2003)proposals are implemented andthe legal restriction on privateschools is lifted.

3.3 Sources of EducationFinancing 3.15. The central governmentfinances the major share ofeducation expenditure in thecountry, accounting for about65% of total public and privateeducation investment [seeFigure 3.3]. Slightly more thanhalf these resources, about 53%,are spent directly by centralgovernment educationinstitutions. The balance, about47%, is awarded as grants to theprovincial councils. After thecentral government, householdsfinance the second highest shareof education investment, about21%. This is followed byprovincial councils through theirown revenues, 8%, and donor

funds, 6%. Credits from theWorld Bank and the AsianDevelopment Bank constitutethe main sources of donor funds.JICA is the chief source of grantaid, followed by UN institutionssuch as UNICEF, and countriessuch as the U.K., Germany andSweden.

3.4 Internal Efficiency ofInvestment in EducationInternal efficiency of studentflows through the primary andsecondary education cycles

3.16. The internal efficiency ofprimary schooling (grades 1-5)and junior secondary schooling(grades 6-9), measured in termsof flow rates, are high [see Table3.7]. Repetition rates and dropout rates range from 2%-7%,with slightly higher repetitionand drop out among boys thangirls. The high student flow ratescan be attributed to several

policy measures: (i) the supplyof sufficient school places,through the island-wide networkof primary and secondaryschools, to meet the demand foreducation from parents andstudents; (ii) incentive schemes,such as free textbooks, schooluniforms and subsidizedtransport, to enroll and continuethrough the school system; and(iii) automatic promotion fromgrades 1-11, with no formalmechanisms to fail pupils,unless students voluntarilyrepeat grades. In addition topublic policy measures, thedemand for education fromparents is also strong, and makesan important contribution to thehigh student flow rates throughthe compulsory education cycle.The marginally higher repetitionand drop out rates among boyscompared to girls, observedmainly at grades 8-9, can beattributed chiefly to the higheropportunity cost of schooling for

41

Table 3.7. Compulsory Education Cycle:Repetition Rates and Drop Out Rates, by Gender, 2001

Source: School Census, Ministry of Education.

Boys Girls Both Sexes Boys Girls Both SexesRepetition Repetition Repetition Drop Drop Drop

Rate Rate Rate Out Rate Out Rate Out Rate% % % % %

Grade 1 2.2 1.6 1.9 -0.7 -0.7 -0.8Grade 2 4.5 3.7 3.9 0.01 0.01 0.07Grade 3 4.8 3.2 4.0 -0.01 0.01 0.01Grade 4 4.3 2.9 3.6 1.1 0.6 0.9Grade 5 3.7 2.5 3.2 1.8 0.9 1.4Grade 6 5.5 5.2 5.4 3.2 2.1 2.7Grade 7 3.1 2.0 2.6 3.9 2.5 3.2Grade 8 2.6 1.8 2.2 6.0 3.8 4.9Grade 9 1.8 1.5 1.6 7.1 4.9 6.0

teen-aged boys, who are able toobtain jobs as unskilled workersin the informal labor market.

3.17. Repetition rates at the keyexamination grades in the seniorsecondary education cycle,grades 11 and 13, however, arehigh [see Table 3.8]. In grade 11,about 27% of students arerepeaters, with the proportion ofrepeating boys and girls close toeven. This is a high percentage,as it implies that about one infour students in grade 11 is inthe class for the second time. Ingrade 13, the proportion ofstudents repeating rises further.Among GCE A/L sciencestudents, 35% of students arerepeaters, among GCE A/L artsstudents, 37% of students takethe class for the second time;and among GCE A/L commercestudents, 35% of students arerepeaters. The repetition ratesof boys and girls are verysimilar across grades 11 and 13,and among types of subjects.The GCE A/L repetition ratesshow that about 1 in 3 studentsin grade 13 is taking the classfor the second time. The highrepetition rates at grade 11 andgrade 13 suggest the existenceof considerable cost

inefficiencies in the educationsystem at these levels. The mainreason for these high repetitionrates at grade 11 and grade 13are the low learning levels ofstudents through the primaryand secondary cycle up to grade11, which is exposed at thepublic examinations.

Size and distribution of schools

3.18. Sri Lanka maintains a

large and geographically widelydispersed network of publicschools. This school networkwas established, over successivepast generations, to serve apopulation residing largely inrural areas. However, witheconomic development andexpansion of the service andindustrial sectors, the proportionof population living in cities andtowns has been increasing in

42

Table 3.8. Proportion of Repeaters in the GCE O/L and GCE A/L Grades, 2002

Source: School Census, Ministry of Education.

GCE O/L 27 27 26GCE A/L Science 35 34 36GCE A/L Arts 37 37 36GCE A/L Commerce 35 34 34

Grade Cycle Proportion of Proportion of Proportion ofStudents Boys Girls

Repeating Repeating Repeating% % %

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Num

ber

of S

choo

ls

Student Teacher Ratio

Figure 3.4. Cumulative Number of Schools byStudent Teacher Ratio

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the School Census, Ministry of Education.

recent years. In addition, bettertransport and communicationsnetworks have placed ruralvillages in touch with schoolsin urban centers. Inconsequence, there has beensharply increasing demand forpopular, prestigious urbanschools and decreasing demandfor rural and less prestigioussemi-urban schools. This shiftin demand has led to theexistence of a large number ofvery small schools. About5,900 schools (60% of schools)have less than 300 students.Further, about 2,700 schools(27% of schools) have under100 students, and 1,360 schools(14% of schools) have less than50 students. This network ofsmall schools is expensive tomaintain and operate. Inparticular, student-teacher ratiosin small schools tend to be low,resulting in high unit recurrentcosts. About 1,000 schools (10%of schools) have student-teacherratios as low as 7:1 or less [seeFigure 3.4]. Around 1,700schools (17%) have student-teacher ratios less than 10:1, andabout 6,000 schools (60%) havestudent-teacher ratios of 15:1 orless.

3.19. Schools with such smallstudent-teacher ratios are farmore expensive to operate [seeFigure 3.5], and typically haveunit recurrent costs about 100%greater than large schools withstudent-teacher ratios of about25:1.

3.20. Schools with such smallunit recurrent costs are

expensive to maintain [seeFigure 3.5]. The annual unit costper teacher ranges from about295 rupees in small primaryschools and 290 rupees in smallschools with GCE O/L classes toabout 150 rupees in largerschools with high enrolmentnumbers.

Government strategy to increasecost efficiency

3.21. Government strategy toenhance the cost effectiveness ofthe school system contains twoprincipal components.

a. Attempts to providefacilities and equipment tosmall schools to makethem sufficientlyattractive to preventstudents from leaving forother, more popularschools. This strategy hasbeen largely ineffective,as urbanization hasgenerated strong

countervailing power. Inaddition, small ruralschools do not havereputations that can matchschools in cities andtowns, and the provisionof facilities andequipment alone is notadequate to stem the flowof students to prestigiousschools. However, thisstrategy remains popularwith many educationists[see NEC (2003)].

b. Efforts to limit the growthof schools in cities andtowns by imposingconstraints on enrolmentnumbers, combined withvery slow establishmentof new urban schools.This strategy to forcestudents to attend lessprestigious schoolsthrough administrativefiat has also largely beenineffective, and existing

43

100

150

200

250

300

350

School Type 3 School Type 2 School Type 1C School Type 1AB

Rup

ees

Type of School

Small primary schools

Schools up to GCE O/L

GCE A/L Arts and Commerce

GCE A/L All Subject Streams

Figure 3.5. Unit Recurrent Cost of a Teacher by School Type

Source: World Bank estimates, based on Ministry of Education, School Census, 2002.

urban schools haveincreased to the extent thatthey now sufferdiseconomies of scale,with over-crowded andcongested class rooms.Some schools inColombo, for instance,exceed 5,000 students,and the largest school hasabout 8,000 students.

3.22. The government had athird strategy to address theproblem of high cost smallschools which was effective, buthas recently been suspended dueto social pressure. This was aschool rationalization strategy,where small schools wereamalgamated and consolidatedwith larger schools in theirneighborhoods. This strategyworked well in all parts of thecountry except the North-Eastern Province, where it washardly tried. However, thebenefits of this strategy, both interms of providing students fromsmall schools with a superiorlearning environment in largerschools and increasing the cost-efficiency of the system was notwidely understood by localcommunities. In consequence, itdrew widespread criticism,compelling the government tosuspend the process. However, itis an important educationstrategy which needs to bereintroduced, in combinationwith an effective mediacampaign to explain theobjectives and benefits of theschool rationalization programto local communities and

pressure groups. Care shouldalso be taken to ensure that theschool rationalization processdoes not damage access toeducation to any students. Inaddition, new schools need to beestablished in urban areas, toabsorb student demand aspopulation migrates fromvillages to towns and cities.

Internal efficiency and unit costsof university education

3.23. Public universityeducation in Sri Lanka isexpensive, with high unitoperating costs in comparison toother developing countries. Inaddition, there are widedifferences in unit costs amongpublic universities, ranging fromabout 40,000-120,000 rupeesper student per year [see Figure3.6]. Generally, unit costs arerelated to student enrolmentsize, with smaller universitiesexperiencing high costs and

larger universities, which canreap economies of scale,enjoying low unit costs. Themost expensive universities tendto be small, new institutionssuch as the Wayamba, Easternand South-Eastern Universities.Larger, older universities suchas Kelaniya, SriJayewardenapura, Colombo andJaffna have the lowest unit costs,apart from the special case of theOpen University, which onlyoffers distance educationcourses and has high enrolmentnumbers and very low unitcosts. The exception to thegeneral rule above of an inverserelationship between unit costsand enrolment size is PeradeniyaUniversity, which is the secondlargest university in terms ofstudent numbers, but has unitcosts comparable to the smallSouth-Eastern University. Themain reason for the high unitoperating cost of Peradeniya

44

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000

Rec

urre

nt C

ost p

er S

tude

nt, 2

002

(Rup

ees)

Students on Roll in Public Universities

Figure 3.6. Unit Recurrent Cost of Public Universitiesas a Function of Students on Roll

Source: World Bank estimates, based on University Grants Commission statistics.

University appears to be itssmall student-teacher ratio (9:1)and student-employee ratio(6:1), and the high maintenancecost of its spacious, widelyspread campus and largeresidential facilities.

3.24. The principal componentof university average recurrentexpenditure is the student-teacher ratio [see Figure 3.7].Universities such as Wayamba,Eastern, South-Eastern andPeradeniya, which have lowstudent-teacher ratios, have highunit costs; while universitiessuch as Kelaniya,Jayewardenapura, Colombo andJaffna which have high student-teacher ratios have low unitcosts. Overall, the negativerelationship between student-teacher ratios and unit recurrentcosts is strong through the entireuniversity system. Thisrelationship is the result ofuniversity salary costs, whichare largely dependant on thelevel of academic salaries.Universities with high studentteacher ratios havecomparatively lower averagesalary expenditure, and hencesmaller unit recurrent costs, thanuniversities with low studentteacher ratios. The second mostimportant determinant of unitrecurrent costs is the ratio ofstudents to non-academic staff,as the latter strongly affects theuniversity wage bill and hencerecurrent expenditures. Thepublic universities haveextremely low student-non-academic staff ratios: ranging

from 3:1 in universities such asWayamba, Eastern, South-Eastern and Peradeniya to 8:1 inSri Jaywardenapura. Theaverage for student-non-academic staff ratio for the 12public universities which offeron-site degree courses is only4:1. In terms of academic staff tonon-academic staff, too, theratio is 1:4. This suggests a costinefficient system, with anunduly large proportion ofresources devoted to non-academic staff salaries.

3.25. Capital investment in thepublic university sector is alsoheavily weighted, in per studentterms, towards the new, smalluniversities such as Wayamba,Rajarata, Eastern, South-Easternand Sabaragamuwa. This isnecessary as the basicinfrastructure of theseuniversities, such as lecturetheatres, libraries, laboratoriesand offices, needs to be

constructed. However, theinvestment in construction forthe new universities has divertedresources away from qualityinputs, such as equipment,technology and tools, for theuniversity system as a whole. Asthe basic construction activitiesdiminish, resources need to beinvested in quality inputs andquality processes.

Government strategy to enhancebudget management of theeducation sector

3.26. The government hascommenced a medium-termbudget framework to increasepredictability of resource flowsand enable education planningover a longer horizon than ispossible with annual budgeting.In the first stage, the mediumterm budget framework willlargely focus on implementingpolicies to increase the internalefficiency of public educationspending, reallocate resources

45

-

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

Way

amba

Easte

rn

South

-Eas

tern

Perad

eniya

Mor

atuw

a

Rajara

ta

Sabar

agam

uwa

Ruhun

a

Kelaniy

a

Colom

bo

Sri Ja

yewar

dena

pura

Jaffn

a

Open

Uni

t Rec

urre

nt C

osts

(R

upee

s)

-

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Stu

dent

-Tea

cher

Rat

ios

Unit Recurrent Costs

Student-Teacher Ratio

Source: World Bank estimates, based on University Grants Commission statistics.

Figure 3.7. Unit Reccurent Cost of Public UniversitiesRelated to Student-Teacher Ratios, 2002.

from low priority to higherpriority investments within theexisting resource envelope, andincrease transparency andaccountability of financialprocesses. Additional resourcesfor education will mainly bepossible only if privateinvestment can be encouraged.This first budget stage isdesigned over a three yearplanning horizon. The secondstage, over a further three yearcycle, can also focus onincreasing public resources foreducation, as the overallmacroeconomic balancesstabilize and greater resourcesbecome available for publicspending.

3.5 Education ServiceDelivery: Organizationaland Operational Challenges3.27. The quantity and patternof public expenditure oneducation is an extremelyimportant determinant ofeducation attainment andlearning in a country. Equallyimportant, however, is thequality and effectiveness ofservice delivery. In this context,Sri Lanka enjoys importantpositive features. A network ofeducation institutions alreadyexists to formulate policy; staff,plan and administer the schooland university system; developcurricula and syllabi for schoolsand degree programs inuniversities; provideprofessional developmentopportunities for schoolprincipals, section heads and

teachers, and universityacademics; and conductexaminations and providecertification that enjoys publicconfidence. Legally definedcadres exist for importantservices, such as the teachers'service, teacher educators'service and educationadministrators' service. Thegovernment also has reasonablefinancial managementprocedures, with double entrybookkeeping and cashaccounting, although not yetaccrual accounting. Further,there is both a supreme auditinstitution, the Auditor General'sDepartment and an internal auditwithin the education system.Hence, the service deliverynetwork of the education systemis built on a strong foundation.

3.28. However, Sri Lanka alsofaces a set of important policychallenges as its educationsystem seeks to take off beyondthe first stage of development,providing universal access tobasic education to a largely ruralpopulation, to the second stageof development, establishing ahigh quality education system inthe context of a rapidly growingurban population. In thiscontext, the education servicedelivery network faces a set ofmajor structural challenges thatit needs to overcome.

3.29. Weak teacher deployment.Teachers prefer to reside incities, towns and prosperousrural areas, while avoidingdisadvantaged rural areas.

Schools in congenial locationstend to be overstaffed andschools in uncongenial locationsunderstaffed. Educationadministrators complain thatteacher transfers from surplusschools to deficit schools arehindered by politicalinterference, with widespreadpolitical intervention tocountermand transfer orders.Weak teacher deploymentchiefly hurts poor children, asthe highest rates of teacherunderstaffing occur ineconomically disadvantagedrural communities. However,such communities typically haveless voice and power, and areunable to act as a countervailingforce to teacher deploymentpatterns which place them at adisadvantage.

3.30. High teacher absenteeism.Teacher absenteeism poses amajor problem, especially inschools located in difficult areas.Administrative records showthat teachers take about 7million days of legitimate leaveper year. The average leavetaken per teacher in an academicyear ranges from 33 days in theNorth-Western Province to 42days and 43 days in the Uva andNorth-Central Provinces,respectively [see Figure 3.8]. Asa proportion of the school year,the incidence of teacherabsenteeism varies from 15% inthe North-Western Province to20% in the North-Central andUva Provinces. This amounts,across the 192,000 strongteaching force, to around 18% of

46

the academic year for thecountry as a whole. Further,these are absenteeism ratesbased on leave days taken.Anecdotal evidence and casualempiricism suggest that leaveregulations are not strictlyenforced, and that de factoteacher absenteeism mayactually be higher.

Government policy to improveteacher deployment and reduceteacher absenteeism

3.31. Recent governmentthinking to improve teacherdeployment and reduce teacherabsenteeism contains threepolicy measures: (a) providingincentives, such as extra salaryincrements, swifter promotion,preferential access to popularschools for children andconstruction of teachers'quarters, to teachers taking up

appointments in disadvantagedareas; (b) allowing teachers toencash unutilized leave; and (c)recruiting teachers directly toschools, rather than acentralized, transferable service.The first two measures have notbeen implemented effectively inthe past due to a shortage offinances. The last measurerequires amendments to thelegislation governing teacherrecruitment, and needs to beconsidered by parliament.

3.32. Low teacher salaries andpoor teacher motivation.Education policy makers haveargued that teacher status,motivation and work attitudeshave been deteriorating over theyears and stressed theimportance of re-motivating andimproving the attitudes ofteachers [see NEC (2003)].

Teacher salaries have beendeclining in real terms over thepast 25 years [see Figure 3.9],which supports the notion thatteacher status has been falling.Teachers in 2002 earned onlyabout 85% of the salary, in realterms, that teachers received in1978. Other governmentservants currently earnsomewhat more, in real terms,than in 1978, although realwage increases have not keptpace with economic growth.But teachers have not shared inthe fruits of economic growth atall over the past generation orso. On the positive side, lowteacher salaries have enabledthe Sri Lankan education

system to deliver basiceducation services at a fairly lowcost to the government budget.On the negative side, however,low teacher salaries is likely tohave hurt teacher morale andperformance, and weakened thequality of new entrants into theteaching service.

3.33. Inadequate managerialand academic empowerment ofkey education service deliveryinstitutions, such as schools,National Colleges of Education(NCOEs) and Teacher Centers(TCs). Schools, NCOEs andTCs, which are the keyeducation service deliveryinstitutions within the schoolsystem, have limited managerialand academic responsibilities. Inparticular, managerial functionssuch as staff recruitment,financing and resourceutilization, and administration,

47

3734

42

333535

4043

38

1918

15

2020

1618

-

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Wes

tern

Centra

l

South

ern

North

-Eas

tern

North

-Wes

tern

North

-Cen

tral

Uva

Sabar

agam

uwa

Sri La

nka

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Average Number of Days of Leave per Teacher

Proportion of the School Year on Leave per Teacher

17 17

Num

ber

of D

ays

Abs

ent

Per

cent

age

of S

choo

l Yea

r A

bsen

t

Figure 3.8. Teacher Absenteeism, by Province, 2002.

Source: : World Bank estimates, based on the School Census, Ministry of Education.

tend to be concentrated atcentral or intermediategovernment levels. For instance,employment of teachers andteacher educators are tocentralized, transferableservices. Similarly, purchases ofequipment, material andconsumables for schools werehighly centralized until recently.TCs do not have accounts andTC managers lack authority topurchase equipment or materialfor their centers. Academicfunctions of NCOEs and TCs,too, are heavily centralized. Thecurricula for teacher educationcourses, examinations andcertification for the 17 NCOEsare all provided by the center. Assuch, the NCOEs and TCspossess limited scope foracademic and managerialleadership, and institutionalgrowth and development.Similarly, school leadership anddynamism are inhibited by the

managerial restrictions onschools.

Government policy to devolvemanagement and empowereducation institutions

3.34. Government policythinking for the future is todevolve greater managerialpowers and responsibilities toschools and teacher educationinstitutions. As a first step,schools have been empoweredto purchase quality inputs, suchas equipment, books, tools andconsumables, through capitaland recurrent education budgets,up to fairly generous thresholds.This measure has been highlypopular, with quality inputpurchases becoming moresensitive to local school needs,and purchased more swiftly andefficiently than throughcentralized methods ofprocurement. As further steps todevolve school management, the

government proposes toestablish school boards,encourage communityparticipation in school affairs,raise school quality inputpurchase thresholds even higher,and eventually allow schoolbased recruitment of teachers.These measures are intended toimprove the quality of servicedelivery at the school level byproviding greater scope fordynamic school leadership,better community support, andhigher proximity andaccountability of serviceproviders to beneficiaries. Thelast measure is also intended tosolve the problem of teacherdeployment in disadvantagedschools, as teachers would notbelong to a centralizedtransferable service but beappointed directly to schools.

3.35. Policy interest indecentralizing management toteacher education institutions,such as NCOEs and TCs, havenot yet evolved into concreteplans. The long-term objective isto develop NCOEs to a levelwhere they prepare teachers fordegree level teacher educationprograms. However, the changesrequired to the managerial andacademic roles andresponsibilities of key agents inthe system, such as the Office ofthe Chief Commissioner for theColleges of Education, theNational Institute of Education,and the Presidents of theNational Colleges of Education,and the new structure ofresponsibility and

48

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Per

cent

Year

Government minor employees

All central government officials

Government non-executive officers

Teacher salaries

Figure 3.9. Real Value of Salaries of Teachers in Relation toOther Government Servants (1978 = 100)

Source: Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Annual Reports.

accountability, need to bestudied further to advance thepolicy agenda in this area.

3.36. Administrative capacityconstraints. The educationadministrative system as awhole experiences technical andoperational capacity constraints.In consequence, even routineand day-to-day administrativefunctions can take considerabletime. For instance, recruitmentof teachers to fill vacancies inconflict affected areas takeabout 2 years fromadvertisement to appointment.The administrative processes forthe promotion of universityacademics can take considerableperiods of time, sometimes oneyear from application toappointment. Claims for loansby teachers and principals, too,can take years before they aregranted. Similarly, activitiessuch as processing teachertransfers, and deliveringtextbooks and school uniforms,have sometimes been delayedover the past few years. Threekey problems hamperingefficient administration are: (i)excessive reliance on manualoperations instead of automatedand computerized systems; (ii)the absence of basic internalmechanisms, such as organizedfiling systems and inventorycontrol methods; and (iii)insufficient forward planning.

3.37. External interference inadministration. Educationpolicy makers highlightinterference by external forcesin education administration as a

major impediment to efficientservice delivery [see NEC(2003)]. Further, thisinterference can arise even insimple, basic administrativefunctions, such as schooladmissions, the appointment ofminor staff to universities andteacher transfers. This hindersservice delivery by weakeningrule compliance. Further, ithampers decision making,which becomes vulnerable toforces outside the formalexecutive framework ofgovernment.

3.38. Procurement weaknesses.An important area wheregovernment technical capacity isseverely limited is procurement.Procurement implementation isweak for several reasons, suchas: (i) difficulties in drawing uptechnical specifications; (ii)problems in preparing tenderand bidding documents; (iii)slow execution of technicalevaluations; and (iv) weaknessesin producing clear and accuratetechnical evaluation and tenderboard reports and minutes.Further, these weaknesses applyat all levels of the educationsystem, including universitiesand central governmenteducation agencies. Forinstance, procurement ofuniversity wide tenders forcomputers are known to havetaken up to two years. Similarly,tenders for school computerequipment have sometimestaken more than a year in recenttimes. Other major civil worksand equipment tenders of high

value, too, can take well inexcess of a year.

Specific factors constrainingservice delivery in publicuniversities

3.39. The public universitiesenjoy a high degree of academicautonomy. Curriculumdevelopment, standards setting,examinations, certification, andemployment and promotion ofacademic staff, are within thediscretion of each university.Central government functions,exercised chiefly through theUniversity Grants Commission,are overall policy formulation,rationalization of universitiesand degree programs, financing,student admissions andrecruitment of non-academicstaff. In principle, the academicautonomy enjoyed byuniversities should easeproblems of service delivery andenable the production of highquality teaching and research.However, service deliverywithin the university system isconstrained by several factors.

3.40. Low academic salaries,leading to staffing difficulties. APh.D qualified senior lecturer orprofessor earns in the range ofabout USD 200-350 per month.This is a competitive salary inthe public sector, althoughmodest by private sectorstandards. However, thecompetition for highly qualifiedhuman capital, such as Ph.Dqualified individuals, is mainlyfrom overseas universities andresearch institutions. Such

49

individuals, if employed in adeveloped country university,can earn more in a month thanhe/she could earn in a year in SriLanka. This salary differentialhas made it difficult to attractand retain highly qualifiedacademic staff in Sri Lankanuniversities. The problem hasbeen compounded, in the case ofuniversities located outside theprincipal urban centers ofColombo and Kandy, by thedifficulty of attracting qualifiedindividuals to reside insubsidiary towns or semi-urbanlocations. Hence, while inColombo or Kandy baseduniversities, such as Moratuwa,Colombo, Kelaniya,Jayewardenapura andPeradeniya, the ratio ofacademic staff withpostgraduate qualifications(such as Professors and SeniorLecturers) to academic staffwithout postgraduatequalifications (such asLecturers) averages about 1.5 to1, in the universities located insubsidiary towns or semi-urbanlocations such as Rajarata,Eastern, South Eastern,Wayamba and Sabaragamuwa,this ratio is only about 0.25 to 1.The inability of the latter set ofuniversities to attract highlyqualified staff clearly hamperstheir quality of research andteaching.

3.41. Rigid administrative andmanagement structures. Thepublic university system waslargely laid to provideundergraduate teaching, and theadministrative and management

arrangements of universitiesreflect this focus. However,modern universities produce arange of outputs in addition toundergraduate teaching, such asresearch, postgraduate teaching,consultancy services andcommunity activities. Theadministrative and managerialprocedures and practices inuniversities have not evolved tosupport the production of thisfull range of outputs, althoughsome universities have advancedfurther than others. One of theconsequences is that about 95%of university income comesfrom the central government,with only 5% of income comingfrom other sources. Animportant structural featurehindering entrepreneurialincome generating activity inuniversities, for instance, is thatmoney earned by a publicuniversity legally belongs to theMinistry of Finance, and there isno guarantee that this moneywill be reinvested in theuniversity.

3.42. Student unrest. The publicuniversity system is vulnerableto periodic bouts of studentunrest, with certain universitiesworse affected than others.During periods of student unrestuniversities can even be closeddown, disrupting academic workand delaying course completiondurations. In addition, the extentof violence has sometimes beenso severe that there have beenepisodes of physical violence.Attempts to introduce fee payingcourses in public universitieshave met with particularly

virulent opposition from certainstudent groups, who perceivethese as efforts to privatizeuniversity education.

