Upload
others
View
0
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
HAL Id: halshs-00131406https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00131406
Submitted on 16 Feb 2007
HAL is a multi-disciplinary open accessarchive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-entific research documents, whether they are pub-lished or not. The documents may come fromteaching and research institutions in France orabroad, or from public or private research centers.
L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, estdestinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documentsscientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,émanant des établissements d’enseignement et derecherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoirespublics ou privés.
Tunisian Science in search of LegitimacyFrançois Siino
To cite this version:François Siino. Tunisian Science in search of Legitimacy. Science Technology & Society, 2003, 8 (2),pp.261-281. �halshs-00131406�
������������� �������������������������������� ���"!#�$����%&��('
)+*-,�.0/214365�743838.01:9
;=<.>365?3@,BAC5�5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GDM5ON5JHPF�QRD2,�.MSTF:U43GDVHL<*-FXW ,I5(HJY4FZD214.[HJ*E,2WB3GDVHP14*ON\*-F[5O<]^H�14K",_7BHP,VHPFZWB365-DX10<*�5EFU4*-F[5ED�*?3`S038.BabHJY0FcD21T.5OHJ*O<�DdHJ3G1T.e1TKf,g.4,dHJ3G1T.0,�]_5-Dh3GF�.4DXFiHP1j5-Fh*OkFcW4FVkTF�]G14U4Q�F�.IHl,h.4W HJY4Fg]G,h*?aF�]`N5O<�DXD2F[5�5PK6<]mHJ*E,�.�5PU4]G,�.[HP,dHJ3G1T.f14KnHJY0FoQ�1p5OH�,2D2,2W4FhQ�3GDqF�]GF�Q�Fh.[H-5�1TK�HJY4F:)+*-F�.0D�Yl5ON5OHPFhQr14KnHJY0Ftshu4v4w�5,�.0W shu4x4w�5
y;mY0F�Q�3^zBHL<*-F�1TK+HJY4F[5EF�3{.BKL]`<�F�.0D2F[5|365}S1B<.4W�HP1:YB365JHP1T*P3GD2,�]KJ,2DVHP14*�5}~�Y>3GD�Y�~�38]8]4SF(HP10<�D�Y0F2W
14.�K6<*JHJY4F�*�38.bHJYB365�U,�UF�*y��HfY4,[5�Q�,2W4Fc;�<.B365P3G,�.�5ED�3GF�.0D2Fc,iHJY4F2,dHJ*-Fc1TK�U,�*E,2W410zTF[5
�5-1B<*-D2FI5
5?3{Q�<]`HP,�.0F210<+5P]`N�1TK}5OHJ*EF�.BaBHJY5|,�.4W�~�F2,��4.0F[5�5EF[5y 7BHJ*-F�.BaBHJY5�]83GFc38. HJY4FgKJ,XDVH�HJY4,VH�HJYB3�5lU4*-1D2F[5�5�Y4,[5laFh.4F�*-,dHPF2Wb*-F�U4*-F[5EF�.[HP,dHJ3G1T.5
�Y4F�]@W�S>N HJY0F
*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY4F�*�5 � D214.�5JHJ*O<�DVHPF2W�,�*-1B<.4W�D2F�*OHP,h38.�kT,�]`<�F[5�38Q�SB<�FXW�KL*-1TQ UB<4S4]83GD�5-F2DVHP14*b*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y�38.IHPF�*?.4,dHJ3G1T.0,�]"D214]8]G,VST1T*-,dHJ3G1T.�,h.4W�FVzD2Fh]8]GF�.0D2F
ym�1�5JH�14K�HJY4Ft5-D�3@F�.[HJ38KL3@D DX1TQ�Q�<.B3`HLN�38.�;=<.>365?3@, 5-F2FI5
3`H-5EF�]8K�,[5�SF�3{.Baq38.[kTF[5OHPF2W:~�3`HJYq,�Q�365�5P3G14.+�THJY4F�*-Fh]83G,VS0]GF�U4*-1W[<�DVHJ3G14.Z,�.0W#HJ*-,�.5?Q�365�5?3G14.Z14K}�4.41B~�]GF2WBaF�~�Y41p5-F�D21T.IHJ38.[<3^HLN�38.&HJY4Fl]G14.BaiHPFh*?Q�Q�<+5OH�SFlF�.5O<*-FXW
y;}Y4F[5EFt*-F�U4*-FI5-F�.IHP,VHJ3G14.�5ZY0,VkFt.01gW41B<4SBH
Y4Fh]8UF2W�;=<.>365?3@,�.b*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY�10kTF�*-D214Q�FiHJY0FgQ�,�.[N�HJ*?3G,h]65�,�.0W�HJ*P3`SB<]G,dHJ3G1T.5�14K 3^H-5&5?Y01T*OH�YB365JHP1T*ONy� 10~�FVkFh* �
~�F2,��4.0F[5�5EF[5�38.[HPFh*OkF�.0F�3{.tHJY4,VH�HJY4F_aF�.0F�*-,�]"D214.[HPFVz>H�14K�HJYB365�U4*-1D2F[5�5�Y4,[5�.010H�KJ14*�HJY0F
Q�14Q�F�.IH}]GF2W�HP1#HJY4F�F�Q�F�*PaF�.4D2F�14K},�.INZ5-1B<*-D2F[5�14K�]GFha43`HJ38Q�,2DdN�KJ1T*�5ED�3GF�.IHJ365OH-5�HJY4,�.�HJY01�5EFnHJY4F(U14]83`HJ3GDX,�]U1B~�F�*�5 � ,�.4WgHP1 ,�W4F�a4*-F2F�3{.[HPF�*?.0,VHJ3G14.4,�]�,�3GW � ,�*EF�~�3{]8]838.>agHP1�a43`kTF�3`H �
SBN�Q�FX,�.�5�1TK:~�Y4,VH\,h*-F5-14Q�FVHJ3{Q�F[5|D214.[HJ*E,2WB3GDVHP14*ON�38.B3`HJ3@,VHJ3`kFI5
y �.�5PU43`HPF_14K�,MU1BHPF�.[HJ3G,h]�~�Y>3GD�Yf365�D2Fh*OHP,�38.>]`N�5O<4Sp5JHP,�.[HJ3@,�]m~�3`HJY�*-F�a,h*-W�HP1lD214Q�U,�*E,VS4]GFqD21B<.[HJ*?3@F[5
�;�<.B365P3G,�.�5-D�3GFh.4D2F&HJY4F�*-FhKJ1T*-F�*-F�Q�,h38.�5�,iU4*-FXD2,�*?3G1B<+5�F2WB38KL3GD2F�U,�*OHJ3@DV<]G,�*?]^Nb5-1�38.gHJY4F�D214.[HPFVz>H�14K
F2D214.414Q�3GD�W4FXD�[email protected]�~�Y>3GD�Y�Q�38a4Y[H�Y4,dkF(KJ,�* � *-F2,2D�Y>38.Ba D214.�5EF2¡[<�F�.0D2F[5 y
* IREMAM-MMSH, Aix-en-Provence.
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
Author manuscript, published in "Science Technology & Society 8, 2 (2003) 261-281"
�
���B��(:����#�����h������������&���t��� �i���#�������(���&�p�������������#�f���:�����#��� ��
kTF�*�5P38.4DXF#38.0W4F�UF�.4W4Fh.4D2F�5ED�3GF�.0D2F#3{._;�<.B365P3G,#Y0,[5�SF2F�.\,�.q,�KLKJ,h38*"1TK"7BHP,VHPF
y��H�KJF2,dHL<*-F[5�]G,�*PaF�3{.
HJY4F�WB365ED21B<*�5-F�14KmHJY0F�U14]83`HJ3@D2,�]�F�]83`HPFy��.4WZKL38*�5JH�,h.4WZKJ1T*-FhQ�1�5JH�3{.ZU4*-1�Dh]G,�Q�,[email protected]�Q�,2W4F�SBN� �*EF[5?3GW4Fh.[H
� 10<*PaB<3`S, y;mY>365�U4*-F[5P3GW4F�.IH�D�]@,�38Q�F2WqFVz0U4]83GD�3`HJ]^N#HJY0F�38.>Y4F�*?3^HP,�.4D2F�1TK}*-FhKJ1T*?Q�365OH}HJY>38.B�F�*�5�14K�HJY4F��
���HJY
D2F�.IHL<*ON�~�Y01e5E,V~ 3{.iHJY4Fl*-F2,hU4U4*-1TU4*P3G,VHJ3G14.�1TK�HJY4F���U4*-14KJ,�.0F 5ED�3GF�.0D2F[5������������ � !�!#"�$\1T.0F�14K#HJY0F
D214.4WB3`[email protected](KJ14*�;�<.B365P3G,BAL5�5J<*Ok43^k,�]�,[5",�.4,dHJ3G1T.y&%3`HJYq,('O<�WB3GD�3@10<+5�Q�3^z\1TK|Q�1W4F�*?.B3�5OH WB365-D21B<*�5EF#,h.4W
*-F�KJFh*-F�.4DXF[5�HP1�HJ*-,2WB3^HJ3G1T.�HJY0F�Y0F2,2W�1TK 7BHP,VHPF_Y4,�Q�Q�F�*-F2W�1B<4H�HJY0F�Q�F[5�5E,�aFMHJY4,VH)�[5JHJ*-F�.>aBHJY
�,VH�HJYB3�5
Q�14Q�F�.IHf1TK\YB365JHP1T*ON�]83@F[5t3{.�5ED�3GF�.0D2F
y;|F2,2D�Y>38.Ba�1B<*tKJFh]8]G1B~ Dh3`HJ3+*IF�.5_HJY4Fg5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD�WB365-D�3{U4]838.4FI5
D214.�5JHJ3`HL<4HPF[5�,�D�Y4,�UBHPFh*�1TK�HJY0F-,.���."./��y�0;}Y4F�Q�F[5�5E,�aF�Y4F�~�,[5|HJ*ON>38.Ba:HP1qWB*?3`kTF�Y414Q�F�HP1:Y>365|UF214U4]GF�3�5
HJY4,dH�5-D�3GFh.4D2F�3�5�,dH|14.4F�,�.4W�HJY4F�5-,�Q�F(HJ38Q�F(HJY4F�5-1B<*-D2F�14K}F2D214.414Q�3GD�W4FVkTF�]G14U4Q�F�.[H�HJY4F�aB<�,�*-,�.IHPF2F�14K
,('O<+5OH�a1BkF�*?.>Q�F�.IH � STF2D2,V<+5EF�3`H�3�51��*-,dHJ3G1T.0,�]+� � y��H�365�,�DV<]`HL<*-F�14K}Q�1W4F�*?.>3`HLN�HJY4,VH�D21B<]GWZF�Q�,�.4D�3{U,VHPF
HJY4Fn~�Y414]GF�14KpHJY4F(UF214U4]GF�,�.0W#,h]65-1�HJY4F�1B<4HPF�*�~�,h]8]BHJY4,VH+~�10<]@W�U4*E10HPF2DdH},�5JHJ38]8]4KL*-,ha438]GF(38.0W4F�UF�.4W4Fh.4D2Fy 74Y41B~�38.>a�HJY>*-1B<a4Y HJYB3�5:5OHP,dHPF�Q�F�.IH�1TK�YI<Q�,�.B3�5OH�KJ,�3`HJYf38.tKJ,dk1B<*�1TK�U4*E1Ta4*-FI5�5�~�,[5
�Y010~�FVkTF�*
�,
5-Fh.�5-F 1TK|<*?aF�.4DdN\,�.4W_14K�HJY0F#.4FXF2WoHP1_Q�1BkFo5J~�3{K6HJ]`Ny;=<.>365?3G,�365",�U11T*"D21B<.[HJ*JN
�D214.BKL*-14.[HPF2W:SBNo,
Y41p5OHo1TK D214.4D�*-FdHPF�U4*-1BS4]@F�Q:5�5-1i~�Y4F�.�Y4F�W4F[5ED�*?3`STF[5ZYB3�5:HJY41B<a4Y[H-5q14.�HJY0F HLNBUFl14KZ5-D�3@F�.4D2F HJY0F
D21B<.[HJ*ON .4F2F2W�5� �10<*PaB<3`S,�FVz4U4]@,�38.�5ZHJY0,VH2�h3`HZ3�5M.010Ho,�5-D�3@F�.4D2Ft3{.�HJY4Fl,VS�5-14]`<4HPF
�,l¡[<�F[5OHJ3@1T.�14K
�4.41B~�]GF2WBaF�,[5\1TU4U1p5-F2W&HP1g38a4.414*-,�.0D2F�14*\1TKq5?38Q�U4]^Ng5E,VHJ365?K6N>38.>a�38.[HPF�]{]GF2DVHL<�,�]�Dd<*?3G1p5?3`HLN�~�Y>3GD�Y&3�5
D2F�*JHP,�38.B]^N ]GF�a43^HJ38Q�,VHPFjS><4H�1TK6HPFh.�<.BU4*E1�W[<�DVHJ3^kF43�3`H�D214.4DXF�*?.�5e,�U4U4]83GFXW�5-D�3GFh.4D2Fr,h.4W�HPF2D�Y>.B3GDX,�]WB365ED�38U4]838.0F[5��
y65;}YB365�5-1 � HPF�*PQ�F2W7�XD214.4D�*-FdHPF8�M5ED�3GF�.0D2F �
38.ZHJY4FZ5?U438*?3^H"1TK|HJY4F�]GF2,2W4Fh*�5"1TK}HJY4F�HJ38Q�F�365�HJY0F
14.4F:~�Y>3GD�Y_~�3{]8]}]GF2,2WM<.>KJ,�38]838.>a4]`NqHP19�XW4FVkF�]@1TU4Q�Fh.[H:�yGy<;.MHJY>365�U1438.[H 14K�k43GFV~
�38._KJ,2DVH
�~�FZ,�*-F:.41BH
kFh*ON�KJ,�*�KL*-14Q�HJY4FZD214.4D2FhUBH-5(~�Y>3GD�Y_U4*EFVk,�3{]GF2W�W[<*?38.>a�HJY0FZF�*-,Z14K�HJY4F#)+*-Fh.4D�Y_U4*E10HPF2DdHP1T*-,dHPF�~�Y4Fh*-F
D214]G14.B3G,�]�WB365ED21B<*�5-F�,�.0W�5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD�WB365-DX10<*�5EF�38.[HPF�*PQ�38.Ba4]@F2WM14.:HJY4F�HJY0F�Q�F ��3{.4D�*-FX,[5?38.>aoHJY0F Q�U43{*-FBAL5U1BHPF�.[HJ3G,h]+�
yGy>=;mY>365|365�1TK=D210<*�5-F�38.�<.B365E1T.�~�3`HJY�HJY4F�,�U4U4*-1,2D�Y 1TK@?�.>3`HPF2WBA:,[email protected]�S1WB3GF[5 � FI5?UF2D�3@,�]8]`N?CA 7�D
; �~�YB3GD�Yf5?U4*-F2,XW\HJY>*-1B<a4Y41B<4HnHJY0FZ;mY>38*-W
%1T*?]@W DX10<.IHJ*?3GF[5(HJY0F#3GW4FX,�HJY4,dH�5-D�3@F�.4D2F�~�,I5(KJ14*
HJY4F�W4FdkF�]G14U438.>a:DX10<.IHJ*?3GF[5|,(KJ,dk1B<*-F2W�*-1B<4HPF(KJ1T*|D2,dHPD�YB38.>a�<Uy
�1E8F.G@[email protected]<NPT@U(�VE8U�G@W�TXF.W�F.Y@U�ZXL[W\ZXK.Y@U8] � 1B~�FVkF�* �
5O<�DhYlU4*-1�Dh]G,�Q�,[email protected] ,VS1B<4H�,^�XD214.4D�*-FdHPF8�l5-D�3GFh.4D2FMaFX,�*-F2W HP1&5-F�*Jk438.>a�W4FVkF�]@1TU4Q�Fh.[HY4,XWt14.B]`Nf,:kFh*ONl5?]{38a4Y[H 38.BKL]`<�Fh.4D2Fq1T._HJY0F ~�,VN�;=<.>365?3G,h.�,2D2,2W4FhQ�3GDM5-Dh3GF�.4DXF#~�,[5"HP1�SB<3{]GWM<Ut,hK6HPF�*shu4v4w_,�.0W_14.oHJY0Fo5OHPFX,2W[NZKL]G1B<*?365PYB38.>a_,dH�3`H-5"DX1T*-F�14K�,�D2Fh*OHP,�38.:~�,VNq14K�W41T38.>a 5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD�*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY
y��.
*-F2,h]83`HLNl3^H�~�,[5�HJY4FM)+*EF�.4D�YlQ�1�W4F�]�~�YB3GDhYt~�,[5�HP1�]GF2,VkTFM3`H-5�Q�,�*?��W4F2F�U4]^Nl,h.4WlW[<*-,VS0]`Nf38Q�U4*?3{.[HPF2W�1B~�38.>a:HP1 HJY0F#5OHJ*E1T.>aZ*-F�]G,[email protected]�]838.>�438.Baq;�<.B3�5?3G,�,h.4W#)+*-,h.4D2F�,h.4W#HP1:HJY4F�38.[HPF�.5?3`HLN#1TK+HJY4F�]838.B�p5}~�YB3GDhY
~�F�*-F�HP1oSF�F[5JHP,VS4]{365?Y0F2Wo3{.q1T*-W4Fh* HP1ZHJ*-,�38.:N01B<.Ba\;=<.>365?3G,h._5-D�3GFh.[HJ365JH-5�;}YB3�5�~�,[5|HJY4F�)�*-F�.4DhYM5ON5JHPF�Q
38.l~�Y>3GD�Y � 38.lHJY4Fishu4v4w�5 ,�.0W�shu4x4w�5 � 5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD_*-F[5EF2,�*-DhYt~�,[5�3{.lK6<]8]"FVz4U,�.5?3G14.�,�.0W�~�Y4F�*EF\HJY0FW414Q�38.4,h.[HtkT,�]`<�F[5l~�F�*-FgHJY41p5-F�1TKfKL*-F2F2W414Q HP1�UB<*�5O<�F�D�Y41p5-Fh.�]{38.4F[5�1TK�*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY�HJY4F214*-FVHJ3GDX,�]
FVzTD2F�]8]GFh.4D2F�kT,�]`<�F[5 F[5PU10<+5EF2WMKJ14*�FVzT,�Q�U4]GF�SBN2 �3GF�*?*EF`_$,2D2¡[<38.010H
�*-F�.010~�.4F2WZU4Y[N5P3GD�365JH�,�.0WMWB3{*-F2DVHP14*
aF�.0F�*-,�]14KpHJY4F\DaA`b�7�KL*-14Q shu4v � y6c�yGy �. � w&1T*Z5E1�N0F2,�*�5 �
HJYB3�5�Q�10<]@W�~�,[5Z5ON5JHPF�Q�,VHJ3GDX,�]8]`N�a1T38.>a�HP1�5?Y4,hUF\HJY0F_KL38*�5OH�aF�.0F�*-,VHJ3G14.�5 14K;�<.B365P3G,�.g5ED�3GF�.IHJ365OH-5
y-�H�HJYB3�5:HJ38Q�F
�)+*-,h.4D2FtY0,2W�,�]8Q�1p5OH ,tQ�14.414U1T]^N�14.�HJ*E,�38.B3{.Ba
y��.lHJY4F�shu4v4w�5
)+*-,h.4D2F�,�]8]@10HLHPF2W:N010<.>a_;�<.B3�5?3G,�.5",[5�Q�,�.IN a4*-,�.[H-5 ,[5�HJY0F�38*�1B~�.:a1BkF�*?.>Q�F�.IHd�?10kTF�*�v4w4w:UF�*|N4FX,�*�$y
�.�shu4x4w
�)+*E,�.4D2F(~�,[5|Y41p5OH�HP1e'J<+5OH=10kTF�*(f>wSgR14K�HJY0F�;=<.>365?3@,�.:5OHL<�W4Fh.[H-5�~�Y41�Y4,2W�*-F2DXF�3`kFXW�a4*E,�.[H-5�HP1
5OHL<�W[N\,dS4*-1,2Wy��1p5OHn1TK�HJY0F�Q�~�F�.IH�KJ14*�]G1T.>a 5JHP,VN5h�CSFdHL~�F2Fh.:HJYB*-F2F�,�.0W HPFh.:N4FX,�*�5�$
�HJY4F�HJ38Q�F�KJ14*",
W41DVHP1T*E,�]�HJY4FI5?365 1T*�Q�14*-F�DX1TQ�Q�1T.>]`N
�,)ij��k8lnm�/Bo pCij"qi
yGy4�H}~�,[5}HJY4F�*EF�KJ1T*EF�38.�)+*EF�.4D�Y�<.>3`kF�*�5?3`HJ3GFI5�,h.4W
1 - Carthage speech, 25/01/1973. 2 - Speech of 7/11/1955. 3 - On this aspect see Christophe Bonneuil (1991). 4 - See Picard (1990, p. 209 and following pages). Research programmed on defined objectives did exist at the time, but it was implemented within agencies like the CEA or the CNES.