3.43. Government strategy toincrease internal efficiency andraise the quality of servicedelivery in the university systemcontains four major strands.

a. Controlling expansion ofthe public universitysystem and encouragingprivate degree awardinginstitutions, professionalassociations and overseastertiary educationinstitutions, includingdistance modeinstitutions, to meet thedemand for tertiaryeducation. This is arational strategy whichincreases resources for thetertiary sector and alsodirects its focus towardsemployment orientedcourses. Further, asprivate degree awardinginstitutions charge fees,student unrest hardlyexists.

b. Further devolvingadministrative andmanagerial power touniversities. In particular,the government envisagesgranting powers to setacademic salaries, admitstudents and recruit non-academic staff touniversities. Thesemeasure could improvethe ability of universitiesto attract and retain highquality academic staff,

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compete to obtain goodstudents and developinstitutional loyaltyamong non-academicstaff. Also, if a gradualreduction of the quantityof non-academic staffcould be introduced, moreresources would becomeavailable for investmentin measures to enhanceacademic quality.

c. Building institutionalcapacity by strengtheningnational planning,monitoring and evaluationcapacity in the universitysystem and establishing aBoard of QualityAssurance to takeresponsibility for policydevelopment andmonitoring on qualitycriteria.

d. Introducing performancebased funding into thepublic university system.Linking financing toperformance is expectedto provide incentives forquality enhancement ofdegree programs. Inaddition, it is expected toincrease the labor marketrelevance of universitycourses.

3.44. Overall, these are usefulmeasures. In particular, the rapidgrowth of enrolment in privatetertiary level institutions is afavorable trend. In addition, thedevolution of greater autonomyto universities is a promisinginitiative.

3.6 Conclusions andOptions for the Future3.45. The government facesseveral key challenges toincrease the quality ofeducation, enhance equity ofpublic spending, strengthenservice delivery within thesystem, and improve theeconomic and social relevanceof schools, universities andtechnical education institutions.These challenges exist at a timewhen public investment ineducation is low by developingcountry standards, governmenteducation spending has beendeclining in real terms and thestate experiences a heavy fiscaldeficit which compels it to adopta conservative fiscal policy. Inthis context, the government canconsider four sets of measures toincrease education investmentand enhance the efficiency andequity of public educationspending.

Options for educationinvestmentIncrease private sectorinvestment and participation ineducation

3.46. Promoting private sectorparticipation in education,especially at tertiary level.Relaxing legal obstacles andintroducing strategic initiativesto counter the adverse politicaleconomy environment to privatesector participation in educationcould produce several benefits.First, it would increase theoverall volume of resourcesinvested in the education sector.

Second, since the studentsattending private schools andeducation institutions are likelyto be drawn from upper incomefamilies, it would release morepublic resources, on a perstudent basis, for students frompoorer families. Third, it wouldstimulate economic activity in asector where investment hasbeen artificially restricted andcontribute to higher growth.Fourth, it would provide analternative mode of servicedelivery, with considerablepower and responsibility at thelevel of the individual educationinstitutions, such as privateschools and institutes. Theseprivate education institutionswould be compelled to offerhigh quality services to remainviable in an economic contextwhere they are in competitionwith free public educationinstitutions.

3.47. The National EducationCommission has recognized theimportance of creating afavorable environment forprivate investment in educationand recommends three types ofprivate schools (NEC 2003): (i)fee-levying private schools,which finance their entireexpenses, teach the nationalcurriculum and prepare studentsfor national examinations; (ii)fee-levying internationalschools, which finance all theirexpenses, teach foreigncurricula and prepare studentsfor overseas examinations, butwithin an accreditationframework set by the education

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authorities; and (iii) non-feelevying assisted schools, whichteach the national curriculumand prepare students for nationalexaminations, but where there iscost-sharing between the stateand the schools, with thegovernment typically payingteacher salaries and the schoolsbearing capital expenditures andrecurrent costs net of teachersalaries. Creating a favorableenvironment for privateinvestment in school educationrequires developing a neweducation act and repealing thelegislation, passed in the early1960s, which acts as a majorbarrier to the establishment ofprivate schools.

3.48. The establishment ofprivate universities has been anextremely contentious issue,with several past attemptsresulting in student violence andsocial unrest. Hence, it is highlyunlikely that private universitiescan be established in Sri Lankain the medium-term. GOSL hasresponded to the opposition toprivate universities byencouraging the private sector toparticipate in non-contentiousareas. These have mainly beenthe establishment of privatedegree awarding institutions,usually linked to foreignuniversities, and investment intertiary level programs such asprofessional and technicalcourses. GOSL needs to exploreoptions to expand privateparticipation in tertiary levelnon-university education,especially in professional and

technical fields where thedemand for labor, both withinand outside the country, isstrong.

Protect and gradually increasepublic investment in education

3.49. Government policy toimprove education qualityenvisages important measures tomodernize curricula; expandchild-friendly, activity basededucation; promote child-centered pedagogical methods;strengthen school leadership byprincipals; enhance theprofessional development ofteachers; and increase the use ofequipment and technology inschools and other educationinstitutions. These policyinitiatives to improve the qualityof education would requireconsiderable investment ofresources in the educationsystem. Given the low level anddecreasing trend of real publiceducation spending, and themajor challenges Sri Lankafaces in improving the qualityand economic and socialrelevance of the educationsystem, it is important that thegovernment preserve the currentlevel of real expenditure in theshort-term and increase publicinvestment in educationgradually over the medium-term. The government needs toconsider the possibility of atleast maintaining the real valueof the education budget from2005 onwards, and graduallyraising public educationinvestment, especially in thecompulsory basic education and

senior secondary educationcycles, as the tight overall fiscalconstraint eases over the years.

Enhance the equity of publiceducation spending

3.50. The pattern of studentenrolment over major gradecycles, and the unit costs ofeducation by grade level, showthat investment in primaryeducation and secondaryeducation are relativelyprogressive and benefit studentsfrom low and middle incomehouseholds, while investment intertiary education tends tobenefit students from upper-income households. Inconsequence, there is a strongcase for allocating the majorshare of any increase in publicresources for the educationsector to primary and secondaryschooling, while carefullycontrolling the expansion of thepublic university system andallowing enrolment expansion intertiary education take placemainly in the private sector.Opportunities for poorerstudents to access tertiaryeducation could be expandedthrough schemes such as studentvouchers and student loans,rather than through directprovision.

Increase cost-effectiveness ofthe education system

3.51. The tight resourceconstraint faced by thegovernment makes it extremelyimportant that the educationsystem generates internalsavings to reduce costs. In this

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context, three important policymeasures are available.

a. School rationalization.The cost-effectiveness ofoperating the schoolsystem can be enhancedby consolidating andamalgamating small,uneconomical schools,where this can beaccomplished withoutreducing access toschooling and damagingenrolment and attendance.The public schoolnetwork is such that asizable proportion ofsmall schools are locatedclose to other, largergovernment schools.MHRECA and theprovincial councilsdesigned andimplemented a successfulschool rationalizationprogram, during 1998-2002, which consolidatedand amalgamated small,unviable schools. Thisprogram was temporarilysuspended due to intensepolitical pressure.However, the governmentcould consider re-openingthis school rationalizationprogram, but with carefulsafeguards to protectaccess for poor andvulnerable groups.

b. Increasing the student-teacher ratio in schoolsand tertiary educationinstitutions. Currently, thestudent teacher ratio inschools, at 21:1, is low.

Countries withoutstanding educationsystems and far higherincome levels, such asSouth Korea, Singaporeand Hong Kong, havehigher student-teacherratios and more cost-effective systems. Thecurrent teacheremployment anddeployment policy isbased on a target student-teacher ratio of 22:1 forsecondary grades and 26:1for primary grades. Thegovernment couldconsider increasing thetarget student-teacherratio to about 23:1 forsecondary grades and 28:1for primary grades in themedium term. In addition,the student-teacher ratioin the public universitysystem tends to be verylow, at 14:1. Thegovernment couldconsider increasing thisstudent-teacher ratio toabout 18:1, so that costsavings can be generatedwithin the system.

c. Rationalization ofadministrative staffing.The roles, functions andresponsibilities of staffwithin the complex, multi-tiered educationadministrative systemtend to be rather unclear.A careful analysis of workloads, and de jure and defacto roles, functions andresponsibilities of staff in

the various educationministries, provincialcouncils, zonal educationoffices, division educationoffices and tertiaryeducation institutions islikely to identify bothduplication of roles andfunctions, and gaps andshortages of staff. Overall,there may be an excess ofstaff, which a carefullydesigned voluntaryretirement scheme coulddecrease, reducingpressure on the budget andreleasing more resourcesfor investment. A study ofroles, functions andresponsibilities of staffwithin the educationsystem, as first step,would be extremelyuseful.

3.52. In order to increaseresources for quality enhancingeducation policy initiativesthrough the implementation ofcost saving measures within theeducation system, it is vitallyimportant that the Ministry ofFinance permits funds saved tobe channeled back into theeducation system forinvestment. If the funds savedthrough cost-reducing measuresare not re-invested in theeducation system the objectiveof enhancing education qualitywould be defeated. Further, theeducation system would lose theincentive to implement difficultmeasures such as schoolrationalization and higherstudent-teacher ratios.

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Shift resource allocation infavor of equipment andtechnology

3.53. Over time, the balance ofcapital and recurrent spendingwithin the education budgetneeds to shift to allocate agreater share of resources tocapital expenditure. Within thecapital budget, a higherproportion of resources needs tobe invested in quality inputssuch as IT centers, sciencelaboratories, libraries, activityrooms, multi-purpose rooms,equipment, technology andtools. The construction andexpansion of buildings, whichabsorbs the highest share of thecapital budget, needs to berationalized, prioritizing theurban school system which isexperiencing rising demand.Within the recurrent budget, too,resources need to be reallocatedfrom salaries and administrativeexpenses to quality processes,such as teacher education andtraining, management andacademic training of schoolprincipals, and the purchase ofteaching material and learningresources.

Options to Improve the Qualityand Efficiency of EducationService Delivery

3.54. Development initiativesand strategies to wideneducation access to the poorestand most disadvantagedeconomic groups, improveeducation quality and learningoutcomes, and orient theeducation system to the world ofwork, also requires

strengthening the efficiency andquality of service delivery in theeducation system. Severalimportant initiatives areavailable to the government toimprove and strengthen thedelivery of education services.

Empowering frontline servicedelivery institutions, such asschools and universities

3.55. A key government policyinitiative under consideration isto devolve managerial power tofrontline service deliveryinstitutions, such as schools anduniversities. In the schoolsystem, the aim of devolvingmanagerial authority is toempower principals,headmasters andheadmistresses, and teachers;enable schools to forge linkswith local communities toimprove resource mobilizationand public accountability; andimprove the speed andsensitivity of decision makingby decreasing administrativelayers. In devolving managerialautonomy to schools, it isimportant that different modelsof school development boardsbe pilot tested, as thegovernance capacity of schoolsvaries significantly, dependingon such factors as location, sizeand history. For instance, themain public schools in cities andtowns are likely to possessvastly greater managerialcapabilities and sophisticatedcommunity support than smallrural schools in remote villages.

3.56. Universities already enjoyconsiderable autonomy, but

further powers to recruitadministrative staff, tailoracademic salaries to individualstaff members, and decide onstudent admissions, couldincrease the motivation,responsibility and accountabilityof university staff andauthorities. These measures,however, may be controversialfrom a political economyperspective. For instance,providing universities freedomto tailor academic salaries toindividual staff members can behighly controversial in a contextwhere academics areaccustomed to a uniform salaryscale. Similarly, devolvingresponsibility for studentadmissions to individualuniversities has to be madeconsistent with the policy ofallocating student quotas todisadvantaged districts.

3.57. The government couldalso consider applying theprinciple of devolvinggovernance to other educationinstitutions, such as NationalColleges of Education (NCOEs)and Teacher Centers (TCs).Currently, the NCOEs have littlemanagerial responsibility andautonomy. Curriculum design,assessment and certification ofteacher education coursesoffered by NCOEs areundertaken by the NationalInstitute of Education (NIE).Recruitment of academic staff isto a centralized teachereducators' service, and NCOEsrarely have a voice in the choiceof academic staff allocated tothem. TCs operate in an

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inefficient administrativestructure. The NIE designs thecurricula of continuing teachereducation programs offered byTCs. The NCOEs act asacademic advisors to TCs. Foradministrative purposes,including finances, the TCscome under the zonal educationoffices. This complexadministrative and academicstructure has badly hamperedthe development of TCs.Devolving a greater degree ofmanagerial autonomy andresponsibility to NCOEs andTCs could increase theoperational efficiency of theinstitutions and enhance thequality of service delivery.

Developing performanceappraisal systems andintroducing fiscal incentives forperformance

3.58. The strengthening ofperformance appraisal systemscould contribute strongly tohigher quality service delivery.Within the university system,performance appraisal hascommenced, especially foracademic staff. However,measures to introduceperformance appraisal to theschool system have provedcontroversial, and leftundeveloped. Three keyinitiatives are required todevelop performance appraisalwithin the school system:

a. the value of performanceappraisal systems asfeedback mechanisms tostrengthen service

delivery and reward goodperformance, rather thanas punitive measures forpoor performance, needsto be communicated tostakeholders, especiallyeducation unions;

b. performance appraisalsystems need to bedesigned for the variouseducation services, suchas the teachers' service,education administrators'service, principals' serviceand the teacher educators'service, in closeconsultation withstakeholders, includingthe relevant unions; and

c. the technical capacity ofeducation institutions andeducation administratorsto manage and utilizeperformance appraisalsystems needs to bestrengthened.

3.59. Introducing financialincentives for performance,especially for key services, canbe a promising initiative. Forinstance, poor teacherdeployment and high teacherabsenteeism in difficult areas isa key constraint on effectiveservice delivery within theeducation system. Further, theimpact of weak teacherdeployment fallsdisproportionately on poorstudents, as the most unpopularregions, where teacherabsenteeism is highest, aretypically remote, economicallydisadvantaged, rural locations.To improve teacher deployment

and attendance, the governmentcould implement the NEC(2003) proposals to offerfinancial incentives to teacherslocating in schools in difficultareas. In addition, to reduceteacher absenteeism, teacherscould be entitled to encashunutilized leave. The mainconstraint to introducing fiscalincentives for performance is thetight budget situation, whichprecludes expensive new policymeasures. However, if costsavings could be generatedwithin the education system,some of the resources obtainedcould be allocated to introducesuch performance incentivesmeasures.

Streamlining roles,responsibilities andaccountability within theeducation system

3.60. Many of the measuressuggested to improve educationservice delivery would requiregovernment officials in thecentral ministry, provincialcouncils and zonal offices toassume new and additional rolesand responsibilities, whiledevolving some of their currentpowers to frontline servicedelivery institutions, such asschools, national colleges ofeducation and teacher centers.During this process ofdecentralization andempowerment of localinstitutions, the current patternof responsibility andaccountability and the futuremodels required need to beanalyzed carefully.

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Human resource development ofcentral, provincial and zonaleducation authorities

3.61. The complex system ofeducation governance, withmultiple tiers of administrationat the central, provincial andzonal levels, requires a widerange of administrative,technical and operations skillsand competencies from staffworking at each tier. An overallhuman resource strategy needsto be developed andimplemented, across thedifferent tiers of the educationsystem, to equip central,provincial and zonal educationstaff with the necessaryadministrative, technical andoperations skills andcompetencies. In addition, thisstrategy needs to provide forregular and continuous updatingof skills and competencies astechnical and operations skillsadvance and develop.

Institutional strengthening ofcentral, provincial and zonaleducation authorities

3.62. Strengthening theoperational procedures,capabilities and performance ofcentral, provincial and zonaleducation authorities cancontribute significantly to thequality and efficiency ofeducation planning,administration and servicedelivery in the future. Lessonsfrom recent policy measures anddevelopment initiatives,including reforms supported bydonors such as the World Bankand Asian Development Bank,

suggest some key areas whereinstitutional strengthening isurgently required.

Administrative processing

3.63. The administrativeprocesses in central, provincialand zonal offices tend to be longand cumbersome, resulting inconsiderable delays inoperational activities. One majorreason for these delays are theuse of outdated manual systemsfor important administrativetasks, including correspondence,filing, record keeping andinventory control. Developingcomputerized operating systemsfor normal and routineadministrative tasks wouldsubstantially increase theefficiency of governmentoperations.

Strengthening procurementcapabilities

3.64 The ability of governmentofficials to draft biddingdocuments, prepare technicalspecifications, appraiseproposals, and draw up technicalevaluation reports and tenderboard recommendations tointernational standards islimited, resulting in lengthyprocurement processes.Strengthening the procurementcapabilities of governmentofficials, hence, is an importantarea for future institutionaldevelopment.

Addressing political economyconstraints

3.65 Communicating therationale for controversial but

important policy measures tostakeholders and beneficiariesand building stakeholderparticipation in reforms is animportant area wheregovernment capacity is weak.For instance, the governmentimplemented a schoolrationalization program over1998-2002, which achieved over75% of its target. In numericalterms, this was a successfulrationalization program.However, it generated intensecontroversy, central andprovincial education authoritieswere unable to explain therationale for the program clearlyto local communities, resultingin its temporary suspension in2003. Similarly, the governmentcommenced a multiple textbookpolicy, to widen choice andimprove quality, whichgenerated intense controversyand delayed implementation forseveral years. Again, central andprovincial education authoritieslacked the capability tocommunicate the policyeffectively. The country alsohas, in the aggregate, a surplusof school teachers, althoughthere are deficiencies in certainsubjects, especially English, andin the Tamil medium. However,there is intense pressure toemploy more teachers, inter aliato reduce the pressure ofunemployed educated youngpeople. Again, governmentagencies have often found itnearly impossible to withstandthis pressure. Hence,strengthening the ability ofgovernment education agencies,

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at each level of theadministrative tier, tocommunicate the rationale forpotentially controversial policymeasures and build stakeholdersupport is a vitally importantarea for future institutionalstrengthening.

Capacity development toundertake education researchand analysis, policy formulationand planning

3.66 There are three keyinitiatives that would contributeto the development of a highperforming education system,especially at the level ofanalysis, policy formulation andplanning.

Medium-term budgeting and amulti-year planning horizon

3.67. A priority initiative toimprove education planning andresource management is thedevelopment of a medium-termbudget framework to facilitatemulti-year planning. Themedium term budget couldcover a period of about threeyears, with provision for annualupdating to take into accountfresh information and needs.The medium-term budget couldalso be embedded in a long-termrolling plan for educationdevelopment. It would facilitateeducation planning andmanagement by improving thepredictability of resources andproviding a longer-termdevelopment horizon than ispermitted by the current annualbudgets.

Public expenditure tracking

3.68. A public expendituretracking system wouldconstitute an importantmanagement tool for educationpolicy makers and financeofficials and complement themedium-term budgeting system.It would provide the centralgovernment and the provincesinformation on the flow of fundsthrough the education systemand the actual level of resourcesreaching various servicedelivery points, such as schools,universities, national colleges ofeducation and teacher centers. Itwould also increase thetransparency of resource flowsthrough the system. Suchinformation could then feedback into policy formulation andresource allocation as educationdevelopment needs evolve, andcentral government andprovincial plans are refined.

Promoting education research,monitoring and evaluation

3.69. Sound research,monitoring and evaluation,based on statistically validprocedures and measurableindicators, is extremely valuablefor policy makers. In advancededucation systems analyticallyrigorous education research andevaluation constitutes thefoundation for policyformulation. The Sri Lankaneducation system currently hasseveral promising initiatives,such as the annual schoolcensus, the assessment of grade4 learning outcomes by NEREC,

and the NEREC qualitativestudy of education managementpractices, that provide a basis fora rich and informativemonitoring and evaluationframework. This educationmonitoring and evaluationsystem could be developed withspecial emphasis on the analysisof education performance andcausal factors useful for policymaking. Education monitoringand evaluation activities can beencouraged to utilize bothquantitative and qualitativemethods, and use modernresearch techniques such asexperimental designs,randomized trials andlongitudinal surveys.

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Chapter Four

DIMENSIONS OFEDUCATION QUALITY:STATUS, CHALLENGES ANDPOLICY RESPONSES4.0 Introduction4.1. The quality of education,broadly defined to covercognitive achievement as well asother dimensions of learning,such as good team work, adisciplined and industrious workethic, effective communication,visionary leadership, and goodcivic attitudes and practices, is atthe core of the Sri Lankaneducation policy agenda [seeNEC (2003)]. This chapteranalyzes several importantdimensions of education quality.First, an analysis of the level anddeterminants of cognitiveachievement is undertaken. Thisis followed by a discussion ofthe government strategy toimprove education quality andlink education to the world ofwork. Next, a set of four casestudies undertaken specially forthis report, are presented. The

first case study examineseducation management practicesin schools, an issue that is at theheart of the school effectivenessand school performanceliterature. The second case studycovers an area of increasingpolicy interest and concern inSri Lanka, early childhooddevelopment. The third casestudy focuses on thereconstruction of the educationsystem in the least developedarea of the country, the conflictaffected region. The final casestudy examines an importantelement of the relationshipbetween education and socialcohesion, the civic attitudes andunderstanding of students.

4.1 Dimensions of Edu-cation Quality: Levels andDeterminants of CognitiveAchievement

Cognitive achievement levels ofstudents in the primaryeducation cycle

4.2. Education policy makersexpress concern at theunsatisfactory state of learninglevels in the country [see NEC(1997), (2003)]. Cognitiveachievement tests amongprimary school children showsubstantial shortfalls in masteryof fundamental language andnumeracy skills towards the endof the primary cycle [see Table4.1 and Table 4.2]. In firstlanguage (Sinhalese and Tamil),average mastery is only 37%.This implies that two out ofevery three children have notachieved the targeted level offirst language mastery throughgrades 1-4. Writing (28%) andsyntax (30%) are the weakestmother tongue skills.Comprehension (45%), too, is

poor. Vocabulary skills (70%)are better, but even here one inthree children has an inadequatecommand of the language.English language skills areextremely low. Only 10% ofprimary children achieve thetargeted level of mastery.English language writing skillsare virtually non-existent, withjust 1% of children exhibitingthe required skill level. Englishlanguage comprehension (16%)and syntax (20%) are also verypoor. English languagevocabulary skills are higher(35%), but show that two out ofthree children lack even thisbasic skill.

4.3. In mathematicsachievement, too, overall

mastery is only 38%. Mastery ofmathematical concepts is 45%,procedures 51% and problemsolving only 34%. The low levelof cognitive achievement amongprimary students is especiallyworrying, from a policyperspective, as primaryeducation forms the foundationupon which secondary andtertiary education and varioustypes of skills training are built.Hence, the quality andperformance of the entireeducation system is constrainedby the low achievement levels inthe primary grades.

4.4. In addition to these lowoverall achievement levels,there are also significantdisparities in achievement

between urban and rural areas.First language (Sinhalese orTamil) mastery in urban areas is51%, but falls to 34% in ruralareas. In English language skills,23% of urban children achievemastery, but in rural areas only7% of children reach mastery. Inmathematics, 52% of urbanchildren attain mastery, whilejust 35% of rural childrenachieve the required level ofcompetence. These urban-ruraldifferences can be attributed to acombination of factors, such asthe lower quality of educationservices in rural areas, poorerparental capability and support,and weaker opportunities forchild activities that promotelearning.

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Table 4.1. Proportion of Children Achieving Mastery ofLanguage Skills at Grade 4, 2003

Source: National Assessment of Grade 4 Learning Achievement: National Education Research and Evaluation Center, University ofColombo.

Note: Numbers have been rounded to the nearest integer.

Vocabulary 70 81 68 35 48 30

Comprehension 45 56 43 16 33 13

Syntax 30 44 27 20 34 17

Writing 28 40 25 1 4 1

Total 37 51 34 10 23 7

Skill First Language (Sinhala or Tamil) English LanguageSri Lanka Urban Rural Sri Lanka Urban Rural

% Sector % Sector % % Sector % Sector %

Table 4.2. Proportion of Primary Children Achieving Mastery ofNumeracy Skills at Grade 4, 2003

Source: National Assessment of Grade 4 Learning Achievement: National Education Research and Evaluation Center, University ofColombo.

Note: Numbers have been rounded to the nearest integer.

Concepts 45 58 42

Procedures 51 56 40

Problem Solving 34 39 26

Total 38 52 35

Skill Sri Lanka Urban Sector Rural Sector% % %

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Analysis of factors associatedwith grade 4 cognitiveachievement

4.5. The results of aneconometric analysis of thefactors associated with grade 4cognitive achievement arepresented, in terms of school,household and child specificvariables, in Table 4.3. Amongeducation variables, teacherperformance plays an importantrole in determining the learningoutcomes of students. Studentsperform better in classes whereteachers use child centeredlearning methods, preparelessons daily, employ desk workas part of classroom practice,use oral English in theirteaching, and evaluate studentexercises. These are plausiblefindings, as teachers set the toneand content of the classroomexperience of students. Inaddition, within schools,teachers determine the level andextent of student exposure tofirst language and Englishlanguage skills such asvocabulary, comprehension,syntax and writing, andmathematical skills such asconceptual understanding,knowledge of procedures andapplication to problem solving.From a policy perspective, thesefindings emphasize theimportance of teacherperformance. Hence, initiativesto improve the capabilities,motivation and classroompractice of teachers needs to be acore element of educationdevelopment strategy.

4.6. The adoption of a childcentered learning approachcontributes positively tolearning outcomes in all threesubject areas, first language,English and mathematics. Thisfinding provides importanteconometric support to findingsfrom qualitative studies thatparents and teachers perceivechild centered learning asimproving student performance.The use of oral English inteaching contributes favorablynot only to English languagescores, but also to first languagelearning and mathematicsachievement. This can beattributed to the ability ofteachers conversant in Englishto access ideas and generalinformation better than teacherslacking English languagecompetency. Improving theEnglish language capabilities ofteachers, hence, could yieldbroad benefits to students.

4.7. The timely possession oftextbooks has a positive andsignificant impact on learningachievement. This findingillustrates the importance oftextbooks as a key teaching andlearning resource to improvecognitive achievement.Government policy is to provideschools with a choice of freetextbooks for children in grades1-11, purchasing the selectedtitles from private textbookpublishers. This policy, referredto as the multiple textbookoption (MBO), is intended topromote learning by ensuringthat all students have textbooks,

while relying on private sectorpublication of competingtextbooks to increase quality andreduce cost.

4.8. Students attending schoolswith electricity perform betterthan students in schools withoutelectricity. Schools withelectricity are likely to be betterendowed, in terms of facilitiesand services, so that this is aplausible finding. Children inschools in municipal areasperform better than children inurban council or rural areas.However, the differencebetween children in urbancouncil and rural areas isinsignificant. This may be due tothe intense attention given bygovernment to improve thequality of rural schools.

4.9. The analysis also throwsup a number of anomalousfindings. For instance,observations on the enthusiasmof teachers, the pleasantness oflearning activities and the abilityof teachers to cope with learningdisabilities, are all negativelyassociated with cognitive scores.These findings may partlyreflect the difficulty ofmeasuring such variables, whichare based on third partyobservations, accurately.Children in schools withclassroom cupboards performworse than other children, whichis again an anomalous result. Itmay indicate the difficulty ofdirectly relating such inputs asclassroom cupboards to finallearning outcomes in aproduction function framework.

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Table 4.3. Regression Analysis of Student, Household andSchool Characteristics Affecting Learning Achievement in

Grade 4 in 2003

Explanatory Variables Mathematics English language First languagelearning levels learning levels (Sinhalese or Tamil)

learning levels

Male child -0.185*** -0.254*** -0.298***(0.039) (0.037) (0.038)

Age of child -0.018 -0.075 -0.065(0.048) (0.046) (0.051)

Mother's education 0.016** 0.019*** 0.019***(0.007) (0.007) (0.007)

Father's education 0.041*** 0.056*** 0.045***(0.007) (0.007) (0.007)

Log of household 0.166*** 0.231*** 0.169***spending per capita (0.037) (0.039) (0.037)

Parental aspirations 0.049*** 0.049*** 0.047***for child's education (0.010) (0.009) (0.010)

Schools located in 0.174** 0.396*** 0.332***a municipal council (0.088) (0.085) (0.082)

Schools located in -0.079 0.116 0.057an urban council (0.080) (0.078) (0.075)

Child's height 0.103*** 0.120*** 0.119***(0.020) (0.020) (0.020)

Child missed school -0.144** -0.166*** -0.143***frequently due to illness (0.057) (0.051) (0.055)

Child has hearing difficulty -0.723*** -0.365** -0.433**(0.187) (0.148) (0.180)

Child suffers from -0.052 -0.033 -0.072worm infections (0.072) (0.068) (0.074)

Schools with grades up to GCE A/L -0.124 -0.181** -0.259***(Arts, Commerce & Science) (0.095) (0.090) (0.091)

Schools with grades up to GCE A/L 0.031 -0.289*** -0.073(Arts & Commerce only) (0.089) (0.085) (0.087)

Schools with grades up to GCE O/L 0.077 -0.090 -0.086(0.088) (0.085) (0.086)

Private schools -1.141*** -1.454*** -1.378***(0.208) (0.213) (0.188)

School has a walled compound 0.138* 0.122 0.117(0.082) (0.082) (0.080)

Electricity available in school 0.261*** 0.249*** 0.221***(0.072) (0.065) (0.070)

School principal male -0.149** -0.081 -0.076(0.060) (0.062) (0.060)

Availability of textbooks by the 0.603*** 0.432*** 0.620***beginning of the second term (0.089) (0.092) (0.088)

Teacher prepares daily lesson plans 0.149*** 0.151*** 0.113**(0.057) (0.051) (0.053)

Household variables andlearning outcomes

4.10. Household variables playan extremely important role indetermining cognitiveachievement levels. Theeducation attainment of fathers

and mothers exert a positiveeffect on learning levels in allthree dependent variables,mathematics, English languageand first language achievement.Parental educational aspirationsfor children are also favorably

associated with learningoutcomes in all three subjects.These are plausible findings, aseducated parents with higheducational goals for theirchildren are more likely and ableto provide an encouraging and

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Table 4.3. Regression Analysis of Student, Household andSchool Characteristics Affecting Learning Achievement in Grade 4 in 2003

contd.,

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the NEREC study of learning assessments, 2003 and National Education Commission education,health and household survey data, 2003.

Note: Standard errors in parentheses.* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. All regressions were estimated using ordinary least squares(OLS) methods. Some regressions also added community fixed effects, which in effect add a dummy variable for eachcommunity. These fixed effects regressions control for all observed and unobserved community characteristics and thus areuseful for reducing bias in the estimated impacts of household and school characteristics. For example, it is possible in aregression without such fixed effects that an observed school characteristic is correlated with some unobserved communitycharacteristic that raises educational achievement, such as the prevalence of tutoring services in the local community (wealthycommunities may have better schools and also more tutoring services). This correlation would lead to overestimation of thecausal impact of school characteristics on test scores, but adding community fixed effects removes this potential source of bias.

Teacher prepares visual aids -0.035 -0.039 -0.063(0.058) (0.055) (0.053)

Teacher uses student centered 0.288*** 0.179*** 0.272***teaching methods (0.059) (0.055) (0.056)

Teacher uses deskwork 0.100** 0.102** 0.064(0.041) (0.041) (0.041)

School has book cupboards -0.120*** -0.172*** -0.167***(0.043) (0.042) (0.041)

School has playgrounds -0.011 0.050 -0.068(0.054) (0.052) (0.050)

Teacher uses textbooks 0.018 0.101** 0.054(0.049) (0.047) (0.047)

Teacher evaluates students' exercises 0.099 0.113* 0.152**(0.065) (0.059) (0.066)

Pleasantness of learning activities -0.141** -0.146** -0.228***(0.060) (0.057) (0.057)

Teacher's ability to cope with children -0.282*** -0.240*** -0.235***having learning disabilities (0.056) (0.050) (0.055)

Teacher uses oral English 0.075** 0.099*** 0.138***(0.037) (0.036) (0.034)

Enthusiasm of the teacher -0.218*** -0.156** -0.134**(0.068) (0.070) (0.067)

Constant -2.262*** -2.207*** -1.813***(0.579) (0.562) (0.608)

Number of observations 2,177 2,220 2,205

R-squared 0.34 0.43 0.39

Explanatory Variables Mathematics English language First languagelearning levels learning levels (Sinhalese or Tamil)

learning levels

supportive learning environmentat home. The econometricanalysis also shows that childrenfrom affluent households havehigher learning outcomes.Again, this is an intuitivelyreasonable finding, as wealthyfamilies are better able to investin the education of theirchildren.

Child specific variables andcognitive achievement

4.11. The health and nutritionstatus of children aresignificantly related to studentachievement. Height ispositively related to learninglevels, suggesting that stuntedchildren perform worse thannormal children. This isintuitively plausible, as stuntingis an indication of low nutrition,and under-nutrition impairslearning ability and attention inclassrooms. Children withhearing impediments and sicklystudents perform poorly on allthree dimensions of learning,mathematics, English and firstlanguage. These findingssuggest that attention needs tobe given to factors outside theeducation system too, such aschild health conditions andnutrition levels, when seeking toimprove education quality.Strengthening the school healthprogram and special educationprogram for children withlearning disabilities, such ashearing impediments, couldcontribute to improvededucation outcomes amongsome of the most disadvantagedand vulnerable children. Male

children appear to performworse than female children, withsignificantly lower test scores.This finding needs to beinvestigated further, as it mayindicate school and classroompractices that place primaryaged boys at a disadvantage.

4.2 Enhancing EducationQuality: GovernmentPolicies and Strategy4.12. The unsatisfactory state ofeducation quality has led tointense public debate andinterest in developing educationpolicies to improve learningoutcomes. Government policy toimprove education qualitycontains seven interactingcomponents, drawn from theeducation performance ofcountries with more advancededucation systems and theliterature on schooleffectiveness and performance.

4.13.Curriculum modernization.The primary educationcurriculum has been reformed toimplement the policy frameworkproposed by the NEC (1997).Three key components of thesepolicies are:

(i) integration of the primarycurriculum around the subjectareas of first language,mathematics, religion andenvironmental studies; (ii)introduction of oral Englishfrom grade 1 onwards andformal English from grade 3onwards; and (iii) organizationof the primary education cyclealong the key stage model used

in England, with three keystages, grades 1-2, grades 3-4and grade 5. Essential learningcompetencies have been set foreach key stage, so that masteryof these competencies can beassessed.

4.14. The junior secondaryeducation curriculum has beenorganized to emphasize activitybased learning, practicalprojects and subject contentknowledge, with greateremphasis on practical work atthe earlier levels of secondaryschooling. The senior secondaryeducation curriculum awardsimportance to subject contentdepth, broad general knowledgeand awareness, problem solvingskills, strong reasoning abilityand accurate comprehension.

4.15. Two sets of key policychanges were introduced intothe university system at theundergraduate level during the1990s: (i) new universities wereestablished, such as Rajarata,Sabaragamuwa and Wayamba,to offer non-standard degreecourses; and (ii) the course unitsystem was introduced, to offergreater flexibility in coursedesign, enable wider studentchoice and a broaderundergraduate education thanthe older, highly specializedacademic system. The newsystem sacrifices subject contentdepth at the undergraduate level,however, which is a problem forhierarchically ordered subjects.Further, the absence of a well-developed postgraduateeducation program constrains

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the ability of the tertiaryeducation system to compensatefor this loss of subject contentdepth at the undergraduate level.

4.16. Introducing modern,student-friendly teachingapproaches and learningmethods. The primary andsecondary education systemseeks to adopt a student-centered approach to learning.This includes, over the keystages of the primarycurriculum, guided play, activityand desk work. In the secondaryeducation curriculum, theemphasis is on projects, self-learning, hands-on experiencesand learning by doing. Therecent implementationexperience of these curriculumapproaches and teaching-learning models have beenintensively assessed at theprimary and secondaryeducation levels. Severalevaluations of the primaryeducation system [see SLAAED(2000) and NEREC (2002)]found that the approach washighly popular amongstakeholders and beneficiaries,such as children, parents,teachers, principals andeducation administrators.Evaluations of key recent policymeasures in the seniorsecondary education system,too, found favorable responsesfrom stakeholders andbeneficiaries [see Wijetunge andRupasinghe (2003), Perera,Gunewardena and Wijetunge(2003) and Karunaratne(2003)]. The design and

implementation of the reforms atboth the primary and seniorsecondary education stages weregenerally considered sound andwell prepared, and were stronglysupported by the central andprovincial education systems.Inevitably, in a wide-rangingreform process, there were alsoteething problems, especiallygiven the tight fiscal constraintsand limited administrativecapacity of the system.However, these were not seriousproblems, and the NECproposes continuing thesepolicies, with some fine tuningat the senior secondary level[see NEC (2003)].

4.17. Policy measures andimplementation at the juniorsecondary education level havebeen less successful [seeMettananda (2002),Gunewardena and Lekamge(2003), Perera, Gunewardenaand Wijetunge (2003)]. Themain reasons for the weakerperformance of education policymeasures at this level appear tobe: (i) policy inconsistency,especially on the grade span andcurriculum organization; (ii) thefailure to establish a high leveltechnical committee to overseeand support implementation, asat the primary level; and (iii)inadequate resources to supportthe ambitious reforms proposed[see NEC (2003)].

4.18. Developing effectiveleadership and managementcapabilities among heads ofeducation institutions,

especially principals and sectionheads. The cardinal importanceof good leadership in developingand maintaining highperforming educationinstitutions has been stressed bypolicy makers in recent years. Aformal Principals’ Service wasestablished in 1997. In addition,a Principals’ Training Center isbeing developed at Meepe bythe National Institute ofEducation (NIE), and offers awide range of educationmanagement programs, fromshort thematic courses topostgraduate Diplomas andMasters degrees. As with newinitiatives, considerable furtherdevelopment is needed.Currently, school principals areappointed from both thePrincipals' Service and the older(1971) Sri Lanka EducationAdministrators' Service, withlittle synchronization betweenthe two. Further, principals andschool section heads (headmasters and head mistresses) lackincentives to engage inprofessional development andtraining activities. Also, suitableperformance appraisal systemshave not yet been established.The NEC (2003) recommendsdeveloping a national policy forschool principals, outliningqualifications, appointment andpromotion criteria, relationship toother education services,professional and careerdevelopment incentives andopportunities, and performanceappraisal and rewards. Such anational policy can be extremelyuseful. Further, government

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needs to consider extending thepolicy to cover school sectionheads, such as headmasters andheadmistresses, as well.

4.19. Increasing the quality ofthe teaching force. Sri Lankaneducation policy makersemphasize the crucial role ofteachers in delivering educationservices [see NEC (1997),(2003)]. Over the past sevenyears the country has established17 National Colleges ofEducation (NCOEs) to ensurethat all individuals joining theteachers' service successfullycomplete a three year pre-service teacher educationprogram and receive duecertification, or are universitygraduates. The number ofuntrained teaches in the systemhas been reduced from about45,000 in 1997 to around 2,000in 2003. In addition, 94 TeacherCenters (TCs) have beenestablished, one in each zone, tofacilitate continuingprofessional developmentopportunities for teachers,especially to widen and upgradesubject content knowledge, andrefresh pedagogical skillsthrough continuing teachereducation. A national TeacherEducators’ Service has also beenestablished to provide anacademic cadre for the NCOEsand TCs. Key proposals todevelop teacher quality in thefuture include: (i) developing anall graduate teacher cadre; (ii)establishing a TeacherEducation Board for planning,coordinating and quality

assurance of the teachereducation system; and (iii)ensuring teachers acquirecompetency in English,computer literacy, counselingand guidance, and the teachingof Sinhalese or Tamil as thirdlanguages, in addition topedagogy and subject expertise.The findings from theeconometric analysis of therelationship between learningoutcomes and teacher variablesin the preceding sectionhighlight the importance ofthese policy measures toimprove the motivation andperformance of teachers.

4.20. Providing on-siteacademic support to schools andeducation institutions. Schoolsare supported through a systemof in-service advisors who areexpected to visit schools andprovide advice, guidance andtechnical support to principalsand teachers. This systemfunctioned well in earliergenerations, but recently thesystem appears to haveweakened, especially at the levelof Divisional Education Offices.Current policy thinking is toabsorb the Divisional EducationOffices into the Zonal EducationOffices, and strengthen thecapabilities and performance ofthis important administrativetier. This is an area where furtherpolicy development andcapacity building would beextremely useful.

4.21. Reforming examinationsand assessment systems.Continuous assessment methods

have been introduced inuniversities and are in theprocess of being introducedwithin the school system. Theobjective of continuousassessment methods are tostrengthen the project andactivity based approach topedagogy and learning, improvethe work ethics and discipline ofstudents by compelling them toprepare throughout the year, andprovide students with a betteropportunity to perform at theirnormal level than can beobserved through single year-end examinations. In the schoolsystem, school based continuousassessment has been introducedas part of the GCE O/L and GCEA/L examination cycles. Policymakers plan to review theimplementation experience ofschool based assessment over athree year cycle and developfurther refinements to the model[see NEC (2003)]. In theuniversity system, continuousassessment was introduced inthe late 1990s to complementthe course unit model. Theuniversity assessment methodsinclude examinations at the endof semesters, and classroomtests and take home assignmentsduring the semester. In addition,some degree programs also offermid-semester tests.

4.22. Strengthening educationresearch, monitoring andevaluation. This is an importantpolicy measure, introduced toobtain regular and systematicfeedback on the performance ofvarious aspects of the education

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system and design policiesbased on objective and rigorousevidence. A key initiative todevelop education research andevaluation capacity has been theestablishment of a NationalEducation Research andEvaluation Center (NEREC).This center has commencedconducting statistically rigoroustests of learning achievement inthe country.

4.3 Pursuing Excellence inEducation Quality4.23 The developmentmeasures above provide apromising foundation uponwhich Sri Lanka can build ahigh quality education system.The education developmentliterature, the education reformexperience of other countries,and the education experience ofSri Lanka itself, suggest severalfurther development initiativesthat are urgently needed toimprove the quality of educationand establish high performingschools in the country.

Improving understanding, atschool level, of targetedcompetencies in the primaryeducation curriculum

4.24. Currently, thecompetencies, skills andexpected learning outcomes ofthe primary school curriculumare clearly specified. However,understanding of theseachievement levels amongprincipals and teachers is limitedand inadequate. Further, thecapabilities of principals and

teachers to translate theseprimary school achievementlevels into effective teachingstrategies in schools andclassrooms are weak. Thegovernment could consider twokey initiatives to combat thisproblem:

a. ensure widespreaddissemination andunderstanding of thecompetencies, skills andexpected learningoutcomes of the primaryschool curriculum amongprincipals and teachers,including making printedversions of theseachievement levelsavailable to schools; and

b. strengthen the capacity ofteachers to equip studentsup to the achievementlevels specified in thecurriculum.

Clarifying and detailing thesecondary school curriculum

4.25. Unlike in the primaryschool curriculum, thecompetencies, skills andexpected learning outcomes ofthe secondary school curriculumare not clearly specified. Inconsequence, the secondarycurriculum is disorganized, withpoor sequencing across gradelevels and cycles. In addition,schools are unable to set goalsand targets for achievementlevels in each grade, or organizetheir teaching methods andlearning strategies around aclearly articulated curriculum.Hence, two core development

initiatives that can be consideredby government to strengthensecondary education in thefuture are to:

a. clarify and organize thesecondary schoolcurriculum, specifying thecompetencies, skills andexpected learningoutcomes in each gradeand subject; and

b. ensure widespreaddissemination andunderstanding of theseachievement levels amongprincipals and teachers,including making relevantprinted material availableto schools.

Strengthening professionalcompetencies and skills ofteachers

4.26. The quality of theteaching force is of cardinalimportance in any educationsystem. Sri Lanka investedheavily, over the past five yearsor so, to construct, staff andequip a complete network ofnational colleges of education(NCOEs) to provide pre-serviceteacher education and teachercenters (TCs) to delivercontinuing teacher education.Virtually all school teachers arenow trained, and enjoyopportunities for professionaldevelopment during their career.The government can build onthis institutional foundation todevelop the professionalcapabilities and skills ofteachers. Key actions that wouldhelp achieve this objective are:

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a. introducing continuingteacher training programsaimed at transforming anddeveloping entire schoolsthrough on-site training,to complement the off-sitetraining activitiescurrently offered throughteacher centers to enableindividual teachers toupgrade their skills;

b. modernizing the curriculaand instructional practicesof pre-service andcontinuing teachertraining programs to equipteachers to utilizeequipment and technologyin teaching activities, suchas course planning andorganization, classroompractice, studentassignments andhomework, andassessment of studentknowledge and skills;

c. developing the curriculaand instructional practicesof pre-service andcontinuing teachereducation programs toequip teachers with thepedagogical skills neededto promote child-centeredand activity basedt e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n gapproaches in the primaryand secondary gradecycles;

d. endowing teachers withthe skills to forgepartnerships with localcommunities to improveschool quality;

e. equipping teachers to

assume responsibility,under the leadership ofprincipals, to set andachieve high schoolperformance standards;and

f. strengthening theprofessional knowledgeand understanding ofsubject areas and thepedagogical skills ofteachers on a regular,continuing cycle overtheir teaching careers.

Strengthening the leadershipand management capabilities ofprincipals, headmasters andheadmistresses

4.27. The central importance ofhigh quality school leadership isappreciated by Sri Lankaneducation policy makers. Aprincipals' training center isbeing developed to provideleadership and managementtraining to principals and schoolsection heads such asheadmasters andheadmistresses. Further, policymeasures are being introducedto empower principals anddevolve considerablemanagerial power to schools.Strengthening the leadershipskills and managerialcompetencies of schoolprincipals, headmasters andheadmistresses is a key area fordevelopment. Importantleadership and managementskills required in the futureinclude the abilities to:

a. clearly articulate thevision and educational

goals of schools;b. organize schools to

implement the curriculumeffectively;

c. match the pedagogicalcompetencies of teachersto the classroom and co-curricular needs ofschools;

d. appraise staff, especiallyteachers, andprogressively improvetheir competencies andskills;

e. motivate staff andstudents towards highperformance;

f. deploy and utilizephysical resources topromote school goals;

g. develop close ties withcommunity organizations,including parent-teacherassociations and pastpupils associations; and

h. maintain high visibilityand accessibility to pupils,teachers, parents and othercommunity members.

Developing academic andadministrative support systemsfor schools

4.28. Support networks thatprovide academic andadministrative assistance andguidance to schools are at arudimentary stage in Sri Lanka.The existing system of in-service advisors to providesupport to schools is poorlydeveloped. Strengthening thissystem is of strategic importancefor future educationdevelopment. Priority areas for

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future development include:

a. clearly articulating theroles and responsibilitiesof in-service advisors;

b. selecting and appointingin-service advisors on thebasis of provenprofessional competenceand performance;

c. equipping in-serviceadvisors to provideservices, includinginformation and trainingregarding goodinstructional practices, toschools to raiseperformance;

d. utilizing in-serviceadvisors effectively toevaluate and provideconstructive feedback onthe academic performanceand efforts of schoolprincipals and teachers;and

e. incorporating on-sitesupport to schools into theregular developmentactivities of provincialeducation authorities andzonal education offices.

Expanding the education capitalstock and increasing the use ofequipment and technology inteaching and learning

4.29 As Sri Lanka standspoised on the threshold of thesecond stage of educationdevelopment, the school systemneeds to advance from a low-technology environment heavilydependent on “chalk and talk” toa modern, equipment andtechnology intensive education

system. The education capitalstock of IT centers andequipment, science laboratories,libraries, activity rooms,instruments and tools, needs tobe increased in stages.Concurrently, equipment andtechnology have to be awarded aprominent role in teachingmethods, learning approachesand examinations. For instance,instructional time in science canbe weighted more in favor oflaboratory work, and lab-basedassignments used as part of theassessment mechanism.Similarly, teaching methods insubjects such as mathematicsand physics can include the useof educational software toenable, inter alia, self-pacedlearning among children. Audioequipment can be utilized inlanguage instruction, especiallyEnglish, to develop vocabulary,pronunciation and oral fluency.And increasing use of librariesand reading material provide anextremely effective method ofenhancing learning outcomes.

Improving the quality oftextbooks

4.30. Textbooks constitute themain learning resource in theeducation system. Further, for adeveloping country such as SriLanka, it is likely to remain thechief quality input for manyyears into the future. As such,ensuring high quality textbooksis vitally important. In recentyears, the government hasimplemented an importantpolicy initiative to increase thequality of textbooks and widen

the choice of textbooks availableto schools by dismantling a statemonopoly and opening textbookpublication to competitiveprivate firms. Futuredevelopment of private sectortextbook publication couldinclude the following key steps:

a. enhancing the technicalcapacity of textbookwriters, illustrators andeditors in the country;

b. strengthening qualitycontrol of manuscriptsand drafts, includingchecking factual accuracyand eliminating materialthat hurts differentreligious and ethnicgroups;

c. speeding up contractingand delivery to ensuretimely distribution toschools prior to thecommencement of theacademic year; and

d. developing technicalcapacity among writers toproduce supplementaryreading material,workbooks and textbookguides.

Reconstructing damagededucation institutions in conflictaffected areas

4.31. Enrolment and learninglevels are lowest in the conflictaffected areas, which experiencespecial challenges caused by thedestruction of educationinfrastructure. Governmenteducation institutions in theconflict affected areas,especially schools, suffered

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damage during the conflictperiod. An assessment of thereconstruction, rehabilitationand developmental needs of theregion [see UNICEF-WorldBank (2003)] estimated thatabout USD140 million isrequired to restore the educationcapital stock in the region.Technical capacity, however, is amajor challenge inimplementing educationreconstruction and rehabilitationwork in the conflict affectedregions. In particular, there areshortages of material and skilledlabor. Also, as funds havepoured into the region forreconstruction work, prices ofgoods and wages have risen.Long-term support to restore theeducation system in the conflictaffected areas requiresconsiderable capacity buildingactivity.

Promoting social cohesionthrough education

4.32. Enhancing civicknowledge and understandingamong students is an importantmeasure to promote respect fordiversity, democraticgovernance and civil liberties inthe backdrop of the 20 year longsecessionist conflict in thecountry. Additional measures topromote social cohesion througheducation include producingtextbooks that are sensitive tothe cultures of different socialgroups, using the curriculumand co-curricular activities topromote respect for diversity,introducing schools wherechildren from different ethnic

groups can study together andpromoting the use of English asa link language. These are usefulmeasures, although their impactclearly depends on thecooperation of different socialgroups. In particular, thecooperation of dominant groupsin the conflict affected areas isneeded to promote theseactivities effectively.

Improving the quality ofuniversity education

4.33. The university system hasnot experienced the sameintensive process of consultativepolicy development as theschool system. However, theUGC and individual universitieshave developed severalinitiatives to enhance quality.These include reformingcurricula and examinationsystems, especially organizingdegree programs around courseunit systems and introducingcontinuous assessment systems,developing corporate plans foruniversities, introducingperformance appraisal systemsfor staff, setting up anaccreditation process under anindependent board, andintroducing an element ofperformance based funding.These initiatives have yet to betested, and good evaluations,especially of the older initiativessuch as the introduction ofcourse unit systems andcontinuous assessmentmechanisms, could be helpful topolicy makers and academics.

4.4 Orienting theEducation System to theWorld of Work4.34. The Sri Lankan educationpolicy framework stresses theimportance of orienting theeducation system to the world ofwork [see NEC (2003)]. Policymakers are aware that the bestfoundation for the world of workis a high quality school systemwhich can supply the labormarket with trainableindividuals and provide a strongspring board for technical,professional and universityeducation. The school systemplays a pivotal role in producingknowledge and generic skills,such as team work, decisionmaking, initiative, problemsolving, responsibility,leadership and communication,which are important in the worldof work. The school system alsoconstitutes the basic curriculumframework for the acquisition ofknowledge and specificcapabilities in demand in thelabor market. Plans to improvethe orientation of the Sri Lankaneducation system to the world ofwork needs prioritydevelopment initiatives incurricula, use of IT andtechnology in education,language skills and fluency, andcareer guidance and counseling.

Developing and implementingan activity based curriculum

4.35. The activity basedcurriculum approach advocatedby Sri Lankan policy makers forsecondary education is explicitly

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designed to develop a soundwork ethic among schoolchildren [see NEC (2003)]. Assuch, it can play a key role inorienting the education systemto the world of work. The futuredevelopment andimplementation of the activitybased curriculum approachdepends on key initiatives to:

a. train teachers in activitybased pedagogy;

b. train principals toorganize schools for anactivity based curriculum;

c. provide sufficientclassroom space andactivity rooms toimplement activity basedlearning; and

d. make adequateequipment, technologyand reading materialavailable in schools tosupport activity basedteaching and learning.

Increasing IT literacy and skillsand introducing IT basedteaching and learning

4.36. IT literacy and skills arefundamental in the modernworld, and vastly increase thenational and global labor marketprospects of school completersand university graduates.Education policy makers areaware of the cardinal importanceof IT, and advocate expandingand deepening the use of IT inthe education system. This is anextremely important, highpriority policy measure. Keyinitiatives to develop the use ofIT in the school system and

implement IT based teachingand learning include:

a. equipping schools with ITfacilities and connectivityin stages;

b. establishing a nationaleducation network tomaximize access to ITbased education material;

c. training teachers in ITequipment, educationalsoftware and on-lineeducation resources;

d. creating awareness amongschool principals on theuse of IT in education; and

e. making provision for ITequipment and IT basededucational resources inschool quality inputallocations.

Improving English languageskills

4.37. English language skillsand fluency enjoy strongdemand in the national labormarket. In addition, Englishlanguage competency opens jobprospects in the global economy.In consequence, developingEnglish language skillsconstitutes a central element ofthe education policy frameworkto improve the labor marketorientation of the school system.Important developmentinitiatives for the future include:

a. allowing private schoolsto provide students achoice of English as amedium of instruction,along with Sinhalese andTamil, from grade 1

upwards;b. introducing English as a

medium of instruction ingovernment schools instages, as and whenadequate teachers becomeavailable;

c. training teachers,including re-training“excess teachers” in thesystem, to teach Englishas a subject;

d. training teachers,including re-training“excess teachers” in thesystem, to teach inEnglish as a medium ofinstruction; and

e. utilizing audio-visualeducational resources andIT based educationmaterial widely forEnglish language teachingand learning.