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
�
]G,VST1T*E,VHP1T*P3GF[5�<.0W4F�*nHJY0Fo5J<UF�*Ok43�5?3G14._14K�)+*EF�.4D�YqU4*-14KJF[5�5E1T*�5�,�.0WM38.ZHJY4F D21TQ�U,�.[N\14K�)+*-Fh.4D�YZUF2Fh*�5
�HJY4,dH�.0F2,�*?]^N�,�]{]BHJY4F(K6<4HL<*-F�;�<.B365P3G,�.�<.>3`kFh*�5?3`HLN�HPF2,2DhY4F�* � *-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y0F�*�5|,2DX¡[<38*-F2W�HJY4Fh38*�HJ*-,�38.>38.Ba y � ;mY0F�)+*-F�.0D�YZQ�1B<]GW ~�,[5�HP1oSTF�,�]8]pHJY4F�Q�14*-F�F�KLKJF2DVHJ3^kF�38.#HJY0,VH|3`H}~�1T*P�F2W:3`H-5�3{.BKL]`<�F�.0D2F�14.#N01B<.BaUF214U4]GF�~�Y41ZaF�.4Fh*-,�]8]`N WB3GW:.010H|�4.010~eFVzT,2DVHJ]`N�~�Y4,VH|]83{.4F�HJY0FVN�~�,�.IHPF2W#HP1ZKJ1T]8]@10~
yDn14.[HJ*E,�*ON�HP1#~�Y0,VH
Q�38a4YIHfY4,VkTFiSF2F�.e,�.[HJ3GDh38U,VHPF2WbKL*-14Q �*-F[5?3@W4F�.[H � 10<*PaB<3`S,BAL5lU4*-1D�]G,hQ�,VHJ3G14.�5�1T.cHJY4F�D21B<.[HJ*ON�AL5�d<*?aF�.[H|.0F2F2W�5 ��,�.4WZ14.#HJY0F�,�.5O~�F�*�5�HJY0,VH�5-Dh3GF�.4DXF�D21B<]GW2�?,�.0W:Q�<+5OH:$�S0*?38.>a�.41:U,�*JHJ3GDV<]G,�*�WB38*-FXDVHJ3G14.
Y4,XW�SFXF�.�KL3`zTF2W�KJ1T*�HJY0F�Qy)+*-14QgHJY4,VH+HJ38Q�F
�HJY0Fn)+*-F�.0D�Y�Q�1W4F�]B~�,[5}38.�U4]@,VN�,I5}3`H+~�Fh*-FnSBN�W4F�KJ,V<]`H �B,I5
HJY4F(N010<.>aZ;�<.B365P3G,�.5m~�Y41#~�F�.IH}KJ14*mHJ*-,h38.B38.>a:38.�)+*E,�.4D2F�Y4,XW�SFXF�.Z5-F�]GFXDVHPF2W#KL*E1TQ�,�Q�14.Ba�HJY4F(SF[5JH}14KHJY4Fh38*�DX10<.IHJ*ON
�HJY4FVN#10S>HP,�38.4FXW�kFh*ON�a11�W�*-F[5J<]`H-5}38.�HJY4Fn)+*-Fh.4D�Y�<.>3`kFh*�5?3`HJ3@F[5
y;mY>365|FVzTD2F�]8]@F�.4D2Fn~�,[5�HP1
D214.[HJ*?3^SB<4HPF(HP1#HJY4F�38*�14*?3GF�.IHP,VHJ3G14.�HP1B~�,�*-W�5}HJY4F�Q�14*-F �dHJY4FX1T*-FdHJ3GD2,�]+��*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY#KL3@F�]GW�5d�CHJY4,dH}365}HP1o5E,VN�HJY0F
Q�1p5OH\U4*?3+*IFXW�38.gHPF�*PQ:5f1TK:)�*-F�.4DhYc,2D2,XW4F�Q�3GD&Dh*?3`HPF�*?3@,&1TK:HJY0F�HJ38Q�F $M~�Y0F�*-F�HJY0FVN�~�1B<]GWc1BSBHP,�3{.
FVz0UF�*?3GF�.0D2FZQ�,�38.>]`N�38._HJY4FZQ�1p5OH"K6<.4W4,hQ�F�.[HP,h]}�438.4W�14K�5ED�3GF�.0D2Fy<;.0D2F#S,XD���38.MHJY4Fh38*�D21B<.[HJ*ON
�HJY4FVN
HPF�.0W4F2W HP1�*-F�U4*-1W[<�D2F�HJY4F&Q�1W4F�]�~�Y>3GD�YcY0,2W STF2F�.gHJY0F 5E10<*ED2F�1TK:HJY0F�38*t5E1�D�3@,�]83+*I,dHJ3G1T.�~�3`HJY ,
U4*-F2WB3{]GF2DVHJ3G14.�KJ14*�HJY0F�HJY4F214*-FVHJ3@D2,�]\,�.4W�K6<.4W4,�Q�Fh.[HP,�]\,[5?UFXDVH-5�Q�1�5JH�W4FVkTF�]G14UF2W�,h.4WekT,�]`<�F2WbSBN38.IHPF�*?.4,dHJ3G1T.0,�]:5ED�3GF�.0D2F 5JHP,�.4W4,h*-W�5
yb F[5EF2,�*-DhY
�~�3`HJYc5O<U4U14*OHZKL*E1TQ�a10kTF�*?.>Q�F�.[H\5?U,�*�5-F
�*EF�Q�,�38.0F2W
,VST10kTF�,�]8]pUFh*-D2F�3`kTF2W:,I5mSTF�]G14.Ba438.>a#HP1Z,�U,�*OHJ3GDd<]G,�*|Q�1TQ�F�.[H=38. ,�. ,2D2,2W4F�Q�3GD�DX,�*-F2F�*�HJY4F�U4*-F�U,�*E,VHJ3G14.
14KmHJY0F�HJY4F[5P365�~�YB3GDhY:]GF2,XW�5�HP1q,�W4F�a4*-F2F�,�.4W:U4*-Fh*-1Ta,dHJ3`kF[5 ,[5�5E1�Dh3G,VHPF2W#~�3`HJY:3^H
y �FVN014.4W#HJY0,VH
�3`H|365�,h.
,VHLHJ*?3^SB<4HPF�1TK�,2D2,2W4F�Q�3GD�U1B~�F�* �LHJY4,VH�1TK ��U4*-14KJF[5�5-14*�5���$�HJ*-,�.5?]G,VHPFXWe3{.�D214.4D�*-FdHPFiHPF�*?Q:5tS>N HJY0F
�hU1�5�5-F[5�5?3G14.S� 14K�,�]G,VST1T*E,VHP1T*JNq,�.0WM14*?a,�.>3+*IF2Wq,2D2D214*-WB38.>aoHP1\,�Y>3GF�*-,h*-D�YB3@D2,�]�WB3`k43�5?3G14.q1TK}]@,VS1B<*y;mY0F
KL]GF2WBa4]{38.Ba�;�<.B3�5?3G,�.�,2D2,XW4F�Q�3GD�*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y�KJ10<.0W�3`H-5EF�]8K�KL*-,ha4Q�F�.[HPFXW+� 3`H�~�,[5 D214.4W[<�DVHPFXW�38.�, YB3{a4YB]`N38.0WB3`k43GW[<�,h]83+*IF2W�~�,dN�38.Z5?Q�,h]8]BHPF2,�Q:5�5?Y[<4H=14KLK+KL*-1TQ�FX,2D�Y�1BHJY4F�*
�'-FX,�]G1B<+5|1TKpHJY0F�38*}Q�,VHPFh*?3G,�],�.0W�1TKpHJY4Fh38*
D214.[HP,2DdH-5�,VS0*-1�,XWym�H(~�,[5�38.�KJ,2DVH�3{.[HPF�*?.0,VHJ3G14.4,�]�,�3GW �?,�.0WtF[5PUF2D�3G,�]{]`N_)+*-Fh.4D�Y $�~�YB3GDhY�~�,[5�HJY4FZQ�,�3{.
5-1B<*-D2F�14K�*EF2D214a4.B3`HJ3G14.y|�H�~�,[5�HJY>365�~�YB3GD�Y&5J<U4U4]83GF2Wl*-FV~�,�*-W�5
�ST10HJYfQ�,VHPF�*?3@,�]�,�.0W�5ON>Q�S14]83GD
�,h.4W
~�YB3GD�Y�D21T.IHJ38.[<�FXW�HP1�HJ*-,�38.�38.�HJY4F�5E,�Q�F(KL3GFh]GW�5�HJY4F(.0FV~caFh.4F�*-,dHJ3G1T.5|14Km5JHL<�W4F�.[H-5y
�H�~�,[5�HJY0F�F�*-,M~�Y0F�.tHJY4FX��]G,h*?aFMKJ,2DV<]^HJ3GF[5��qHJ*?3`<Q�U4Y0F2W��CHJY41p5-FqKJ10<.0W4F2WtKL*-14Q shu4v4wl1T.I~�,h*-W�5
�Q�1p5OH�1TK�~�YB3GD�Yt~�F�*-F_38.lU4]@,2D2F�,�*-1B<.4Wcshu4x���$y;}Y4Fh38*�]GF�a43`HJ38Q�,2DVNl]@,VNl38.tHJY0F_.[<Q�STF�*�14K�5OHL<�W4F�.IH-5
HJ*-,�3{.4F2W_SBN_N01B<.BatU4*E1TKJF[5�5-14*�5�~�Y01 kF�*JNf¡[<3GD��4]`N�*-F2,2D�Y0F2WMHJY4F:Y>38a4Y4F[5JH"a4*-,2W4F[5y �.0WB365?UB<4HP,dS4]`N
�HJY4FVN
D214.�5JHJ3`HL<4HPF2WgHJY4F�D2F�.IHJ*-F�1TKZHJY4F�~�Y414]GFg5ON5OHPF�Q�~�3`HJYg~�Fh38a4Y[HLN 38.�5JHJ3`HL<4HJ3G14.�5�]838�F�HJY0F�)�,2DV<]^HLNc14K
7D�3GF�.0D2F[5�,VH�;=<.>365�,h.4W HJY4FZ)�,2DV<]`HLN 1TK���FVHLHPF�*�5y��.�shu4x4w � x�s �
HJY0F[5-F:HL~�1l,h]G1T.0F S0*-1B<a4Y[H(HP14aFVHJY0F�*� uSg 14K:5JHL<�W4F�.[H-5 ,�.4W ��� g 14K�,�]8]"YB38a4Y0F�*ZF2W[<�DX,VHJ3G14.�HPF2,XD�YB38.>ai5JHP,�KLK
ym�1T*EF 14.tHJY4F�F2WBaF�14K�HJY0F
5ON5JHPF�Q�HPF2D�YB.>3GD2,�]=1T*�HPF2D�Y>.414]G1Ta43@D2,�]�3{.�5OHJ3^HL<4HJ3G1T.5(]{38�F�HJY0F�A ,VHJ3G14.4,�]
�a4*-1T.01TQ�3GD
�.5OHJ3`HL<4HPF 1TK ;=<.>365
�Y4Fh38*�14K�D214]G14.B3G,�]�,�a4*E1T.01TQ�3@D�3{.�5OHJ3^HL<4HJ3G1T.5�HJY4F\A:,dHJ3G1T.0,�]|7D�Y411T]+KJ14* .>a438.4F2Fh*�5"1TK�;�<.B365h� A
�; $"14*
HJY4F(p����[m� ���J�B"��[m���������� �Qm���� m\/Bo p��.l m�������m8� m��qi��.m�� �����! ��.m)� Aq7 ;a$|KJ10<.0W4F2W#*-Fh]G,VHJ3`kTF�]`N�]G,VHPF�14.38.�shu4v4uM,h.4Wlshu4x � y
;}Y4F[5EF 5J<KLKJF�*-F2WZKJ14*(,�]G14.BaZHJ38Q�F�KL*-14Q 5OHL<�W4F�.IH-5dA}WB3�5-,�KLKJF2DdHJ3G1T.ZKJ14*�HJY4F�HPF2D�Y>.B3GDX,�]WB365ED�38U4]838.0F[5
y )+38.0,�]8]`N�5-14Q�FZ10HJY0F�*�D2F�.IHJ*-F[5(~�F�*-FZDh]GF2,�*?]^N�D214.�5P38a4.4FXW\HP1_HJY4F:Q�,h*?a438.�5
y;}Y4FI5-F#~�F�*-F:*-,�*EF
�5?Q�,h]8]
38.5OHJ3`HL<4HJ3G14.�5 14K�*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y � W4FVkTF�]G14U4Q�F�.[H�]838�F�HJY0F �.�5JHJ3`HL<4HPF_KJ1T*q7D�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD�,�.0W�;|F2D�Y>.B3GD2,h] b F[5EF2,�*-DhY
��b�7;a$
�KJ1B<.4W4F2Wc38. shu4v4uiS>NiHJY0F&,�Q�,h]8a,�Q�,VHJ3@1T. 1TKq, D�F�.IHJ*-F�KJ14*
�*?3GW#"�14.4FI5�,�.0Wc,�*-,VHJY0F�*
38Q�U4*E10ST,VS4]GF�HP14Q�3GD .4Fh*?aBN
�<4HJY01T*P3`HLN � D
�$y
$ �Bb���������������}�$�i�}���n�1� �n������&%�����
�H�~�,[5|U4*-F2Dh365-F�]^N�HJY4F[5EF�UFh*?38U4Y4Fh*-,�]38.�5JHJ3`HL<4HJ3G14.�5}~�Y>3GD�Y
�KL*-14Q shu4x�f
�DX,�]8]GF2W�*-,XWB3GD2,�]8]^N�38.IHP1:¡[<�F[5JHJ3G14.
HJY4F�~�,dN\,2D2,2W4F�Q�3GDo5ED�3GF�.0D2F�~�,[5 D21T.0W[<�DVHPF2WM3{.:<.B3`kTF�*�5?3^HJ3GF[5y�.:HJY4F�KL38*�5OH�38.�5JHP,�.4D2F
�HJYB3�5"¡[<�F[5OHJ3G14.B3{.Ba
~�,[5�38.B3`HJ3@,VHPF2W�S>Nf,Z.4FV~R*-FhKJ1T*?Q � Q�38.0W4F2W('�38*EF2DVHP14*�1TK�7D�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD b F[5EF2,�*-D�Yq~�Y01 �HP,��438.>a�<Uf14._YB3�5
1B~�. ,2D2D21B<.[H}HJY0F�WB365-DX10<*�5EF�14. �X,�.4,[email protected],�]�5-Dh3GF�.4DXF�38.�HJY0F�5EF�*Ok43@D2F�14K}W4FdkF�]G14U4Q�F�.IH:��D�*P3`HJ3GD�365EF2W�HJY0F
5 - Not to mention that there were many who began their studies in the recently created Tunisian undergraduate courses under the rule of French teachers on assignment in Tunisia for aid schemes.
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
�
,2D2,XW4F�Q�3GD�3�5?Q 1TK�;�<.B365P3G,�. 5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD *EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y ,h.4W�38.IHPF�.4W4F2W�Y0F�.4DXF�KJ1T*JHJY�HP1 KJ,Vk1B<*&*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY14*?a,�.B3 *IF2W�38.�W4F�KL38.>3`HPF U4*E1Ta4*-,hQ�Q�F[5
�KL3`zF2W�1T.�U,�*OHJ3GDd<]G,�*Z1BS 'EF2DVHJ3`kTF[5Z,h.4W�D21T.0W[<�DVHPF2Wl38.l*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY
D2F�.IHJ*-F[5|1B<4H-5?3@W4FnHJY4Fn<.B3^kF�*�5P3`HLN 5ON5OHPF�Qy
�HLHPF�.[HJ3^kF:HP1 HJYB365�.0FV~RWB3�5-D21B<*�5-F
�,:Q�3{.414*?3`HLN\a4*-10<Uf14K�5-D�3GFh.[HJ365JH-5�W4F�Q�14.�5JHJ*-,VHPF2WMHJY4Fh38*�5O<U4U14*OH
KJ14* ~�Y4,dH�HJY0FVNZUF�*ED2F�3`kTF2WM,I5�HJY4F�1TU4U14*OHL<.>3`HLN:HP1MUB<4H�*?38a4YIH�,h.Z38.J'O<+5JHJ3GD2Fy �*-10<a4YIH�S>N:HJY0F�D�Y4,h.4D2F�14K
HJY4Fh38*:*-FI5?UF2DVHJ3^kFtDX,�*-F2F�*�5#HP1�~�1T*?��38.&,hU4U4]83GF2W�*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y�38.�5JHJ3`HL<4HJ3G14.�5��O.010HP,VS0]`N�b�7;b,h.4W
�A�;a$�HJY4FI5-Fl*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y0F�*�5qKJF�]`H HJY4FVN&~�F�*-FlQ�,�*Pa438.4,�]{3+*IF2W�,�.4W�W4F[5?U4365EF2W S>N�,�.�,2D2,XW4F�Q�3GD�5JN�5JHPF�Q Q�,�3{.B]`N
HL<*?.0F2W�HP10~�,�*-W�5}K6<.0W4,�Q�F�.IHP,�]4*-F[5EF2,�*-DhYy ;mY0F�.0FV~ '�38*-F2DVHP14*�1TK�*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y
�5OHJ*-14.Ba 38.�HJY4F(SF�.0FVk14]GF�.IH�38.4WB38KLKJFh*-F�.4DXF�1TK+YB3�5}Q�38.>365OHPF�* � �
S0*-1B<a4Y[HHJY4FbU14]83`HJ3GDX,�]�38Q�UB<]65EF
�HJY0F 5ED�3GF�.IHJ365OH-5&HJY0F�Q:5EF�]`kFI5c5O<U4U4]`N>38.>ajHJY0F�HPFXD�YB.>3GD2,�]l5O<U4U14*OH 1TKlHJY4Fh38*
*-F[5PUF2DVHJ3`kTFg5?UF2D�3@,�]83`HJ3GFI5 �OU4Y[N5?3@D[5�D�Y4F�Q�365OHJ*ON
�S43G14]G14aBN�,�.0W�aF214]G14aBNcKJ14*_HJY41p5-F&Q�1p5OH\38.[kT1T]`kTF2WS$
y;|1TaFVHJY0F�*�HJY4FVN HJY4F�*EF�KJ1T*EF#Fh.4W4F2,VkT10<*EF2W HP1q38Q�U1p5-F�HJY4F�3{*n]@F2,2W4F�*�5PYB38U\,�.0WM,�.4Fd~�U43GDVHL<*-F�14Kn5ED�3GF�.0D2F�14.4F�F�Q�S0*-,2D�38.>ab,�D214.4DXF�UBH�14Kq*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y W4FVk1BHPF2WgKL38*�5JH\,�.4WgKJ14*-F�Q�1�5JHZHP1e5E1T]`k038.BagHJY0F&D214.4D�*EFVHPF
U4*-1BS4]GFhQ:5�~�Y>3GD�Y:~�F�*-F�HJY4F:5JHL<Q�S4]83{.BaZS4]G1D��p5"14K�W4FVkTF�]G14U4Q�F�.IH�38.q;�<.B3�5?3G,y;mY0F�KL38*�5OH|U4*P3G1T*P3`HJ3GF[5|HJY4FVN
3GW4F�.IHJ38KL3GF2W:~�F�*-F�HJY4F�KL3GF�]@W�5"1TK|*-F�.0FV~�,dS4]GF�F�.0F�*?aBN�W4FVkF�]@1TU4Q�Fh.[H�14K�HJY4F�D21B<.[HJ*JNpAL5�.0,VHL<*-,�]�*-F[5-1B<*-D2FI5
�OU4*?3{Q�,�*?38]^N�U4Y41p5?U4Y0,VHPF[5�$�~�,VHPF�*}*-FI5-1B<*-D2F[5|,h.4W:5O<U4U4]`N�,�.0W�Q�,�*?38.0F�5-D�3GFh.4D2F[5=KJ1T*�HJY0F�38*|,�U4U4]83@D2,VHJ3G14.�5}3{.
KL365PY4F�*?3@F[5y ;mY0FVNt~�,�.IHPF2W�HP1�F2¡[<38UlHJY4F�Q:5EF�]`kTF[5�~�3^HJYtHJY4F�38* 1B~�.fKJ,2D�38]{3`HJ3GF[5
�WB3�5OHJ38.0DVH�KL*-14Q HJY4Fo<.>3`kFh*�5?3`HJ3@F[5
y7BHP,�*OHJ38.>a KL*E1TQ HJY4F&Q�1W4F[5JHJ]`N � 5?3+* F2W �.�5OHJ3^HL<4HPF�KJ1T*�7�Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD&,�.0Wc;�F2DhYB.B3@D2,�]�b F[5EF2,�*-D�Y �?14.B]`N shw
*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY4F�*�5o,�.4W�HJYB*EF2FlWB365-Dh38U4]838.0F[5Z*-F�U4*EF[5-F�.IHPF2W&38.bshu4x4xS$�HJY4FdNlSB<38]`H�<U�,�.�,�Q�S43^HJ3G10<+5 *-F[5EF2,�*-DhY
D2,�Q�UB<+5t~�3^HJY�5-FVkTF�.�D2Fh.[HJ*-F[5� �*-F�.0,�Q�F2W HJY0F A:,[email protected],�]
�.�5JHJ3`HL<4HPFgKJ14*&7D�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD�,�.4Wb;|F2D�Y>.B3GDX,�]
b F[5-FX,�*-D�Yy �Nlshu�f � 3`H D21TQ�U4*?365-FXW � � *-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y0F�*�5 D210kTF�*?38.>aquZWB365-Dh38U4]838.0F[5 y4�
.�HJY4,VH�5E,�Q�F�UF�*P3G1�W#HJY0F1BkF�*-,h]8]�SB<�WBaFdHqKJ1T*MHJY0F�38.5OHJ3`HL<4HJ3G14.