Strengthening skillsdevelopment and training

4.38. Skills developmentconstitutes the chief active labormarket strategy of thegovernment to promote the jobprospects and labor productivityof school leavers. Severalpromising developmentinitiatives and policy measureshave been proposed by policymakers, including:

a. strengthening theTechnical and VocationalEducation Commission(TVEC) as the apex bodyfor TEVT;

b. developing the role ofgovernment to function asa facilitator, standard

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setter and regulator oftraining;

c. fostering private sectorparticipation in training;

d. promoting government-industry partnerships inskills development;

e. accrediting andmonitoring the quality ofpublic and private traininginstitutions;

f. rationalizing the publicsector TEVT system;

g. improving the linkages ofthe TEVT system with theschool and universitysystems; includingestablishing careerguidance and counselingin schools anduniversities;

h. promoting vocationaltraining for the informalsector; and

i. providing financialincentives for trainingtargeting the corporatesector.

These are rational andpotentially productive ideas,reflecting international thinkingand practice. The actual stage ofdevelopment of these variouspolicy initiatives is modest, withmany ideas still at the level ofblue prints. Translating thesepolicy ideas into developmentstrategies and implementingthem constitute the next majorchallenges faced by the TEVTsector.

Developing career guidance andcounseling

4.39. An important governmentrecommendation to linkeducation to the world of workis the development of effectivecareer guidance and counseling.Universities have commencedcareer guidance and counselingactivities. However, in theschool system, career guidanceand counseling is virtually non-existent. Developing careerguidance and counseling inschools is an important initiativefor future implementation. Keyactions to promote this initiativecould include:

a. training a core cadre ofschool staff in careerguidance and counseling;

b. prioritizing schools inpoor regions in thedevelopment of guidanceand counseling, asstudents in such areashave less access to labormarket information; and

c. developing informationnetworks betweenvocational training andtechnical educationinstitutions and guidancecounselors in schools.

4.5 Case Studies ofSelected Dimensions ofEducation Quality4.40. The preceding analysisexamined important dimensionsof learning outcomes andgovernment education strategyat the broad level of nationalpolicy. The current sectionpresents four case studies,specially commissioned for this

report, which analyze keyelements of education quality:(i) education managementpractices and the interaction ofinputs and processes at schoollevel; (ii) Early ChildhoodDevelopment; (iii)reconstruction of the educationsystem in conflict affected areas;and (iv) the promotion of socialcohesion through the schoolsystem.

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Developing ResponsiveSchools for QualityLearning4.1.1. Analyzing the qualitativedynamics of the interactionamong the conditions withinschools in Sri Lanka isimportant for education policymaking, as generalrecommendations aboutprogram design based onquantitative assessments need tobe supplemented by qualitativeinformation. For example, thereis strong research evidence thatthe presence of textbooks affectsschool achievement positively.However, the dynamics andefficacy of book use in schoolsis not well understood. Foreducational reform and programdesign to be successful, thesequantitative analyses need to beenriched by systematicqualitative information on thedynamics within schools.

4.1.2. As part of a process totake a fresh look at the guidingparameters which should be inplace for learning environmentsin Sri Lankan schools, aqualitative study was undertakenby the National EducationResearch and Evaluation Center(NEREC) for this report. Thestudy focused on 100 schools(92 public and 8 private) acrossall provinces in Sri Lanka andrepresents all school types.More in-depth case studies arealso underway in eight schools,including two private schools.

4.1.3. The study particularlyfocused on key interactingschool-related factors and theirrelationships with the largereducation system and localcommunities. These factorswere based on those identifiedfrom international experiencewhich improve student learningenvironments [see ANTRIEP(2000), Heneveld and Craig(1996), Lockheed and Verspoor(1991)]. These include:

• Strong parent andcommunity support

• Effective support from thelarger education system,including clearly definedstudent outcomes;transparent and merit-based career opportunitiesfor staff, and frequent andappropriate teacherdevelopment activities

• Adequate materialsupport; i.e., sufficientinstructional materials,adequate facilities

• Effective leadership• A capable teaching force• Flexibility and autonomy

to organize schoolpriorities and activities

• Sufficient days spent inschool during the schoolyear

• Clear goals and highexpectations of studentsand staff

• Positive teacher attitudes,collaborative planningand collegial relationships

• Order and discipline• Sequenced curriculum

articulation andorganization

• School-wide recognitionof academic success andincentives

• Maximized learning timein the classroom

• Variety in teachingstrategies

• Well supervisedhomework appropriate tothe age level of students

• Frequent constructivestudent assessment andfeedback

4.1.4. Based on the informationcurrently available from thisqualitative analysis, seven keyareas that appear to warrantstrong consideration in SriLanka, especially as school-based management isdeveloped, are: (i) clearlydefining student outcomes andhigh expectations that are theneffectively translated intoclassroom learning practice; (ii)modernizing the curriculum tobetter match the expectedstudent learning outcomes andto develop more child-friendlyclassroom practice; (iii)strengthening the instructionaland managerial leadershipwithin schools, most typically asprovided by the schoolprincipal, headmasters andheadmistresses; (iv) developingmore capable and motivatedteachers with positive teacher

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Case Study I

attitudes; (v) maximizing thesupport and participation fromthe local community; (vi)developing alternative methodsto corporal punishment tomotivate children to undertakethe needed learning tasks, and tobe excited about their ownongoing learning; and (vii)specifying more clearly thepower, authority andresponsibilities at each level ofthe education system.

a. Clearly defined studentoutcomes and highexpectations. In thequalitative analysis, it isstriking that of the 100schools studied, themajority of them haddifficulty in translating theexpected learningcompetencies of students(i.e. cognitive, affectiveand psycho-motor) intoschool objectives andclassroom practice. It isimperative that teachersknow what students needto learn. Based oninternational research,effective schools tend tobe places of commitmentto learning. This is clearlycommunicated by theprincipal and the teachers.Student performance ismonitored regularly. Alsostudent assignments aresufficiently frequent anddifficult so as to conveythis high expectation andteachers’ confidence instudents’ abilities andconfidence in students is

reinforced by giving themmany opportunities totake responsibility forschool activities. Theseexpectations tend totranslate into morepositive self-concepts andgreat self-reliance amongstudents.

b. Curriculum relevantschool activities. Based onthe expected studentcompetencies, schoolsneed to develop acomprehensive writtenscheme of work thatidentifies learningobjectives andrealistically availablematerials, and all teacherscan explain what theyteach in terms of thisscheme. Materials, bothprovided and locally-prepared, identified in thisscheme of work should beavailable and used byteachers. In the primaryschool, all teachers shouldbe able to identify basicskills in each subject anddemonstrate how theyensure mastery of theseskills by students. Subjectcontent across gradelevels needs to be relevantfor current and futurelearning needs, respectfulof diverse cultural andreligious backgrounds,and be presented in anintegrated sequenceacross grade levels. Thereshould also be someflexibility for teachers toadapt the curriculum to

their specific students'needs.

c. Strong school leadership.School principals play akey role in the school to:(i) see that the resourcesare available to provide,adequate support toteachers, sufficientlearning materials, and anadequate and well-maintained learningfacility; (ii) pursue highinstructional standardsthrough written policies,high expectations andmanagement of thelearning process; (iii)communicate regularlyand effectively withteachers, with parents andothers in the community;and (iv) maintain highvisibility and accessibilityto pupils, teachers, parentsand others in thecommunity. Teachers alsohave a responsibility towork with and shareaccountability with theprincipal for the ongoingimprovement of theirinstructional practice andschool quality.

d. Capable and motivatedteachers: Characteristicsof teachers in effectiveschools tend to fall intotwo categories. There areconditions that it appearsmakes teachers in a schoolmore capable of beingeffective, and there are theattitudes and behaviorsthey exhibit in their work.Among the conditions that

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define the capability of aschool's teaching forceare: (i) the teachers'mastery of the materialthey are supposed toteach; (ii) the amount ofteaching experience theyhave; (iii) the length oftime they have been in theschool; and (iv) the extentto which the teachers arefull-time in the school.Regarding behavior,teachers tend to be moreeffective when they haveconfidence in their abilityto teach, care aboutteaching and about theirstudents, and cooperatewith each other. This isreflected in teachers'comfort in using learningmaterials and in tryingnew ideas, by low teacherabsenteeism and tardiness,and in a high level ofgroup involvement inplanning, teaching and inresolving whole-schoolissues. The lack of directpedagogical support toteachers in theirclassrooms is problematicin Sri Lankan schools.Teacher support networksthat bring this support intoclassrooms, either fromh e a d m a s t e r s ,headmistresses, schoolprincipals, otherexperienced teachers,learning advisors or otherresource persons, wouldprovide an invaluableservice to teachers to bothmotivate and increase

skills.e. Parent and community

participation: From thebroader researchliterature, five categoriesof parent and communitysupport that are relevant tothe Sri Lankan contextare: (i) children come toschool prepared to learn(e.g., are healthy, andwhere possible have beeninvolved with reading,conversations anddirected play at home); (ii)the community providesfinancial and materialsupport to schools(monetary, or in-kindcontributions, assistanceto build schools); (iii)communication betweenthe school and communityis frequent (e.g., school-public events and parent-teacher conferences arefrequent and meaningful);communications toparents by school staff arefrequent and meaningful,positive parent-initiatedcontacts with school staffare frequent andmeaningful); (iv) thecommunity has ameaningful role in schoolgovernance (e.g., the role,functions and authority ofthe school board are clearand agreed-upon; theschool board meetfrequently and makemeaningful decisions);and (v) communitymembers and parentsassist with instruction

(e.g., parents support theidea of homework andmonitor it,parents/community serveas information sourcesand/or an audience forstudent work).

f. Order and discipline:Disciplinary matters canbe minimized inclassrooms often by theway the classroom isorganized as well as theinterest level generated byengaging, child-friendlypractices. For example,seating arrangementsshould be uncongested;external noise levels andlighting conducive tolearning; school rules andregulations clearlyarticulated, agreed uponby teachers and students,and equitably maintained;learning centers ofindividual activitiesavailable for students whomay finish work early orneed either remedial orfurther engagingactivities, and good workrewarded publicly.

g. Effective support from thelarger education system:Support to individualschools by the educationsystem's managementstructure is important toenhance school quality. Interms of demonstrating itssupport, the system needsto: (i) delegate authorityand responsibility forimprovement to theschools themselves; (ii)

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c o m m u n i c a t eexpectations and exertpressure where necessaryfor successful academicresults; (iii) provideservices to the schools tohelp them succeed,including information andtraining regardinginstructional practices andprotection from politicalturbulence; and (iv)monitor and evaluateschools' academicperformance and theefforts of schoolprincipals, particularly asinstructional managers.The system of a clearly-defined policy forauthority delegation andof expected studentcompetencies arenecessary to promote highacademic standards. Thiswill also mean that, in SriLanka, there is a need tomore clearly specify thepower, authority andresponsibilities at eachlevel of the educationsystem, especially as thesystem moves moretowards school-basedmanagement. Areas of thesystem where there arecurrently overlappingresponsibilities will alsoneed clarification so thatschool principals willknow clearly to whomthey are accountable. Atpresent, as noted by NEC(2003), some schools aresubject to multiple controlby different layers.

4.1.5. The move to developmore school-based managementin Sri Lanka has the potential tobetter address these differingneeds and processes at eachschool, bringing more authorityand responsibility closer to theteaching-learning interactionwithin schools. As the unit offocus of greatest learningimpact, schools are essentialplayers in the processes ofregulation, monitoring and self-renewal.

Teacher Support Networks

4.1.6. The quality of a student'seducation depends largely on thequality of teachers. This isespecially important in theprimary school level, whenchildren's learning is veryformative and not soindependent. It is even more trueof developing countries, where,especially in rural areas, otherfactors involved with thelearning process, such as accessto appropriate textbooks is moreproblematic [see Carron andNgoc Chau (1996)]. If teachersare absent, discouraged, do nothave the needed pedagogicalexpertise to maximize learningtime, do not believe in thecapability of students to learn,and/or do not work in supportiveteaching environments, studentlearning suffers. Teachers arealso key agents for socializationin schools. So the role ofteachers is critical and warrantsspecial attention.

4.1.7. Teacher support networksare needed if sound pedagogical

practice and motivation are to bedeveloped. These networks andtheir associated activities can bevaried in structure andorganization. As a general rulethough, those that focus oncontinuous development toguide, monitor, and supportnecessary skills, knowledge andnew ideas, tend to be moresuccessful in bringing aboutchange at the classroom levelthan those which seek quickfixes to fill up deficiencies, orprograms that simply provide aqualification. Impact is evenfurther enhanced when thesupport (skill development andresources) is brought directlyinto teachers' classrooms, incontrast to support that isoffered at a distance andrequires time to travel. Theschool setting should be theprime focus of activity.

4.1.8. A central principle ofsupport networks is that theprofessional development ofteachers is a process, not an event.It involves change over time and isachieved in stages during ateacher's career as moreexperience is gained. The stagesare impacted by: (i) the degree andaccessibility of services andsupport that can be providedwithin the education system; and(ii) the willingness of teachers towant to learn and apply new ideas.

4.1.9. The following providesinformation on some differenttypes of teacher networks thatmight be considered. Acombination of these isdesirable:

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4.1.10. S c h o o l - B a s e dNetworks: The one model notedfor its effectiveness in changingclassroom practice is school-based support. This typicallyinvolves the direct participationand joint control by teachers andschool principals, along withother officials, usuallyinspectors/supervisors. Thesupport and participation of theschool principal or other“director-organizer” is essential.Self-explanatory teacher guidesand shared teacher idea bookletsfurther strengthen this approach.

4.1.11. In-school activities,held regularly, typically include:(i) individual consultationsbetween the teacher and theprincipal, supervisor or otherexperts, especially withemphasis on classroomsupervision and use ofinstructional materials; (ii)observation of excellentteachers, discussion, peercoaching, and mentoring; (iii)visits to other classrooms andschools; and (iv) regular groupteacher meetings, either bygrade level or subject to discussissues and share resource ideas.Peer coaching, in which twoteachers observe each other'sclasses with the objective ofhelping each other improve theirinstructional abilities, hasbecome increasingly popularalong with mentoring programs.Activities tend to focus onconcrete and specific trainingfor instructional andmanagement practice, and areappropriate to the current needs

of the teacher. This assistancecan also provide a valuable linkwith more formal in-servicetraining that might have beenprovided but which needsclassroom practice to ensureimplementation of the acquiredlearning. Similar support shouldalso be organized for schoolprincipals so that they alsomight develop better leadershipand pedagogical skills.

4.1.12. The school-based modelis very effective for long-termguided learning, depending onthe caliber of staff available inthe school or other staff who canregularly visit the school. Therole of the principal asinstructional leader, and not justadministrative manager tends tobe a feature. If a school does nothave competent staff to provideappropriate advice andassistance, then the services of avisiting resource teacher, orother appropriate personnel whomight be found in a school-cluster network, or within otherteaching institutions/servicesfrom the larger education systembecomes a necessity for success(see Egyptian example, Box4.1).

4.1.13.School-Cluster Networks,Teacher Centers and ResourceCenters: School-clusternetworks (such as thoseemployed in Colombia,Guatemala, Indonesia, Lesotho,Nepal, the Philippines, SriLanka, Thailand and Zambia)are very helpful to share scarcematerial and human resources.Core schools tend to host

educational resource centersdeveloped and operated jointlywithin the cluster. The LearningAction Cells in the Philippinesexist at the school, district andregional levels and are used forschool evaluation and staffdevelopment for both teachersand principals. Similarorganizational patterns operatein many other countries. Inreality, the activities undertakenat the cluster level, tend to bemore formal and related todecentralized in-service trainingprograms [see Colombianexample, Box 4.2]. However,there is the potential to also haveactivities more akin to theschool-based networks. Clustersoffer the added advantage ofhaving greater access to sharestaffing, material resources, anda range of ideas.

4.1.14. Resource Centers tendto be prominent within schoolclusters, However, theirestablishment is alwayscontroversial. The concept issimple, but clarity of purposeand the implementation of thesupport structure which isneeded for classroom practiceimpact, tend to be problematic.

4.1.15. Based on internationalexperience [see many studiesreferred to in Bray (1987), Craiget. al. (1997), Knamiller andFairhurst (1998)], instructionalsupport to teachers vianetworks, i.e., regular meetingsof teachers between and withinschools to share resources andideas, team teaching with anexperienced teacher, regular

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visits and advice by learningcoordinators/ resource teachers,sharing useful classroommaterials etc., tend to be moreeffective than the establishmentof fixed site centers. However,

if the establishment of a fixedsite center is being considered,the following key issues whichneed to be addressed in theaffirmative for successfuloperation of resource centers in

school clusters, should bethoroughly addressed. Becausemany of the following elementsare difficult to achieve, thebetter advice is often to placeeffort and financial resources

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School-based training and support has been operating since 1994 in several areas of Egypt as pilot programs for Englishteachers at the preparatory level. The main goal is to provide in-service training and support to increase the effectivenessof teachers through training and mentoring at the school site.

Targets of the programs include:• Teachers effectively using the instructional texts in the classroom.• Unifying the teachers in a school and actively encouraging them to work as a team.• Improving communication among Ministry of Education inspectors, senior teachers, school principals, school

directors and parents.• Recognizing, acknowledging and rewarding individual creativity to create greater job satisfaction, enhanced self-

worth, and professional pride in teaching.• Providing a model for the sharing of effective strategies for solving problems.• Identifying and actively encouraging those individuals who are models of excellence and potential leaders in their

schools.• Providing a forum for participatory input that affects the sense of investment and consequent ownership that all

participants develop toward their school.• Encouraging inspectors, teachers, and administrators to develop strategies for resolving conflict.• Encouraging more active and communicative pupil participation in the learning process.• Institutionalizing the model of using the school as a unit for ongoing professional development.

Strengths of the program:• Preparatory school teachers receive materials on basic classroom teaching techniques. These materials are based on

the instructional texts and can be used immediately by the teacher to make classroom teaching more interesting andeffective.

• Because the training and support takes place at the school site:- Teachers receive training without having to take time off work or travel long distances;- Teachers can practice new techniques and discuss the new material with colleagues and senior teachers on a dailybasis;- The senior teacher (or any interested and motivated teacher) can give classroom demonstrations using SBTactivities, or attend demonstrations given by other teachers in the school.

• SBT activities increase communication and sharing of ideas among the English teaching staff.• Transferring the SBT activities and ideas to other English classes in a school gives the senior teacher increased

responsibility for professional development, and increases the status of the senior teacher.• Teachers in participating schools develop a better rapport through working together to integrate SBT activities into

their classes.• All teachers in the school receive new material and observe demonstrations (rather than one or two teachers being

nominated to attend a local training session).• SBT provides a positive focus for inspectors' school visits, classroom observation, and meetings with teachers.• Senior teachers monitor teachers using SBT activities on a day-to-day basis and can thus better assist inspectors on

their observation visits.• Among the most motivated teachers, SBT encourages creative thinking and problem solving.• SBT involves inspectors as demonstrators, trainers, observers and evaluators; and it strengthens the relationship

between the supervising inspector, and the senior teacher in a participating school by focusing on professionaldevelopment.

• SBT can serve as a link between a centralized type of in-service training program and specific teacher needs. Itincludes schools identified by the inspector general and the inspectors for improvement.

• Participating teachers and inspectors are encouraged to make suggestions and revisions, which are then incorporatedinto the SBT materials.

Box 4.1: School-Based Training/Support (SBT) in Egypt: Programs for English Teachers

into a visiting “resource teacher”program [see Lesotho example,Box 4.3] rather than a fixed sitecenter:

• Is there commonagreement between theschools about clearlystated objectives?

• Does the topography ofthe areas to be coveredallow easy access to thecenters - consider ease ordifficulty ofcommunication andtransportation, time,physical weariness andcost?

• Is there support andcollaboration ofparticipants involved inthe cluster?

• Is there participatoryplanning andimplementation by stafffrom the schools?

• Is there support andcollaboration of educationofficers higher up in theeducation system?

• Are the skills of thepeople responsible for theteaching, training,mentoring and supportadequate?

• Do the activitiesundertaken at the resourcecenter have a strongapplication to classroompractice?

• Are there outreachprograms or personnelthat visit the other schoolsin conjunction withprograms offered at themain resource center?

• Are the resources andsupport in the centerappropriate to current staffneeds?

• Is there adequateequipment and resources?

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According to Schiefelbein (1992:69-71), the teachers:

.. learn by doing in three programmed one-week workshops organized by the decentralized regional unit in charge oftraining with intervening practice periods, and limited supervision. In the first workshop, each teacher visits ademonstration school, learns about the cooperation of the student council and the layout and organization of the learningactivities areas, and participates in group discussion. The second workshop is held when the school has been adopted asthe Nueva Escuela model: a student council is elected and the community informed usually two or three months after thefirst workshop. In that week, teachers learn to use the self-instructional textbooks correctly, practice the multi-gradeapproach, flexible promotion, and are encouraged to introduce innovations. In the third workshop, teachers learn toorganize and use the class library, maps, posters, and reinforce their ability to work with several grades at the same time.This is also occasion for review, follow-up evaluation and problem solving. At the end of the third workshop, teachersreceive a 100-book library. After each workshop, teachers are invited to meet once a month in a nearby school in what isknown as a Micro-center. These micro-centers operate within demonstration schools to analyze problems and to discusssolutions. No hierarchical staff relationships are generated by microcenters, but supervisors do attend the meetings whenfeasible.

Box 4.2: The Micro-centers (Teacher Centers) in the Escuela Nueva in Colombia

To ensure the success of the program:• The inspector-general or senior inspector must strongly support the introduction of the SBT into local schools, want

to assist in its implementation, and keep pressure on inspectors and senior teachers to do the work.• The inspector-general or senior inspector must identify key schools with strong senior teachers (especially in the first

year of implementation), and make sure that the supervising inspector actively participates in SBT.• The inspector-general or senior inspector and participating inspectors must be willing to implement procedures for

quality control of SBT (e.g. attendance at demonstrations, following visits for instructional support, observations andconstructive feedback to participating teachers, and encouragement and advice to senior teachers).

• The inspector-general or senior inspector and participating inspectors must be willing to meet regularly to discussSBT, or to include SBT implementation as a discussion item during regularly scheduled weekly meetings.

• The format and advantages of using the school as a unit of ongoing professional development must be wellunderstood by all participants.

• This school-level support must be linked to the larger education in-service training system.• SBT must be viewed as a means of promoting community and organizational development, in addition to providing

a forum for professional development, and improving teachers’ use of the books and other classroom skills.

Source: LeBlanc 1997

• Is there sufficient releasetime for staff to attend thecenter during schoolhours?

• Are there incentives inplace to attract staff to usethe center andcollaborate?

• Is additional staffingneeded for the center? Isadditional staffing feasibleand affordable?

• What are the requirementsfor financing: the center,

release time for teachers,outreach program fromthe center to the otherschools, staffing?

• Are the costs and benefitsof resources shared -financial and non-financial?

4.1.16. Sri Lanka currently has84 Teacher Centers. Their primefunction is to hold non-residential courses running fromone to three days. While the idea

of having an outreach programdirectly to classrooms issupported in principle by manyof the Directors of these centers,lack of appropriate staff andresources, logistical constraints,as well as lack of clear policyand authorization to undertakemore direct classroom support ispreventing this development.This will be an important area offocus for the Office of the ChiefCommissioner for TeacherEducation (CCTE).

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Box 4.3: Teacher Support Networks: The District Resource Teacher (DRT) Program in Lesotho

Highlights :• One of the attributing factors for the success of the teacher education program is that it began as an idea from the

Ministry of Education rather than by the project, thereby encouraging ownership and motivation.• The program particularly targets small schools in scattered and distant locations where teachers are often isolated.

The schools tend to be multi-grade, and have fewer than five teachers. About 700 of the 1,200 schools in the countryare covered, accounting for 2,000 of the country's 6,000 teachers.

• Classroom environments are very conducive to learning, e.g., visual aids are used and displayed on walls, andlearning centers are organized in classrooms.

• The DRT's supportive role is coordinated with that of the Inspectorate, whose current role involves checking onwhether the schools are doing their work properly.

Observations:• Activities include individual consultations, group workshops for school clusters, and dissemination of new curricula

produced by the National Curriculum Development Center.• DRTs sit down with teachers, discuss their perceived difficulties, and offer suggestions to deal with them.• Typical difficulties involve classroom organization and management of multi-grade schools, group work, learning

centers, peer learning, and mobilizing community members to help with classroom activities such as reading tomothers.

• DRTs team teach with local teachers and help develop teaching materials.• DRTs usually visit schools four times a year, which allows two to three visits a year for all the teachers in the schools

under the DRT's care (typically between ten and fifteen schools). Workshops are often held on weekends.

Selection of DRTs:• The first efforts were rather random - experienced teachers proposed by the district education officers were appointed.

But this did not necessarily work very well.• The second group recruited at the end of the program needed to be qualified, experienced teachers, with head teacher

or deputy-head teacher experience, willing to travel frequently and ride horseback where necessary. Efforts weremade to try to have a gender balance as well as distributions by district and religion.

• Potential participants needed to write about why they wanted to be DRTs, interviews were conducted, and werefollowed by training.

Sustainabilty:When donor support ended, DRTs were given a teacher's salary on a special scale of a resource teacher or a seniorresource teacher that was paid by the Ministry of Education. Over seventy DRTs were operating and some werepromoted into the Inspectorate. The DRTs are within the teaching service and paid from the regular governmentbudget. The extra expenditures of the DRT program, mainly travel costs and per diems of DRTs while they are in theschools, are paid through the Ministry of Education.

Source: O'Grady 1996

4.1.17. School, Institutional,Teachers' Union, BusinessNetworks: Other collaborativeefforts for professional supportinclude: (i) institutionaltwinning, where teachereducators in a teacher traininginstitution (or even secondaryschool) develop a partnershipwith another well establishedinstitution in either the samecountry, another developingnation or a more resource richnation to provide staffexchanges, shared training,ideas, curriculum and otherongoing support; (ii)partnerships between localschools and the teacher traininginstitutions to provide testinggrounds for new researchpractices intended to maximizestudent learning (university staffmeet regularly in the schools todiscuss practical concerns andproblems of the classroom, andthe schools provide places forstudent teaching andopportunities for research); (iii)partnerships between teachers'unions and schoolclusters/districts/central levelsto contribute as part of theprofessional network tocollaboratively provideworkshops, discussion forums,and training; (iv) individualcollaboration of teachers orschool districts with institutionsof higher education to pursuemutually-beneficial projectssuch as science and technologyexchanges and in-servicetraining for teachers related tohigher education institution

programs; and (v) collaborationbetween schools andbusinesses/industries. This canbe particularly advantageous atthe secondary school levelwhere businesses and industries,as well as tertiary institutions,have an interest in studentsdeveloping appropriate skills forthe workforce and for higherlearning, and therefore take amore active role in supportingschools and the teachingprocess.

4.1.18. Unstructured andresource-based networks: Thereis a strong argument that, asexperienced or qualifiedteachers will have demonstrateda capacity to learn, there is noneed to create a formal systemof training for their continuingprofessional development.Rather, provided educationalresources are available to them,they should be able to choosewhat meets their needs and learnwithout a formal structure.