�FVzTD�]`<�WB38.>a 5E,�]G,�*?3@F[5
�3{.4D�*-FX,[5-F2W&SBN � y
� ,�.4W&HJY4F�D21T.5OHJ3`HL<�Fh.[HD2F�.IHJ*-F[5�*-F2DXF�3`kFXW SFI5?3GW4F[5cHJY0,VHcK6<.0WB38.Ba KJ1T*�5?UF2Dh3G,�]lSB<�WBaFVH ]838.4FI5
�HJY0F A ,VHJ3G14.4,�] b F[5EF2,�*-DhY
�*-14a4*-,�Q�Q�FI5V�� qA`bh$�~�YB3GDhY�Q�,VHPD�Y0F2W�HJY4F(U4*?3@1T*?3^HJ3GF[5�HJY0F(.4FV~ *-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y�]@F2,2W4F�*�5=Y4,2W�W4F�KL38.0F2Wy
�. 1T*EW4F�*�HP1�U4]@,2D2F�1T.�,gKL3{*?Q S,[5EFiHJY4FgU14]83`HJ3GDX,�]Z.4FVHL~�14*?� 1TKfW4F2D�3�5?3G14. � Q�,��438.BabHJY0FVNbY0,2WF�]G,dS14*-,VHPF2W
�HJY0FVN 5EFVHt<U ,�.0,VHJ3G14.4,�] � 5-D2,�]@F D2114*-WB38.4,dHJ38.Ba�S1W[N �
HJY4F�7�Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD ,h.4W�;|F2D�Y>.B3GDX,�]b F[5-FX,�*-D�YD�10<.0D�38] ��D b�7�;a$
y;}Y4FdN�,�*P*-,�.BaFXWeKJ14*tHJY4Fg�FdNbU1p5OH-5tHP1bSFg*-FI5-F�*OkTF2W
yA:FVz>H�HJY4FVN
5O<�DXD2F2F2W4F2Wl38.�,VHLHJ*E,2DVHJ38.>a�HJY0F�3{.[HPF�*-FI5OH�.41BH�14.B]`N�1TK�)+*-Fh.4D�Y�5-D�3GFh.[HJ38KL3GD\,�3GW SB<4H�,h]65-1�1TK�Q�1T*-FqY4F�K6HLNW414.414*�5_5O<�DhY�,[5:HJY0F <*-14UF2,�.�?�.B3G14.&,h.4W&D2Fh*OHP,�38.�?�.>3`HPF2W A ,VHJ3G14.�5 ,�aF�.0D�3GF[5
�,VHLHJ*-,2DdHPF2W�SBNlHJY0F
U4*-1 '-F2DVH-5�~�Y>3GD�Y�~�F�*-F�D214.4Dh*-FVHPF�,�.0W`�dk43�5?3`S0]GF8�y
)+*-14Q�HJY0F�kFh*ONZSF�a43{.B.B3{.Ba�HJYB3�5�5JHJ*-1T.>a4]`N\W4FVHPF�*PQ�38.B3�5OH�U14]83GDVN\DX,�Q�F�<U�,�a,�38.5OH�HJY0F#Y41p5OHJ3{]83`HLNq,h.4W
KJF�*OkTF�.[Hm1TU4U1p5?3^HJ3G1T. 14K HJY0F�a4*-FX,VH}Q�,:'-1T*P3`HLN�14K�;=<.>365?3@,BAC5�<.B3`kTF�*�5?3^HLN:5ED�3GF�.IHJ365OH-5y;}Y4FVN�UF�*-DXF�3`kFXW�3^H},I5|,
5-Fh*?3G1B<+5 ¡[<�F[5OHJ3G14.B3{.Ba�1TK�HJY4F�3{*�~�,VN�1TK�W41T3{.Ba�5-D�3GFh.4D2F�D2,�*?*JNB3{.Ba�,oHJY>*-F2,VH�14K�W410~�.Ba4*E,2WB38.Ba
y;}Y4F[5EF
,2D2,XW4F�Q�3GD[5 �?,�.0W&F[5PUF2D�3G,�]{]`NlHJY41p5-F�Y414]GWB38.Ba�U10~�F�*:3{.�HJY0F�<.B3^kF�*�5P3`HJ3GF[5 $:UB<4H�<U , W4FhKJF�.4D2FM~�YB3GDhYD2,�]{]GF2Wt14._HJY4F:k,�]^<�F[5�1TK�5-D�3GFh.[HJ38KL3GDqD214Q�UFVHPF�.0D2F
�HJY0Fo3{.4W4F�UF�.0W4F�.4DXFM14K(*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Yf,�.4W_HJY4F:<.B3`HLNf14K
5-Dh3GF�.4DXFy;}Y4FdNb*-FhK6<4HPF2W [email protected]~�F2F�.�K6<.4W4,hQ�F�.[HP,h]:*-F[5EF2,�*-DhYb,�.0Wb,�U4U4]83@F2W *-F[5EF2,�*-DhY
�O38Q�U4]`N>38.BaZHJY4F�*EFVSBN HJY4F�U4*?38Q�,XDVNq14KmHJY0F�K6<.4W4,�Q�Fh.[HP,�]}5-Dh3GF�.4DXF�<Up5JHJ*-F2,�Q 14K�3^H-5",�U4U4]83GF2WZKJ14*?Q�3{.:]838.0F
~�3`HJY ,rDh]G,[5�5P3GD2,�]�]838.4FX,�*bQ�1W4F�]+$y;}Y4FVN�~�F�*-FrDh*?3`HJ3GD2,h]�1TK�, �d~�10<]GW � SF�5ED�3GF�.0D2FjHP1 5-F�*OkTFW4FVkTF�]G14U4Q�F�.[H:��~�Y>3GD�Y
�,2D2D214*-WB38.>a�HP1�HJY0F�Q ~�,I5�.41 Q�14*-F�HJY4,h.�,�kT,�aB<�F&KJ1T*PQ 14KZHPF2D�YB.01T]@1TaBN
HJ*-,�.5?KJF�*y;}Y4FVN�HJ*?3GFXW#,dS1BkF�,�]8]BHP1 WB365-Dh*-F2WB3`H+HJY4F(U,h*OHJ365-,h.�5|,�.0W�U4*-1TQ�10HPF�*�5|1TKpHJY0,VH|5-D�3GFh.4D2F
y ;mY0Fo3�5�5O<�FI5�,dH�5OHP,h�Fo38._HJY>365�D21T.>KL]83GDVH�,�*-FZU,�*OHJ]`N�5ON>Q�S14]83GD0��~�YB3@D�Yf1TK�HJY4FqD21TQ�S,VHP,�.IH-5�38.[kT1T]`kTF2W~�F�*-F�HJY0F�HJ*O<+5JHPF2F[5 1TK�HJY4F ]@F�a43`HJ38Q�,dHPF�5-Dh3GF�.4DXF��\;mY0F[5-F_365�5O<�F[5�~�F�*-F�,�]65E1&FVk03GW4F�.[HJ]^NlU14]83`HJ3GD2,h](,h.4WF2D214.414Q�3GD�38.Z.0,VHL<*-F
�SF2DX,V<+5-F�HJY4F�]G14.Ba � HPF�*?Q ,VS43{]83`HLN:HP1\W4F2D�3GW4F�.4,dHJ3G1T.0,�]}5OHJ*-,dHPF�a43GF[5�KJ14*�5-D�3GFh.4D2F�,h.4WHP1:HP,�UZUB<4S4]83@D�Q�14.4FVN�,[5�~�F�]8]�38.4W4F2FXWZ,[5�K6<.0W�5�KL*-14Qb38.IHPF�*?.4,dHJ3G1T.0,�]�5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD�,�3GW
�W4F�UFh.4W4F2W 1T.�HJYB3�5
5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD(]GF�a43`HJ3{Q�,2DVNy
6 - Centre for Applied Chemistry, Centre for Physics and Energy Studies, Centre for Biology and Genetic Resources, Centre for Earth Sciences, Centre for Biotechnology, Centre for Water Science and Technology, Centre for Oceanology.
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
�
;mY>365|K6<*?3G1B<+5�D�]G,[5PY�STFVHL~�F2F�.�HL~�1ZDX,�Q�Up5}~�Y>3GD�Y�~�F�*-F�,�U4*?3@1T*?338*?*EF2D214.4D�38]@,VS4]GF�38.�KJ,2DVHmDV<4H|,XD�*-1p5�5�,U4*-1BS4]GFhQ 14K�aF�.4Fh*-,VHJ3G14.�5
y;mY0F#.4Fd~�U14]83GDdNqKJ1T*"U4*-1Ta4*E,�Q�Q�F2Wq*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y_5JHJ38Q�<]G,VHPFXW HJY0F�3{.[HPF�*-FI5OH 1TK�,
.[<Q�SF�*�1TK+N010<.>a:¡[<�,h]838KL3GF2W:5ED�3GF�.IHJ365OH-5�D2,h.4WB3GW4,VHPFI5}KJ1T*|Fh.[HPF�*?3{.Ba�HJY4F�5JN�5JHPF�Q
y;mY0FVN�~�F�*EF(U,�*OHJ3GDV<]@,�*?]`N
38.IHPF�*-F[5JHPF2W S>NgHJY0F U1p5�5P3`S4]@F 5EFVHLHJ38.>a � <Ub14K\,�S1W[N 1TKZ*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y4F�*�5�WB365JHJ38.4DVHqKL*E1TQ�HJY0F&D214*?Up5�14KHPF2,2DhY4F�*�5�3{.tHJY4Fo<.>3`kF�*�5?3`HLNfKJ,2DV<]^HJ3GF[5y;}Y4FVN�5E,V~r3{.t3`H�HJY0FMU1�5�5?3`S038]83`HLN�14K�,Vk143GWB38.>atHJY4F_WB3{KLKL3GDV<]`HJ3GFI5
~�YB3GD�Y�5-FXF�Q�F2W�3{.4FVk03`HP,VS4]^NlHP1 5PU4*?38.>a�<U&38.lHJY4FfD210<*�5-Ft14K�HJY0F�38*ZDX,�*-F2F�*y��. s���1T*q5-1�N0F2,�*�5
�HJY0F
;�<.B365P3G,�._<.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HLNt5JN5OHPF�Q 38.\KJ,2DVH D�Y4,h.BaF2W_*-,2WB3@D2,�]8]`Ny@�H�HJY4F#SFha438.B.>38.Ba �CHJY0Ftshu4v4w�5�$�D214.4WB3`[email protected]
~�F�*-FM5O<�DhYMHJY4,VH ¡[<�,�]{38KL3GF2WMN010<.>al5-D�3GFh.[HJ365JH-5(~�Fh*-Fo5JHJ38]8]�*E,�*-F:,h.4Wo~�F�*-F�38Q�Q�F2WB3@,VHPF�]`N�5P.4,�U4UF2WZ<UMSBNHJY4F:5JN�5JHPF�QbHP1MKL38]8]�,[5"¡[<3@D��4]`Nq,I5�U1�5�5?3`S0]GF�HJY4F �Vk038*OHL<�,�]{]`NZKL*-FXF���U1�5JH-5�14K}KJ1T*EF�38a4.Z,h3GWZ,�aF�.0D�3GF[5
y;}Y4Fh.
HJY4F�<.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HLNZSF2DX,�Q�F#]@,�*?aF�]`NZ~�F�]8]=W410HPFXWo~�3^HJY 5EF�.B3G14*�5JHP,�KLK�,�.0W_D214.[HJ38.I<�F2W:<.4,VST,VHPF2W:HP1MU4*-1W[<�D2FF2,2DhYeN0F2,h*�38.0D�*-F2,I5?38.>a4]`N�.[<Q�F�*-1B<+5&DX1TY01T*OH-5�14Kta4*-,XW[<�,VHPF[5��?,VHfHJY4FgSF�a438.>.B38.>a 14K HJY0F�shu�f>w�5�$
yb F2D�*O<3^HJQ�F�.[H�SF2D2,hQ�F#Q�14*-F ,�.4WMQ�1T*-F�*-,�*-F�~�14*?�438.>at5?3`HL<�,dHJ3G1T.5�,dH�<.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HLNZSF2DX,�Q�F#Q�,�*?�F2W:SBN
38.0D�*-F2,[5P38.Ba4]^NiHP1B<a4YcDX1TQ�UFdHJ3`HJ3G14.�3�KJ1T*qHJY4F�KJFV~ ~�Y41i~�F�*-FtHP,��F�.�14.�HJY0F�U,XD2F�14K#HJY0F�38*\D2,�*-FXF�*
,2W[kT,�.4D2FhQ�F�.[H�5JHJ*?3GDVHJ]^N�D21T.IHJ*-14]8]GF2W�S>NlHJY4F���U4*-14KJF[5�5-14*�5��
�~�,[5�.010HJY>38.Ba�]838�FMHJY4,dH�~�YB3GDhYlY4,2WtSF2Fh.
FVz0UF�*?3GF�.0D2F2W#S>N#HJY0F�U4*-FVk03G1B<+5�aF�.0F�*-,VHJ3G14.y;}Y4F�*EF�KJ1T*EF HJY0F�*-FI5-F2,�*ED�YZ5?U4Y4Fh*-F�,hU4UF2,�*-F2W�Q�14*-F�]{38�F�]`N�HP1
*-F�U4*E1�W[<�D2F�HJY4F�D214.4WB3^HJ3G1T.5�KJ14*�,#5J~�38K6HPFh*�*?365EF�<U:HJY4F�DX,�*-F2F�*�]G,2W4W4F�*yS%YB3GDhY#~�,[5�14K}D21B<*�5EF�14U4U1�5EF2W
SBN HJY41p5-F�38.:HJY0F�Y>38a4Y4FI5OH�a4*-,2W4F2W:<.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HLNZU1p5OH-5�38.:~�Y4,VH|~�,[5�*-FX,�]8]`N ,�D214*?U14*-,VHPF�*EF�KL]GFVz *-F[5?U14.�5EF
14K�HJY0F�D214*?Up5|14K U4*E1TKJF[5�5-14*�5�HP1 W4F�KJF�.4W�HJY0F�38*�5OHP,dHL<+5y
;mY0F�KL38a4YIH�~�,[5�¡[<3`HPF k03G14]GF�.[H�SB<4H}3^H|WB3GW�.41BH}]G,[5JH|FVkTF�.�HPF�.�N0F2,�*�5
yB�.�shu�f>v
�~�Y4F�. � 10<*PaB<3`S,(~�,I5,�a438.>a�,�.4W HJY0F_F�.5O<38.>a&5O<�D2D2FI5�[email protected]�*?3�5?365�~�,[5�WB*-,�a4a438.>al14.
�;�<.B365P3G,_5O<KLKJF�*-FXWt,�._<.BU4*EF2D2F2W4F�.IHPF2W
F2D214.414Q�3GD�5-FVHLST,2D��y)�14*oHJY0F�KL38*�5OH:HJ3{Q�F
�HPF�*P*-1T*P365OHo,VHLHP,2D��p5\,VHLHJ*?3^SB<4HPF2W&HP1gK6<.4W4,�Q�Fh.[HP,�]83�5OH
�5?]G,�Q�3GD
a4*-1B<Up5�Y>3`H}HP10<*P365OH�5PU10H-5yT�.#HJY4F�D21T.IHPFVzBH�14K�U14]83`HJ3@D2,�]38.�5JHP,VS438]{3`HLN ,�.0W:F2D214.414Q�3GD�,V<+5JHPF�*?3`HLN
�HJY0F�K6<.0W�5
KJ14*Z*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y�~�F�*-F�5J<+5?UF�.0W4F2W�,�.4W�HJY0FtFVz0UF�*?38Q�Fh.[H�HJY0,VH�Y4,XW�SF2Fh.&D214.4W[<�DdHPF2Wi5?3{.4D2F�shu4x�ft~�,I5,VS0*O<UBHJ]`N�38.[HPF�*P*O<UBHPF2W
y �KJFd~ N0F2,�*�5�]G,VHPF�*
�,�K6HPF�*� �*-F[5?3@W4F�.[H � 1B<*?aB<3`ST,iY4,XW�SF2Fh.b1B<+5OHPF2W �
HJY0F<.B3^kF�*�5P3`HLN ,2D2,2W4FhQ�3GD[5�,VHLHPF�Q�UBHPF2WiHP1gHP,��F&DX1T.IHJ*-1T]�1TK:HJY0Fi5?3`HL<�,dHJ3G1T. SBN�KJ1B<.4WB38.>a
�3{.�shu�f>u
�,
A ,VHJ3G14.4,�]�)�1B<.4W4,[email protected]*q7�Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD7b�FI5-F2,�*ED�Y�W4F2F�Q�FXW�HP1�STF_,�.f38.�5JHJ*O<Q�F�.IH�HP1 5EF�*OkF\,2D2,2W4F�Q�3GD*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY
y;mY>365q14*?a,�.B3 *I,VHJ3G14.�WB3GW&.41BHq5O<�D2DXF2F2W&38.�F[5JHP,VS4]{365?Y>38.Ba�3`H-5EF�]8K
�5-FXF�38.Ba�HJY4,VH�HJY0F�*-F_~�,[5 .41
5O<U4U14*OH�KL*-14QgHJY4F(.0FV~�]^N�38.5OHP,�]{]GF2W�a10kTF�*?.>Q�F�.[H�,�.0W�3^H�]@,[5OHPF2W�14.B]`N�HL~�1�N0F2,�*�5
y �����������!#�"�������c���� %&����Z�"���"���#���#%&'g������:�$!#�����"��� �����"�:!�'
;mY0F:UF�*?3G1W&shu4u�s � shu4u � U4*-1BkF2WoHP1MSTF:,�HL<*P.B38.>a_U1T3{.[H y��
14*-F�HJY4,�.ZHPF�.ZN4FX,�*�5"Y4,2WMU,I5�5-FXWo~�3^HJY38.>3`HJ3G,VHJ3`kTF[5}HP,��F�. ,�.0W#U4*-14Q�1BHPF2W�S>N�HJY0F�5-D�3GFh.[HJ365JH-5�HJY4F�Q 5-F�]`kTF[5
�,(UF�*?3@1�W�14K *P38K6H-5�~�3`HJYB38.�HJY4F�5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD
D214Q�Q�<.>3`HLN ,�.4WZW4F[5JHJ*O<�DVHJ3`kTF�,[email protected]�14.Z,�]8]�5?3GW4F[5yA:1B~ HJY0F#5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD�5EF2DVHP14*m~�,[5�14.4D2F�Q�14*-F HP1#STF
HP,��F�.�D�Y4,�*PaF�1TKpSBN�U14]83`HJ3GD2,h]4U10~�F�*�,VH+HJY4F(Y>38a4Y4F[5JH�]GFVkFh]
�Q�F2,�.B3{.Ba�HJY4F- �*-F[5P3GW4F�.IH}14KpHJY4F-b F�UB<4S0]83GD
y �qW�L[U�G@W�U\HPNPU�U�E U�Y2R�E K.Z F��@KqUeNPK HMU�E�qUeN T U\I@E L�qFSNPU\HMU�W8NPK.E
;=~�1MQ�,h38.ZQ�1BHJ3`kF[5�]@,VN:STF�YB38.0W#HJY4F�.0FV~ �*EF[5?3GW4Fh.[H�AL5�Q�1BkFy;}Y4F�KL3{*�5OH}~�,[5�UB<*EF�]`N U1T]{3`HJ3GD2,�]
�HJY0,VH
14K|D2,�]8Q�3{.Baq,�D214.BKL]{3GDVH}~�YB3GD�Y�Y0,2Wo5PU438]8]GF2W 10kTF�*|KL*-1TQcHJY4F�,2D2,XW4F�Q�3GD(~�14*?]GW�HP1#HP,��F�,�U14]83`HJ3GDX,�]THL<*P.#3{.S4*P38.Ba438.>aM3{.[HP1_14U4U1�5P3`HJ3G14.:HL~�1qQ�F�._5-Fh*Ok438.>aoHJY0F�.4FV~�a1BkFh*?.BQ�Fh.[H
�HJY0F�38.>365OHPF�* 1TK W[<�D2,VHJ3G14.Z,h.4W
YB3�5�7F2D�*-FVHP,h*ON�14K�7BHP,VHPF:KJ1T* � 38a4Y0F�* W[<�D2,VHJ3G14.\,�.4W b F[5EF2,�*-DhY y� ;mY0Fo5-FXD21T.0WMY4,XWMQ�14*-F�HP1�W41M~�3^HJY
F2D214.414Q�3GD ,�.4WqU1T]83^HJ3GD2,�]=D�38*-DV<Q 5OHP,�.0D2F[5y;mY0F�� <]8K
%,�*"1TK�shu4u4w � shu4u�s�Y4,2WZ.41BH�14.B]^NqD214.BK6<+5EF2W HJY0FU14]83`HJ3GD2,h]�U1T3{.[H-5�14K�*-F�KJFh*-F�.4DXFM38._HJY4F
�*-,VS�~�1T*?]@W�SB<4H Y4,2Wf,�]65E1 S4*-1B<a4Y[H�,o*-FhQ�38.4W4Fh*�14KnHJY0FMD�*J<�F�]
HPF2D�Y>.414]G14a43GD2,�]�W4F�UFh.4W4F�.0D2F HJY4F[5EFlD21B<.[HJ*?3GFI5M5J<KLKJF�*-F2W � ;�<.B3�5?3G,�38.4D�]^<�W4F2W y)+*-14Q�HJY0,VHZ5?U4*E,�.Ba�HJY0F
3GW4F2,�14K+*-FVk03`k438.>a ,(KJ1T*?Q�14K}5-D�3@F�.[HJ38KL3@D(*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y�HJY0,VH=D21B<]GW�,�.�5J~�F�*a�h.4,dHJ3G1T.0,�]4.4FXF2W�5��y
7 - These were conflicts of personalities and differing political position rather than concerning strategies for scientific research.