4.1.19. Both industrialized anddeveloping countries have usedresource-based approaches inorder to strengthen the teachingforce, using discussion forums,general information andnetworking opportunities, and avariety of different media.Increasingly, and especiallywithin the industrialized world,use is being made of the internetas a means to network andaccess resources. A Britishprogram, TeacherNewsUK, forexample, aims to supportprofessional development by

selecting appropriate webprojects, facilitating links tonational and internationalnetworks of teachers anddeveloping on-line discussions.The Canadian School Netprovides discussion groups,teacher-designed networkingprojects, a virtual environmentfor situation-based learning,interactive curriculumresources, on-line careermaterials and access to specialprocesses for hardware andsoftware companies. Ninethousand schools and 900libraries were connected by1997 to this network. Examplescan be found in other countriesas well.

4.1.20. But resource-basedapproaches are not limited to theadvanced technologies. Forexample, Bhutan relies on radio,and India's “Hints to Teachers” aweekly 45 minute broadcastuses television. There is also anincreasing network ofbroadcasted programs that aredesigned to reach teachersinternationally, e.g., BBC WorldService. These learning supportopportunities for teachers areless well documented than thosethat are structured, and littleevaluation of them is available.But it seems likely that, just asmany adult learners benefitmore from unstructured thanstructured programs, so teachersare likely to be influenced byprograms of this kind [see Craigand Perraton (2003)], theexception being that newteachers who have had limited

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teacher preparation tend tobenefit more from structuredlearning support, at least tobegin with.

4.1.21. In conclusion, teachersupport networks must be aimedprimarily at helping each teacherfacilitate change in theclassroom. The success of

improved teaching practice isthe key to help children learn,and the success of each school toensure this, is the key to overallquality improvement in theeducation system. Support toteachers is not just about moretraining. It is about a continuumof opportunities for teachers to

become better at their classroompractice. Teacher support shouldalso include a more thoroughconsideration of schools associal organizations, since thiscontext influences teaching andlearning [see Rosenholtz(1991)].

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Case Study IIEarly ChildhoodDevelopment in Sri LankaEarly childhood development:Importance and significance

4.2.1. The First Six Years ofLife: The first six or so years ofa child's life, known as the earlychildhood stage, is globallyacknowledged to be the mostcritical years for life longdevelopment, as the pace ofgrowth in these years isextremely rapid. Recentresearch in the field ofneuroscience has providedconvincing evidence of theexistence of critical periodswithin the early years for theformation of synapticconnections and the fulldevelopment of the potential ofthe brain. Research has alsoindicated that if these early yearsare not supported by, orembedded in, a stimulating andenriching physical and psycho-social environment, the chancesof the child's brain developing to

its full potential is considerably,and often irreversibly, reduced.This early childhood stage in lifeis also important as a foundationfor social and personal habitsand values which last a lifetime.Hence, investing in these earlyyears in children is extremelyimportant for the quality of lifein a country. Formal earlychildhood development (ECD)programs, which have becomecommon in developingcountries, derive theirimportance from this rationale.

4.2.2. Planning early childhoodprograms needs to take intoaccount three importantprinciples of child development.First, the child developmentprocess is continuous andcumulative. In consequence, it isimportant to address the entirechildhood continuum, fromprenatal to the end of theprimary stage, as opposed tointervening in any one sub-stageonly. For example, primary and

secondary education learninglevels are significantlyinfluenced by favorable earlychildhood outcomes. Second,health, nutrition and education-psychosocial development areall synergistically related, so thataddressing these needs in acombined, holistic frameworkmaximizes impact. Third, childdevelopment is optimized whenthe programs address not onlythe child, but also the child'soverall growth context.

Early childhood education in SriLanka

4.2.3. There are about 11,000-12,500 pre-schools, such asnurseries, Montessories andkindergartens in the country.Enrolment in these institutions isestimated to cover about 60% ofchildren aged 3-5, [seeAbhayadeva (2003), Wijetungeand Wickremaratne (2003)].These pre-school institutions arelargely, over 80%, within the

private sector. As a result of theincreasing recognition of theimportance of early childhooddevelopment by policy makers,Sri Lanka drafted a NationalPolicy on Early Childhood Careand Development (ECCD) in2003. This draft policy adopts acomprehensive definition ofECCD to address the needs ofchildren from pre-natal to 5years. As defined in the draftpolicy document,“……..programs for ECCDshould ….take intoconsideration the holistic natureof the process of developmentand adopt an integratedapproach giving attention to thechild's health, nutrition,cognitive and psychosocialneeds” [see Ministry of SocialWelfare (2003)]. The same draftpolicy states, as its mission, the“….holistic growth anddevelopment of all children byproviding a safe, caring andconducive environment in thehomes and other settings, wellsupported by a comprehensiveand integrated system of earlychildhood care and developmentservices.” The plan of action torealize this mission identifiesfour areas of intervention: (i)building knowledge and skills ofcare givers to promote optimalchild survival, growth anddevelopment; (ii)improving and expandingtraining opportunities for serviceproviders; (iii) transformingscholastically focused pre-schools into communitymanaged, child-friendlydevelopment centers; and (d)

providing equal opportunities toall children, including thosewith special needs, for theirsurvival, growth anddevelopment. To implement thisplan, the policy suggests acoordination system withrepresentation from acrossdepartments at the national anddifferent sub-national levels,and highlights the role of keystakeholders, particularlyparents, communities and theprivate sector.

Key issues in earlychildhood care anddevelopment 4.2.4 The central ECCD issue inSri Lanka is the absence ofclarity regarding theresponsibility for ECCD. TheMinistry of Social Welfare hastechnical responsibility, withoutany link to the Ministry ofHuman Resource Development,Education and Cultural Affairs,and the Ministry of SchoolEducation. This disregards thefact that the age range of 0-5/6years covered by ECCDcontains a range of sub-stagespecific developmentalpriorities which require holisticnurture and development. Thisage range is conventionally sub-divided into two sub-stages of 0-3 years and 3-6 years. Health,nutrition and psychosocialstimulation constitute the chiefpriorities for the younger agerange. Pre-school educationassumes priority importance inthe age range of 3-6 years,although health and nutrition

naturally continue to beimportant. While theinterventions and outcomes ofthe 0-3 age group also have abearing on learning potentialand achievements in later life,the stage of pre-schooleducation directly precedesprimary education and has aclear link with learning at theprimary stage. Hence, it isimportant to have continuity inthe curriculum between pre-school and primary education.The Sri Lankan ECCD andeducation system have not yetevolved to the point ofestablishing this connection.Given the crucial importance ofECCD in determining learningability and cognitive potential atthe primary education level, thisgap needs to be urgently filled.

Shortfalls in access to earlychildhood care anddevelopment4.2.5. Ensuring access to pre-school education programs forall children is an immediatechallenge to fulfill the policymission and to realize EFAgoals. The Sri Lankan Draft Planof Action for EFA sets a target of80% coverage against a baselineof 62% for the period 2004 to2008. It mentions home basedprovisions for the residual 20%.To achieve this targetedexpansion of enrolment,increasing pre-school facilitiesconstitutes an urgent need. Aformal study of the network ofpre-schools and potential policyinitiatives to stimulate

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investment in this sub-sector,especially from privateproviders, is a priority. Onepotential source of supply ofpre-school facilities could be theexcess classroom buildingsfound in some areas of thecountry, as population outflowsfrom rural to urban regions hasreduced enrolment in ruralschools. These buildings couldbe sold or leased to civil societyorganizations interested inoffering pre-school services.

Quality of early childhoodcare and development4.2.6. Policy makers andresearchers argue that thequality of ECCD services isunsatisfactory [see UNICEF(2003), NEC (2003)]. TheUNICEF (2003) study indicatesthat the majority of ECCDcenters included in a samplesurvey lacked adequate physicalfacilities. Most centers did nothave an appropriate buildingsince they were run in homes orcramped spaces, there was ashortage of appropriate furnitureand play material. Arrangementsfor children with disabilitieswere also lacking. In terms ofacademic qualifications andteacher training, only about 29%of teachers had school leavingqualifications, while just 17% ofteachers had received anysystematic training in ECCD.Teachers' salaries rangedbetween Rs. 500-6,000 permonth. In terms of classroomprocesses and curriculum, therewas a tendency to teach the

primary curriculum inpreschools, rather than acurriculum appropriate for pre-primary aged children. The rapidexpansion of pre-schools, theabsence of sufficient trained pre-school teachers and the scarcityof suitable play materialcontributed to this tendency toteach the primary curriculum.This downward extension of theprimary curriculum, whichimplies introducing formalinstruction in reading, writingand arithmetic to children below5/6 years, results in mis-education at this stage and canbe detrimental to children'seducation and development.Centers which follow theplayway method advocated byECCD experts anddevelopmentally appropriatecurricula are small in number,although the few that do existappear considerably moreeffective than institutionsfollowing academic typeprimary curricula [see UNICEF(2003)].

Professional development ofpre-school teachers4.2.7. The need for trainingteachers in pre-schools has beenhighlighted by the Children'sSecretariat through itsDivisional Centers and with thehelp of NGOs. With a largenumber of untrained teachers inthe system there is a need to: (i)provide different types andlevels of training in ECCD; and(ii) institute a system ofcontinuous training, since one

point training does not havesufficient sustained impact,especially in the absence of anyfollow up support. Setting updecentralized training systemsfor pre-school teachers could bea promising option to improvethe quality of professional staff.

4.2.8. The Open Universityoffers a one year pre-schoolteacher training diploma inECCD. The Open University isconsidering preparation of amulti-disciplinary degreeprogram to prepare pre-schoolteachers with multiple skills andan adequate knowledge base towork primarily in the NGOsector. This could be a usefulcourse to equip workers toaddress the multiple linkageswithin the area of childdevelopment. However, it wouldbe necessary to supplement thiswith specific training for pre-school teachers in knowledge,skills and attitudes for EarlyChildhood Education. TheMinistry of Human ResourceDevelopment, Education andCultural Affairs has set up eightprovincial centers under its Non-Formal Education Branch, fiveof which conduct training inECE. Clearly, it is important toensure that these centersthemselves have a trained corefaculty to provide relevant andneeds-based training to pre-school teachers.

4.2.9. With the rapid expansionof pre-schools in the country,largely in civil society, issues ofregulation, minimumspecifications, quality standards

83

and training, assume greatsignificance. The Children'sSecretariat has drawn up someminimum requirements forregistration for pre-schools, butthese have not yet beenimplemented. The mainconstraints appear to beinsufficient public awarenessand the absence of anappropriate advocated system inthe provincial councils toimplement the regulations. TheChildren's Secretariat has also

prepared a standard curriculumfor pre-schools to standardizequality. This is currently onlyreference material, in theabsence of provision forsupportive training or authorityfor supervision. However, itcould form the basis for a formalcurriculum if the necessarysupport structures could beestablished. The Ministry ofSocial Welfare policy documentalso suggests coordinationcommittees at various levels.

But for quality assurancefunctionaries are required in thefield who have the training,experience, authority andaccountability to ensure qualityand promote it through pro-active and positive supportprograms and supervision. Clearlines of authority andimplementation, from nationalto the provincial and sub-provincial levels, are required toestablish this as a formal system.

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Rehabilitating andReconstructing Educationin the Conflict AffectedAreasIntroduction and Background

4.3.1. The 20 year secessionistconflict in parts of North-Eastern Sri Lanka has resulted inconsiderable damage toeducation in that region. Acomprehensive assessment ofeducation sector needs in theconflict affected areas,conducted in 2003, covered: (i)the physical capital stock, suchas school buildings andfacilities, furniture andequipment; (ii) teachers,principals and section heads;(iii) children with special needs;(iv) non-formal education; (v)peace education; (vi) schoolfeeding programs; and (vii) pre-school education. The fulleducation sector reconstruction,

rehabilitation and developmentneeds were estimated at aboutUS$164 million ($136 millionfor the North-Eastern Provinceand $28 million for fouradjacent districts). Out of thistotal, the education capital stock,such as school infrastructure

reconstruction, furniture andequipment, constituted thelargest segment (77%) [seeFigure 4.1]. In addition thetertiary education sector needswere estimated at $26 million.The tertiary education needscovered reconstruction of

Case Study III

Capital Stock 77%

PreSch 5%

SchFed 4%

CpcBuld 4%

SpNeeds 4%

NFE 2%Other 4%

Figure 4.1: Needs of the Education Reconstruction,Rehabilitation and Development Program

85

damaged infrastructure and costof staff training.

The financing gap

4.3.2. The current donorprograms consist mainly of theWorld Bank's GEP2 project andADB's NECORD project forschool infrastructure in theconflict affected areas. The totaldonor programs are estimated atapproximately US$15 million.These cover about 12% of thecapital stock needs in theseareas. In addition to donorsupport, the governmentprovides development grants toprovincial schools through itsProvince Specific DevelopmentGrant (PSDG) program. Thisprogram is quite small comparedto the level of need. The PSDGfor the NEP was only onemillion dollars in 2003 andabout $1.2 million in 2004. Thesmall government contributionto capital expenditure is mainlydue to the tight fiscal conditionof public finances and its impacton the education budget. Publiceducation sector expendituredeclined in real terms during2000-2002. If the Governmentcontinues its PSDG programs atthe same level, its contributionin the coming five years will beabout US$5 million, which willleave a financing gap of over$107 million for schoolreconstruction, rehabilitationand development in the conflictaffected areas [see Figure 4.2].The government is expected torely heavily on donor support tofinance this gap.

Government support forrecurrent education expenditure

4.3.3. The government currentlycovers the operational costs ofthe education system in theconflict affected areas, includingpaying salaries, textbooks,teaching materials, transportsubsidies and student uniforms.These operating expensesconsume a substantial volume ofresources. For instance, thegovernment allocated overUS$13 million for salaries in theNEP districts in 2003. As is to beexpected, districts with largestudent populations receive thelargest share of expenditure. Thefour largest districts Jaffna,Amparai, Batticaloa andTrincomalee receive over 80%of total salaries. These largedistricts also have quite highexpenditures per student andfairly low student teacher ratios[see Figure 4.3]. These districtsoften voice concerns overshortages of teachers. The

existence of teacher shortages insome subjects, such as English,science and mathematics, is tobe expected, given the difficultyof finding such teachers at thenational level. However, thisregion also has potential to meetteacher demand through greateruse of multi-grade and multi-subject teaching, teacherredeployment and schoolrationalization.

Capacity constraintsStaff shortages and surpluses

4.3.4. Detailed information onthe shortages and surplusesaccording to the approved cadreand existing staff in theprovincial and zonaldepartments shows that thesituation is complicated, withouta clear pattern of shortages andsurpluses across thedepartments. Overall, zonal andprovincial departments show asmall net shortage while

Current donors& gov prog

$ 20m

remaining needs$ 107m

Figure 4.2: The Financing Gap of Capital Stock Needs in theConflict Affected Areas

divisional offices show a netsurplus of staff. As foroccupations, directors, specialiststaff and accountants aregenerally in short supply, whileclerks and unskilled workers arein excess supply.

4.3.5. Extra care has to be takenwhen examining the shortagesand surpluses according to thecadre as in so many instances,the cadre does not reflect theactual needs. For example,according to the cadre there areenough engineers (5) andtechnical officers (48) in NEPdistricts. But there are noengineers in the districts ofKilinochchi, Mannar andMulativu, where the needs arehigh and demand is escalatingwith increased schoolreconstruction activities. Thecadre also shows large surplusesof in-service advisors.

4.3.6. There is mountingpressure to revise the cadre to

reflect the needs, especially inthe hard hit areas of the conflictzone. Extra care has to be takenduring such estimates. The surgein demand could be temporaryand loading the public sectorwith more staff will strain thebudget and could be costineffective, as governmentofficials tend to stay in serviceuntil retirement. The needsshould be assessed carefully interms of their magnitude andexpected duration. Also,alternative ways to recruitshould be identified and applied,such as recruiting specialists oncontracts. Furthermore,investing in means to improveworkers’ productivity should beexplored such as offeringspecialized training, providingIT and other essential officeequipment with associatedtraining, and transport funds,especially for remote areas,where supervision andmonitoring is logisticallydifficult and time-consuming.

Planning school facilities

4.3.7. Currently the planningprocess combines subjectivejudgment and needs based oncriteria such as the need perstudent and number ofclassrooms per school. Usuallythere is a lack of professionaljudgment with regard toprovision of new buildings orfurniture and the identificationof buildings that can berehabilitated or repaired. Theschool works departments as awhole lack skilled humanresources and transport facilitiesto perform adequate supervisionvisits to schools.

Capacity for reconstructionand supervision4.3.8. The capacity forreconstruction in the districtsthat are badly affected by theconflict, like Jaffna,Kilinochchi, Mulativu, Mannarand Vavuniya, are limited due toshortages of qualifiedcontractors and skilled workers.In addition, there are scarcitiesof construction materials, suchas river sand and concreteaggregates. So far theseshortages have not becamemajor obstacles and contractorsreport the availability of laborand materials. They also reportsubstantial increases in thewages for skilled and unskilledworkers and high mobility ofworkers with the end of theconflict and the removal of roadblocks and other barriers.Furthermore, the existing short-term skill development training

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0

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MANN

BATTM

ULLKIL

IN

VAVUTRIN

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AMPA

JAFF

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Sal per St

STR

Sal

arie

s pe

r st

uden

t Rs

ST

R

Figure 4.3: Salaries per Student andSTR in NEP Districts

for youth has helped in meetingthe demand for some skills.However, the situation couldchange if demand for labor andmaterials continues to escalateas a result of the expectedincrease in constructionactivities of other sectors.

4.3.9. The school worksdepartments in the provincial

offices of the conflict affectedareas have enough staff structureto supervise the construction ofschool facilities. However, staffcapacity needs to bestrengthened by filling thevacant positions of technicalstaff and training. Qualifiedstaff hired by donor projectsplay a major role in meeting thedemand for operational staff.

The shortage of transportfacilities, office equipment suchas computers andtelecommunication equipment,has negatively affected thecapacity of the existing staff.The provision of such facilitiesto school works departmentscould improve service deliverycapability.

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Case Study IV

Promoting Peace building,Civic Values and SocialCohesion throughEducationGovernment policies andstrategies

4.4.1. The goals of peacebuilding, good citizenship andsocial cohesion run as consistentthreads through the recenteducation policy and planningdocuments [see NEC (2003)].Current and proposed policiesinclude the following measures:(i) the proposed re-introduction

of 'civics / citizenship' in theschool curriculum; (ii)strengthening the curriculum topromote civic values acrosssubjects and grade levels; (iii)investing in the teaching of thesecond national language andthe 'link language' English; (iv)creating opportunities to breakdown the language and ethnic-based segregation of schoolsthrough the re-introduction ofEnglish-medium instruction; (v)providing schools a choice offree textbooks, written by avariety of authors and

systematically screened for bias;(vi) training teachers to handlesensitive issues of culture andethnicity in the classroom, andsupporting multi-ethnic teachertraining institutions, wherefeasible; and (vii) supportingschool-based strategies topromote peacebuilding and civiccompetencies through inclusiveschool management practices,co-curricular activities, andschool-community links. Theimplementation of thesemeasures has been mixed in itscoverage and its impact.

Table 4.4. ‘Civic Education Study’ Student Questionnaire,Civic Knowledge

Variable Categories Sample Civic knowledge

% %

Variable Categories Sample Civic knowledge

% %

Total 100 56

Sex Male 45.7 58Female 52.1 54

Students' Sinhalese 72.7 56Ethnicity Sri Lankan Tamil 16.3 48

Indian origin Tamil 3.0 54Muslim 6.9 60Other 0.2 60

Province Western 22 53.9Central 13.6 52.7Southern 14 55.3Northern 5.5 46.5Eastern 7.8 49.2North-Western 11.8 56.4North-Central 6.8 53.2Uva 7.5 55.9Sabaragamuwa 10.2 58.4

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Civic competencies among SriLankan 14 year-olds - findingsof a national research study

4.4.2 Three areas of a recentstudy [see NEREC (2004)] onthe civic competencies ofchildren are briefly reported onhere: (i) 'Civic Knowledge' testscores; (ii) opportunities to learnthe second national language;and (iii) findings from thespecial survey section on 'SocialCohesion, Diversity and Peace'.The study was based on anationally representative sampleof 2660 students, taken from133 schools in all 25 districts.

4.4.3. 'Civic Knowledge' testscores for Sri Lankan Tamilstudents, and for the North-Eastern Province are lower thanfor the other ethnic groups andprovinces, probably due to theeffects of the conflict. Therelatively low test scores forNorth-Eastern Province mirrorlow levels of achievement in thenational assessment of learningoutcomes at primary level, whencompared to other provinces[see NEREC (2004)].

4.4.4. 18% of all respondentshad 'never' or 'rarely' had theopportunity to study the second

national language - acompulsory subject from Grades3-9. Tamil-medium studentswere particularly isolated, with34% of respondents 'never' or'rarely' learning Sinhala. In theNorthern part of North-EasternProvince, this figure rises to61%. When asked whether theyshould have opportunities forsecond national languagelearning, 89% of all respondentsagreed. The low levels of secondnational language learning canbeen attributed to demand-sidefactors (the second nationallanguage is not a compulsorysubject in Grade 5 scholarship

23

54

43

35

10

7

24

4

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Tamil medium

Sinhala medium Often

Sometimes

Rarely

Never

"I have had the opportunity to study (Sinhala / Tamil)as a second national language"

Figure 4.4. 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire (Social Cohesion, Diversity, Peace)

62 60

39

28

52 4840

4957

51

84 84 85

57

7584 87 88 91

82

0102030405060708090

100

Wes

tern

Centra

l

Souther

n

Norther

n

Eastern

North-W

estern

North-C

entra

lUva

Sabar

agam

uwa

Sri La

nka

I have had theopportuntiy tolearn togetherwith children ofother ethnicgroups(sometimes / often)

I should be giventhe opportunity tolearn together withchildren of otherethnic groups(agree / totallyagree)

Figure 4.5. 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire (Social Cohesion, Diversity, Peace)

89

and O/L examinations, therebyreducing the incentives to studyit; there is also a higher demandfor English, for socio-economicreasons), and supply-side factors(e.g. a shortage of teachers).

4.4.5. 51% of all respondentshave 'sometimes' or 'often' hadthe opportunity to learn togetherwith children of other ethnicgroups. The figure is lowest inthe Northern part of the North-Eastern Province, and in theSouthern Province. When askedwhether they should have theopportunity to learn togetherwith children of other ethnicgroups, 82% of all respondentsagreed. 49% of all students alsoreported that they had no closefriends from other ethnicgroups. Answering a separatetest item, 61% of all respondentshave ‘never’ or ‘rarely’ had theopportunity to discuss ethnicproblems with children of otherethnic groups. When askedwhether they should have theseopportunities, 77% of all

respondents agreed. There is aclear disparity, in all Provinces,between actual and desiredopportunities across thesecategories: children want moreopportunities to learn the secondnational language, to learntogether, and to exchange ideaswith other ethnic groups. Focusgroup discussions were also heldwith students in seven zones inthe north and east. Studentsdisplayed: (i) enthusiasm forcross-cultural activities; (ii) astrong appetite for peace; (iii)disillusionment with ‘politics’;(iv) a notion of ‘citizenship’ thatis multi-cultural and not mono-

cultural in nature; and (v)modest knowledge of currentpolitical processes [see NEREC(2004)]. In a separate test item,90% of students felt that schoolsshould contribute to activities tobring about peace.

The school curriculum andbroader instructional processes

4.4.6. A literature review revealsthat studies15 which address theinstructional challenges ofpromoting peace building in SriLankan schools show broadconsensus in two areas: (i) theeducation system needs to orient

Figure 4.6. Integration of Peacebuilding & Civics in Schools (UNESCO, 2001, adapted)

Peacebuilding & Civics:concepts and practice

Curriculum: subject content

Teaching methods

School management

Textbooks & materials

Total Curriculum

Co-curricular activities

School-community links

School-level pilots in civics & citizenship - an example fromNorthern IrelandThe two-year 'Social, Civic and Political Education Project' was a partnershipbetween the Council for Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment, and auniversity. The project included the development and trialing of curriculumresources, teacher training modules, and models of cooperation betweenschools, curriculum developers, NGOs and community organizations. Througha process of piloting different approaches, the project arrived at a model ofteaching and learning where 'citizenship' concepts were designed to beinvestigated, rather than taught didactically: “In the attempt to move beyond'polite exchange' and to avoid a compliance model of citizenship we havearrived at an investigatory curriculum driven by questions rather than answers”.

15. E.g. NEC, (2003), Perera et. al., (2003); NEREC, (2004).

90

itself further to addressadequately the challenges ofpeace building, pluralism andcivic education; and (ii)educational strategies to addressthese issues should adopt a‘systemic’ or ‘integrative’approach, which will involve arange of institutions andinterventions at different levels,with particular emphasis on theschool. Figure 4.6 provides auseful conceptual framework.

Curriculum and assessment

4.4.7. The school curriculum isstructured around 5 broadcompetencies: communication,the environment, ethics andreligion, play and leisure,learning to learn. Within thisframework, specific ‘EssentialLearning Competencies’ aredefined for the different KeyStages at primary level. They arecurrently being developed forthe secondary level.Consideration might be given todefining broad competenciesrelating to civic values, andestablishing a clear andmanageable link establishedbetween these competencies,curriculum and syllabusspecification, teacher guides andtextbooks, teacher training andassessment (both school-basedassessment and examinations).

4.4.8. Many countries areinvesting in ‘citizenship’, evenat the primary level. In the UK,while citizenship education isnot a statutory requirement for

primary schools, there exist awide range of resourcesincluding teachers’ guides,schemes of work, guides formanagers, and ‘whole-schoolplanning’ frameworks.16 A‘peace curriculum’ has beenpiloted in Sierra Leone, withcurriculum units, cross-curricular units and ‘whole-school and communityactivities’ from Grade 1. TheNEC recommendations proposea continuation of the primaryreforms, with renewed attentionin areas including “thedevelopment of values andattitudes”, and “the teaching oflanguages”, [see NEC (2003),pp. 156-158, emphasis added].Three approaches might beadopted: (i) develop resourcesand programs of work to supportprimary teachers in thepromotion of peace building andcivics; (ii) strengthen theteaching of languages; and (iii)reinforce measures to promotemulti-culturalism and socialinclusion within the core NIEfunctions of curriculum andmaterials development, andteacher training.

4.4.9. At the secondary level,there is a particular opportunityarising with the reintroductionof civics / citizenship into thesecondary curriculum, startingfrom 2005. The recent NECanalysis also concludes thatcompetencies relating to socialharmony and citizenship are“crosscutting issues that eachcurriculum developer has to

integrate appropriately intosyllabi” [see NEC (2003)].These strategies can be pursuedtogether, combined withapproaches piloted at the schoollevel.

4.4.10. Selecting from a choiceof items listed, teachers listedthe following items as theirgreatest needs in terms ofimproving civic education: (i)additional training in subjectmatter knowledge; (ii)additional training in teachingmethods; (iii) better materialsand text books; (iv) moreopportunities for specialprojects; and (v) more resourcesfor extra-curricular activities[see NEREC (2004)]. 70% ofteachers agreed that they shouldnegotiate with students what isto be studied in civic education,while 88% of students replyingto the Student Questionnaire feltthat their active participationshould be obtained for civiceducation activities. Theseresponses seem to allow for ahigh degree of interaction in theteaching / learning of civics,supporting the NEC'srecommendations for an issuebased and activity basedapproach [see NEC (2003)]. InFocus Group discussions in theNorth-Eastern Province,emphasis was placed on thecontested and political nature of‘citizenship’ and ‘civics’. It wassuggested that an approach tocitizenship based on co-existence would be preferable toan assimilationist approach,

16. See e.g. (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/ks1-2citizenship)

91

which might be perceived as athreat to cultural and ethnicidentity.17

4.4.11. Perera et. al. (2003)highlight similar concerns forhistory: “…reaching consensuson some of the fundamental andmost sensitive issues such as'whose history, selected bywhom, and for what purpose',seem well nigh impossible”.They conclude that “Creativesolutions may need to be sought,allowing for the flexibilityalready existing in the systemfor regional variations, themultiple book option, etc.” [seePerera et. al., 2003, emphasisadded]. Both areas seem toindicate potential to advance amodel of history teaching thatcan encourage critical thinkingbased on evidence, andaccommodate alternativeperspectives. First, the scope foraccommodating regionalvariations in the historycurriculum - as the UvaProvince has commenced -should be explored. Second, theMultiple Textbook Option offersthe possibility of providingdifferent perspectives, within anational curriculum framework.

4.4.12. The potential oflanguages to promote inter-cultural understanding liesperhaps in three areas: (i)improving the languagecompetencies of children willincrease the opportunities forchildren to communicate acrosslanguage divides; (ii) expandingEnglish-medium instruction willcreate opportunities to breakdown the language-basedsegregation of schools; and (iii)the teaching of languages can beused as a vehicle to promotemulti-culturalism. There is alsostrong potential to promotepeace building / civics insubjects such as Religion,Aesthetics, and IT.

4.4.13. The subject LifeCompetencies was introduced inGrades 7-9 in the current cycleof reforms, to address a range ofareas including civics and inter-cultural understanding. Small-scale surveys and focus groupdiscussions with teachersindicate the following needs tostrengthen this program: (i)increase clarity over objectivesand curriculum content; (ii)greater teacher and staffdevelopment; and (iii) increased

resources and system-widesupport [see Perera et. al.,2003].

Textbooks

4.4.14. Textbook writing andproduction processes have attimes resulted in textbookcontent which is error-riddenand insensitive to various socialgroups. In recent years,however, the government hasembarked upon a series ofreforms, including: (i)introducing the 'MultipleTextbook Option', moving froma state monopoly singletextbook policy to private sectorproduction of three titles persubject per grade; (ii) a focus oninclusion and equity in materialproduction processes at the NIE,particularly at the primary level;(iii) developing 'sensitivity'guidelines for Subject SpecialistTeams in textbook selectionprocedures; and (iv) constitutinga specialist 'Diversity ReviewPanel' - representing differentethnic groups and religions, anddiverse academic disciplines - toreview materials for bias. It willbe necessary to strengthen thesemeasures and monitor theiroutcomes.

Teacher education

4.4.15. Initiatives to promotemulticulturalism in teachereducation have been limited intheir coverage, and requirestronger links to the curriculum.

Dharmadutha College, BadullaIn Dharmadutha College, Badulla, which is 85% Sinhalese, the Principal hasworked with his prefects and students to initiate activities with neighbouringTamil and Muslim schools. The school has established the 'Uva Students PeaceFoundation', which organises inter-school activities, and prints a newsletter.The Principal has promoted Tamil-medium instruction, and English-medium atjunior and senior secondary levels. Sinhalese students say that activities withneighbouring Tamil and Muslim students have increased levels of trust betweenthe groups and resulted in strong friendships.

17. In Northern Ireland, neither the British nor Irish national identity provides the basis for a 'patriotic' model of 'citizenship'that can be accepted in all schools. Smith (2003) concludes that citizenship education should be based on concepts of rightsand responsibilities, rather than national unity.

Perera notes: “Educatingteachers for a pluralist society, tomanage curriculum relatedteaching, learning and adoptinga multi-cultural perspectivewould require more concertedand systematic orientation ofteachers” [see Perera et. al.,2003, emphasis added]. Thechallenge, it seems, is mainly intwo areas: (i) strengthen theNCOE pre-service curriculum toenable teachers to handle peacebuilding and civics at primaryand secondary level; and (ii)invest in continuing teacherdevelopment programs. Suchprograms should be in step withcurriculum reforms, and shouldbuild upon work supported byUNICEF and GTZ. Tennekoon(2001) shows through actionresearch conducted at thePasdunrata NCOE thatstructured opportunities forinter-cultural collaboration canhelp reduce ethnocentricattitudes in student teachers, andalso help them to handleeffectively the concept of socialcohesion in the classroom -evidence of the value ofbreaking down institutionalsegregation in teacher training.Consideration may also be givento a more formal qualificationrelating to civics / citizenship.South Africa, for example, hasintroduced an 'AdvancedCertificate in CitizenshipEducation'.

School management, co-curricular activities & school-community links

4.4.16. The school ‘culture’ or‘hidden curriculum’ is key to thedevelopment of values, attitudesand behaviours in students.

4.4.17. Research currentlybeing conducted by the NIE,with UNICEF support, willdocument examples of goodpractice to promote socialcohesion in schools. Thisresearch could be used to informPrincipals training, and tosupport school-based strategiesfor peace building and civics,appropriate for each school'sparticular instructional andsocial context. This isparticularly relevant givenproposals to develop School-Based Management throughSchool Development Boards.Different approaches might beinvestigated through a pilotphase.

4.4.18. The following measurestherefore emerge as promisingareas for strengthening,consistent with current andproposed policy:

a. specifying broad learningcompetencies, andsupporting teachers todevelop and assess thesecompetencies in schools;

b. introducing an inclusive‘ c i v i c s / c i t i z e n s h i p ’curriculum that emphasize

activity based learningand links to the broaderworld outside the school;

c. strengthening the capacityof curriculum developers,teachers and managers toincorporate civic values asa cross-cutting concernacross subjects, gradelevels, and schoolpractices;

d. strengthening the teachingof the second nationallanguages and English;

e. continuing an equitablephased expansion ofE n g l i s h - m e d i u minstruction;

f. providing a choice oftextbooks and materials,inclusive and screened forbias;

g. investing in pre-serviceand continuing teacherdevelopment; and

h. incentivising andsupporting school-basedstrategies for peacebuilding and civics,through school-basedplanning andmanagement.

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93

Chapter Five

TRAINING ANDLINKS TO THELABOR MARKET

5.0 Introduction5.1. High unemployment ratesamong educated young peopleand their low skill levels areissues of critical policy concernfor GOSL. Youthunemployment, resulting mainlyfrom prolonged job search, is ofparticular concern given thehistory of social unrest overyouth joblessness. This iscombined with another policyconcern that school-leavers -grade 9, GCE O and A-levels,and university graduates areentering the labor market ill-prepared for the world of work.An important response fromGOSL has been to developtechnical education andvocational training to facilitatethe school to work transition andto reduce skills gaps and skillmismatches in the labor market.

However, the information baseon the technical education andvocational training (TEVT)system is weak, with no majorreviews of this sector in recenttimes. This chapter seeks to fillthis important information gapby undertaking an analysis ofTEVT to complement theanalysis of the general educationsystem.

5.2. The chapter focuses ontwo principal areas. First, itprovides an overview of theoverall policy framework for theTEVT sector. It examines: (i)the governance and financing ofpublic sector traininginstitutions; (ii) the supply ofpublic sector vocational trainingand technical educationopportunities, the range oftraining programs and coursesavailable, enrollments over time,

and their regional coverage; (iii)the environment for privatesector participation in training;and (iv) the evolution ofthinking about TEVT and itsrole in the economy, andformulation and implementationof training policies. Second, thechapter uses time-series datafrom the Labor Force Survey(LFS) to investigate the linkagesbetween technical education andvocational training on one hand,and labor market outcomes onthe other hand. This analysiswill focus on (i) the demand forpost-school technical andvocational training, especiallyamong school completers at thekey exit points of the schoolsystem and between gendergroups; (ii) how the demand fortraining varies over the work-life; and (iii) the labor marketoutcomes of investments in

different types of training,especially their impacts onunemployment, job searchduration, and earnings. Thechapter concludes with asummary of findings andimplications.

5.1 TVET InstitutionalFramework and PoliciesInstitutional Framework

5.3. The Technical Educationand Vocational Training (TEVT)sector in Sri Lanka is currentlymade up of an extensive systemof public, private and NGOsector training providers. Publicsector TEVT providers in Sri

Lanka used to function underdifferent ministries up to themid-1990s. In 1994 however,the TEVT sector was elevated toa ministerial function and thekey TEVT providers placedunder the supervision of oneministry, the Ministry of TertiaryEducation and VocationalTraining (MTEVT).18 As part ofthis reorganization, the Tertiaryand Vocational EducationCommission (TVEC) wasestablished and now functions asthe apex body for setting policyand regulating TEVT sectoractivities. In 2001, there wereabout 920 training institutesregistered with the TEVC

comprising of 556 institutions inthe public sector, 252 in theprivate sector and 112 in theNGO sector. In addition, asizable number of private sectorproviders operate in the marketwithout registering with theTEVC.19 The broad institutionalframework of the TEVT systemin Sri Lanka is presented inFigure 5.1.

5.4. Among public sectorinstitutions, the key providersinclude the Department ofTechnical Education andTraining (DTET), NationalApprenticeship and IndustrialTraining Authority (NAITA), Sri

94

18. Prior to that, under the Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training and the Ministry of Vocational Training and RuralIndustries.

19. According to the Ministry of Tertiary Education and Training (MTET), there were around 1,000 unregistered vocational andtechnical institutions operating throughout the country in 2003.

Figure 5.1. Institutional Framework of the TVET Sector

GOVERNMENT

Ministry of Youth Affairs &Sports

Priv

ate

Sec

tor

NG

Os

DT

ET

NA

ITA

Other Ministriesengaged in TEVT

Ministry of Tertiary Education &Vocational Training.

TVEC

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Bod

ies

Lanka Institute of AdvancedTechnical Education (SLIATE),Vocational Training Authority ofSri Lanka (VTA), and NationalYouth Services Council(NYSC). In addition, severalother Ministries, governmentdepartments and semi-government institutions alsoconduct sector specific skilldevelopment programs relatingto fisheries, agriculture,textiles/garments, transport,c o n s t r u c t i o n ,telecommunication and variousother manufacturing fields. Themajor public TEVT providersaccount for nearly 85 percent oftraining provided by the statesector:

• DTET delivers formalinstitution-based trainingat 37 technical collegesand affiliated institutionsin major provincial anddistrict capitals. Using thisregional net work, DTEToffers about 60 courses ona full-time and part-timebasis in four areas: a)technicians studies, b) craftstudies, c) business studiesand, d) general studies.The majority of programsare in the management andcommerce (32.5%),building and construction(29.7%) and electrical andelectronics (17.9%) sub-sectors.

• NAITA, the successor tothe NationalApprenticeship Board, hasisland-wide coveragethrough a delivery

network in 9 Provinces. Itoffers four majorvocational trainingprograms:a. enterprise - based

apprenticeships;b. institution-based dual

training;c. in-plant training for

other tertiary levelcourses; and

d. training of trainers.

Together, they account for about140 courses representing 20different trade groups.

• VTA began vocationaltraining in 1995 as thesuccessor to the trainingarm of the Department ofLabor which pioneeredvocational training forout-of school,unemployed youth. Itcaters primarily to ruralunemployed youth,providing employment-oriented short courses at207 Rural VocationalTraining Centers (RVTC)which work closely withrural committees and localorganizations. In addition,14 District VocationalTraining Centers (DVTC),4 National Institutes and 9Special Centers offercertificated courses oflonger duration.

• SLIATE, established in1995, caters to A-levelqualified studentsinterested in TEVT. Itoversees 6 AdvancedTechnical Institutions and

3 Advanced TechnicalCenters, and conductssome higher leveltechnical courses in 10Technical Colleges thatwere previously run byDTET.

• NYSC is another majorpublic TEVT provider butunder the supervision ofthe Ministry of YouthAffairs and Sports(MYAS). The courses atNYSC are offered at twolevels: Level 1 (basiccourses) and Level 2(semi-skilled craftsmancourses). In addition,NYSC also provides jobmarket information andcareer guidance servicesto rural youth through itsRural Centers.

5.5. The non-state TEVTsector, while quite smallinitially, has grown andexpanded into many areasduring the post-liberalizationperiod. Private training institutesare now well established inoccupational areas such asmachining, welding, radiorepair, motor repair, electricalwiring, refrigeration and airconditioning, television,computer and communicationstechnology, tourism and hotelindustry. Many private providersoperate on a fee basis, especiallyin urban centers for book-keeping and accountancy,computer technology and officemanagement. The NGO trainingsector covers many religious andvoluntary organizations that

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offer craft-level training, fee-free or on a nominal fee basis,targeting unemployed youth,rural women, school leavers,and semi- or unskilled workers.The information base on privateand NGO sector TEVTproviders - their enrollments,regional distribution, courseofferings, and operations - islimited and coverage relativelyincomplete.

Trainee Enrollments5.6. Figure 5.2 presentsinformation on training outputof the major public TEVTproviders from 1990 to 2002.Student intake grew from 32,612to 67,612 between 1990 and2002 representing an annualgrowth of 8.9 percent. Thefigure shows the growingdominance over time of VTA asagainst the declining share ofNAITA in the TEVT sector. The

DTET share appears to havestabilized after a significant dropin 1996 with the takeover ofsome of its training programs bySLIATE. Though not shownhere, in terms of gender, theproportion of femaleenrollments in TEVT courseshas remained relatively constantat about 40 percent, clustered inseveral traditionally femaleoccupations (e.g. dressmaking,ISM operator, beauty culture,secretarial jobs); recently,however, female participationhas increased as new courseswere offered in English forcommerce, industry and furthereducation (69%), accountingtechnicians (65%), computerapplications (73%) andcomputer programmer andoperator (57%).20 In general,female participation in TEVT islow relative to their participationrates in school and highereducation.

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20. Based on DTET data for 2002.

Table 5.1 TEVT Enrollments by Province - 1990 to 2002

Source: Technical and Vocational Education Commission.

Province 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002

Western 29.23 30.54 30.07 29.86 28.60Southern 16.03 15.82 16.38 8.77 16.71Sabaragamuwa 12.44 11.15 11.65 16.62 11.63North-Western 11.64 10.53 9.66 2.32 9.93Central 11.52 12.06 9.35 8.95 9.31Eastern 9.29 8.91 8.92 9.93 9.16Uva 5.60 6.17 6.87 4.41 7.46North Central 3.96 4.35 4.53 7.55 4.49Northern 0.30 0.48 2.56 11.58 2.71Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Figure 5.2 TEVT Enrollments 1990-2002

0

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ents

SLIATE

NYSC

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Source: Technical and Vocational Education Commission.

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5.7. Table 5.1 reports totalstudent enrollments acrossprovinces by the major publicsector TEVT providers. Thetable reveals a regionalconcentration of TEVTactivities in the Western,Southern, Sabaragamuwa,North-Western and CentralProvinces. The WesternProvince alone accounts forabout 30 percent of enrollmentswhile the other four provincestogether account for more than45 percent of total enrollments.This closely follows the heavyconcentration of regional grossdomestic product (RGDP) in theWestern Province (47 percent)and in the other four provinces(37 percent). Among the majorpublic sector providers, VTAleads in serving rural youthbecause of its regional networkof RVTCs supported by Districtand National Training Centers.In 2002, these RVTCs (19,351trainees) and DVTCs (3,157trainees) accounted for about

one third of all enrollment bymajor public TEVT providers.

5.8. Table 5.2 presents therecurrent and capitalexpenditures by the major publicTEVT institutions in 1983, 1993and 2002. Between 1983 and2002, total expenditures bymajor public sector TEVTproviders increased from Rs.230.4 million to Rs. 1527.3million, representing an averageannual growth of 35 percent innominal terms. At constantprices, however, this reflectsonly a marginal increase of 1.3percent per annum. Even thisincrease is mainly due toadditional investments providedby the Asian Development Bank(ADB) through the SkillsDevelopment Project (SDP). Interms of total governmentexpenditure, the share of majorpublic TEVT providers wasaround 0.31 and 0.36 percent in1983 and 2002, respectively.Another point emerges from

Table 5.2, namely thatallocations for capitalinvestments have declinedsteadily over this period, from45 to 20 percent. Given therelatively high cost ofspecialized buildings, workshopand equipment required forTEVT, this declining share ofcapital budgets has adverseimplications of delayedreplacement and growingobsolescence of trainingequipment.

Evolution of TEVT Institutionsand Training Policies

5.9. The TEVT institutionalframework and training policieshave evolved over the past threedecades. One policy objective,however, has remained constant- government provision of pre-employment technical andvocational training to addressthe problem of high youthunemployment. Over time,however, other policyconsiderations have emerged

Table 5.2 Total Expenditures by Major TEVT Institutions (Rs. Millions)

Sources: Annual Government Budget Estimates and Final Accounts of Statutory BodiesNotes: Recurr. = Recurrent budget ; Capital = Capital budget; SDP = Skills Development Project;

* Apportioned based on ADB project documents

Institution 1983 1993 2002Recurr. Capital Recurr. Capital Recurr. Capital

DTET 43.6 37.7 130.7 262.3 319.0 125.0Department of Labor 21.4 7.1 61.0 16.5 - -NAITA 57.4 55.5 152.3 33.7 217.0 20.0VTA - - - - 208.0 16.0NYSC 4.1 3.6 22.5 - 214.0 4.0TVEC - - 7.0 - 21.0 5.5SLIATE - - - - 101.5 19.3SDP Skills 136.0* 121.0*Total 126.5 103.9 373.5 312.5 1216.5 310.8

with changes in themacroeconomic environment,including meeting the skillneeds of industrial restructuringand competitiveness in a globaleconomy. This section describesthese major changes in thinkingabout the roles and objectives ofTEVT and the institutionalreform that accompanied thesepolicy changes, drawing upon anumber of key policy statementsand documents, as well asinterviews with responsiblegovernment agencies.

5.10. Demand sideconsiderations in promotingTEVT began with the post-1977pro-market reforms andcontinued through the 1980s.The 1977 policy reforms oftrade and industry, and adoptionof export-led growth strategiesled to expansion of thesecondary and tertiary sectors ofthe economy, creating additionaldemand for skilled, semi-skilledand unskilled labor. The stateTEVT sector did not have theresources or the institutionalflexibility to respond, whichcreated opportunities for privatesector providers to enter and fillthis unsatisfied demand fortraining. The private sectortraining role was explicitlyrecognized as part of a largerstrategy of promoting TVET fornational competitiveness in the1989 Industrialization Strategy

of the Ministry of IndustrialDevelopment (MID). Todevelop specific skills andexpertise required by an outwardlooking industrial sector, MIDmade upgrading of technicaltraining institutes andestablishment of a Vocationaland Tertiary EducationCommission (VTEC) prioritiesfor immediate action. It alsostressed the need to expand therole of private industry andNGOs in TEVT development,with industry providing moretraining facilities at lower levelsand voluntary organizationsoffering training in technologyand management skills. Fiscalincentives (for example, doublededuction of trainingexpenditures from income tax)were also considered as possiblepolicy initiatives to promoteindustry's participation intraining provision.21

5.11. The new government thatwas formed in 1994 continuedthis policy in developing theTEVT sector. The PolicyStatement issued by thePresident in January 1995 isinstructive; it stated that“despite its high levels ofliteracy, the Sri Lankanworkforce lacks the requisiteskills that are essential forindustrial upgrading anddiversification. The numerousshort-run skill development

programs and the generaleducation system are essentiallysupply-driven and thereforehave a poor record of providingindustry-relevant skills. Thevocational training system willbe extensively restructured so asto be demand-driven, incooperation with the privatesector who will be the eventualemployers.” Echoing this, the1995 Budget Speechemphasized the importance of“consolidating the variety ofdispersed and uncoordinatedfacilities for vocational trainingand directing them to createskills which are sorely neededby the growing economy”. Tothis end, the NewIndustrialization Strategy ofMID (1995) identified threemajor areas for TEVT reform:(i) restructuring tertiaryeducation and the vocationaltraining system; (ii) setting up aSkills Development Fund; and(iii) reorienting public sectortechnical institutes to meetmarket needs. In October, 1997a special Task Force wasestablished to study inter-ministerial barriers and to comeup with policy recommendationsfor TEVT sector developmentinvolving both the public andprivate sectors. Its findings ledto major changes in the TEVTsector in terms ofrationalization, recognition ofvocational training as a

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21. References to double deduction tax incentives for training (DDIT) have appeared periodically in Budget speeches over theyears, but it remains unclear whether this fiscal incentive has ever been implemented, and if so, how wide-spread its use is,or whether it has had the desired impact of fostering training in industry. In Malaysia, an assessment of its DDIT indicatedthat the incentive was used principally by large companies and multi-national corporations who were already training; itwas not widely used among local small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs), most of whom provide little in-servicetraining. As such, the GOM eliminated DDIT in 1993 and, in its place, introduced the Human Resource Development Fund.

Ministerial Function, and co-ordination of TEVT activities atthe national level.

5.12. Since 2001, a largenumber of policy documentshave been published,highlighting the challengesfacing the TEVT sector,proposing further reforms to andrationalization of public traininginstitutions, introducingcompetency standards andaccreditation, and offering newfinancial incentives and policyinstruments for fosteringdemand-led training:

• “Vision 2010” (2001)identified three majorchallenges facing theTEVT sector - qualitativeand quantitativemismatches in certainareas of skills demand;external and internalinefficiencies in the sectorwith duplication ofcourses, outdatedequipment and curricula,shortage of good trainersand high dropout rates;and sub-optimal use ofpublic sector workshopsand laboratories. Inresponse to thesechallenges, policies in theTEVT sector should: (i)promote private sector-ledskills training; (ii) targetyouth with anentrepreneurial mind-set;(iii) link performance andbudgets and provide

institutions with increasedautonomy; (iv) fostermore skilled trainingthrough a system of skillaccreditation; (v) provideskills to compete in globallabor markets; and (vi)train to match industry'sskill needs.

• “Regaining Sri Lanka”(2001), published by thenew government, notedthat, “post secondaryskills training institutessuffer from a mismatchbetween the trainingoffered and the skillsrequired in a modern,market economy.Management deficiencies,outdated equipment andcurricula and shortage ofcapable trainers lead tohigh drop out rates andlow returns to training.” Itproposed that (i)performance standards forvocational training berevised along the lines ofc o m p e t e n c y - b a s e dtraining, based onstandards derived fromindustry; and (ii) a HigherInstitute of AppliedTechnology be establishedto lead the vocationaltraining process, andprovide a recognizedsystem of professionalcertification in thevocational trades.

• The “Draft NationalEmployment Policy”

(2002), put out by theMinistry of Employmentand Labor, recommendedsix major policy reformsfor the TEVT sector: (i)training systemsrestructured to meet futuredemands; (ii) promotionof vocational training forthe informal sector; (iii)fostering government-industry partnerships intraining; (iv) thegovernment to function asa facilitator, standardsetter and regulator oftraining; (v) financialincentives for trainingtargeting the corporatesector; and (vi) provisionto disadvantaged groupsof financial assistance fortraining. The BudgetSpeech for 2003 and 2004elaborated on theoperational details ofthese recommendations,including theestablishment of a HumanResources EndowmentFund (HREF) that wouldprovide training vouchersfor unemployed youth andskills upgrading foremployees, as well as softloans to upgrade trainingfacilities for providers.22

• The “National Policy andAction Plan for theDevelopment of TechnicalEducation” (2002)published by the NationalEducation Council (NEC)

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22. The proposed Human Resources Endowment Fund (HREF) is to be funded from dormant social security accounts. The 2004Budget Speech proposed that funds from the ADB Skills Development Fund also be used to finance HREF. The fundremains to be implemented as the proposed new training initiative has yet to be presented to, and discussed by, parliament.

called for thereorganization andupgrading of the TEVTsector. Seven majorelements are to beconsidered in formulatingthe national policyframework for the TEVTsector: (i) skills ladderingto facilitate upwardmobility of skillsacquisition; (ii) betterlinkages of TEVT with theschool and universitysystems; (iii) privatesector participation intraining; (iv) improvedfunctioning of theTechnical and VocationalEducation Commission(TVEC) as the apex bodyfor TEVT; (v)accreditation of andquality monitoring ofpublic and private traininginstitutions; (vi)rationalization of thepublic sector TEVTsystem; and (vii) settingup a degree awardinginstitution for TEVT.

5.13. The TEVT sector'srestructuring, rationalization andreform process to implement themany proposals introduced sincethe mid-1990s is still a work-in-progress. Interviews withMTEVT, TEVC and individualTEVT institutions indicated thata number of initiatives areunderway. A partial list includes(i) pilots in several provinces to

simplify applications fortraining-a single application forall TEVT institutions-and tocoordinate and rationalizecourse offerings from differentTEVT institutions in the samelocal area; (ii) development ofconcrete action plans in theTVEC to implement broadpolicy directives, especially inthe area of competency basedtraining and skills laddering;(iii) course offerings on a feepaying basis for selected high-demand courses as a way topartially recover costs; and (iv)increased collaboration acrossTEVT institutions, especiallywith NAITA which has stronglinks with employers, to solicitopportunities for practicaltraining from private sectoremployers to enhance theindustrial relevance of training.

Monitoring and Evaluationof Training5.14. TVEC is charged withoverall implementation oftechnical and vocational trainingpolicies, and coordination oftraining in the public and privatesectors. As part of this mandate,it assembles and publishesstatistics on training, a directoryof public and private sectortraining providers, as well asselected labor market data onjob vacancies and job seekers.23

This labor market informationsystem (LMIS) is valuable butits usefulness is limited by its

current availability in hard-copyonly; it remains to be madeavailable electronically topolicymakers and the public.The TVEC data base's coverageof training opportunities in theprivate sector is also limited-registration with TEVC ismandatory but an unknownnumber of private traininginstitutions have reportedly yetto do so. Those that do registerprovide limited information ontheir course offerings, butalmost no hard data onenrollments and theiroperations. As such, monitoringof training incidence and trendsis necessarily limited to thetechnical and vocational trainingprovided by the public sector;virtually nothing is known abouthow widespread training is inthe private sector, either thatprovided by private and NGOsector training providers, or byemployers themselves in theform of in-service training.This paucity of training datalimits the ability of TVEC andpolicymakers to make informedevidence-based policyjudgments about the adequacyof training provided by thepublic and private TEVTsectors, or by employers.

5.15. Compounding dataconstraints is weak public sectorcapacity in impact evaluations,so that training (and other labormarket) interventions to addressproblems of youth

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23. Until recently, the main source of information was job vacancies culled from newspaper advertisements. JobsNet - set up withinthe past year to receive job applications from job seekers and job vacancies listed by employers, and provide a web-based jobmatching clearing house - is a promising new source of labor market information.

unemployment are rarelyevaluated. The exceptions arethree recent tracer studies ofgraduates from DTET, NAITAand VTA conducted withtechnical assistance and fundingfrom GTZ.24 All three tracerstudies used a unified approach-following graduates 1-3 yearsafter training and administeringa common (and thuscomparable) retrospectivesurvey. The broad outcomecriteria used to assess theexternal efficiency of theseTEVT programs includedemployability after training, andrelevance of training received asper industry's requirements.