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
v
71TQ�F�14KoHJY0F[5-F&.0F2F2W�5�*-F�Q�,�38.4FXW HJY0F 5E,�Q�F4��~�,VHPF�*�Fh.4F�*?aBN ,�.0WiHJY4F�Y0,�*?.0F[5�5P38.Ba�14KZ.4,VHL<*E,�]
*-F[5E10<*ED2F[5d�OQ�38.>38.Ba�,�a4*?3GDV<]^HL<*-,�]�,�.4W�KL365PY4F�*?3@F[5�$
y �10~�FVkFh*
�3{.�HJY4F�D214.[HPFdzBH=1TKpHJY0FnHJ*-,�.�5P3`HJ3G14.�HP1B~�,�*EW�5
,�Q�,�*?�FdH�F2DX1T.01TQ�N SF�aB<.Z3{.tshu�f>v��� ,h.41BHJY4F�*�U4*EF21�DXDV<U,VHJ3G14.ZF�Q�F�*?aF2W#~�YB3GDhYM5OHPFX,2WB38]`N�SFXD2,�Q�F�HJY0F<]`HJ38Q�,VHPFo5JN�5JHPF�Q 14K�*-FhKJF�*-F�.0D2F:,�.0W HJY0F�]GF�3`HJQ�1BHJ38K�1TK�FVkTF�*ONZU4*E1�D�]@,�Q�,VHJ3G14.q14.:HJY4F:5O<4Sn'-F2DVH � 5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD
*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY�F[5?UFXD�3G,�]8]^N 3{. HJY0F ]@F2,2WB38.>a � F2WBaF HPF2D�YB.01T]@1Ta43GFI5 �PD21TQ�UB<4HJ38.Ba
�DX1TQ�Q�<.B3GD2,dHJ3G1T.5
�[email protected]]G14aBN $�Y4,2Wf,�]65-1 HP1lFh.�5O<*EF HJY0,VH�38.0W[<+5OHJ*ON\~�,[5�D214Q�UFVHJ3^HJ3`kFZ38._HJY4FZKJ,2D2Fq1TK"38.[HPFh*?.4,[email protected],�]
D214Q�UFVHJ3`HJ3@1T.�3�HJYB3�5�*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y:~�10<]@WoY0,VkF�HP1oSTF�HJY0F�WB*?3`k43{.BaqKJ1T*-DXF�KJ14*�Q�1W4F�*?.>3+*I,VHJ3@1T. 1TK�HJY0F�U4*?3`kT,VHPF5-FXDVHP1T*
�~�YB3@D�Y�KL*-14Q HJY0F�. 1T.b~�,[5�U4*-1TQ�10HPF2WbHP1�HJY4Fc*-,�.>� 14KtKJ,VkT10<*-FXW�,�aF�.IHl38. �h.4,[email protected],�]
W4FVkTF�]G14U4Q�F�.[H �y �*-F[5?3@W4F�.[H � F�. �
]83�Y4,XWtQ�,2W4F 5J<�D�YtU14]83GDVNfU,�*JH�1TK�Y>365�1B~�.f*-F[5EF�*OkFXW�5?U4Y4Fh*-FM14K�,XDVHJ3G14.y � ;mY0FU14]83GDVN&~�,[5qKL*-14Q HJY0F�.�1T.&HP1iSTF�W4F2Dh3GW4F2WiKL*E1TQ ,VS1BkF
y(�H:~�,[5:HJY0F�*-F�KJ14*-FlF�.IHJ*O<+5OHPFXW�HP1�,t.4FV~
5O<UFh*Ok4365P38.Ba�5OHJ*O<�DVHL<*EF�,l7BHP,VHPFl7F2D�*-FVHP,h*?3G,VH�KJ1T*q7D�3GFh.[HJ38KL3GD7b F[5EF2,�*-D�Y�,h.4W�;�F2DhYB.414]G14aBN ��7 b�7�;a$
�<.4W4Fh* ~�Y41p5-F�D2,h*-F�~�F�*EF�U4]@,2D2F2WqF�38a4YIH�.01T. � <.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HLNZ*-FI5-F2,�*ED�YqD2F�.IHJ*-F[5 y;mY0F�a4]G10ST,�]�,�]8]G1D2,[email protected]*
HJY4F&5-FXDVHP1T*Z~�,[5_5O<4S�5OHP,�.IHJ3G,�]8]^N&38.0D�*-F2,I5-F2W0 � ,�.0W�HJY4FlD2F�.IHJ*-F[5 � KL38.0,�.4DXF2W�1T.�HJY0F S,[5P365q14KBA:,[email protected],�]
�1BS43{]83+*I,VHJ3@1T. �*-14a4*-,�Q�Q�FI5
�F2,XD�Y�38.�3^H-5|10~�.�KL3GFh]GW
�~�,[5}a43^kF�.�HJY0FnHP,[5?� 14K+*-F[5?U14.4WB3{.Ba�HP1�HJY0Fe�[5E1�D�3@,�]
W4F�Q�,h.4WS�q14Kn*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y�,�.0W�1TK�S4*P38.Ba438.>aMHJY4Fh38*�D214.[HJ*P3`SB<4HJ3G14.ZHP1\HJY0F�HPF2DhYB.414]G14a43GD2,�]�Q�1W4F�*?.B3 *I,VHJ3G14._14KHJY4F�;�<.B3�5?3G,�.�F2D214.414Q�3GD(KJ,VS0*?3GD
y ?�.>]838�Ft38.�U4*-FVk03G1B<+5#N0F2,�*�5#~�Y4F�.lHJY4F�38.B3^HJ3G,VHJ3`kTF[5Z,h.4Wi5JHJ*O<a4a4]GF[5 � FVkFh.�~�Y4F�.�Q�1p5OH�KJFh*-1�Dh3G10<+5 �5OHP,dN4FXW#~�3`HJY>38.�HJY4F�D214.BKL38.0F[5�1TK+HJY4F(<.B3`kTF�*�5?3^HJ3GF[5�,�.4W�38.�Q�38.>365OHJ*ON#D21T*P*?3GW414*�5
�HJY0F�U14]83GDdN D214.4W[<�DVHPF2W�SBN
7 b�7;e~�,[5Za43^kF�.&U1B~�F�*?K6<]�Q�F2WB3@,lD210kTF�*-,�aFy ,2DhY�38.>3`HJ3G,VHJ3^kF�~�,[5�~�3@W4F�]`NlS4*E1�,2W4DX,[5OH
�5EFVkF�*E,�]
D2,�Q�U,�38a4.�5 14K(��.0,VHJ3G14.4,�]=D214.�5O<]^HP,VHJ3G14.S�Z14K(5ED�3GF�.IHJ365OH-5�~�Fh*-F:14*?a,�.>3+*IF2W_,h.4W_,VS><.4W4,�.IHJ]`N\D214Q�Q�F�.IHPF2W14. 3{.�HJY0FoU4*EF[5�5�,�.0W 38._HJY4FZ.4,dHJ3G1T.0,�]}Q�F2WB3@,
y;}YB3�5�Q�F2WB3G,ZDX10kTF�*-,�aF#~�,[5(S>N_.01 Q�F2,h.�5�KJ14*OHL<3`HP1B<+5
y;}Y4FM.0FV~�5ED�3GF�.0D2FMU14]83GDVN�FVk03GW4F�.IHJ]`N�5-F�*OkTF2Wl,�.�,2W4WB3`HJ3G14.4,�]�5JN>Q�S14]83GDMUB<*PU1�5EF
y;mY0FM.4FV~RU1B~�F�*dAL5
38.IHPF�*-F[5JH�38.l5-Dh3GF�.4DXFMF�.0,VS4]@F2W 3`H"HP1lD214.�5-14]83GW4,dHPFo3`H-5�*-14]GFq,[5\�h*-,�Q�U,h*OH ,�a,�38.5OH 10S�5-DV<*E,�.[HJ365PQ �Z38.MHJY0FD214.[HPFVz>H 1TK�HJY4F:*J<4HJYB]GF[5�5�5OHJ*J<a4a4]GF#~�,haF2W�,�a,�38.5OH"K6<.4W4,�Q�F�.[HP,�]{365OH
�5P]G,�Q�3GD:Q�10kTF�Q�F�.IH-5�,�K6HPF�*Zshu4u�s
y;. ,�.010HJY0F�*b]GFVkTF�]
�HJY4FR*-F2DV<*?*EF�.[H�WB365ED21B<*�5-F[5e1T.�HJY4F�Q�F[5�1TK ��Q�1W4F�*?.>3`HLN �
��XD214Q�UFVHPF�.0D2F8�
��XFVzD2Fh]8]GF�.0D2F8��,�.4W �XD21TQ�UFVHJ3`HJ3`kTF�.4F[5�5���KJ14*?Q�F2WcU,�*OH�1TK\,�.�F2W[<�DX,VHJ3G14.cU4*-1�DXF[5�5�38.b5J<U4U1T*JH�14Kq,HJ*-,�.5?3`HJ3@1T.�HP1M,�KL*-F2F � Q�,�*?�FVHmF�.[k038*-14.BQ�Fh.[H �
~�Y41p5-F�,�38Qc~�,I5mHP1:U4*E10k03GW4F HJY0F�UB<4S0]83GD(~�3^HJY-'J<+5OHJ38KL3GDX,VHJ3G14.KJ14*�HJY4F�,VHLHPF�.0W4,�.[H�U14]83`HJ3GDX,�],�.4W�F2DX1T.01TQ�3@D�D�Y4,�.>aF[5
y ;mY0F:KL38.4FI5OH@'-Fd~�F�]=1TK|HJYB365".4FV~ FVHJY01�5�38.ZHPF�*?Q:5 1TK"5-D�3GFh.[HJ38KL3GD D214.�5OHJ*J<�DVHJ3G14.�5
�3�5(38.0D214.[HPF[5JHP,VS4]`NZHJY0F
b F�a43G14.4,�]�.5OHJ3`HL<4HPF&KJ14* Dn14Q�UB<4HPF�*�7D�3GFh.4D2F[5f,h.4W�;�F�]@F2D214Q�Q�<.B3@D2,VHJ3G14.�5 ��� �.l iO� i ��i��� �@�!��."�� /�m l
�����Qm�����m8l�� ����J�B"qiO�! ��.m l m�i /�m8l � � �!����S�B� �����!�8"qi��!��.l�� ������� �.$y;mY>365�*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY�D2F�.IHJ*-F
�KJ1B<.4W4F2WM3{.
shu�f>x�~�,I5�U4*-F[5EF�.[HPFXW#SBN 3`H-5�U4*E1TQ�1BHPF�*�5 ,[5�DX10<.IHPF�* � Q�1W4F�]�HP1:HJY4F�<.B3`kTF�*�5?3^HLN y �
F�*EF HJY0F�*-F(~�1B<]GW�STF.41�,2DVHJ3`k03`HLN�HJY4,VH WB3GW&.41BH ,�.�5J~�Fh*q,lW4F�Q�,�.0W�3(*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y�~�,[5#HP1�STFt14*?3GF�.IHPF2W�*-F[5E1T]^<4HPF�]`NlHP1B~�,�*EW�5�hU4*-10S0]GF�QR5-14]`k438.>a.�Z,�.0WoHJY4F�U,[5�5P38.Ba�1TK�DX1T.IHJ*-,2DVH-5�~�3^HJY_FVz>HPF�*?.0,�]�U,�*JHJ.4F�*�5"Y4,XW HP1oSTF�HJY4F�U4*-F�KJF�*P*-F2WK6<.4WB3{.Ba�Q�F2D�Y0,�.B365PQ
0:0 y��b�7�;nAL5�YB38a4Y0F�*l5OHP,�KLKZ~�F�*-F�¡[<3GD��gHP1�D�*?3`HJ3@D�365-F�,�SB<*-FX,V<�D�*-,VHJ3@Di5OHLN>]GF&14K
,2D2,XW4F�Q�3GDM*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y�WB365-D214.B.0F2DVHPF2W�KL*-14Q *-FX,�]83`HLN
�~�YB3GDhY KJ14*�HJY4F�Q ~�,I5�,Z]GF�a,XDVN�KL*-14QjHJY0F )�*-F�.4DhY
Q�1W4F�]y;mY0FVN�~�38]{]838.Ba4]^N�HP11T��*-FhKJF�*-F�.0D2FtKL*-14Q�HJY4F��
�Q�F�*?3GD2,h.�Q�1W4F�]+�
y y��H-5:38.>KL]`<�F�.0D2F�~�,[5 ¡[<3`HPF
.41BHJ3GD2FX,VS4]GF � FVkTF�.b,I5tKJ,�*�,[5�HJY4Fg14KLKL3GD2F�W4F2DX1T* yB�.I<Q�SFh*t14KZHJY4F�Q W41 38.0W4F2F2WgSF�]@1T.>a�HP1b,h.
��Q�F�*?3GDX,�. aF�.4Fh*-,VHJ3G14.S�bHJ*-,�3{.4F2W 38.�HJY4F ? 7
�38.�HJY0Frshu�f+s � shu4u4wjUFh*?3G1W�<.4W4F�*�, ?Z7 � ���
';|F2D�YB.01T]@1TaBN�;m*E,�.�5PKJF�* �*-1Ta4*E,�Q
y
8 - Date of the implementation of the first Structural Adjustment Plan in Tunisia. 9 - Several observers have reported on his fascination for information technologies and computers (see Nicolas Beau and Jean-Pierre Tuquoi, 1999, Notre ami Ben Ali, Paris, La Découverte, p.103 and following pages). 10 - The public budget allocation for research rose from 38 to 55.3 million dinars between 1992 and 1995, an average annual rise (at + 13%) higher than that of the overall State budget (+ 11.3%). 11 - Research activity was focused on three areas: man-machine interface, telecommunications and networks, systems for assisting decision-making.
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
x
HMK.W�L[FS]qY@U�Z7F.G@Y2R�K.EhHJW�LQU�G@W�U\Y@LOR:R�LQW��#]�NaNPK R�LQG Y
�KJFV~cN0F2,�*�5�3{.:14UF�*-,dHJ3G1T.
�Y41B~�FVkF�*
�a,VkF�D�]GFX,�*n5P38a4.�5�14KpHJY4F(]838Q�3`HP,VHJ3G14.�5|14KpHJYB365mWB*?3`kF(]@,V<.4D�Y0F2W
~�3`HJY�5O<�DhY�W4FVHPF�*?Q�38.4,VHJ3@1T. ,�.4WRKJ10<.0W4F2Wr14.jHJY0F�3GW4F2, 1TK ,j5-Dh3GF�.4DXF�,�38Q�F2Wr,VHc5EF�*Ok038.Ba HJY0FD214Q�UFVHJ3`HJ3^kF�.0F[5�5�14K�38.4W[<+5JHJ*?3G,�]qDX1TQ�U,h.B3GF[5
y;}Y4F
�b�7�;�D2,�]8]GFXW�14. HP1�5?UFX,�*?Y4FX,2W�HJYB3�5tU14]83GDVN
�U4*-1Bk43GW4FI5:HJY4F_SF[5JH FVz,hQ�U4]GFy��.�shu4u�f
�HJY4Ff,�.4,h]`N5?365 1TK�HJY4F U4*E1 '-FXDVH-5ZW4FdkF�]G14UF2W&,dH�HJY4F
�.�5JHJ3`HL<4HPF
*-FVkTF2,�]GFXWiHJY4,VH\14.B]`N xy��g 14K:HJY4F�Q�~�F�*EF�KJ1T*\U4*?3`k,dHPF&D214.4D2F�*P.�5�,h.4W
�38.c,h.[N D2,[5EF
�HJYB365qQ�F2,h.[H
D214Q�U,�.>3GF[5h��38.qaF�.0F�*-,�]+� ,�.4Wq.41BH"D214.4D�*-FdHPF:F�.IHJ3`HJ3GF[5�ST10<.0W HP1�b�7�;lSBNqDX1T.IHJ*-,2DVH
y4�14*-F21BkF�*
�]GF[5�5
HJY4,h. ��g�1TK�*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y4F�*�5dA�,XDVHJ3`k43^HLNZ~�,[5 W4FVkT10HPF2WZHP1\HJY>365y;}Y4F 10kTF�*O~�Y4F�]{Q�38.Ba\Q�, '-14*?3`HLN\14K�*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY
F�KLKJF2DdHPF2W HJY0F�*-F�D214.[HJ38.I<�F[5�HP1oSTF�KL38.4,h.4D2F2W�WB38*EF2DVHJ]`N 14*�38.4WB3{*-F2DVHJ]`N
�SBN�HJY0F:7BHP,VHPF�,�.0W#SBN 38.[HPFh*?.4,[email protected],�]
,�3GW�5-D�Y0F�Q�F[5y#�5(KJ14*nHJY0F#*-F[5J<]`H-5
�HJY0FVN\,�*-F�Q�,�38.>]`N\W4F[5JHJ38.4F2WqKJ1T*�HJY4FM7BHP,VHPF 1T*�5-F�Q�3 � UB<4S4]{3GDo5EF2DVHP14*�5 y;}Y4F�*-F[5EF2,�*-D�YqDX1T.0W[<�DVHPF2WZ38.:HJY4F�*-F[5EF2,�*-DhYqD2F�.[HJ*EF[5�<.4W4F�*�7 b�7;�~�,[5"5OHJ38]8]HJY4F�*-FhKJ1T*-F�SF�38.>aqD2,�*?*P3GF2W
1B<4H S>N�,h.4W�KJ1T*�HJY0F�7BHP,VHPFy ;mY0F�,�]8Q�1p5OH D214Q�U4]GFVHPF�,VS�5-F�.0D2F�1TKV�[5E1�Dh3G,�]�W4F�Q�,�.0WoKJ14*�*-FI5-F2,�*ED�YS��DX,�.#STF�FVz4U4]@,�38.4FXWZ¡[<3`HPF�F2,[5P38]`N
SBN�HJY0F�38.4W[<+5JHJ*?3G,�]�,�.4WZF2DX1T.01TQ�3@D�KJ,VS4*P3GD�14K|;=<.>365?3G,y;}YB3�5�~�,[5�~�10kTF�.Z1BkFh*�,�UFh*?3G1W:14K � w�N0F2,h*�5 �
3{.�F2F�U43{.Ba:~�3`HJY#HJY0F�1TUBHJ3@1T. ,2W414UBHPF2W�HP1M5PUF2D�3G,h]83+*IF�38.�38.[HPFh*?.4,[email protected],�] 5J<4S � DX1T.IHJ*-,2DVHJ38.>a �
,�W4F2D�365P3G1T.�HP,��Fh.,VH}HJY0F�SF�a43{.B.B3{.Baq14K�HJY4FMshu4x4wpAL5
y;}Y4F�*-FI5O<]`H=365�, kTF�*ON�]G1B~�]GFVkTF�]�1TK+HPF2D�YB.01T]@1TaBN�3{.#�FXF�U438.Ba�~�3^HJY�HJY0F
]838Q�3`HP,VHJ3G14.�5 1TK�U4*-1�W[<�DdH ,[5�5EF�Q�S0]`N�1T* U4*-1D2F[5�5P38.Ba�KJ1T* FVz4U14*OH��CHPFdzBHJ38]GFI5�Q�F2DhY4,�.>3GD2,�] 1T* F�]GF2DVHJ*E1T.>3GD
U4*-1W[<�DVH-5�$yD�1TQ�U,h.B3GF[5qQ�1p5OHoD214Q�Q�14.B]`N&<+5EF�WB3{]G,�U43GW4,VHPFXWg1B<4HPW4,VHPF2W�F2¡[<38U4Q�Fh.[H .4F2FXWB38.Ba�14.B]`N ,
Q�F2,ha4*-F�KJ1T*-DXF#14K}HPF2D�YB.>3GD2,�]}5J<UF�*Ok43�5?3G14._5OHP,�KLK� 0�5]GFVH�,h]G1T.0F#5ON5JHPF�Q:5�14K}38.>.41Bk,VHJ3G14.
yD�14.4WB3`HJ3G14.�5|~�Fh*-F
5O<�DhY#HJY4,dH�1T*?a,h.B3+*I,dHJ3G1T.5�]83{�F�b�7�;�Y010~�FVkFh*n5JHJ*-1T.>a#HJY0F�38*�D2,�U,VS038]83`HJ3GFI5
�~�F�*-F�W41�14Q�F2W�KJ1T*�FVkTF�*mHP1
*-F�Q�,�38.#<.0W4F�* � FhQ�U4]G1BN4FXWZD2F�.[HJ*EF[5�14K|FVzDXF�]8]GF�.0D2F �14*�,[5�3^H-5�KL38*�5JH�WB38*-F2DdHP1T*|UB<4H}3`H$�S�X,Cb 14]8]65|38.�~�1T*?�43{.Ba
14*-W4F�*�SB<4H+~�3`HJY�.01 � 14.4Fn~�Y41 D2,�.�a1�KJ1T*|,(*P3GW4F8� y�0�= =,�*-,2W41Bz43GDX,�]8]`N
�3`H�~�,[5�,VH�HJY>365�Q�1TQ�Fh.[H�HJY4,dH�14.�HJY0F <.>3`kFh*�5?3`HLN�5?3GW4F_5-14Q�F:HPF2,2D�Y0F�* � *-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y4F�*�5<.4W4Fh*OHP1�14�MHP1�F[5JHP,VS4]83�5?YB'-1T3{.[H�U4*-1 '-F2DdH-5n~�3`HJYqUB<4S4]83GD 1T*"U4*?3`kT,VHPF#38.0W[<+5OHJ*ON
�38.\D�Y0F�Q�365JHJ*ONZKJ14*"FVz,�Q�U4]GF
�CHJY0F�5-F2DdHP1T*�14KlU4Y41p5?U4Y0,VHPF[5 1T*&YIN0WB*-1�DX,�*OS14.�5�]`<4S4*?3@D2,�.[H-5 ,�.4W 5E1 14.S$
�S><4H�,�]65E1j38.bS03G1T]@1TaBN
�?,2¡[<�,XDV<]`HL<*-F8$y;}Y4FVN\WB3�5-D21BkF�*EF2W_14.oHJY>365�1D2D2,I5?3G14.oHJY0,VH�HJY0F#38.0W[<+5OHJ*?3G,h]8365OH-5�~�F�*-F�HJY0F#Q�14*-F�HJ38Q�3GWM3{.