5.16. The two outcomemeasures are summarized inTable 5.3 for each program.First, at the time of the survey,employment rates for graduateswere 71.8, 66.6 and 28.6 percentfor NAITA, DTET and VTA,

respectively. Employability ofVTA graduates was especiallylow. In other results not reportedin the table, duration of jobsearch also varied greatlybetween TEVT providers. In thecase of NAITA, for example, 30percent were able to findemployment immediately upontraining completion whileanother 54 percent found jobswithin six months. In contrast,only 2.7 per cent of VTAgraduates and 37.6 per cent ofDTET graduates were able tofind some employment withinthe first six months. Second, forthose finding jobs, graduatesrated highly the relevance oftraining provided by NAITA (73percent “very relevant”), and byVTA (65 percent), as comparedto 40 percent for DTET. At theother extreme, focusing on “Notrelevant at all” responses,NAITA fared best with just 11percent negative responses as

compared to 25-30 percentnegative responses for the othertwo TEVT providers.

5.17. These tracer studiesprovide useful insights but arenonetheless limited. First, asone-off evaluations, tracerstudies are of limited use unlessthey are repeated periodicallyand used to continuouslymonitor whether progress isbeing made to improve trainingoutcomes and remedy identifieddeficiencies in trainingrelevance. A second, and moreserious limitation is the absenceof a control group against whichperformance of graduates can becompared. A control group-comprising individuals withidentical characteristics asTEVT trainees but notparticipating in trainingprograms-is needed to addressthe counterfactual question ofhow trainees would have fared

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Table 5.3 Principal Outcomes of Tracer Studies of TEVT Graduates

Sources: DTET(2002), NAITA (2001) and VTA (2001)

DTET NAITA VTA

Employment StatusWage employment 49.3 62.2 14.3Self employment 6.1 9.6 14.3Employed in other categories of work 10.7 - -Unemployed 33.9 28.2 62.7Not seeking a job - - 8.7Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Relevance of Training to the JobVery relevant 39.8 72.7 65.4Relevant 30.4 15.8 8.9Not relevant at all 29.8 11.5 25.7Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

24. The DTET study (1999/2000) was based on a sample of 2,732 graduates taking DTET courses in 1995 and 1996, and drawnfrom across the country except for the Northern Province. The NAITA study (2000) was based on a sample of 706 apprenticesgraduating between 1996 and 1999, drawn from the Western, Central, Southern and North Western Provinces. Similarly, theVTA (2001) study was made up of a sample of 973 trainees in 48 trades drawn from the Central, Uva and Southern Provinces.

had they not participated intraining, and to measure the netcontribution of training to theoutcomes observed. Forexample, if 40 percent of thecontrol group of unemployedfound jobs within 12 months ascompared to 55 percent ofDTET graduates, then just 15percent (55 minus 40 percent),the observed difference inemployment rates, can beattributed to the trainingprovided in DTET. The netimpact of training is the relevantoutcome to consider in judgingthe efficacy and cost-efficiencyof training (and other labormarket) interventions to addressyouth unemployment.25

5.2 Overview of TVETTrends from Labour ForceSurveys5.18. With this overview ofTEVT institutions and policiesas background, the focus of thechapter turns next to an analysisof training trends and theireffects on labor marketoutcomes, especially as theypertain to unemployed youth.

5.19. This section paints a broadbrush overview of trends inpost-school vocational andtechnical training (henceforthreferred to simply as “training”)

as revealed in a time-series ofthe Sri Lanka Labor ForceSurvey (LFS). It addresses thefollowing questions: who getstraining, what types of training,are there wide regionaldifferences in training receipt,does training substitute forformal education or does it tendto complement (go togetherwith) education. It exploits theavailability of a long time-seriesof LFS to explore how trainingvaries over the work life fordifferent cohorts of individuals,focusing on training-experienceprofiles rather than training-ageprofiles as is more common inthe extant Sri Lanka literature,and on the potentially importantlink between training andunemployment.

The Labor Force Surveys

5.20. The LFS has elicitedinformation on trainingconsistently since 1992.Following the questions oneducational attainment,respondents are asked abouttraining: (1) Did he/she havevocational / technical training?(2) What type of training? (notcoded in several years), (3) Wastraining formal (providing adiploma or certificate) orinformal (not certificated)? and(4) What was the duration of

training (months)? Theavailability of training datacovering a 11-year periodbetween 1992-2002 is unique,especially coupled with the richinformation on other individualand household variables, and onlabor force status, employment,unemployment, job search,hours and weeks of work, andmonthly earnings for wage andsalary workers.

5.21. While invaluable for theproposed analysis, nonethelessthe training data have severallimitations. The LFS does notask when the training wasreceived - for some individuals,it may be recent; for others(older individuals) it could havebeen many years ago.26 Thetraining question implicitlyassumes just one training event,while some individuals mayactually have received multipletraining events.27 Neither does itidentify which traininginstitution provided the training,whether or not it was a public orprivate provider, nor whether thetraining was taken whileunemployed or as part ofemployer-provided or financedin-service training. This data setthus precludes an assessment ofthe quality of public sectorversus private sector training, as

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25. A good review of rigorous evaluations of active labor market programs, including training, in industrialized and developingcountries may be found in Betcherman, Olivas and Dar (2004), “Impacts of Active Labor Market Programs: New Evidencefrom Evaluations with Particular Attention to Developing and Transition Countries”.

26. This is important since training is an investment, and the payoffs to training may occur with a lag and diminish over time.Thus, for recent trainees, the outcomes from training may not be manifested yet, while the depreciation of training taken along time ago may yield few measurable labor market benefits.

27. For example, see Lillard and Tan (1991), who find multiple training events common in their study of private sector trainingin the U.S. using longitudinal surveys of youth, adults and women. Data from a Sri Lanka sample of TEVT trainees in2001/2002 in the Colombo area also revealed that a quarter of them had received some form of training prior to enrollingin the current public TEVT program.

might be done by comparing thereturns to training from thesetwo sources, or an evaluation ofthe potentially importantproductivity and wage impactsof employer-sponsored in-service training reported by agrowing body of studies.28

5.22. What do the LFS time-series data say about trainingtrends? Figure 5.3 shows theweighted proportions of theworking age population thatreported having receivedvocational or technical training,separately for any training in thetop panel and for formal(certificated) training in thebottom panel, and within eachcategory of training by agegroup - youth aged 15-29 years,and adults aged 30-65 years.First, what is readily apparentfrom these data is the secularlyrising trend in training incidencebetween 1992 and 1999, a

stagnation and marked declinein 2001 with negative economicgrowth, and recovery in trainingincidence by 2002.

5.23. Second, training receivedis increasingly more formal overtime. The proportion of theworking-age populationreceiving any training rises from11 to 13 percent over this 1992-2002 period; the proportiongetting formal (i.e., certificated)training rises even moredramatically from 7 to 10percent. Finally, in each year ahigher proportion of youth aged15-29 years reported trainingthan did adults aged 30-65years, and over time, these age-related differences in trainingwidened. Recent entrants intothe labor market are more likelyto get training as compared toentrants from years past, whichmay either reflect an increasedsupply of training seats for

technical and vocationaltraining, an increased deriveddemand for skills fromemployers, or some combinationof the two factors.

Who Gets Training? Snapshotsfrom 1992, 1997 and 2002 LFS

5.24. Table 5.4 provides aprofile of who gets trainingusing three years of LFS data, atthe beginning, middle and endof the 1992-2002 period. Thetop panels of the table report theincidence of any training andformal training by level ofeducational attainment andgender. Several points areimmediately apparent. First,educational attainment andtraining are complements-theincidence of training generallyrises with education, from 0-2percent for those withoutschooling, to 20-40 percent forthose with a university degree.Second, females are less likelyto get training as compared tomales at all levels of education,a point raised in the previoussection. The gender gap intraining is least pronounced athigher levels of educationbeginning with GCE O-levels.Third, there is a rising trendbetween 1992 and 2002 in theincidence of training amongGCE A/L qualified individualsand graduates, for both malesand females. Fourth, among thetrained, the less educatedreceive training that is primarilyinformal (non-certificated)while the more educated tend to

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Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, LaborForce Surveys 1992-2002.

.06

.08

.1

.12

.14

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

trn_all trn-ytrn-a ftrn_all

ftrn-y ftrn-a

Pro

port

ion

Tra

inin

g

year

Formal training

All agesAny training

Youth 15-29

Adults 30-65

28. See, for example, Tan and Batra (1997), Tan (2002). Such an analysis is possible using the forthcoming Sri LankaInvestment Climate Survey which elicited information on in-service training.

Figure 5.3 Proportion of Working Age Populationwith Technical and Vocational Training: 1992-2002

get formal training. Finally,echoing Figure 5.3, it appearsthat the trend over time istowards formal training,especially for males startingwith lower secondary educationand above, but not for females atall levels of education.

5.25. The bottom panel of Table5.4 reports the regionalincidence of vocational andtechnical training. Amongprovinces, the incidence of anytraining is highest in the WesternProvince, at 18 percent for males

in 1992, and in the SouthernProvince at 15 percent, andlowest in the North-CentralProvince at 9 percent and in UvaProvince at 12 percent. By2002, the Western Provincecontinued to enjoy the highestincidence of training. Thistraining gap between high andlow training provinces reducedfor men but widened for womenbetween 1992-2002. Alsonoteworthy is the rise in trainingincidence in the North-CentralProvince, the province with thelowest training incidence in

1992. This finding appears to beconsistent with the point madein Chapter Two about theCentral Government'sprogressive financing ofeducation and training, targetingresources disproportionatelytowards provinces with lowerper capita income.

Who Enrolls in Public SectorTVET and When? A Case Studyof Colombo Trainees

5.26. The LFS does notdistinguish training by public orprivate sector providers. This

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Sources: World Bank estimates. Calculated from the Labor Force Surveys 1992, 1997 and 2002. Figures are for the population aged 15to 65 years, weighted using Department of Census and Statistics sampling weights. Training incidence in the North-EasternProvince is unavailable as the LFS could not cover the area.

Table 5.4 Overview of Training in Sri Lanka - 1992, 1997, 2002Percent Getting Training by Type of Training, Education, Sex and Province

Education Completed Percent Getting Any Training

No schooling 2.6 3.7 2.4 1.2 0.7 0.7Primary 8.0 6.2 5.5 2.0 1.2 1.5Lower secondary 11.5 10.5 9.9 3.5 2.7 2.3Upper secondary 15.9 14.8 15.8 8.7 6.8 6.8GCE O level 21.0 22.7 21.2 15.9 16.3 13.6GCE A level 29.0 34.0 37.3 27.8 29.3 32.6Graduate 29.9 33.0 39.6 21.9 24.1 31.4Post-graduate 57.5 53.3 46.9 41.8 48.9 46.7

Education Completed Percent Training That is Formal

No schooling 4.2 29.4 27.5 12.2 23.9 13.4Primary 23.7 26.9 24.6 43.7 45.4 33.6Lower secondary 35.7 37.2 46.8 47.1 54.3 38.8Upper secondary 52.0 62.8 68.7 72.6 67.7 72.2GCE O level 78.6 83.7 84.6 84.4 81.1 87.4GCE A level 88.6 91.5 92.2 94.2 93.4 94.7Graduate 97.9 94.8 96.3 95.6 100.0 93.1Post-graduate 97.9 100.0 100.0 100.0 98.1 100.0

Province Percent Getting Any Training

Western 17.9 19.7 22.1 9.1 12.1 14.1Central 12.5 14.3 12.4 7.5 8.3 6.8Southern 15.4 14.5 14.1 10.8 7.8 8.6North-West 13.4 11.8 12.6 7.3 5.8 6.2North-Central 9.2 11.3 13.6 4.2 4.5 7.4Uva 12.3 10.6 13.2 7.3 6.9 9.1Sabaragamuwa 13.7 12.8 13.6 8.6 7.9 9.7

Education / Province Males Females1992 1997 2002 1992 1997 2002

raises the following questions:Who are public TVETinstitutions serving? Are youthproceeding directly to TVETafter schooling completion, or isit more typical for youth to firsttest the labor market, that is,engage in job search oremployment, before enrolling inTVET? To gain insights into theattributes of the youthpopulation undertakingtechnical and vocational trainingin public TVET institutions, theapplication forms of a sample of846 trainees enrolled in theColombo-area TVET instituteswere computerized and analyzedas a case study.29

5.27. The sample of 846trainees was drawn from threeTVET institutions - theTechnical College at Maradana(235), NAITA Regional Officein Colombo (500), and VTADistrict Office in Colombo (111)- and together they covered abroad range of training - 52programs in total, 14 fromDTET, 28 from NAITA, and 10from VTA. The programs fromDTET and VTA representinstitution-based training whilethose from NAITA focus onenterprise-based apprenticeshipprograms.30 Consistentinformation was collected ongender, age, district of origin,educational attainment, numberof attempts at national GCE

O/A-level examinations, streamstudied in (science, arts orcommerce), year of schoolcompletion, prior training if anyand whether provided by publicor non-state providers, andcurrent course of study.

5.28. Tabulations of enrollmentrecords suggest the followinghighlights about the attributes oftrainees in Colombo-basedTVET institutions:

• The majority (96 percent)of trainees are youth lessthan 30 years old, andthey are predominantlymale (80 percent).

• Their educationalqualifications have thefollowing distribution - 21percent with grade 10 orless, 45 percent with GCEO-level, 14 percent thatfailed A-levels, and theremaining 20 percent withGCE A-levelqualifications. Among theA-level qualified, traineescoming from Commerceand Arts streams weremost common (9 and 8percent, respectively) andthen Sciences (2 percent).

• The number of repeatGCE exam takers (up to 3tries) is high - 7 percentamong the O-levelqualified, and a very high44 percent among those

seeking A-levelqualifications when A-level failures are included.The implication is thatrepeated exam taking toqualify for admission touniversity is delayinglabor market entry formany youth.

• Over a quarter (28percent) of the samplehave had some form oftraining prior to currentenrollment in the publicTVET institution.31 Alsosignificant, given thepolicy focus on publicTEVT, is that 55 percentof those with priortraining got their trainingfrom private sectorproviders, 36 percent frompublic institutions, and 9percent from unknownsources.

• Most enrollments (58percent) occur within thefirst 1-4 years afterschooling completion, 18percent after 5-6 years, 19percent after 7-9 years,and just 5 percent after 10or more years in the labormarket.

Training Over the Work Life

5.29. What do training profileslook like as individualscomplete formal schooling andacquire work experience in the

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29. None of the training institutions had computerized individual records for their trainees; when they were computerized, itwas only in the form of aggregated totals.

30. Within the 52 training programs selected for study, information on all student enrollments is included to preclude anypotential selection biases (whether by age, sex, education, or work experience) in the choice of the trainee sample.

31. This further reinforces the point that the LFS is too restrictive in eliciting information on just one episode of training, whenmultiple training events-even among youth-are relatively common.

Sources: World Bank estimates. Calculated from the Labor Force Surveys 1992, 1997 and 2002. Figures are for the population aged 15to 65 years, weighted using Department of Census and Statistics sampling weights.

Education Completed Percent Getting Any Training

No schooling 1.2 3.5 1.4 1.7 1.1 1.2Primary 5.1 4.2 4.0 5.1 3.7 3.4Lower secondary 6.8 5.9 5.7 8.2 7.3 6.6Upper secondary 11.7 10.5 10.7 13.6 11.1 11.8GCE O level 16.8 17.1 15.1 20.0 21.3 19.1GCE A level 24.9 30.0 35.8 33.1 32.9 33.4Graduate 27.4 24.0 28.7 26.0 30.4 37.5Post-graduate 41.6 40.4 53.9 54.6 52.4 46.2

Education level Youth Age 15-29 Adults Age 30-651992 1997 2002 1992 1997 2002

Table 5.5. Percent Getting Training by Age Group and Education - 1992, 1997, 2002

labor market? The sample ofpublic TEVT trainees suggeststhat this profile is steeply risinginitially and then flattening outwith age. Table 5.5 reportstraining data from the LFS byeducational attainmentseparately for two broad agegroups-youth aged 15-29 years,and adults aged 30 years andabove-for insights into thesetraining-age profiles.

5.30. Two points stand out.First, among youth, there is anincrease in the incidence oftraining for those with GCE A-levels and above, but not forthose with GCE O-levels andbelow. For adults aged 30-65years, the only group to show arising trend in training areuniversity graduates. Similarage-related differences intraining - but across alleducation groups - were shownin Figure 5.3. Second, at each

level of education, a roughlyequal or higher proportion ofadults report having training ascompared to similarly educatedyouth among GCE A/L qualifiedindividuals and graduates. Thisis consistent with theprobabilistic interpretation thatpeople tend to acquire trainingas they become older (though ata slower pace), and thateducated individuals are morelikely to get training as they age,compared to the less educated.32

However, this pattern does notappear among postgraduateeducated individuals.

5.31. From this intuition, onemight contemplate using cross-sectional information onindividuals varying in age oryears of potential workexperience (defined as ageminus age at schoolingcompletion) to estimate trainingexperience profiles for different

education groups. This exercise,however, is potentiallymisleading if cohort effects areimportant. Essentially, these areeffects associated with whenindividuals entered the labormarket. For example, youthtoday face different trainingopportunities as compared tosimilarly educated youth(today's adults) who entered thelabor market decades earlierwhen post-school traininginfrastructure was lessdeveloped. The twodemographic groups would alsohave been exposed to differentsets of macroeconomicconditions and policies thatinfluence both the incentives aswell as the opportunities to gettraining. Training-experienceprofiles estimated from cross-sectional surveys potentiallyconfound the life-cycle profilesof interest with year-of-entrycohort effects.33

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32. These training-age profiles can also be given a human capital interpretation. With a finite work-life, human capital theorywould predict that individuals would concentrate their training (and education) investments early in their lives so as tomaximize the present value of the future stream of returns to their investments, reducing (the probability of) investments intraining later in their work-life as the period to recoup returns shortens.

33. Indeed, given the rising training trend among higher educated youth in the 1990s, training-experience profiles computedfrom cross-sectional surveys (i.e. from different year entry cohorts) would be downward sloping instead of flat or upwardsloping as required in a cumulative function.

5.32. An alternative approach isto estimate training-experienceprofiles from pseudo-cohortsconstructed from the time-seriesof LFS spanning the 1992-2002period. The intuition of thepseudo-cohort approach isstraightforward. Consider agroup of individuals aged 18-19years with a GCE O-leveleducation in the 1992 LFS; onaverage, they might be expectedto have 2 years of potential workexperience. In the 1994 LFS,this cohort would be age 20-21with 4 years of potentialexperience, age 22-23 years inthe 1996 LFS with 6 years ofpotential experience, and so on.34

By grouping individuals andtracking similar groups ofindividuals over time using thetime-series LFS, data on thesepseudo-cohorts can be used toestimate the probability oftraining with potential workexperience, controlling forgender, level of educationalattainment, and year-of-entrycohort effects. The regressionestimates suggest the followingmain findings:

• On average, males have ahigher probability ofgetting training over theirwork life as compared tosimilarly educatedfemales. This greaterlikelihood varies by levelof educational attainment-a gender gap of about 17

percent for those withprimary education, risingto 41 percent for lowersecondary, and thendeclining to 30, 20 and 4percent for grades 9-10,O-levels and A-levels,before widening again to10 percent for universitygraduates.

• Tr a i n i n g - e x p e r i e n c eprofiles vary dramaticallyby level of educationalattainment.35 For thosewith primary education,there are no discernibleeffects of increased timein the labor market on theprobability of gettingtraining, that is, training-experience profiles areflat. For lower secondary,training profiles rise (butat a diminishing rate) withyears of potentialexperience, becomingincreasingly steeper athigher levels ofeducation-about 13-15percent greater probabilityof training per year ofpotential work experiencefor grades 9-10, GCE Oand A levels, and 10percent for universitygraduates.

Probability ofUnemployment, PotentialExperience and Training

5.33. These grouped cohort datacan also be used to describe therelationship between trainingand a number of labor marketoutcomes. One outcome ofparticular policy interest isyouth unemployment,specifically the issue of whetherreceipt of technical andvocational training facilitatesyouth transition from school towork, and from unemploymentto productive work. Just aspseudo-cohorts can be trackedover time to look at training-experience profiles, so too cantheir unemploymentprobabilities with years ofpotential work experience beanalyzed, free of theconfounding year-of-entrycohort effects.

5.34. Table 5.6 reports theregression estimates for theprobability of being unemployedlast week, and its relationship toyears of potential workexperience, separately for thosewith and without training. Inaddition to experience, theregression model includedcontrol variables for gender,level of education, and differentyear-of-entry cohorts. Severalfindings emerge:

• Males are significantlyless likely to experience aspell of unemploymentlast week as compared tofemales with similar

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34. In essence, this pseudo-cohort approach involves collapsing the 1992-2002 LFS survey data into cells cross-classified byyear, sex, level of educational attainment, 2-year age intervals, and training receipt, with information on the weighted countof individuals in each cell.

35. This finding is based on training probability models estimated on the grouped data separately by level of education. Theregression results are not reported here but are available from the World Bank.

educational, experienceand year-of-entry cohortattributes. This gendergap in unemploymentprobability is 44 percentfor the group withtraining, and about 37percent for those withouttraining.

• For the group withtraining, the level ofeducational attainment isnot significantly related tounemployment, asurprising finding but onethat may be attributed tothe strong association

between training andeducation (onedeterminant of training),an issue analyzed ingreater depth in the nextsection. In contrast, forthe group withouttraining, level ofeducation matters and theprobability ofunemployment rises witheducation level to a peakfor those with GCEA-levels.

• The probability ofexperiencing anunemployment spell

declines (at a decreasingrate) with years ofpotential experience.Especially significant isthe markedly steeperunemployment -experience profile of thegroup with training - eachadditional year ofpotential experiencereduces their probabilityof an unemployment spellby over 19 percent ascompared to just under 15percent for the groupwithout training.

• This steeper decline in

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Table 5.6 Training and Probability of Unemployment Last WeekUsing Pseudo-Cohort Data LFS 1992-2002

Source: World Bank estimates. Calculated from the Labor Force Surveys 1992, 1997 and 2002. Figures are for the population aged 15to 65 years, weighted using Department of Census and Statistics sampling weights.

Male -0.4415 -17.22 -0.3728 -27.17

Level of educationPrimary 0.1124 0.16 -0.1113 -1.73Lower secondary -0.2166 -0.32 0.0760 1.20Upper secondary -0.1498 -0.22 0.3526 5.68GCE O-Level -0.0904 -0.13 0.4440 7.09GCE A-Level -0.1443 -0.21 0.4665 7.28Degree -0.1434 -0.21 0.2852 3.11Post-graduate 0.0979 0.10 0.8098 1.41

Potential experience (pexp) -0.1935 -12.06 -0.1489 -21.31

Pexp-2 0.0050 4.75 0.0019 4.45

Pexp-3 -0.00004 -2.15 0.000003 0.40

Year of entry cohort1950s -0.6845 -1.19 0.0532 0.331960s -0.9704 -1.51 -0.1919 -1.031970s -1.1874 -1.79 -0.4279 -2.171980s -1.5056 -2.28 -0.7637 -3.861990-94 -1.7345 -2.63 -0.9784 -4.921995-99 -1.7564 -2.64 -1.1836 -5.912000-02 -1.8134 -2.66 -1.3189 -6.25

Constant 2.6137 2.73 1.0518 5.04

Number of observations 1081 2009

Adjusted R-squared 0.5963 0.8007

Dependent variable: Training Status

Unemployed last week (1,0) With training No training

Coef. t-stat Coef. t-stat

u n e m p l o y m e n t -experience profiles for thegroup with training ascompared to the non-training group continuesto hold within educationgroups. This comparisonis confirmed by regressionmodels estimatedseparately by level ofeducation (not reportedhere but available fromthe author).

• Year-of-entry cohorteffects are negative andincreasingly morenegative for recent entrycohorts, which isconsistent with theinterpretation that 1990sentry cohorts experienceda more favorable set ofmacroeconomic factorsand policies than theirpeers in the entry cohortsof the 1960s and 1970s.

5.3 Determinants ofTraining5.35. With this broad overviewof training trends and thetraining-unemployment nexusas background, this section turnsfirst to a microeconomicanalysis of the determinants oftraining, with subsequentsections focusing on the labormarket outcomes of training.The analysis - based on pooledcross-section time-series LFSdata - does not account forcohort effects, but makes up forit by exploiting rich information

in the LFS to gain insight intothe important individual,household and aggregate factorsthat shape decisions ofindividuals to invest in post-school training, and their labormarket outcomes.

5.36. The individual decision toinvest in training is modeledwithin a human capitalframework and is thought todepend on several factors:

a. level of schoolingattainment - training andeducation are eithersubstitutes for each other(because trainingcompensates forinadequate quantity orquality of schooling), orare complements (themore educated train morebecause they are alsomore efficient learnersand gain more than theless educated frominvesting in training);

b. age - individuals are morelikely to invest early intraining, rather than laterin the life-cycle, so thatthe returns to training canbe realized over a longerperiod of time;

c. marital status - familialresponsibilities reflectedin an individual's maritalstatus may influencetraining decisions;

d. household factors - just asparental education affectsschooling of children,

they may affect trainingdecisions too eitherthrough sociologicalinfluences (taste foreducation), or throughincome effects associatedwith higher educationalattainment;

e. location - provinces differin their levels of per capitaincomes and employmentopportunities, and thesefactors can shapeindividual trainingdecisions;

f. access to training -training may also dependon the supply of TVETopportunities, and thisvaries across provincesand over time; a proxy fortraining supply is thenumber of public TVETenrollments per 1,000 ofthe provincial youthpopulation.36

5.37. Table 5.7 reports theresults of estimating theprobability of training - anytraining, and formal(certificated) training - on thisset of individual, household,location and training supplyvariables. Probit models areestimated separately for thesample of males (about 190,000)and females (197,000). Theregression results are notsurprising, and are broadlyconsistent with the tabularinformation presented earlier inSection 5.1 of this chapter.

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36. Training seats by province and year are calculated from TEVT enrollments in Table 5.1 and from counts of youth aged 15-29 years by province computed from the time-series of LFS surveys.

5.38. First, the probability ofany training, and especially offormal training, is stronglycorrelated with level ofschooling attainment. Togetherwith the effects of age, thiseducation - trainingcomplementarity would explainwhy training-profiles tend to bemore steeply inclined upwardsfor the more educatedindividuals and relatively flat forthose with little formal

education. Second, theprobability of getting training inthe Western Province (theomitted category) is higher thanin all other provinces, with theNorth-Central Province havingthe lowest probability of trainingonce all other control variablesare included. Third, the effectsof training supply are negative,which suggests counter-intuitively that the probability oftraining is lower the more

“training seats” are available inthe province. One possibleexplanation is that this resultmay simply reflect the centralgovernment's targeting of TEVTresources at provinces with lowtraining incidence. Fourth,parental schooling positivelyinfluences children's trainingdecisions; interestingly,compared to father's education,mother's education is morestrongly associated with training

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Dependent variable: Males Females

Training Any training Formal training Any training Formal training

Coef. z-stat Coef. z-stat Coef. z-stat Coef. z-stat

Table 5.7 Probability of any Training and Formal Training: 1992-2002

Notes: [1] Training supply proxy = total number of TVET graduates by province divided by total youth population (x1000) aged 15-29years. [2] Household variables: dummy variables included for missing father’s and mother's years of schooling.