HJY4FZKJ,2D2Fq14K(38.>.41Bk,VHJ3G14.y;mY>365�KJ,2DVH"Y0F�]8UF2W�,�]8]@FVk43G,dHPF#HJY4F�38*�1B~�.�D214Q�U4]GFVzTF[5(~�Y4F�.�DX1T.>KL*-1T.IHPF2WM~�3^HJY
HJY4F�,2DXDV<+5-,[email protected]"1TK}~�3^HJY4WB*-,V~�,�]�14K6HPF�.:<4HLHPF�*-F2W:3{.#HJY4Fh38*�WB38*-FXDVHJ3G14.+� �-;}Y4F�<.B3`kTF�*�5?3^HLN:Y0,[5�,h]`~�,dN�5|SF2Fh.,2D2Dd<+5-F2Wl14K(SF�3{.Ba�5PY[<4H�,V~�,dN�38.�3`H-5�3`k14*ON_HP1B~�F�* �
�*-FhQ�,�*?�F2Wf,MDhY4F�Q�3�5OH�14KnHJY0FM;�<.B3�5�) ,2DV<]`HLNf14K
7D�3GF�.0D2F[5��OSB<4H=3`H}Y0,[5�HL<*?.0F2W�10<4H�.41BH+HP1�STF�5-1:Dh]GF2,�*?]^N�HJY0F�D2,[5-F
y[�KpHJY0F�*-Fn~�F�*-F(.41�*-F�]G,dHJ3G1T.5�SFdHL~�F2Fh.
38.0W[<+5OHJ*ON�,�.4W�<.>3`kF�*�5?3`HLN�HJY4F(KJ,V<]^H}DX,�Q�F(KL*-14QgS1BHJY�U,�*OHJ3@F[5 �0 c�y ;mY>365�WB3�5-D21BkF�*JN � *EF2,[5�5J<*?38.>alKJ1T*:5E1TQ�F � WB3GWt.41BH�5OHP14UtHJY4FhQ �
38._HJY4FZQ�3GW�shu4u4w�5�KL*E1TQ SF�3{.Ba
W4F2F�U4]^N�WB365PY4F2,�*JHPF�.4F2WtSBNfHJY4F_]G,2Dh�&14K�DX1T.5?3GW4F�*E,VHJ3G14.l,�.0WtQ�F2,�.5�a1BkF�*?.>Q�F�.IH�,V<4HJY414*?3`HJ3GFI5�a4*-,�.IHPF2WHJY4FhQ
y?�.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HLNl*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Yl*-F�Q�,h38.4F2WlFdzBHJ*-F�Q�F�]`NfQ�,�*?a43{.4,�]83 *IF2W
y;mY0F_D�]G1p5-Fh]`N�5?UF2D�3{KL3GF2W HJY4FhQ�F[5�14K
5OHL<�W[N\]G,�3@W W41B~�.MSBN�D2,�]8]�5�KJ1T*(HPFh.4W4F�*�365�5O<�F2WMS>NZHJY4F�A ,VHJ3G14.4,h]�1BS43{]83+*I,[email protected] �*-1Ta4*E,�Q�Q�F[5"Q�1p5OH"14K
HJY4F(HJ38Q�F�U4*-14YB3`S03`HPF2W�HJY4F�38*�,2D2DXF[5�5}HP1#HJY4F�Q�1p5OH�5O<4Sp5JHP,�.[HJ3@,�]4K6<.4W�5y[�. 5?U43`HPF�14K�,(U10HPF�.IHJ3G,�]p5J<UF�*?3G14*�SBN
KJ,�*}HP1#HJY4,VHm1TK+HJY4F�*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y D2Fh.[HJ*-F[5d��s�� ��� *-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y0F�*�5|,h.4W � s � HPF2,�Q:5|W4FXD�]G,�*-FXW#,dH HJY0Fn<.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HLN�3{.shu4u � �,ha,�38.�5JH_s�f+sq*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY4F�*�5�,�.4W � x HPFX,�Q:5�3{. HJY4Fq*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y�D2F�.[HJ*EF[5�$ �
HJY0FMKL38.4,h.4D�3G,h]�U,2D��,�aFI5~�F�*-F(]G,�*PaF�]`N�<.BKJ,VkT10<*-,dS4]GFnHP1�HJY4F�Q
�38.�,(*E,VHJ3G1:14K�s�HP1 ��38.�HJY0FnSF[5JH}14K�D2,[5EF[5
y�0 �
12 - In the mid 1990s the average management rate (number of engineers in relation to the number of employees) was 0.9%. 13 - Interview with the author, 1996. 14 - Interview with the author, 1996. Some are more categorical: "The research we do does not interest our industrialists. They do not find what they want there. What they want is to buy things ready to use" (Professor of physics, Tunis, interview with the author). 15 - See Siino (1999, p. 412 and following pages).
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
f
�.�&�p�������������}�d� ����������������c�}���#% ������B������������� ���� � ���$��' ��� �n�"!������"���:!����$� �$�#�
;mY0F�;�<.B3�5?3G,�.�U1B~�Fh*�D2,hQ�F HP1ZDhY4,�.>aF HJY0F�WB38*EF2DVHJ3G14. 1TK�3`H-5|Q�,�.4,haF�Q�F�.IH|14K�HJY0F�5-D�3@F�.[HJ38KL3@D�5-F2DVHP14*
y�H ~�,[5q.01cW410<4S>HZU4*-14Q�UBHPF2W&SBN�HJY4Ft38.0F�KLKJF2DVHJ3`kTF�.4FI5�5q14K�HJY4FtU14]83GDVN�YB3`HJY0F�*OHP1�D21T.0W[<�DVHPF2W�,�.0Wi,h.,V~�,�*-F�.0F[5�5 1TK�HJY0F�~�,[5OHPF�14K}U1BHPF�.[HJ3G,h]+1TK�<.>3`kFh*�5?3`HLN *-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y
y4�.�HJY4F#5EF2D214.4W:Y4,h]8K|1TK+HJY4FZshu4u4w�5
�HJY0F
,V<4HJY01T*?3^HJ3GF[5�~�14*?�F2W_HP1lD2,�]8Q HJY4F:HPF�.5?3G14.�5�~�3`HJYB38._HJY0F�5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GDqD21TQ�Q�<.B3`HLNy;mY0FVN�WB3GWMHJYB365(~�YB3{]GF
D214.[HJ38.I<38.BalHJY4F�1BkF�*E,�]8]"F�KLKJ14*OH�a43^kF�.�10kTF�*�HP1tHJY4FM*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y�5EF2DVHP14*y;mY0FVN�F�.4W4F2,dk1B<*-F2W HP1lU,2D�38K6N
*-F�]@,VHJ3G14.�5tSTFVHL~�FXF�. HJY4FcWB3{KLKJF�*-F�.IHt3{.�5OHJ3^HL<4HJ3G1T.5�,�.0W 5J<UF�*Ok0365?38.>abS1WB3GF[5tHP1bS4*?38.>abHP1�,�.�Fh.4W�,W4F[5JHJ*O<�DVHJ3`kTF�5-F2F[5E,V~�38.Ba ,�.0W�HP1�*-F��438.0WB]GF(Q�1BHJ3`k,dHJ3G1T.�38.�<.B3^kF�*�5P3`HLN�*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y
y ;mY>365"F�KLKJ14*OH|~�,[5�Q�,2W4F�Q�,�.B3{KJF[5OH|SBNo,�a4*E10~�HJYZ38.:HJY4F�SB<�WBaFVH�,�]{]G1�DX,VHJ3G14.:KJ14*�HJY4F#5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD#5EF2DVHP14*,�.0W 38.cHJY4FiU4*E1TU14*OHJ3G14.b14KMHJY0Fg;�<.B365P3G,�. � 'B *-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y�FVz4UFh.4WB3`HL<*-F&*-FhU4*-F[5-Fh.[HPF2W
y;mY>365�*-,VHJ3G1
38.0D�*-F2,[5EF2W KL*E1TQ wy �f�g�38.�shu4u � HP1lw y �
��g�38. � w4w4w �,Z*?365EFM14K�v4wSg�38._HPF�._N0F2,�*�5
yO0 � �1T*EF210kTF�*
�,
Q�14*-Fr*-,VHJ3G14.4,h]i*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y 38.>KL*-,[5OHJ*J<�DVHL<*-F U14]83GDVN 38Q�U4]GF�Q�F�.IHPF2W�5?3{.4D2F�shu4u � Y0,[5�,h]8]G1B~�F2W�HJY0F,2D2¡[<3�5?3`HJ3G14.Z14K�shu:3`HPF�Q 5�14K}Y4F2,Vk>N 1T*(5EF�Q�3 � Y4F2,Vk>N F2¡[<38U4Q�F�.IH}~�Y>3GD�Y Y4,VkTF�SF2Fh.Z,[5�5?38a4.0F2W#38. ,�Q�14*-FS,h]G,�.4DXF2W�~�,VN�HJY4,h.�SF�KJ14*-FnSTFVHL~�FXF�.�HJY4F�DX,�U43`HP,�]���s�� � $|,�.4W�HJY0F(U4*-10k038.4DXF[5V� � � � $ y �14*-Fb5?38a4.>38KL3GD2,�.IHlUF�*PY4,�Up5tHJY0,�. HJY0Fg38.4D�*EF2,[5-Fg3{.ba4]G1BS,�]ZKL38.0,�.4Dh3G,�]ZQ�F2,h.�5l365fHJY4FcF�.>Y4,�.0D2F2W
*-F2DX1Ta4.>3`HJ3G14._14K(5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD#*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y_,I5�,�.\,2DVHJ3^k43`HLNq38.q3`H-5EF�]8K�W41BHPF2Wo~�3`HJYM3^H-5�1B~�.q38.>KL*-,[5OHJ*J<�DVHL<*-F:,h.4W
K6<.4WB3{.Ba�Q�F2D�Y0,�.B3�5?Q:5y;}YB365 *-F�U4*-F[5EF�.[HPFXWi,lW4FXD�365?3^kF�5?Y>38K6H 38.�,VHLHJ3`HL<�W4F�HJY0,VH 1D2DV<*?*EF2W&W[<*?38.>a�HJYB3�5
UF�*?3@1�Wy
�U4*?38Q�,h*ON�5OHPF�Ul38.�HJYB365�WB38*-F2DdHJ3G1T.�~�,I5�,2D2DX1TQ�U4]{365?Y0F2W 38.�shu4u � ~�3`HJY_HJY0F�5EFVHLHJ38.Ba � <Ul14K�,:S,[5P3GD5O<U4U14*OH�5ON5OHPF�Q�KJ14*m<.>3`kF�*�5?3`HLN�HPFX,�Q:5d�CHPF�*?Q�F2W�KL*-1TQgHJY>365|W4,VHPF�14.[~�,�*-W�5 � b F[5EF2,�*-D�Y�;�F2,hQ:5���$
y;}Y4F[5EF
5-,d~�HJY0F�Q:5EF�]`kFI5�F�.0W410~�F2Wo~�3`HJY\,o5J<Q�5?Q�,h]8] S><4H�*-F�aB<]G,h*
�38.ZU4*E1TU14*OHJ3G14.:HP1oHJY4Fh38*"D21T.IHJ*?3`S><4HJ3G1T.:HP1
HJY4F�HJ*-,�38.>38.Ba�1TK�N01B<.Ba_*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y4Fh*�5\�JQ�F2,�.>38.Baq38.qD214.4D�*EFVHPF�HPF�*?Q:5", � � �J"qi+"_*E,VHPF�,2D2D214*-WB38.>aoHP1oHJY0F.[<Q�SF�*�1TK|5OHL<�W4F�.IH-5}HJ*-,�38.>38.Ba�HP10~�,�*-W�5�,�W41DVHP1T*E,VHPF8$
y ;.�HJYB365�ST,[5?3�5
�shv4v�HPFX,�Q:5
0 3{.[k14]`kTF2W�,nHP10HP,�]14K
s��>w4wi*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y4Fh*�5qW41438.Ba&HJY4Fh38*:HJ*-,�38.>38.Ba&~�F�*-Fl,VH KL38*�5OH KL38.4,h.4D2F2W�*-F2DXF�3`k43{.Ba�,VS1B<4Hfshw4w4w '�;�UF�*
*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY4F�*�HJ*-,�3{.4F2Wy kTF�.Z38K}3`H}~�,[5(5E1TQ�FVHJ38Q�F[5�UF�*-D2Fh3`kF2WZ,I5�,#5JHP1TU4a,�U_5E1T]^<4HJ3G1T.
�HJYB365�Q�F2,[5J<*-F�Y4,I5
aF�.0F�*-,�]8]^NtSFXF�.t~�Fh]8]�*-F2D2F�3^kF2WtSBNf<.B3`kTF�*�5?3^HLNl*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY4F�*�5�KJ14*�~�Y01TQrHJY0F ,I5�5O<*E,�.4D2F�14K�,M*-F�aB<]@,�*,�.>.[<�,�]4K6<.0WB38.Ba D214Q�UF�.5-,VHPF2W�KJ14*�HJY4F(Q�FX,�a4*-F�5O<Q 5�HJY4FVN�~�F�*-F(U,�3GW
y;}Y4FVN 5-,V~ 38.�3`H=,�]�5-1:,-/�m S"�� i
�O38K .41BH /�m������nm�$M*EF2D214a4.B3`HJ3G14.�1TK�HJY4Fl*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y&HPF2,hQ ,[5\,�.�F�.IHJ3`HLN�,t~�,VNi10<4H 14K:,�5E1TQ�FV~�Y0,VH
D�]G,h.4W4F[5JHJ38.4Fq1TUFh*-,VHJ3G14.�,�.0W\HJY0F�*-F�KJ14*-FZ,M5JHPF�U_HP10~�,�*-W�5�,h._38.�5JHJ3`HL<4HJ3G14.4,�]{3+*I,VHJ3G14.�14K�]G,VS14*-,VHP14*?3GFI5B�O.41BH~�3`HJY41B<4H�*-F2,[5E1T.
�,[5�5O<4Sp5EF2¡[<�F�.IH}FdkF�.IH-5}Y4,VkTF(U4*-1BkF2WS$
y ;mY0F#<UW4,VHJ38.>at14K�HJY4FZW4,VHP,ZDX1T.0D2F�*?.>38.Ba_HJY4FZW4FdkF�]G14U4Q�F�.IH 1TK�HJYB3�5�KJ1T*PQ�<]G,ZD2,�.qS4*?38.>a�38.[HP1_*-F�]{3GF�KHJY4F(Q�,�38.�KJF2,dHL<*-F[5|14KpHJ*-,�38.>38.Ba�SBN�*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY�,VH+HJY4F(Y0F2,�*OH=14K�HJY0F�;=<.>365?3@,�.�<.B3^kF�*�5P3`HLN 5ON5OHPF�Q
y ;|,VS4]GF:s��B;}*-,�3{.B38.>a�S>N�*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Yq� HJ*EF�.4W�5}3{.�b F[5-F2,h*-D�Y�;|F2,�Qc.I<Q�SF�*�5
��� ��������������
������������! #"$"&%
��������('*),+$-$-.-
��/10�) 2.34'5)6 798�618:7<; ' 8 ) ;=8;�8�; 0?> @ ' 8 > 8 2�A B "
DCFE +(G H C
B E H G I %�E J�G ��)12.'*)13D3 7 '*)12LK9M#'*3#) M#3?K B$H ONPE B G
J1C
DCFE B G Q +(G �R3DS$'5MD0�>TKUMD'53D)1MD3?KWV&�T/10 79X 0�MWA B$B H E %(G
N.N
H E %(G - ��/13 X '�K ;=7 A B$B
H E %(G H $ YE "ZG I[B E H G �T/:A1K9'5M?K
B O%PE H G %.+
"1E\CZG
I %�E J�G
16 - This spending is still taken on mostly by the State. According to the Tunisian Ministry of Research, industrial companies' current contribution to research expenditure is 5.5%. 17 - Out of a total of 244 surveyed in 1994.
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
u
� 3 8 > 8 2?A OJ
CZG
+.N
N(G
I +(G �R0 ; /13 X 0 ; '5M?KWV1� 8:X(6��$; 3 7 K ;�� S.'*3�K B N(G
B " "1E� G
Q�B E� G � � X 0�)L0�) SLK 8 M:E$K9MD'53D)1MD3?K�V.� 7<; K O-
%�E J�G
+.+ H E� G Q -�E %�G ��0�� 0?)1SZ��M 8 ) 8:X '5M�K9MD'53D)1MD3�K B
�E %�G
% H O-PE H G Q "1E� G ������
����� ������� ����� ������� 8��17 MD3��Y�0 ; 0�� 8:79X 0�>5'��?3DS � K9'5)12��<'*2 � 7 3?K � 798:X ; /13 �R'5)1'=K ;�7 A 8 � � '52$/13 7 ��S � MD0 ; ' 8 ) E �K6HPF�*�HJY4F_38.IHJ*-1�W[<�DdHJ3G1T.�14K�HJYB365�Q�FXD�Y4,�.>365?Q
�HJY4F_.I<Q�SF�* 14Keb F[5-F2,h*-D�Yl;|F2,�Q 5�W41B<4S4]GF2Wt3{.�5?3^z
N0F2,�*�5y;mY>365"a43`kF[5"U4*-11TK�.41BH"1T.>]`N\14K�HJY4F�U4*-F[5�5?38.>aM.0F2F2WZ38.:~�YB3GD�Y:<.>3`kFh*�5?3`HLN *-F[5EF2,�*-D�YZKJ1B<.4WZ3`H-5EF�]8K
<U&HP1 HJY0,VH�HJ38Q�F�SB<4H ,�]65E1g14K�HJY4Ft*-F2,h]83`HLN 1TK�HJY4F HJ*E,�.�5PQ�365�5P3G14.&14K��4.41B~�]GF2WBaFt,h.4W&14K:5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD
U4*-,2DdHJ3GD2F[5�~�3`HJYB38._<.>3`kF�*�5?3`HJ3GFI5y;}Y4F:k,�*P3G,VHJ3G14.�5�38.�U4*-14U1T*JHJ3G1T.qHP1�HJY4F#HP1BHP,�]}Q�<+5JH�SF:*-F�a,h*-W4F2WM~�3^HJY
D2,V<[email protected] �,�*?�F2Wg3{.4D�*-FX,[5-F[5\U4*-1BS,VS0]`N�38.4WB3GDX,VHPF&,&D2Fh*OHP,�38. W4F�]G,VN 14. HJY0F�U,h*OHq14K:*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y4F�*�5M3{.
W4F2D�]@,�*?38.>atHJY4F�Q:5EF�]`kTF[5�,[5)�VHPFX,�Q:5��Z~�Y4F�._HJY4FZKL38*�5JH�D2,h]8]�KJ14*�HPF�.4W4F�*�~�,[5�365�5J<�F2W 38.�shu4u � �CHJY4FZQ�1p5OH5-,h]83GF�.IH�D2,[5-F�~�,[5|HJY4,VH�14K�HJY4F�]G,V~e,�.4WZF2DX1T.01TQ�3@D#5-D�3@F�.4D2FI5�KL3@F�]GW�5�$yD�1T.IkF�*�5EF�]`N
�HJY0F�5PQ�,�]8]38.4Dh*-F2,[5EF[5
�,�.0WMFVkTF�.:HJY4F�KJ,�]{]65�38.Z.[<Q�SF�*�5�Q�<+5OH�.41_W41B<4SBH|SF�38.IHPF�*?U4*-FVHPFXWM,[5�5PY41B~�3{.Baq,�a4*-FX,VHPF�*�,VS038]83`HLN�HP1ZaFVHQ�1BS438]{3+*IF2W�*?38a4YIH�KL*-1TQgHJY0F�10<4H-5EFVH=1TKpHJY>365}KL38.0,�.4D�3{.Ba�Q�F2D�Y0,�.B3�5?Q �CHJY0F�D2,[5-F(KJ14*�S43@1T]G14aBN $
y �\FS]QF.G@W�U\E U�H NPK.E U�Y �@U8N"!`U�U�G � G@L qU�E8HMLONPLQU�H(F.G@YXW�U�G#NPE U�H(KSRaE U�HMU�F.E8W T
�. ,�5EF2D214.4W�U4Y4,[5EF
�,�. FVkTF�.�Q�1T*EF�W4F2Dh365?3`kTF�5JHP,�aF(~�,[5|*-FX,2D�Y4FXW#38.�shu4u4v�~�Y4Fh.
�KJ14*mHJY0F(KL38*�5JH HJ3{Q�F
38.f;�<.B365P3G,�,Z]G,V~ D214.4DXF�*?.B3{.Ba�5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GDZ*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y_~�,[5�,2W414UBHPF2W
y 0 � ; .4Fq1TK�HJY4FZQ�, '-14*�,2W[kT,�.[HP,�aFI5HJYB3�5�]GF�a4365P]G,VHJ3G14.:S4*-1B<a4Y[H}~�,[5|HJY4F�,V<4HJY01T*P3`HJ3GF[5$A�14KLKL3GD�3G,h]p*-F2D214a4.B3^HJ3G1T. 1TK�HL~�1:HLNBUFI5�14K�5OHJ*O<�DVHL<*EF�S1BHJY
W4FVkT10HPF2W HP1t*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y+� HJY0F ��,VST1T*E,VHP1T*P3GF[5�1TK1b F[5-F2,h*-D�Y � �abh$�HPF2,hQ:5�Q�,2W4F:<Ul14K�,VH ]GF2,[5JH�,qW41&*IFh.
HPF2,2DhY4F�* � *-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y0F�*�5��?14*�*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y0F�*�5�$�S><38]`H�,�*-1B<.4W�,�.I<�D�]GFV<+5 14K�5-Fh.B3G14*:5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3�5OH-5J3}HJY0F ?�.>3`H-5�14Kb F[5-FX,�*-D�Y ��?Bbh$�~�Y>3GD�Yt~�F�*-F 5PQ�,�]8]GFh*�,�.4Wt.0F2F2W4F2WtKJFd~�F�*�FVz4UF�*P3GF�.4DXF2Wt*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y0F�*�5y �]�5-1lKJ1T*�HJY0F
KL38*�5JH�HJ38Q�F�HJY4FtWB3@D�Y41BHP1TQ�NlSFVHL~�F2F�.lHJY4F_<.B3`kTF�*�5?3^HJ3GF[5 ,�.4W�HJY0FtD2Fh.[HJ*-F[5 14K�*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Yl~�,[5#S0*-14�F�.
�1B~�38.>a:HP1 HJY0F�KJ,2DVH}HJY0,VH}HJY4FI5-F#5JHJ*O<�DVHL<*-F[5 D21B<]GW#SF�14KLKL3GD�3@,�]8]`N *-F2DX1Ta4.>3+*IF2W#~�Y4FVHJY0F�*�HJY0FVN�~�F�*EF ~�3`HJYB3{.<.B3^kF�*�5P3`HJ3GF[5�1T*2 +<4S4]83@D b F[5EF2,�*-D�Y 5OHP,VS0]8365PYBQ�F�.IH-5
y�0 � � .4W4F2FXW � x�s ��,VST1T*E,VHP1T*P3GF[5\1TK b F[5-F2,h*-D�Y � �S�<.4W4Fh*nHJY4F�b�7;
� �uZ<.4W4F�*�HJY4F
� 7.$ ,�.4W � w���?�.>3`H-5"1TKab F[5-FX,�*-D�YX� � vZKJ14* HJY0F �
b�7;� ��>woKJ14*
HJY4F� 7.$#~�F�*-Ft,hU4U4*-10kTF2W�KL*-14Q shu4u4u
�~�Y4Fh.�HJY0F ]G,V~ D2,hQ�F 38.IHP1�F�KLKJF2DVH
y �*-1D2F2W[<*-FI5:KJ14*1'-1T3{.[H
,2WBQ�3{.B365JHJ*-,VHJ3G14.�~�F�*EF�38.IHJ*-1W[<�D2F2Wo5EF2F�38.>a#HJY0,VH}Y0F�.4D2FhKJ1T*OHJY�HJY0F�38.B365JHJ*ON 14K b F[5EF2,�*-D�Y�~�,[5�HP1 #pKL3{.4,�.0D2F
,�]8]BHJY0F[5-F(]@,VS14*-,VHP14*?3GF[5�3{.4D�]`<�WB3{.Ba�HJY41p5-F(38.5OHP,�]{]GF2W�38.�<.>3`kF�*�5?3`HJ3GFI5
y>5 � ;|,VS4]GF � � ?�.B3^H-5|1TK#b F[5EF2,�*-D�Y`�OKJ10<.0W4F2W:5?38.0D2F:shu4u4uS$
��� ��������������
$ )1' ; K 8 �&% 3?K93#0 7 MD/,'*),+$-$-[ @ ' 8 > 8 2�A B$B
+�E\CG ��)12.'*)13D3 7 '*)12LK9M#'*3#) M#3?K B +
+�E %$G �R3DS$'5MD0�>TKUMD'53D)1MD3?KWV&�T/10 79X 0�MWA
J$-
+.J�E +�G ��/13 X '�K ;=7 A
+ C
-�E\"G �T/:A1K9'5M?K
DC
J(G
� 3 8 > 8 2?A " B E H G �R0 ; /13 X 0 ; '5M?KWV1� 8:X(6��$; 3 7 K9MD'53D)1MD3?K +$+
CFE N(G
18 - Law n¡96-6 of 31 January 1996 and government orders 97-938 to 942 of 19 May 1997. 19 - In other words, the seven centres of research coming under the Ministry of Scientific Research and Technology (formerly the Secretary of State department) and twenty others of varying size and activities which reported to other ministries ( Agriculture, Health, Defence and so on). 20 - With an average annual budget allocation of around 50 000 dinars (41 660 euros) per laboratory.
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
shw
� � X 0�)L0�) SLK 8 M:E$K9MD'53D)1MD3?K�V.� 7<; K OJ
NPE N(G ��0�� 0?)1SZ��M 8 ) 8:X '5M�K9MD'53D)1MD3�K + C
-�E\"G
������ ��� � ����� � 8��17 MD3��Y�0 ; 0�� 8:79X 0�>5'��?3DS � 798:X �R'5) '�K ;=7 A 8 � � '*2./13 7 ��S � M#0 ; ' 8 ) � '52 �17 3?KOE
;|,VS4]GF � � ��,dS14*-,VHP14*?3GF[5|14K#b F[5-F2,h*-D�Y �OKJ1B<.4W4FXW 5P38.4DXF:shu4u4uS$
%��4:����%4� � ��%����(���� ��� @ ��% ������% ���4���� %��4&����%4� �
��0�� 8:7 0 ;=8:7 '53?K 8 �% 3?K93D0 7 MD/L'5)L+.-$-[ % 3 6 8:7<; '5)12 ;�8 � '52$/13 7 ��S � MD0 ; ' 8 ) � K ; 0��1>5'=KU/ X 3D) ; K=�R'5) '�K ;=7 A 8 � � '*2./13 7 ��S � M#0 ; ' 8 )�� �R0?),0?)1SLK 8 MD'53 ; A % ��0�� V.3DM 8 ) 8:X '5M?K 0�)1S�0�S X '*)1'�K ;�7 0 ; ' 8 ),0?)1S X 0�) 0�2$3 X 3D) ; N �<)�� 8:79X 0 ; ' 8 ) ; 3DMD/1) 8 > 8 2$'53?K N @ ' 8�; 3#MD/1) 8 > 8 2�A + �R0 ; 3 7 '50�>�K�KUMD'53D)1MD3 J ��)12.'*)13D3 7 '*)12LK9M#'*3#) M#340�)1S ; 3DM#/ ) 8 > 8 2?A + �R3DS$'5MD0�>TKUMD'53D)1MD3?K
N ��0 7<; / K9M#'*3#) M#3?K % ��/13 X '�K ;=7 A + % 3 6 8:7<; '5) 2 ;�8 � � �1>5'5M% 3?KU3D0 7 M#/(� K ; 0��1>5'�K9/ X 3D) ; K 5� %�$� 0?)1S 8�; /13 7�X '5)1'�K ;�7 '53?K�� ��2 7 '5M � > ; �17 0?> K9MD'53D)1MD3?K C �R0 7 '5)13�3D)��1' 798 ) X 3#) ; B ��)13 7 2�A 7 3?K 8��17 MD3?K H @ ' 8�; 3#MD/1) 8 > 8 2.'*3�K % ��M 8 ) 8:X '*M�K�0�)1S X 0?)10�2$3 X 3D) ; +
������ � � 8��17 MD3?K����0 ; 0�� 8:79X 0?>5'���3DS � 798:X �R'5)1'�K ;�7 A 8 � � '52$/13 7 ��S � MD0 ; ' 8 )L0�)1SZ� '5)1'�K ;�7 A 8 ��$MD'53D) ; ' �<'*M % 3?K93#0 7 MD/ � '52 � 7 3�KOE
;mY0F�shu4u4vt]G,V~ 14.�5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GDZ*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y_HJY0F�*-F�KJ14*-FqD21T.>KJF�*?*-FXW�HJY4FZ]GF�a,h]�*-FXD21Ta4.>3`HJ3G14.f1T.�*-F[5EF2,�*-DhYF�.IHJ3`HJ3GF[5�~�Y>3GD�Y�5-D�3@F�.[HJ365JH-5tY0,2W ]G14.BacSFXF�.�D�]G,�3{Q�38.Ba
y��H�,�]65-1c<+5?Y4Fh*-F2Wc38.�,&Y414Q�1TaFh.B3+*I,dHJ3G1T.�14K
5OHJ*J<�DVHL<*-F[5 ,�.4Wq*-FVS,h]G,�.4Dh38.Ba�14K�HJY0Fo5?Y0,�*-F � 10<4H"14K|K6<.4WB38.>a y;}Y4F�]G,VHLHPF�*�Y0,2W <UZHP1oHJY0F�.:SF2Fh.ZY4F2,Vk038]`N
S43@,[5-F2W:HP1B~�,�*EW�5�*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y � W4FVkFh]G1TU4Q�F�.[H D214.[HJ*-14]8]GF2W:SBN HJY4F �b�7;
y��5",�*-FI5O<]`H
�5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD�*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY
a4]G1BS,�]{]`Nq,�U4UFX,�*-F2W:SFVHLHPFh*(,dS4]GF�HP1qF[5ED2,�UF�HJY0F�Y414*?.�5 1TK�HJY0F�WB38]GFhQ�Q�,�14.#~�YB3GDhY:3`H|Y0,2W#SF2Fh.:Y4Fh]GW#SBNHJY4F�U4*-FVk03G1B<+5n5P3`HL<�,VHJ3G14.+�4F�3^HJY4F�*�,�UFh*�5-14.4,�]4~�,VN 14K}W41438.Ba *-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y�~�3`HJY�<.4D2F�*JHP,�38.�Q�F2,�.5�,�.4W�SFh*-F�K6H14Kq,�.[N�*EF2D214a4.B3`HJ3G14.
�1T*\,�~�14*?�gU4*-14a4*-,�Q�Q�F�U4]@,�.B.0F2W S>N&HJY4F�1TKLKL3@D�3G,�]�UB<4S4]83@D�ST1�WB3GFI5oST,[5-FXWg14.
,�Q�S03`HJ3G1B<+5|D�*?3^HPF�*?3G,nS><4H�U114*?]`N�,2W4,�UBHPF2W�HP1�HJY0F(U1�5�5?3`S038]83`HJ3@F[5|,�.0W�*EF2,�]4.4FXF2W�5|14K�HJY0F�D21B<.[HJ*ONy D�,V<4HJ3G14.lQ�<+5OH�STFo<+5-F2Wt3{.lFVzT,�Q�38.>38.Ba�W4,VHP,ZHP1�S0*?38.Ba�1B<4H�HJY4Fq*-F�]G,VHJ3^kFo~�F�38a4YIH�1TK(HJY0F_WB38KLKJF�*-Fh.[H
WB365ED�38U4]838.0F[5y �1B~�FVkF�*
�HJY4Fh*-F�W41�F[5",hU4UF2,�*�HP1oSF�,�U4*-F2WB3@DVHP,VS4]@F#DX1T*?*EF[5?U14.4W4F�.0D2F�STFVHL~�FXF�.:U1BHPF�.[HJ3@,�]
38.Z*-FI5-F2,�*ED�YZ,�.0W:U10HPFh.[HJ3G,�]�38.#HJ*-,h38.B38.>ay;mY>*-F2F�KL3GFh]GW�5�,�*EF�,VH}HJY4F�HP1TU\�TQ�F2WB3GD2,�]�5-D�3GFh.4D2F[5
�S43G14]G14aBNZ,h.4W
F�.>a438.4F2Fh*?38.Ba_5ED�3GF�.0D2F[5 � � � y� g 1TK+HJY4Fe?�.>3`H-5�1TK@b�FI5-F2,�*ED�Y�KJ1�DV<+5�14.�HJY4F[5EF HJY>*-F2F8$
yD Y0F�Q�365JHJ*ON ,�*P*?3`kFI5
38.ZHJY4F�Q�3GW4WB]GFy;}YB*EF2Fo5EF2DVHP14*�5�,h*-F#]GFI5�5�~�F�]{] *EF�U4*-F[5EF�.[HPF2W+��aFX1T]G14aBN
�Q�,dHJY4F�Q�,dHJ3GD[5",�.0WoU4YIN�5P3GD[5
y)�14*
HJY4F�KL38*�5JH�HL~�1�14K�HJY4FI5-F:WB3�5-D�38U4]{38.4F[5�HJYB365"*-F�]@,VHJ3`kF�~�F2,��4.0F[5�5�Q�<+5JH�STF�D21T.5?3GW4Fh*-F2Wq,�]G14.Bap5?3@W4F�HJY0F�KJ,2DVH
HJY4,dH}.[<Q�SF�*�5}HJ*-,XWB3`HJ3G14.4,�]8]^N�38.[kT1T]^kF2W�Y4,VkTF STF2F�.�Q�<�D�Y�KJFV~�F�*}HJY4,�.�38.�1BHJY4Fh*|WB365-D�3{U4]838.4FI5y;mY0F�D2,[5-F�14K
U4Y[N5P3GD[5�365�Y41B~�FVkF�*
�Q�14*-Ft5O<*?U4*P365?38.>a
y��H�3�5�,_WB365ED�38U4]83{.4Fo~�YB3GDhYtY4,I5�KJ14*�,M]G14.BatHJ38Q�FMY4,2WtQ�,�.[N
,2WBY0F�*-F�.IH-5�SB<4H�3`H ,�U4UF2,h*�5#HP1&Y0,VkFl5O<KLKJF�*-FXW�Q�14*-FMHJY4,h.�10HJY0F�*�5�KL*-14Q 5OHL<�W4F�.IH-5dA�WB365E,�[email protected]*
K6<.4W4,hQ�F�.[HP,h]p5-D�3GFh.4D2F[5=38.�aF�.0F�*-,�]y 5M0
21 - This trend has been observable in Tunisia since the beginning of the 1980s. At that time, students in fundamental sciences made up about 22% of all students; at present the figure is no more than
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
s4s
kTF�.cHJY41B<a4Y�HJY0Fg1BkF�*-,h]8]:*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y U1BHPF�.IHJ3G,�]:3{.b;�<.B365P3G,i*EF�Q�,�38.5�Q�1p5OHJ]`N ]G1�DX,�]83+*IFXW�38.gHJY0F<.B3^kF�*�5P3`HJ3GF[5
�,:.0FV~�ST,�]G,�.0D2FM5-FXF�Q:5(HP1�Y4,VkTF�SFXF�. 5JHJ*O<�D��MSTFVHL~�F2F�.Z~�Y0,VH�~�,[5(Y>3`HJY4Fh*OHP1�D21T.5?3GW4Fh*-F2W
SBN\a1BkF�*?.>Q�F�.IH(U1B~�F�*�5�,[5�,:UB<*-F�]`NX�X,2D2,2W4FhQ�3GD8� �C<.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HLN � S,[5EF2WS$�5ED�3GF�.0D2F �1BS '-FXDVHJ3`kFh]`NqU1�14*(3{.
Q�F2,h.�5�,h.4W�5JHJ*-14.Ba4]`N_HJ3{.BaF2W_~�3`HJYfF[5JHP,VS4]{365?Y>Q�F�.[H"HJYB38.>�438.Ba�,�.4Wf, HLN>UFq1TK"*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y��d~�3`HJYf,�U4U4]{3GF2W
,�38Q 5��\W4F�U4]G14*-F2W�S>Nf,:]G,�*PaF:U,�*OH 1TK�HJY0FM5-D�3GFh.[HJ38KL3GDZDX1TQ�Q�<.B3`HLN�,�.4W_38.�,�.[N�D2,[5EF:]838Q�3`HPFXW�3{._3`H-5�*-FX,�],2W4,�UBHP,dS438]83^HLN�HP1Z5-1D�3G,�]W4F�Q�,�.4W
y ��.E K ! LQG�� HMW�L[U G N LOR L[W\[email protected] �@W8NPLQK.G
�H|365 WB38KLKL3GDV<]`H}HP1Za43`kTF�,�W4F�KL38.>3`HPF�,[5�5-F[5�5?Q�Fh.[H�14K�HJY4F�D214.�5EF2¡[<�F�.0D2F[5�14K�HJYB3�5�U14]83GDdN 1TK|5O<U4U14*OH|,h.4W
*-F�Q�10S038]83+*I,dHJ3G1T.q14K�5-D�3GFh.[HJ38KL3GD�*-FI5-F2,�*ED�YZ38.q;�<.B365P3G,y;}Y4F�.I<Q�SF�*"14Kn5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD�UB<4S4]{3GD2,VHJ3G14.�5
�~�Y>3GD�Y:3�5
HJY4F�38.4WB3GDX,VHP1T*�Q�1�5JH}aF�.0F�*-,�]{]`N�<+5-FXW�U1T3{.[H-5}HP1Z,�Q�,�*?�F2W ,2W[k,�.0D2F�38. ;=<.>365?3G,h.o5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD�U4*-1W[<�DVHJ3G14.
1BkF�*�HJY4FZU,[5OH"HPF�._N0F2,�*�5y��H�3�5�Fdk43GW4F�.IHJ]`NfWB38KLKL3@DV<]`H�HP1t1BSBHP,�3{.�W4,VHP,Z14.MHJYB365 U4*-1�W[<�DdHJ3G1T.�,[5�,VS�5-14]`<4HPF
k,h]`<�F[5�SB<4HZ3^HZ*-F�Q�,�38.�5qU1p5�5P3`S4]GFtHP1ia43^kFl,t*-F�]@,VHJ3`kF kT,�]`<�Ft38. D21TQ�U,�*?365E1T.�~�3`HJY�HJY0FlD214.[HPF�.IHZ14K
5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD�W4,VHP,�S,[5EF[5",�.4WZQ�F2,I5O<*-F�,�.INZ38.0D�*-F2,[5EFyb F2DXF�.[H FVk,h]`<�,VHJ3G14.�5 D21TQ�U438]GF2W#<+5P38.Ba
�A�7;�W4,VHP,
S,I5-F[5d� =,[5ED2,�]+��,h.4W �d)+*-,h.4D�365 ��+5 55PY41B~cHJY4,VH�HJY4F�U4*-14U1T*OHJ3@1T. 14K};�<.B365P3G,�.�UB<4S4]83@D2,VHJ3G14.�5|38.�*-F�]@,VHJ3G14.�HP1
,�]8]�HJY01�5EF DX10<.IHPF2W�U4*E1Ta4*-FI5�5-FXW�KL*-14Q wyw4vSg 3{.cshu4u4w�HP1�w
ys � g 38.gshu4u4u �
5P38a4.B38K6N>38.>a2'O<+5OH�1BkFh*�,W41B<4S4]838.>a 1TKpHJY4F(U4*E1TU14*OHJ3G14.
y ;mY>365�;�<.B3�5?3G,�.�D214.[HJ*?3`S><4HJ3G14. HP1tHJY4FM*-,h.BaF_14K(UB<4S0]83GD2,[email protected]#5J<*OkFdN4FXW�SBN\HJY4FqW4,VHP, ST,[5-FI5�kT,�*?3GFI55OHJ*E1T.>a4]`N�,2D2D214*-WB38.>a HP1 HJY4F�WB365-D�3{U4]838.4F
y;mY>*-F2FiKL3@F�]GW�5fY4,VkTFi,&U,�*JHJ3GDV<]G,�*P]`Nb5P38a4.B38KL3@D2,�.[Hq~�F�38a4Y[H$�
5 =Q�F2WB3@D�38.4F�Q�,dHJY4F�Q�,dHJ3GD[5�,�.0W�F2,�*OHJYt5ED�3GF�.0D2F[5
�Y0,Vk438.>a_*-F[5PUF2DVHJ3`kTF�]`NZHJY0F#*-,VHJ3@1�5 w
y ���g�wy �w7g ,h.4W
wys�f g
yA:FdzBH
�S><4H|,�]G1T.>a#~�,VN�STF�YB38.0W
�D214Q�F�D�Y4F�Q�365OHJ*ON#,�.4W�U4Y[N5?3GDI5(�PF2,2D�Y�~�3`HJY w
ys4s g $
�HJY4Fh.#]{38KJF
5-Dh3GF�.4DXF[5 �Pwyw�f�$�D21TQ�UB<4HPF�* 5ED�3GF�.0D2F[5 �?w
yw�f g^$
�U4Y0,�*?Q�,2DXFV<4HJ3GD2,�]�5-D�3@F�.4D2FI5 �?w
yw4v g $�,h.4W
F�.>a438.4F2Fh*?38.Bal5ED�3GF�.0D2F[5B�?wyw4v^g^$
y@�]`HJY010<a4Y_3^H(3�5�¡[<3`HPFZWB38KLKL3GDd<]`H�HP1�,�.4,h]`N5-F�HJY0F[5-F�<.4FVkTF�.q]GFVkFh]65�14K
UB<4S4]{3GD2,VHJ3G14.�,hQ�1T.>aMHJY4F�U1�5�5?3`S0]GF�FVz4U4]@,�.4,VHP14*ON KJ,2DVHP14*�5"D2,�.:STF 5J<a4aF[5OHPFXW HJY0F�]@F�.BaBHJYq14KmHJ3{Q�F:5-14Q�F
WB365ED�38U4]838.0F[5 Y4,VkTF�SFXF�.�~�F�]8] F[5OHP,dS4]8365PY4F2Wl38.tHJY0F ;�<.B3�5?3G,�.t<.>3`kFh*�5?3`HJ3@F[5�~�Y>3GD�Y�D2F�*JHP,�38.B]^Nt~�1T*?�p5�3{.