Source: World Bank estimates. Calculated from the Labor Force Surveys 1992, 1997 and 2002. Figures are for the population aged 15to 65 years, weighted using Department of Census and Statistics sampling weights.

Marital status -0.0364 -3.8 -0.0810 -7.1 -0.1019 -10.9 -0.1331 -12.4

Education levelPrimary 0.3664 10.7 0.3019 5.5 0.1825 4.8 0.5813 7.1Lower secondary 0.6921 20.6 0.7598 14.2 0.5000 13.7 0.9364 11.7Upper secondary 0.8990 27.0 1.1264 21.3 0.9527 27.2 1.5026 19.2GCE O-Level 1.0903 32.6 1.4598 27.5 1.3191 37.7 1.9384 24.7GCE A-Level 1.3315 38.6 1.7597 32.8 1.7365 48.5 2.4000 30.5Degree 1.3265 31.4 1.8274 31.0 1.6091 35.9 2.3059 27.7Post-graduate 1.8490 31.4 2.3629 32.9 2.0228 29.4 2.7207 27.7

Age 0.0909 46.5 0.0865 37.5 0.0703 30.2 0.0678 26.2

Age-squared -0.0011 -46.6 -0.0011 -37.3 -0.0009 -28.9 -0.0008 -24.4

ProvinceCentral -0.1328 -8.1 -0.0812 -4.3 -0.0358 -1.9 0.0298 1.4South -0.0231 -1.6 -0.0615 -3.6 0.0180 1.1 -0.0030 -0.2North-West -0.1703 -11.9 -0.1786 -10.7 -0.1816 -10.3 -0.1419 -7.4North-Central -0.2499 -11.9 -0.2946 -11.8 -0.2096 -8.1 -0.1794 -6.3Uva -0.1116 -7.0 -0.0737 -4.0 0.0970 5.3 0.1110 5.4Sabaragamuwa -0.0832 -6.4 -0.0640 -4.3 0.0235 1.5 0.0574 3.4Training seats [1] -0.0175 -5.5 -0.0157 -4.3 -0.0148 -3.9 -0.0143 -3.5

Household [2]Father’s schooling 0.0185 8.8 0.0199 8.5 0.0112 4.4 0.0128 4.7Mother’s schooling 0.0281 10.1 0.0300 9.4 0.0110 3.3 0.0139 3.8

Year (linear) 0.0060 2.7 0.0133 5.2 -0.0038 -1.4 -0.0011 -0.4

Constant -15.1954 -3.5 -30.3148 -6.0 4.6327 0.9 -1.3909 -0.2

Number of observations 190,148 190,148 197,541 197,541

Pseudo R-square 0.0737 0.1284 0.1548 0.1905

of sons, but neutral with respectto the training of daughters.37

Finally, consistent with thetrends noted earlier, there is asecularly rising trend over timein the training of males,especially formal training, butno apparent time trend intraining for females.

5.4 Training and LaborMarket Outcomes5.39. What are the labor marketoutcomes of these investmentsin post-school training? Chiefamong the labor marketoutcomes of policy interest areunemployment, job search andearnings. Specifically,

policymakers are keenlyinterested in the effects oftraining on (i) the probability ofexperiencing an unemploymentspell last week; (ii) length oftime spent in job search, or theschool-to-work transition; and(iii) monthly earnings, and howthe returns to training compareto those for formal schooling.

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37. To see this, note that the marginal impact of mother's education on training of males (sons) is 0.028 while that of father'seducation is 0.018; for females (daughters) , the corresponding marginal impact is 0.011, identical for mother's and father'seducation. For some individuals-renters, relatives, households without parents-education of parents is not known, andmissing value indicators are included to take this into account.

Source: World Bank estimates. Calculated from the Labor Force Surveys 1992, 1997 and 2002.Note: Model estimated by probit regressions, including dummy variables for LFS years.

Table 5.8 Probability of Unemployment Last Week and Usually Unemployed Last Year, 1992-2002

Male -0.366 -33.0 -0.365 -32.9 -0.379 -34.1 -0.378 -34.0

Education levelPrimary 0.137 2.5 0.138 2.6 0.036 0.8 0.038 0.9Lower secondary 0.246 4.6 0.253 4.8 0.038 0.9 0.043 1.0Upper secondary 0.328 6.2 0.346 6.6 0.105 2.5 0.118 2.8GCE O-Level 0.463 8.7 0.495 9.4 0.187 4.3 0.213 4.9GCE A-Level 0.470 8.8 0.518 9.7 0.208 4.7 0.250 5.7Degree 0.186 2.9 0.223 3.5 -0.124 -2.1 -0.084 -1.5Post-graduate -0.453 -3.3 -0.396 -2.9 -0.844 -5.8 -0.785 -5.4

Potential experience -0.116 -33.9 -0.113 -33.3 -0.136 -39.8 -0.134 -39.3

Potexp-squared 0.003 13.7 0.002 13.2 0.003 19.3 0.003 18.8

Potexp-cubed 0.000 -7.2 0.000 -6.8 0.000 -11.7 0.000 -11.3

Formal training 0.146 10.0 0.091 6.0

Informal training -0.012 -0.4 -0.060 -2.2

For. training duration 0.007 0.9 -0.020 -2.2

Infor. training duration -0.040 -1.8 -0.061 -2.8

Urban -0.024 -1.4 -0.024 -1.5 -0.021 -1.2 -0.020 -1.2

ProvinceCentral 0.161 9.0 0.159 8.9 0.115 6.4 0.114 6.3Southern 0.293 16.6 0.287 16.2 0.273 15.3 0.268 15.0North-West -0.034 -1.6 -0.042 -2.0 -0.004 -0.2 -0.010 -0.5North-Central -0.112 -4.4 -0.120 -4.7 0.043 1.8 0.035 1.5Uva -0.108 -3.9 -0.109 -4.0 -0.116 -4.2 -0.117 -4.3Sabaragamuwa 0.156 7.3 0.152 7.2 0.126 5.9 0.123 5.7Share of public jobs 0.990 5.6 0.997 5.6 0.780 4.4 0.785 4.5Constant -0.011 -0.2 -0.012 -0.2 0.406 6.9 0.401 6.8

Sample size 151,763 151,763 145,110 145,110

Pseudo R-squared 0.2623 0.2613 0.257 0.256

Dependent variable : Unemployed Last Week Usually Unemployed Past YearProb(Unemployment) Coef. z Coef. z Coef. Z Coef. Z

1992 2002 1992 2002

Also of interest in each of theseareas is whether the labormarket effects of training varyby type of training-formal orinformal-and duration oftraining.

Impact of Training onProbability of Unemployment

5.40. The analysis of theprobability of unemploymentuses two alternative measures ofunemployment defined by theLFS. The first one-termed“unemployed”-is based onwhether individuals areavailable and/or actively lookingfor work, and who did no workduring the past week. Thesecond measure-termed “usuallyunemployed”-refers to a personwho was looking or available forwork for the major part of thepast year. An enumeration ofwork and availability forwork/job search for each of thepast 12 months is used toclassify individuals as usuallyemployed, usually unemployedor usually not economicallyactive. The second measure-byaveraging over a 12 monthperiod-may provide a morerobust characterization of workstatus as compared to theconventional unemploymentmeasure, which is a snapshot intime.

5.41. A probit model is used torelate unemploymentprobability to a set of individualand location attributes,including level of educational

attainment, a flexible (cubic)measure of years of potentialwork experience since schoolingcompletion, receipt of trainingmeasured either by formal andinformal training indicatorvariables or by training duration,location in an urban area and byprovince, and year dummyvariables to capture seculartrends in unemployment levels.In addition, the model includes avariable representing theproportion of all jobs that are inthe public sector, which variesboth across provinces and overtime.38 This measure allows us toaddress the hypothesis thatunemployment rates are highbecause individuals queue up forpublic sector employment whichpays not only higher wages butalso better benefits. Theregression results are reported inTable 5.8 above, separately foreach of the two measures ofunemployment.

5.42. The results are broadlysimilar irrespective of whetherthe reference period is last weekor last year. First, males aresignificantly less likely (byabout 37 percent) to experienceunemployment as compared tofemales. Second, compared tothose without schooling (theomitted group), the probabilityof unemployment appears to risewith level of schoolingattainment, peaking at GCE A-levels, and falling for degreegraduates and post-graduates.Third, probabilities of

unemployment decline (at adecreasing rate) with years ofpotential work experience,which might be expected iflonger search time yields betterinformation about jobopportunities and an exit fromunemployment. Fourth, urbanlocation is not statisticallyimportant but there are largedifferences across provinces.Compared to the WesternProvince, unemploymentprobabilities are higher in theCentral, Sabaragamuwa andSouthern provinces, and lowerin the North-Central, North-Western and Uva Provinces.Finally, there is a strong positiveassociation betweenunemployment probabilities andthe share of public sector jobs inthe province. It is unclear,however, which way thecausality runs.

5.43. The effects of post-schooltraining on unemploymentprobabilities are mixed. When(0,1) indicator variables fortraining are included, the effectsof formal training onunemployment are invariablypositive and statisticallysignificant, while those forinformal training are negative,though significant only in the“usually unemployed”regressions. When training ismeasured using duration oftraining, which distinguishesbetween incidental andsubstantive kinds of training,both formal and informal

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38. The LFS identifies jobs as being public or private sector. The share of public sector jobs can thus be computed by dividingpublic sector jobs by job totals, separately by province and year.

training are negative andstatistically significant in the“usually unemployed”regressions. These mixed resultsmay arise because the modelconstrains the unemployment-experience profiles to be thesame for everyone, so thattraining can only affect overalllevels of unemployment but notunemployment experienceprofiles. This is clearly not thecase, as was suggested by theearlier analysis using pseudo-cohort data. There, Table 5.6showed that training isassociated with steeperunemployment-exper ienceprofiles, implying thatunemployment probabilities fallmore rapidly with potentialexperience for individuals withtraining than for those withouttraining.

Impact of Training on School toWork Transition

5.44. A second area of policyconcern is the long time manyyouth spend in job searchbetween leaving school andfinding employment. Forexample, according to the 2002LFS, almost 85 percent of youthaged 15-29 years that arecurrently unemployed report notever having a job. This figurerises from about 75 percent forlower secondary passes to

almost 95 percent for universitygraduates. While these figureshighlight the seriousness of thisissue, they can be misleading:they mix more and less educatedyouth with different years ofpotential work experience andthus time spent in job search,and they ignore the fact thatother youth are employed, andmay have found employmentsoon after schooling completion.

5.45. In this section,information from differentquestions in the LFS areassembled, and the pooled LFSdata from 1996-2002 reshaped,to provide more balancedinsights into the school-to-worktransitions of youth withdifferent levels of schoolingattainment, and to address thequestion of whether technicaland vocational trainingfacilitates this transition. TheLFS, in its current form, is notwell designed to study school towork transitions. So thechallenge here is to determinethe date of first recordedemployment39 for eachindividual with a given level ofeducation, from which the timetaken from schoolingcompletion to first employmentcan be calculated. Beginning in1996, the LFS asked theemployed how long they have

been on their current job, so thestart date of that job can beascertained.40 For theunemployed, the LFS askedwhether they have ever had a joband, if so, how long it had beensince the previous job.41 If theprior job is assumed to be ofsimilar duration as those held bytheir currently employed peers(about 2 years), then thisinformation and the interveningunemployment spell can be usedto determine the start date of theprevious job. For those whohave never had a job, theduration of search for a first jobis still ongoing (or censored).Finally, an adjustment is made tosearch time for those withtechnical and vocationaltraining-time spent in training issubtracted to reflect theirwithdrawal from active jobsearch while undergoingtraining.

5.46. These calculation weredone for a sample of 39,000individuals from the 1996-2002 LFS, restricted to thosewith some schooling up touniversity graduates, and with0-10 years of potential workexperience so as to keep thefocus on youth. Figure 5.4presents graphically theresulting distributions of time-to-employment for different

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39. We caution that the first “recorded” employment is not necessarily the first job; some individuals may have had several jobsprior to the recorded job, so time-to-first “recorded” job may overstate duration of job search. But it is the only employmentspell for which information is available. It may be desirable to revise the LFS to elicit explicitly year of labor market entryand year of first job.

40. The 1996 LFS also started eliciting detailed information on years of schooling from which more precise schoolingcompletion dates can be calculated.

41. The intervening unemployment spell is reported in several intervals, ranging from several months to an open ended 5 ormore years. Some assumptions are needed to impute duration (in years) of unemployment to these categories.

levels of schooling.42 Severalpoints emerge from this figure.First, those with the lowestlevels of schooling attainment-primary and lower secondarypasses-are more likely to faceprotracted job search beforesecuring their first employment.Their distributions of time-to-first-employment areconcentrated around 4-7 yearsafter schooling completion.Second, most of those withupper secondary schooling andwith GCE O-level or A-levelqualifications find their first jobfairly soon after schoolingcompletion. Their distributionsof time-to-first-job areconcentrated around 0-4 years,

tapering off with time in thelabor market. Finally, theschool-to-work transition ofdegree graduates appears toresemble more that of youthwith lower secondary schoolingthan that of the GCE A-levelqualified. The distribution oftime-to-employment is bi-modal- some find a job within the firstyear, while many others appearto take longer, about 3-5 yearsafter graduation fromuniversity.43

5.47. These figures do notcontrol for other factors thatmay also shape school-to-worktransitions, such as gender,household characteristics,location and receipt of post-

school technical and vocationaltraining. The joint effects ofschooling attainment and theseother factors on time-to-employment can be studiedwithin a regression frameworkthat accounts explicitly for thefact that one part of the sampleis still actively searching for thefirst job, that is, with incomplete(censored) time-to-employment.44 Table 5.9 reportsthe results of estimating thisregression model for the sampleof youth as a whole, andseparately by training status, soas to investigate how receipt oftechnical and vocational trainingaffects school-to-worktransitions.

5.48. Table 5.9 makes thefollowing points. Compared toyouth with primary schooling,more educated groups findemployment after schoolcompletion much faster though,as suggested by Figure 5.4,degree graduates are more likethose with lower secondary than(say) those with GCE O or A-level qualifications. Genderdifferences are important, andmales find employment fasterthan females; a contributingfactor to this gender gap may bemarital status, since marriage is

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42. Note that these graphs understate time-to-first-job because they include ongoing (censored) job search for the sample ofunemployed youth that have still not found employment at the time of LFS enumeration.

43. These distributions of time-to-employment appear to tell a consistent story about how low levels of schooling attainmentdisadvantage youth in their job search while higher level school qualifications facilitate the school-to-work transition. But the jobsearch of degree graduates stands apart - many experience fairly long job search before finding employment. Are the durations ofjob search reasonable? The mean time-to-employment is fairly long, and may suggest that individuals are not reporting prioremployment accurately, for example, ignoring casual work and reporting only formal jobs; another contributing factor is theassumption that the first “recorded” employment is also the first job, which would tend to overstate time-to-first job.

44. Survival models are ideally suited for studying the determinants of time to a failure event, in this case time taken to find a job afterschooling completion, and accommodating censored spells of job search. Such models may be fit using alternative distributionalassumptions about the underlying process, but the one used here is the lognormal distribution.

Graph by Edlvl

0

5

10

15

20

0

5

10

15

20

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

Primary LowerSec UpperSec

GCE O/L GCE A/L Degree

Per

cent

Fin

ding

Firs

t Job

Years to First Job

Figure 5.4 Time-To-First-Job by Level of Schooling

associated with delayed time-to-employment. Location alsomatters: job search is longer inurban areas, and relative to theWestern Province, also longer inthe Central, South andSabaragamuwa Provinces.Finally, year dummy variables(not reported here) indicate thatoverall length of job search hasdeclined over time in parallelwith falling unemploymentrates.

5.49. What about the effects oftraining? The first column ofTable 5.9 indicates that formaland informal training are bothassociated with shorter job

search time, with informaltraining appearing to have alarger impact (-0.10) than formalor certificated training (-0.07).The second and third columns,reporting results estimatedseparately by training status,make the additional point thatwhile having more educationreduces time to employment forboth groups, the impact ofeducation is more pronouncedfor the group with training. Tosee this, compare the relativecontributions of different levelsof education to shortening time-to-employment - in the groupwithout training, this peaks withthe upper secondary group; in

contrast, in the group withtraining the contribution riseslinearly with level of educationto a peak at degree level. Inother words, education andtraining interact positively toreduce time spent in job search.

Impact of Training on MonthlyWages

5.50. The final outcomeconsidered is the impact oftechnical and vocational trainingon monthly wages and salaries.The LFS only elicits incomeinformation for the sample ofindividuals in wage and salaryemployment, so this analysis isrestricted to the sample of about

115

Source: World Bank estimates. Based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey.Notes : The regressions are estimated by maximum likelihood using a parametric survival-time model fit with a lognormal distribution.

About one-quarter of the sample were censored. The regression model included control variables for parental education and forLFS years.

Table 5.9 School to Work Transitions with and without Training

Dependent variable: All Youth Without Training With TrainingTime-to-Employment Coefficient z-stat Coefficient z-stat Coefficient z-statLower secondary -0.329 -15.6 -0.340 -15.8 -0.166 -1.7

Upper secondary -0.471 -24.2 -0.492 -24.7 -0.294 -3.1

GCE O-Level -0.434 -21.0 -0.448 -20.9 -0.284 -3.0

GCE A-Level -0.454 -20.8 -0.445 -19.4 -0.350 -3.6

Degree -0.340 -10.8 -0.276 -8.1 -0.459 -4.2

Formal training -0.069 -6.0

Informal training -0.106 -5.2

Male -0.070 -8.1 -0.069 -7.3 -0.077 -4.0

Married 0.113 9.6 0.136 10.4 0.028 1.0

Urban 0.030 2.9 0.049 4.1 -0.040 -1.8

ProvinceCentral 0.027 2.1 0.017 1.2 0.059 2.1South 0.177 13.1 0.169 11.1 0.190 6.5North-West -0.029 -2.0 -0.032 -2.1 -0.036 -1.0North-Central -0.072 -4.4 -0.098 -5.5 0.026 0.7Uva -0.048 -2.9 -0.086 -4.6 0.111 3.0Sabaragamuwa 0.114 7.9 0.099 6.1 0.161 5.1

Constant 1.964 54.0 1.979 50.2 1.771 14.7

Sample size 33,206 26,274 6,932

Number finding jobs 24,605 19,678 4,927

29,000 employees in the pooled1992-2002 LFS time-series.45

Monthly wages are deflated bythe consumer price index into2002 real wages, and expressedin logarithmic terms as iscommon in the earningsfunction literature.46

5.51. The wage analysisaddresses several questions:What are the returns to technicaland vocational training, and howdo they compare to the returns togeneral education? For thiscomparison, training duration inmonths is converted into year-equivalents like years ofschooling.47 Are the returns toformal certificated trainingsimilar to or greater than thoseto informal training? Thisquestion is particularly pertinentgiven the trend towards moreformalized forms of training inrecent years. And finally, howare the different kinds oftraining rewarded in the publicsector versus the private sector?The private sector may demand(reward more highly) differentkinds of technical andvocational skills, includingspecific skills, that may notnecessarily be certificated, atleast by public sector providers.To address this latter question,wage regressions are estimatedseparately for public and privatesector employees.

5.52. Table 5.10 reports theresults of wage regressionsincluding control variables forgender, a quadratic measure ofyears of potential workexperience, principal industry ofemployment, public sector job(in some specifications), urbanlocation, province, and yeardummy variables to capture timetrends in overall real wageincreases.

The results in Table 5.10 suggestthe following findings:

• The returns to anadditional year of generalschooling (9.0 percent)are higher than a year ofany technical orvocational training (6.6percent). One caveat isthat participation intraining programs(especially informaltraining) may not be on afull-time basis, whichwould tend to under-statethe returns to training.

• Overall, the returns toformal certificatedtraining (7.0 percent) areusually higher than thoseto informal training (4.4percent). This maypartially reflect the factthat most informaltraining is taken by thosewith the lowest levels ofschooling attainment,

while the more educatedtend to favor formaltraining.

• However, the rewards toformal and informaltraining variesdramatically acrosssectors. In public sectoremployment, formaltraining is highly valued(returns of 7.6 percent)but informal training isactually penalized (-38percent), perhaps becauseit is associated withmenial jobs by those withlow levels of education.In contrast, the privatesector appears to valueformal and informaltraining equally.Comparing returns,informal kinds of trainingmay actually have theedge (7.1 percent) overformal training (6.7percent), though thedifferences may not bestatistically significant.

• Several other findings arenoteworthy. First, thereare wage premiumsassociated withemployment in urbanareas (15 percent) and inthe public sector (9percent). Second, wagelevels are higher in theWestern Province (theomitted category) than in

116

45. The wage and salary information used in this analysis is not adjusted for weeks or hours worked, and does not include smallpayments in kind.

46. Within a human capital model framework, the log (wage) specification allows the coefficient estimates of years of educationand training to be interpreted as the rate of return to investments.

47. Unlike general education, which is full-time, some training programs may be taken on a part-time basis, which would tendto overstate the time spent in training and thus under-estimate the returns to training.

the rest of the country.Finally, though notreported in the table, thereis a secular rise in realwages over time between1992 and 1998, with someslippage in real wagegains thereafter.

5.5 Conclusions andImplications for the Future5.53. The general education andTEVT sectors are intimatelylinked with respect to the labormarket. The TEVT sectorintermediates between the skillsthat the general educationalsector provides school leavers

and the skills that the labormarket demands, providingtechnical and vocational trainingas needed to facilitate the schoolto work transition for youth. Asthe preceding analysis showed,the TEVT sector has not alwaysaddressed this skills demand-supply gap well or in acoordinated fashion. Butpolicymakers have recognizedthe problem, and have over timeproposed numerous initiatives torationalize the TEVT sector,address regional inequities intraining, and better coordinatethe TEVT policy framework;this reform process is still awork-in-progress. Monitoring

and evaluation of traininginstitutions and their courseofferings is nascent, and limitedby incomplete and poor data,especially about training byprivate sector training providersand employers, and by theabsence of an evaluation culture.The sector's limited interactionswith the general educationsector also precludes it fromhaving a more active role inproviding schools and guidancecounselors with informationabout training and labor marketemployment opportunities.

5.54. The preceding analysisalso highlighted the potential ofthe Sri Lanka Labor Force

117

Note: Regression models are estimated by ordinary least squares (OLS) methods. They include dummy variables for principal industrygroups, and year dummy variables. The full set of coefficient estimates are available from the author.

Table 5.10 Returns to Training For Wage and Salary Employees by Sector

Dependent variable: All Sectors Public Sector Private SectorLog(monthly wage) Coef. t-stat Coef. t-stat Coef. t-stat Coef. t-stat

Training

Years-Any training 0.0664 6.8 n.a. n.a. n.a.

Years-Formal training 0.0704 6.7 0.0766 4.7 0.0668 5.0

Years-Informal training 0.0444 1.9 -0.3770 -3.6 0.0707 2.9

Other attributes

Years of schooling 0.0904 26.4 0.0901 26.2 0.0832 11.4 0.0923 23.4

Male 0.0993 6.3 0.1000 6.3 0.1983 6.1 0.0610 3.3

Potential Experience 0.1059 9.5 0.1058 9.5 0.1597 5.4 0.1027 8.4

Experience-squared -0.0043 -4.6 -0.0043 -4.6 -0.0075 -3.3 -0.0042 -4.0

Province

Central -0.1367 -6.1 -0.1365 -6.1 -0.1264 -2.8 -0.1317 -5.2South -0.1826 -7.6 -0.1821 -7.6 -0.1125 -2.3 -0.1972 -7.1North-West -0.0656 -3.0 -0.0652 -2.9 0.0226 0.5 -0.0886 -3.5North-Central -0.0816 -2.4 -0.0806 -2.4 0.0322 0.6 -0.1378 -3.2Uva -0.2079 -6.1 -0.2073 -6.0 -0.2006 -3.2 -0.2135 -5.2Sabaragamuwa -0.2487 -10.1 -0.2482 -10.1 -0.1286 -2.5 -0.2833 -10.1

Urban location 0.1515 8.0 0.1513 8.0 0.0509 1.3 0.1768 8.3

Public sector job 0.0909 3.2 0.0903 3.2 n.a. n.a.

Constant 6.3251 110.1 6.3275 110.1 6.1459 41.9 6.3439 98.3

Number observations 29102 29102 6,742 2,360

Adjusted R-square 0.1001 0.1001 0.0755 0.0910

Survey to provide policy-relevant insights into trainingtrends, and the links betweengeneral education, post-schooltraining, and labor marketoutcomes. It showed thatschooling and training arecomplements, namely, that moreeducated school leavers receivemore technical and vocationaltraining. It highlighted thesignificant impact of training onreducing the probability ofunemployment, and infacilitating the school-to-worktransition. And it demonstratedthat investments in botheducation and training yieldrelatively high returns in theform of higher earnings. Butmany issues of policy interestcould not be addressed, oraddressed well, with the existingLFS, including the relativebenefits of training by publicversus private sector providers,the adequacy of in-service skillsdevelopment by employers, orrigorous panel analysis of labormarket behavior around youthunemployment.

5.55. The ability ofpolicymakers to monitor andevaluate the performance of theTEVT sector, or more broadly,to pilot and rigorously evaluate arange of labor marketinterventions (includingtraining) to address the problemsof youth unemployment andnational competitiveness, willrequire improvements to its datacollection system. Somesuggestions follow:

• Computerize all studentenrollment and programrecords for all TEVTinstitutions to facilitatetracking and evaluatingthe performance oftrainees, for use in tracerstudies as part of acontinuous M&E system.

• Enforce the mandatoryreporting requirements ofall private sector andNGO training providers togive the TVEC andpolicymakers a morecomplete view of the totalTEVT sector.

• Include questions onemployer-provided ororganized training in theinformation to beenumerated in allestablishment surveys andcensus conducted by theDepartment of Census andStatistics, as many otherindustrialized anddeveloping countrystatistical agencies havedone.

• Improve the trainingquestions in the LFSinstrument bydistinguishing furtherbetween public sector andprivate sector provision oftraining, whether trainedwhile unemployed or in-service, allowing for morethan one training event,and dating receipt oftraining event(s). Otherrelatively simple changesto date schoolingcompletion, labor market

entry and key eventswould greatly improveanalysis of school-to-work transitions.

• Employ a rotating panelsampling approach in theLFS so individuals can betracked over 12 months tostudy how behavior andoutcomes change overtime. This approach isincreasingly being used inboth industrialized anddeveloping countries, andcan readily beaccommodated within theexisting LFS samplingframework. This wouldfacilitate study of school-to-work transitions andtraining outcomes.Furthermore, the rotatingpanel feature will allowresearchers andpolicymakers to createcomparison groups for useas control groups in theevaluation of trainingprograms and other labormarket interventions.

• Improve LFS survey &training questions.

118

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