KJ,VkT10<*�14K�HJY4F:KL38*�5JH�HJYB*-F2F2�JQ�F2WB3GD2,h]�5-D�3GFh.4D2F[5�Q�,VHJY4F�Q�,VHJ3GD[5�,h.4W_aF214]G1TaBN $�SB<4H�HP1MHJY4F W4FVHJ*?38Q�F�.[H"14K
HJY41p5-Fn~�3`HJY�HJY0F(]G1B~�F[5JH|5-D214*-F[5V�J.41BHP,VS4]`N�F�.>a438.4F2Fh*?38.BaZ5ED�3GF�.0D2F[5|,�.0W�D21TQ�UB<4HPF�*�5-D�3@F�.4D2FI5�$y
�.41BHJY4F�*�5?3{a4.g14K#HJY0F�a4*E10~�38.Ba W[N>.4,�Q�3�5?Q 1TK ;=<.>365?3G,h.i*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y&HPF2,�Q:5\D2,h. STF 5EF2F�.�38.�HJY0F
<.B3{.[HPF�*?*J<UBHPF2W:*?365EF�38.#HJY0F�.[<Q�SF�*�14K}U4*-1 '-F2DVH-5"5O<4S0Q�3`HLHPF2W#HP1:U,�*JHJ.4F�*�5PYB38U ,�3GW 1T*?a,h.B3+*I,dHJ3G1T.5y)�*-F�.4DhY
5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD�,�3GW � HJY0Fi14.4F&Q�1p5OH\38.Ik14]`kF2Wc38. ;=<.>365?3G,�,�.4Wg*-FhU4*-F[5-Fh.[HPF2Wg38.�HJY4F�~�Y414]GF�*E,�.BaF&14KWB365ED�38U4]838.0F[5 � Y4,[5�5EF2F�.:HJY4F�.I<Q�SF�*"14K�U4*E1 '-FXDVH-5�5O<4S0Q�3`HLHPF2Wq,�.B.I<�,�]8]`N a1MKL*-14Q ,�]{3`HLHJ]GF�]GF[5�5�HJY4,h.tshw4w38.�shu4u � HP1:.0F2,�*?]^N � w4w#38. � w4w�s �x4wSgR14Kp~�Y>3GD�Y�~�F�*-F(*E,VHPF2W �2FdzD2F�]{]GF�.[H:�(S>N�HJY0F�FVz4UFh*OH-5}38.�DhY4,�*?aF�14K
5-Fh]GF2DVHJ38.>aoHJY0F�U4*-1 'EF2DVH-5y>5 c;}Y4F�KJ,2DVH|HJY4,VH|HJYB3�5�W4F�Q�,h.4W#~�,[5�]GFI5�5�]{38.B�F2W#HJY0,�.:U4*EFVk43G1B<+5?]^N#HP1q,�D214.[HPFdzBH
14K�5?Y01T*JHP,�aFM14K(.0,VHJ3G14.4,�]|K6<.4WB3{.Bal,hU4UF2,�*�5�HP1t38.0WB3GD2,VHPFq,oaFh.[<38.0FMW[N>.4,hQ�365?Q ,VH�~�1T*?��38.�;=<.>365?3G,h.5-Dh3GF�.4DXF
y � �4���h� �_� �#�����$� ��������c����4���� � %}��������!o�
;mY0F�,2DVHJ3G14.�5 14K�HJY0F�;=<.>365?3G,h.la10kTF�*?.B3{.Ba�U10~�F�*�5�KJ14*Z5-D�3GFh.[HJ38KL3GDq*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y�5-F2F�QR<.4W4F�.>3G,VS4]^N HP1Y4,dkFla43`kF�.�,l.4FV~�3{Q�UFVHL<+5ZHP1iHJY4F&5-D�3@F�.[HJ38KL3@D�D214Q�Q�<.>3`HLN&~�YB3GDhY
�14.B]`Ni,�KJFV~ N0F2,�*�5q,ha1
�~�,I5
HPF�Q�UBHPFXW�HP1:a43`kTF�38.yS�]8]KJ,2DVHP14*�5}HP1TaFdHJY4F�* � HJY4F�a4*-1B~�HJY�38.�Q�FX,�.�5|38.IkF[5JHPF2W �
HJY4Fh38*}*-,VHJ3G14.4,h]83+*I,VHJ3@1T.�,h.4W
14%. This decline has been compensated by a strong growth in legal studies, economic sciences and management and, to a lesser extent, technical sciences. 22 - These assessments were conducted by the Joint Committee for Academic Aid (Comité Mixte de Coopération Universitaire) (a Franco-Tunisian organization for partnership aid in scientific research) and INIST (source: www.cmcu-fr-tn.org). 23 - Data 1998. 24 - Source CMCU, Idem..
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
s �
14KLKL3GD�3G,�]Z*EF2D214a4.B3`HJ3G14.�14K_HJY4Fi<.B3^kF�*�5P3`HLN�D214Q�U14.4F�.IH �C~�YB3GD�Y�Y4,XW YB3`HJY0F�*OHP1 SFXF�. Q�,�*?a438.0,�]83+*IFXWS$ �D214.[HJ*?3^SB<4HPF2W�HP1&a43`kTF�5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GDt,XDVHJ3`k43^HLN�,[5Z,_~�Y01T]@Ft, ]@F�a43`HJ38Q�,XDVNt~�YB3GDhYl3`H-5Z5-1D�3G,�]"F�KLKJFXDVHJ3`kFh.4F[5�5,�]G14.4F�DX,�.B.010H�38.�,h]8]FVk43@W4F�.4D2F(U4*E10k03GW4F(KJ1T*�HJY0F(Q�14Q�F�.[H
y ��K.G#NPLQG � L�N�� KSRaI@KS]QL[W�LQU�H
)�14*�,�]8]4HJY4,VH�Q�,�.[N�<.4D2F�*JHP,�38.[HJ3@F[5|Y4,�.>aZ1BkF�*�;=<.>365?3@,�.Z5-D�3GFh.4D2F�,�.4W�3`H-5|K6<4HL<*-F
yS�5�,�]{*-F2,2W[NZ5JHP,VHPF2W
�Q�1p5OH�5-D�3GFh.[HJ38KL3GD�,2DVHJ3^k43`HLNZ5JHJ38]8]a1�FI5�14.�U4*-F2W414Q�38.0,�.[HJ]`N�38.�HJY4F(<.B3`kTF�*�5?3^HJ3GF[5y �<4H�HJY4F(<.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HLNZ5ON5JHPF�Q
365"14.:HJY4F�kFh*?aF�1TK�D214]8]G,�Up5EF�<.0W4F�*�5?Y0F2F�*�~�Fh38a4Y[H 1TK|.[<Q�SF�*�5V� � shwMw4w4w_5OHL<�W4Fh.[H-5�~�F�*-F�F�.B*E1T]8]@F2Wo3{.� w4w4w �
~�Y0F�*-F2,I5bKJ14*-F2D2,[5JH-5bQ�,XW4F�5-14Q�FjN0F2,�*�5 U4*EFVk43G1B<+5?]^N ,�.[HJ3@D�38U,VHPF2W 1T.>]`N s � � w4w4w y;mY0F
*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY4F�*�5�HJY0F#1BkFh*O~�Y0F�]8Q�3{.BaqQ�, '-14*?3`HLNo1TK}~�Y01TQ ,�*EF#,h]65-1oHPFX,2D�YB3{.Ba�5OHP,�KLK
�Y4,VkTF�HP1oKL3{.4W:.41BH�14.B]`N
HJY4FZQ�F2,h.�5�SB<4H�,h]65-1 HJY0F HJ38Q�F HP1�aFVH ,V~�,dN_KL*-14Q�HJY4Fh38*�F2W[<�D2,[email protected],�]|,�.4W�,2WBQ�38.B365JHJ*-,VHJ3`kTFZW[<4HJ3GF[5(HP1
W4FVkT10HPFnHJY0F�Q:5-Fh]`kF[5�HP1#*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY�~�Y>3GD�Y�365�SF2D214Q�38.>a�38.4D�*EF2,[5?3{.Ba4]`N�WB38KLKL3GDV<]^H
y ;mY0F <.>3`kFh*�5?3`HLN�5-D�3GFh.[HJ365JH-5�.0FV~�]^N_<U4a4*-,2W4F2W_SBNf14KLKL3GD�3@,�]�*EF2D214a4.B3`HJ3G14.�14K�HJY4F�38*�*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y�,2DdHJ3`k43`HLN
�,�*-Ft3{.�10HJY0F�*Z*-F[5PUF2DVH-5ZKJ,XD2F2W�~�3^HJY�,�5-F�*P3G10<+5 *?365?� 1TK�Fh*-1�5P3G14.&14K�HJY4Fh38*:U4*-14KJF[5�5?3G14.4,�]�5OHP,VHL<+5y;mY0F
;�<.B365P3G,�.ZYB3{a4Y4F�*"F2W[<�D2,dHJ3G1T.q,d<4HJY414*?3`HJ3GF[5�~�3`HJY:HJY4F:5J<U4U1T*OH 14K�HJY4F
%1T*P]GW � ,�.B�q,�.0W:38.Z,�D21T.IHPFVzBH�14K,�.�14UF�.B]^N�,2W414UBHPF2WcKL*-F2F � Q�,�*?�FVH�1T*JHJY41W410z>N �
Y4,VkTF�D�Y41p5-F�.gHP1�KJ,Vk1B<*�KL38*�5OHqHJY4F&.0FV~ KL3@F�]GW�5�14KFVzTD2F�]8]GFh.4D2F
�,h.4W 5EF2D214.4WB]`N\,Z5ON5OHPF�Q 14Kn5PY414*OH|HPF2D�YB.>3GD2,�]pHJ*-,h38.B38.>aMUFh*?3G1W�5
�,h38Q�38.>aoHP1oHJ*E,�38.q¡[<�,�]83{KL3GF2W
UF214U4]GFq,2W4,�UBHPF2W_HP1�HJY4F:]@,VS1B<*�Q�,�*?�FdHy �.4Fd~ aF�.0F�*-,VHJ3G14.�14K�38.�5JHJ3`HL<4HJ3G14.�5�Y0,[5(HJY4Fh*-F�KJ14*-F:*-F2D2Fh.[HJ]`N
,�U4UF2,h*-F2W5 �~�Y41p5-FM]@F�a43`HJ38Q�,XDVNfY4,�.>ap5�.41BH�5-1lQ�<�D�Y�1T.�HJY4FMU4*E1�W[<�DVHJ3@1T.�1TK��4.010~�]GF2WBaF_,I5�14.�HJY0F
�XF�Q�U4]G1BN0,VS438]{3`HLN ��1TKgHJY01�5EF ~�Y41 ¡[<�,h]838K6NyA 10~ HJY0F[5-F *-F2D2Fh3`kF U1T*JHJ3G1T.5�1TK�SB<�WBaFVH�SFVN014.4W
D214Q�U,�*?3�5-14. ~�3`HJY_HJY4F_5O<Q:5�38.IkF[5JHPF2W 38.��hYB365JHP1T*P3GD2,�]+�qKJ,2DV<]^HJ3GF[5y>5 � �.l5O<�D�YfD214.4WB3^HJ3G1T.5
�3^H�D21B<]GW�STF
~�1T.0W4F�*-F2W�38K HJY0F�5JHJ*-1T.>a4]`N W4FVHPFh*?Q�38.>365OH=U1T]83@DVN�3{.�KJ1T*ED2F(KJ1T*�5EFVkFh*-,�]BN0F2,�*�5=.41B~c38.�KJ,dk1B<*|1TK}5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD*-F[5EF2,�*-DhYZ365
�,[5�38.ZU,[5JH(5P3`HL<�,VHJ3G14.�5
�38. W4,�.BaF�* 1TK�STF�38.Baq,dS4*O<UBHJ]`N D�Y0,�]8]GFh.BaF2W#~�3`HJY#HJY0F�,2D2Dd<+5-,VHJ3G14.Z14K
SFh38.Ba ,�. �d<.BU4*E1�W[<�DVHJ3^kF8��,2DdHJ3`k43`HLNy>5
Y@U�U�I@U�G@LQG � E LOR:N �@U8N"!`U�U�GZ� K.E NPTXF.G Y_�qK �#NPT �
�.41BHJY4F�*�*?365?�Z]@1�14Q�38.>aq10kTF�*�HJY4F�;=<.>365?3G,h.M5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD�D214Q�Q�<.>3`HLN 365�,�a4*E,2W[<�,�]+DV<4HLHJ3{.Baq14K�S4*?3GWBaFI5
SBN�5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD&D�3{*-D�]GF[5�1TK:HJY0F�38.0W[<+5OHJ*?3G,h]83+*IF2WcDX10<.IHJ*?3GF[5\14K#HJY4F�A 1T*OHJY � ,h.4WgFI5?UF2D�3@,�]8]`N�14K#)�*-F�.4DhY*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY�~�YB3GDhYi3�5oHJY0F�KL3{*�5OH\5OHP14Uc;�<.B365P3G,�.�*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y0F�*�5qY4,dkF�1T.&HJY4F ~�,VN�HP1i38.IHPF�a4*-,VHJ3{.Ba�38.[HP1
38.IHPF�*?.4,dHJ3G1T.0,�]p.0FVHL~�14*?�p5y;}Y4F�38Q�U14*OHP,�.4DXF�1TK�5J<�D�YM5JHJ*-14.BaZ]838.>�p5�Y0,[5�,�]{*-F2,2W[N�SFXF�.�Q�F�.[[email protected]
y;}Y4FVN
a1�ST,2D��cHP1�HJY4F&KL38*�5JH�W4FXD2,2W4F[5�1TKZ38.0W4F�UF�.0W4F�.4D2F�,�.4Wi~�F�*-F�KJ14*?aF2WiS>N�HJY4F�Q�,I5�5?3^kF�KL]`<4zTF[5�14K5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3�5OH-5�14K:S1BHJY�D21B<.[HJ*?3GFI5oHP1438.>ac,�.0WiKL*-1438.Ba ,�.4W�W[<*?38.>ag]G14.Ba�5OHP,VN5\1T.&ST10HJYc5?3@W4F[5
y��1B<.Ba
;�<.B365P3G,�.�*-F[5-FX,�*-D�Y0F�*�5�<.4W4F�*O~�F�.IH�]G14.Ba N0F2,�*�5l14KMHJ*-,�3{.B38.>ab38.g)+*-Fh.4D�Yc]G,dS14*-,VHP14*?3GF[5f,�.0W )�*-F�.4DhY5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3�5OH-5M~�F�*-F�5-F�.IHZ<.4W4F�*_U,h*OHJ.4F�*�5?YB3{Ub5-D�Y0F�Q�F[5qHP1�Y0F�]8Ub5-FdHZ<UiHJY4FlKL38*�5JHq;�<.B365P3G,�.c5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD5OHJ*J<�DVHL<*-F[5
y�%F&Y4,dkFg5-F2Fh.cY41B~ HJY4F[5EF�D�]G1p5-F&]838.>�p5�Y4,2Wc]GF2WgHP1 38.IHPF�.�5EFiDX1�14UF�*-,VHJ3@1T.�,�.0W�Y0,2W
Q�1B<]GW4F2W � KJ1T*�STFVHLHPF�*"1T*�~�1T*�5-F � HJY4F�;�<.B365P3G,�.:<.>3`kF�*�5?3`HLN\5ON5OHPF�Q y7438.0D2F�HJY0F�.
�HJY4F�5OHJ*-14.BaZU4*-FI5-F�.0D2F
25 - These institutions of "excellence" include the Ecole Polytechnique of Tunisia (since 1998), the Preparatory Institute for Scientific and Technical Studies (IPEST since 1993) and the Ecole Normale Supérieure.. At the core of the network of "technical" Institutions there are the National Institute for Applied Sciences and Technology (INSAT, since 1996) and 11 Higher Institutes for Technological Studies (ISET) founded according to the blueprint of the French IUTs (Institut Universitaire de Technologie). 26 - See Nadia Omrane, "A damning report of teachers at the Tunis Faculty of Sciences. Have we really a "useful" university?" (Un rapport accablant d'enseignants de la Faculté des sciences de Tunis. Avons-nous vraiment une université "utile"?"), Réalités, n¡ 810, 5 - 11/7/2001. 27 - Position formulated explicitly in a World Bank report on higher education in Tunisia written in 1998. See Ben Kahla (2000, p.164).
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
s �
14K�)+*-F�.0D�Y�5-D�3GFh.[HJ38KL3GDf,�3GW&14.lHJY4F a4*E10<.0W5�� ,�.0W�3`H-5 Q�,VHPF�*?3@,�]",�.4W&5ON>Q�ST1T]83@D�5J<U4U1T*JH�38.0WB365?UB<4HP,dS4]`ND214.[HJ*?3^SB<4HPF2W�HP1�HJY4F�5J<*Ok43^k,�]14K�;=<.>365?3G,h.�*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y�38.�HJY4Fn~�14*�5OH�Q�14Q�F�.IH-5|1TK+3`H-5=YB365JHP1T*ON
y;mY>365�38.�HJY0F
5-,hQ�F ~�,VN ,I5�3^H}Y4,XW#U4]G,VN0F2W ,�*E1T]GF�38. W4F�KJF�.0WB38.Ba�HJY4F\��UB<4S0]83GD�5-D�3@F�.4D2F ��Q�1W4F�]�,�.4W�38.�5JHJ3`HL<4HJ3G14.�5|38.�HJY0FD214.[HPFVz>H=1TK�,�5?Y>38K6H+HP10~�,�*-W�5m,�5OHJ*-14.Ba4]`N�Q�,�*P�FVH � F2D214.414Q�N�FVHJY41p5 y � 1B~�FVkF�* �
KJ14*(5E1TQ�F�N4FX,�*�5�.010~�5-FVkTF�*-,�]�KJ,2DVHP14*�5�Y0,VkF�STF2F�.�~�14*?�438.>aZ38.#HJY0F�1TU4U1p5?3^HPF�WB38*EF2DVHJ3G14.
�HP1B~�,�*EW�5�,Z5?]G,2Dh�F�.B38.>a�14K�HJ3GF[5y;mY0F�N010<.>aF[5OH aF�.4F�*E,VHJ3G14.�5 1TK�;�<.B3�5?3G,�.q*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY4F�*�5�~�Y41MY0,VkF�.41BH
N0FVH=F[5OHP,dS4]8365PY4F2W�.0FVHL~�14*?�p5|,dS4*-1,2W�D21B<]GW�U,VN�HJY0F(U4*?3GD2Fy ;mY0F KL38*�5OH�KJ,2DdHP1T* D21T.0D2F�*?.5#HJY0FtWB38KLKL3@DV<]`HJ3GF[5�HJY4FI5-F�N01B<.Ba&*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y4Fh*�5ZFdz4UF�*?3@F�.4D2F�38.lHJ*ON>38.Ba�HP1
D214Q�F�HP1�W41MHJ*-,�3{.B38.>a_38.q]G,VS14*-,VHP14*?3GFI5(A 1T*JHJYq1TK}HJY4F�FXWB3`HPF�*?*-,h.4F2,�.
y7438.0D2F�HJY4F_shu�f>w�5
�)+*-,�.0D2F
�]{38�F
HJY4Fq1BHJY4F�* <*E1TUF2,h.tDX10<.IHJ*?3GF[5�Y4,[5�UB<4H 38.�U4]G,2D2FZ,:*-FI5OHJ*?3GDdHJ3`kF:38Q�Q�38a4*-,VHJ3@1T._U14]83GDdN_*-Fha,�*-WB38.>a�HJY0F
D21B<.[HJ*?3@F[5\1TK�HJY4F�7�1B<4HJYyC;S>HP,�38.B3{.Bac,l]G14.Ba � 5JHP,VN&k0365-,tKJ14*_5OHL<�W[N>38.>a � HJY0F�.�,�.IN�k0365-,l,dHZ,h]8] � Y4,I5SFXD21TQ�F�Q�14*-F�,�.0W:Q�1T*EF�WB38KLKL3GDV<]^H
yD�14.[HJ*-14]�1TK�38.[HPF�*ED�Y4,�.>aF[5�,�.4W�KL]G1B~�1TK|5-D�3GFh.[HJ365JH-5
�,2DX,2W4F�Q�3GDI5�,h.4W
38.IHPF�]8]GF2DdHL<�,�]65�38.:HJY0F�S0*-1,2W4F[5OH"5-Fh.�5-F�Y0,[5�U4*-14a4*-F[5�5P3`kFh]`N:STF2F�.#HP,h�F�.Z,V~�,VN KL*-14Q HJY4F�<.B3`kTF�*�5?3^HJ3GF[5�,h.4W,�3GW\1T*?a,h.B3+*I,dHJ3G1T.5nHP1MSTF#U4]G,2DXF2W_FVzTD�]`<+5?3^kF�]`Nq3{.oHJY0F#Y4,h.4W�5 1TK�HJY0F
�38.B365JHJ*ON\14K�HJY4F
�.[HPF�*P3G1T*",�.0W HJY0F
U4*-F�KJFXDVHL<*-F[5y;}YB3�5�HJ*-F�.0W#HP10~�,�*-W�5 D�]G1p5?38.>a:HJY4F�a,dHPF[5�14.#HJY0F:710<4HJY D2,�Q�F�,VH�HJY4F�5-,�Q�F HJ38Q�F�,[5�W411T*�5
~�F�*-Fq1TUF�.0F2W�~�3GW4F�*�KJ14*�38.IHJ*-, � <*-14UF2,�.fFVzTD�Y4,�.>aF[5�,�.4W�KL]G1B~:5 �*-FVkTF2,�]838.>al,qW4F�]83`STF�*-,VHPFZU14]83GDVNf14K
*-F214*?3GFh.[HP,VHJ3G14. 14K�,2D2,XW4F�Q�3GDb,h.4W 5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GDb,�3GW 14.bHJY4FcU,�*OH�1TK�HJY4F�D210<.IHJ*?3GF[5 A 1T*JHJY�14K HJY0F�FXWB3`HPF�*?*-,h.4F2,�.
y'�<*?38.Ba_HJY0F#HPF�.MN0F2,�*�5 shu�f � � shu4u � HJY4F:.[<Q�SF�*�14K�5OHL<�W4F�.IH-5(~�Y01�~�F�.[H�HP1_)+*-,�.0D2FKL*-14Q�A 1T*JHJY
�KL*?3GD2,�W4F2D�]{38.4F2W:SBN .4F2,h*?]`N � wSgr~�Y4F�*EF2,[5�HJY4F�.I<Q�SF�*�a1438.BaqKL*-14Q 10HJY0F�*"D210<.IHJ*?3GF[5"14K <*-1TUF�Fdz4U,�.0W4F2W�SBN ����g
y>5 � �.:U,h*-,�]8]GFh]�~�3^HJY#HJY4FI5-F�U4*-1BS4]@F�Q:5�14K|D�38*EDV<]G,VHJ3G14.
�HJY0FMshu4u4w�5(5E,V~�,�Q�,�*?�F2W:KJ,h]8]�3{.#K6<.0W�5�W4FVk1BHPF2W
HP1ZU,�*OHJ.4Fh*�5?Y>38Uq,�3GW#STFVHL~�FXF�.#)+*E,�.4D2F�,�.4WZ;�<.B365P3G,�HJY4F�Q�,�38. D�Y4,�.>.4F�]�;=<.>365?3G,h.#*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y4Fh*�5|Y4,VkTF�KJ14*
a,�38.>38.Ba ,2D2D2FI5�5}HP1#HJY4F�10<4H-5P3GW4F(~�14*?]GWyB�. shu4u � HJY4F[5EF(K6<.4W�5}KJ14*�5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD(U4*-14a4*-,�Q�Q�FI5}Q�,�.0,�aF2W�SBNHJY4F
�3{.B365JHJ*ONf14Kn)�14*-F�38a4.
�KLKJ,�3{*�5�*-F2,2D�Y0F2Wis � Q�38]8]{3G1T.�KL*-,h.4D[5M3}38.�shu4u4v�HJY0FVN_KJFh]8]�HP1t,:]83^HLHJ]GFZ10kTF�* fQ�38]{]83G14.:,h.4W#3{. � w4w4w�HJY4FVN#,�Q�1B<.[HPF2W�HP1:.41:Q�14*-F(HJY4,�. v y �
Q�3{]8]83G14.�KL*-,�.4DI5y;}YB365�WB*-,I5OHJ3GD�DV<4H�38.�K6<.0W�5
UF�.0,�]83+*IFXWMFVkTF�.ZY4,h*-W4F�*�HJY4F�N010<.>aM*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Y4Fh*�5�KJ14*�~�Y414Qb38.[HPFha4*-,VHJ3G14.:38. 38.[HPFh*?.4,[email protected],�]p.4FdHL~�14*?�p5�3�5F[5�5-F�.IHJ3G,�]4KJ14*�HJY4F�38*}K6<4HL<*EF(U10HPF�.IHJ3G,�]4KJ14*|,2DVHJ3G14.
yI�._shu4u4u�HJY0Fe�[5JHP,VN5}KJ1T*.'J<.B3G14*}*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y0F�*�5 ��Q�,2W4Fn<U
14.B]`N ��� g�1TK�HJY0F#SB<�WBaFVH ,�]8]@1�D2,dHJ3G1T.\KJ1T*()+*E,�.4D21 � ;�<.B365P3G,�.t5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GDZ,�3@W9�P,[5�14U4U1�5EF2WoHP1 � xSg�KJ14*�I5OHP,VN5 KJ1T*q5-F�.>3G1T*�*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y4F�*�5���$y �N � w4w�s�5OHP,VN5�KJ14*�N01B<.Ba�*-F[5EF2,�*-D�Y0F�*�5�.01�]G14.BaF�*�*-F�U4*EF[5-F�.IHPF2WQ�14*-F�HJY0,�.ts�f�g
�HJY0F�]G,[5JH}SB<�WBaFVHP,�*JN:3^HPF�Q
y4�.#HJY0F��4.41B~�]GF2WBaF
�S,I5-F2WZ14.Z5?UF2D�3{KL3GD�5JHL<�WB3GF[5
�HJY4,VH �VHJY0F
KL*-F2¡[<�Fh.4DVN�1TK�D214Q�Q�<.B3@D2,VHJ3G14.�5 ,VS0*-1,2W�W4FhUF�.4W�5�����14.lY4,Vk038.Ba&5JHP,VN0F2W��L,VS0*-1,2W
�14*�.41BH�38. HJY0F
D21B<*�5-F\1TK�,o<.>3`kFh*�5?3`HLNfU4*-14a4*-,�Q�Q�F8�= � ,h.4W HJY4,dH�3`H 365�HJY4F:SF[5JH(~�,VNf14K�,VkT1T3GWB3{.Ba ~�3`HJY0WB*-,V~�,�]�,h.4W365E1T]G,dHJ3G1T.�38.�*-FI5-F2,�*ED�Y�HPF�*?Q:5
�1T.0F�DX,�.�a,V<aF HJY0F�*P365?� 1TK=F�.4D�]@1�5J<*-F HJY0,VH�HJY0F[5-F(HJ*-F�.0W�5�D210<]@W�S0*?38.>a�HP1
;�<.B365P3G,�.�,2DX,2W4F�Q�3GD(*EF[5-F2,h*-D�Yy
�qK � N T����#K �#NPTXW�K.K.I@U�E FSNPL[K.G �@L[G@L�NPL[FSNPL qU�H �@U8N"!`U�U�Gq� �@G LQHJLQF F.G@YZ% K.E8K.W�W K
;HJY0F�*�Q�1T*EFoU1p5?3`HJ3^kFqW4FVkF�]@1TU4Q�Fh.[H-5�W4F[5-Fh*OkF:HP1 SFZYB38a4Y>]838a4YIHPF2W
y �.010HPFd~�14*OHJY[N\38.>3`HJ3G,VHJ3`kTF#~�,I5
HJY4F�5-FdHLHJ38.Ba � <U KJ1T*}HJY4F�KL38*�5JH�HJ38Q�F�38.�shu4u�f�1TK=,�5ED�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD�D21�14UF�*-,dHJ3G1T.Z5ED�Y4F�Q�F STFVHL~�FXF�. ;=<.>365?3G,�,h.4W�14*-1D2D21
�~�YB3GD�Y�365}HP1ZW4,VHPF(HJY4F�14.B]`N 14.4F�14K+3`H-5}�438.0W
yb F2DXF�.[H|5O<*JkFVN5}Y0,VkF�,�]{*-F2,2W[N 5?Y010~�.�HJY4,dH HJY0F
*-F�]@,VHJ3`kF D�]G1p5?38.>a � <U�14K <*-14UF2,�.ZKL*-14.[HJ3@F�*�5�Y4,dkF�F�.BaFh.4W4F�*-FXW HJ*-,h38.B38.>a 5ED�Y4FhQ�F[5�KJ14* A 14*OHJY �KL*?3GD2,h.
5OHL<�W4Fh.[H-5l38.e10HJY0F�*�D21B<.[HJ*?3GFI5�1TK_HJY0F�*-,VS
�,�a4YB*-FdS�?�.>3G14. ~�Y>3GD�Y ~�F�*-F&SF2DX1TQ�3{.Ba�,�Q�, '-14*
28 - In addition to the aid between the States managed by the French Embassy and the French Institute for Partnership Aid (Institut Français de Coopération), regional offices of the CNRS and IRD had also long been established at Tunis. 29 - Data given by Lise Andresen-Vollenweider and Victor Borgogno at the meeting "Higher education graduates from North Africa: their development in Europe and reintegration in their country of origin", 27-28 November 1998, Institut Maghreb-Europe (Univ.Paris VIII). 30 - See Gaillard and Schlemmer (1996).
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007
s �
U4Y4Fh.414Q�F�.414.y =M07438Q�38]@,�*?]`N 3`H�,hU4UF2,�*�5�HJY0,VH}HJY4F�;�<.B3�5?3G,�.�<.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HJ3GF[5|HJ*-,�38. ,#5?Q�,h]8]p.[<Q�SF�*1�LSB<4H|.41BH
.4Fha4]838a43`S0]GF:KJ1T*�,�<.B3`kTF�*�5P3`HLN\1TK|HJY4FM71B<4HJYS$ 1TK(5JHL<�W4F�.[H-5"KL*-14Q�HJY0F#*-F[5JH"14K�HJY4F�~�14*?]GW�.0F2,�*?]`NqY0,�]8K�14K
~�Y414Q D214Q�FlKL*-14Q HJY0F�,�a4YB*-FdS � � f�g^$_,h.4WiQ�1T*-F HJY0,�.�,l¡[<�,�*JHPF�*ZKL*-14Q 70<4S � 7,�Y4,h*-,�. �
KL*?3@D2,� � f�g^$ y;mY>365�D211TUFh*-,VHJ3G14.�STFVHL~�FXF�. D21B<.[HJ*P3GF[5�14KtHJY4F 7�1B<4HJY ,dH�U4*-F[5-Fh.[H�,�]65E1 DX1T.0D2F�*?.5g5-Dh3GF�.[HJ3{KL3GD*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY
y �FVHL~�F2F�.q;�<.B365P3G,�,�.4W
�14*-1D2D21
� �.�U4*-1 'EF2DVH-5",�*-F�DV<*P*-F�.[HJ]^N:SFh38.Ba\D214.4W[<�DVHPF2W:<.4W4Fh* HJY0F
5O<UFh*Ok4365P3G14.�1TK ,9 =F�*?Q�,�.4F�.IH�_d1438.[H ;�<.B365E1 � �1T*E1�D2DX,�. D�14Q�Q�3`HLHPFXF KJ14*_7D�3GF�.IHJ38KL3GD^b�FI5-F2,�*ED�Y&,h.4W
;|F2D�YB.01T]@1TaBN�DX10kTF�*?38.>ar¡[<3`HPF�, ~�3GW4F�5?UFXDVHJ*O<Q 14K�WB365-Dh38U4]838.0F[5
�U,�*OHJ3@DV<]G,�*?]^N�3{.�S43@1T]G14aBN � ��$
�D�Y0F�Q�365JHJ*ON\,�.4WqU4Y[N5?3GDI5\� f�$ ,�.4WqF�.>a438.4F2Fh*?38.Ba�5-Dh3GF�.4DXF[5h� � $ y�.:HJYB365�~�,VN
�3{.:HJY4F�D214.[HPFVz>H�14K�,\A 1T*JHJY
�KL*?3GDX,�.t*-Fha43G1T.�~�Y0F�*-FoHJY0F_14KLKL3GD�3G,�]�*-F�a43G14.4,�]�38.�5JHJ3`HL<4HJ3G14.�5)�CHJY4F
�*-,VS�,�a4YB*-FdS9?�.B3@1T.
�KJ10<.0W4F2W 3{.
shu�f>uS$|Y4,VkTF�.0FVkF�*�5O<�DXD2F2F2W4F2W�38.�a43`k43{.Ba#HJY0F�Q:5EF�]`kFI5�,h.[NZ5J<4Sp5OHP,h.4D2F�YB38a4Y0F�*�FXW[<�D2,VHJ3G14. ,�.4W�*-F[5EF2,�*-DhY
D21B<]GW�STF HJY0F�,haF�.[H=.4F2F2W4FXW�HP1:U4*?38Q�F HJY0F�]83{.B�p5}HP1:Y4F�]{U�HJY0F[5-F�DX10<.IHJ*?3GF[5|FhQ�F�*?aF(KL*-14Q�,(]G14.Ba�H��VHPF ���2�H��VHPFn~�3`HJY�HJY0F�D210<.IHJ*?3GF[5m1TKpHJY4F(A 14*OHJYy
���n�}�������������
���������� ����������� ������������� �"!#���%$'&)(*&)+%, -/.���0�&1�'$'�32546287�.��%$'�9&:.;.�&)�<7=!#����>�+9&)(*&)+9�"���#.�?@7�&)ACB�.�(*�9��+9&ED�#.��@+GF�$'&H(�, 7�.�&H�5I�4'25B*���9?@7�&HB@J�J�B*�K287�.L�%$52M& ��� ��.NDPOQ��.�!#&R.�2QS�&1�%$R$'&T�VU8(;�9� W X��PY[Z \^]%_�`�aTbc`�d;egf�hRa#i�Z9j�b6kml Z%n#Z/o�pkml d�Zq]%]%o#r�h'b#��s �����%$ �ut �wvQx6� (*�325�9B@.�$ W �zy��Q�V� -�{5 t I����%$525B@J�I�& �}|1~�~�|1��Y6oTb�bRd��#d�jgp"\^��r�h�]Rl �/`�\^Z%hRo#��� d�b�p9h:r�n�p9r�h'd�p9Z%�*j�k�oTb�hRo#nTf�o#h:nTf�oTbb1n#Z%oTj�p9Z �*Z%��r�oTb�n#��]q�*j�Z9d�]qoTbzd�rHp9o#`�\�b/k�oQ]9dE�5`QZ�b1o�oTjV�#d�]%o#r�h^k�oTbzn#��]%�*j�Z%oTb;�Lh'd�j��Td�Z�b1oTb�� �*���P�T���*��������s �@���%$ �� (*�325�9B@.�$^(*&/+�, y�vQxu��y�A W �Q� � �P �Q���>�(*&1+� ���(*&T� ��¡ S��QQ �v/�¢�@(@I£U8(*�9� W X���|1~�~�¤���¥�n#Z%oTjun#oT¦�p9o#nTf�j���]%��e�Z%o[o�p n#h:��Z9bRbRd�j�n#oVd�r¨§�d;egf�hRo#i��x�©5�<ª � AE���%$'[email protected](�, 41(*�325�9B@.«���9�M7�.�� W S�Q{5 �Qv ��� ��!#?@7�&#$H&�2¬x t �¨ � AEAC� v��&T�5.��@��( �[|1~�~�®�����t I�&1�¯!TIL&:7��'$H(@7£�wB;�¯( � !TI�&1�¯!TI�&R7��'$[(�7�x�7�(ND�325��.�41�¯���9��&#$ � J����T25�9?�7u&�$ � �VB;(*°T+9&�$"±w7�.�&�$:$'���¨(�, �#.���+�F�$'&C!#B��¨J��@���12M�G0�& ��� �G.)D�v/B;+9�<.L(C²����*$52cU8(*�9� W X��^�^oTbb1n#Z%oTjun#oTb�d�r¨¥�r*k�¦�a�p�dgp�kuoTbz]%Z%o#r�³���s �@���%$ � y�vQxu��y�A´� (*� 2M�¢B@.�$ W SQ� {'x�xu� vµOQ��.L!#&:.�2 &'2 �����¶x�� � vz{%�V��x���·9( �u���������P� &#$�(*��J�+9¸@�«4#$ 287�.L�%$'�9&:.�$�©5B*�5�V4�$º¹�+%, 4'25�¯�#.*»�&1� W �.��@+GF�$'&(*&�$�J���B*©5�9+%$z$'B*!#�9B*+9B�»��9?@7�&#$�&'2 (*&�$�J���B'¼'&'2�$�(*&���&'25B@7�� �'�uZ9j D@OQ��.�!#&R.�2 S�&1�%$R$'&T��U8(;�9� W X��<Y6Z \�]%��`QaTbz`�d*euf�hRa#i�Z�j�bkml Z%n#Z�o�p�k^l d�Z%]%]%o#r�h'bR¦�s ���¯�%$ ��t �VvQx[� (*� 2M�¢B@.�$ W �Q��� vzSQ� s �#7u+¢& ��|T~u½;¾��L¿���]%ZKp9Z%��r�oTb�b1n#Z%oTjgp9Z �*Z%��r�oTb�d�r�§�d*euf�hRo#iÁÀ�]Rl Z%`�\^]�d�jgp�dgp�Z%�*jHk�r[bKÂub�p9Ã#`�oQb1n#ZqoTjgp9Z �*Zq��r�ok�d�j�b¬]qoTbcbT��n#Z%a�p9aTb)`�d;egf�hRa#i�Z9juoTbckuoÄ�*ÅuÆ�Ç£È��L��Å�Ç�� -z.���0�&1�'$'�3254)(*&)ACB�.�25�¯41�@+ � {8.�$525�3287;2�(�, I���$M25B*�¢�¯&H&�2�(;&$'B*!#�9B�±qJ�B*+¢�325�9?@7�&/(;&#$�$'!#�9&:.L!#&#$�U � 25B@�V&�$ XRW s { t Qv �É� &T�#.�±8���¯�#.�Ê#B*��$ ��|1~�~����*��d«Ë/aK\^r�i�]%Zq��r�o�k�oTb�bRd��#d�jgp¢b1����d¬h:o#nTf�o#hRnTf�o��*h'd�ju�Td�Z9b1o¨o�pP]%o«Ì�ÍzË�¥���s �@���%$ ���+9�<���V���¯�¢B@. �uÎ�Î�~ J W ¿���]%ZKp9Z%��r�oTb�bTn#Z%oTjgp9Z �LZ%��r�oTbVo�p p9o#nTf�ju��]%��e�Zq��r�oTbQd�r�§�d;euf�h:o#i)o�pPd�rV¿�hR��nTf�o#��Ï�hRZ%oTj�p%� B�7�0L�¯�#»�&¨!#B;+9+9&T!R25�9©�(;�<.�$�+9�!#B*+9+¢&T!R25�9B@.«(*&#$ t �<IL�9&T��$^(@7 t v/��x�A � .�Ð |:Ñ�� |T~u½���� � (*�325�9B�.�$^(@7 t �wvQx W*Î�¤�~ J W x�{5{%�6yµ�P���#.�Ê#B*�%$ �������*Ñ��L¥�n#Z%oTjun#o�o�pR\���r*����Z%h^k�d�j�bz]9dcÒÓr*j�Z9b1Zqo�n#�Ljgp9o#`�\^��h'd�Z9j�o���s �@���%$ � {5vz� A£QAÔ±8�Q�@�K28I���+9� Wx�{5{%�6y��P���<.LÊ#B*�%$ �[���������Õ� &#$E�¯&RJu��4#$'&R.�25�T25�9B@.�$£J�B*+9�325�9?@7�&�$C(*&=+9�Ö$'!#�9&:.L!#&��#7ÉAE�<»;I��¯&R> �'�VhRoT��r�oCÍmרØ^YUqQ+�»L&T� X�� .�Ð |1Î�� �7;25B@�¨.L&#±qI���0L&T� ��������W
31 - The work of Vincent Geisser and Sa•d Ben Sedrine show that about 40% of Tunisian students trained abroad and who returned to the home country over the past ten years have studies in other countries of the Maghreb. See Geisser and Ben Sedrine (2000).
hals
hs-0
0131
406,
ver
sion
1 -
16 F
eb 2
007