Understanding Networking Fundamentals

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M3100-002February 2000


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Copyright Information

Copyright 1999, 2000Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

The following publication, Understanding Networking Fundamentals, was developed by LANWorks, Inc. in

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Understanding Networking Fundamentals v

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We invite you to call us at 919-461-8600 for assistance in selecting other courses in this

curriculum track to meet your specific career/certification objectives.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals is a good starting point for TCP/IP Network

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Understanding NetworkingFundamentals

Internetworking

Routers andSwitches

Internetworkingwith TCP/IP

Introduction to

WANTechnologies

Network CablingSystems

Network SecurityAdministration

TroubleshootingTCP/IP Networks

IP AddressManagement

Virtual PrivateNetworks

NetworkManagement


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vi Understanding Networking Fundamentals


Course Description

In todays business world, timely information is the key to success. Meeting thechallenges of networking local area, wide area, and remote networks requires a firm

understanding of data communications standards and emerging LAN/WAN internet-

working technologies.

This comprehensive course will help you understand networking terminology, technol-

ogies, and how data moves in a real-world network environment. Beginning with the

basics of data communications, you will learn data packet structure, frames, communi-

cation architectures, transmission methods, DCE/DTE interfaces, modulation, andmultiplexing. You will build a LAN that demonstrates topologies, components, media

access control methods, protocols, bit rates, and bandwidth in the classroom.

Prerequisites

We recommend, but do not require, a basic understanding of networking concepts.


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Understanding Networking Fundamentals vii


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viii Understanding Networking Fundamentals


Welcome!

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Understanding Networking Fundamentals TOC-1


Table of Contents

1 Networking Overview

Section Topics ...................................................................................................1-1

Section Objectives .............................................................................................1-2

What Is Computer Networking? .........................................................................1-3

Network Segmentation and Connectivity ...........................................................1-4

The Bandwidth Dilemma ...................................................................................1-5

Network Components ........................................................................................1-6

Network Design Issues ......................................................................................1-7

Network Types ...................................................................................................1-8

LANs ..................................................................................................................1-9

Building Backbone ...........................................................................................1-11

Campus Backbone ..........................................................................................1-13

WANs ..............................................................................................................1-15

MANs ...............................................................................................................1-16

Enterprise Networks ........................................................................................1-17

Networking Applications ..................................................................................1-18

Networking Protocols .......................................................................................1-19

Protocol Overview .....................................................................................1-20Speed vs. Reliability in a Network ...................................................................1-21

Mainframe Environment ..................................................................................1-22

Transmission Formats .....................................................................................1-23

Asynchronous Character Format ..............................................................1-23

Synchronous Frame Format .....................................................................1-23

Transmission Methods ....................................................................................1-24

Analog Signals ..........................................................................................1-24

Digital Signals ...........................................................................................1-25

2 Standards Organizations and the OSI Model

Section Topics ...................................................................................................2-1

Section Objectives .............................................................................................2-2Standards Organizations ...................................................................................2-3


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TOC-2 Understanding Networking Fundamentals


IEEE and ANSI Standards .................................................................................2-5

OSI Model ..........................................................................................................2-6

OSI Network Communication ............................................................................2-7

Layer 1 Physical Layer ..................................................................................2-9

Physical Layer Connectivity Devices ........................................................2-10

Layer 2 Data Link Layer ..............................................................................2-11

IEEE 802.2 LLC ........................................................................................2-12

Layer 3 Network Layer ................................................................................2-13

Layer 4 Transport Layer ..............................................................................2-15Connection-Oriented Protocols .................................................................2-16

Connectionless Protocols ..........................................................................2-17

Layer 5 Session Layer ................................................................................2-18

Layer 6 Presentation Layer .........................................................................2-19

Layer 7 Application Layer ...........................................................................2-20

Comparing the OSI Model to Real-World Networking .....................................2-21

3 LAN Components

Section Topics ...................................................................................................3-1


LAN Overview ....................................................................................................3-3

Main Components of a LAN ..............................................................................3-4Workstation Requirements ..........................................................................3-5

Local Operating Systems ............................................................................3-6

Networked Applications ...............................................................................3-7

Network Interface Cards .............................................................................3-8

NIC Drivers ..................................................................................................3-9

Network Cabling Systems ...............................................................................3-10

Category 5 UTP Horizontal Cabling ..........................................................3-11

Category 5 UTP Installation ......................................................................3-12

Fiber Optic Cable ......................................................................................3-13

Fiber Optic Backbone Cabling ..................................................................3-14

Connectivity Devices .......................................................................................3-15

Concentrators, Hubs, and Repeaters ........................................................3-15

Bridges ......................................................................................................3-16


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Switches ....................................................................................................3-18

Routers ......................................................................................................3-19

Network Operating Systems ............................................................................3-20

Network Documentation ..................................................................................3-21

Protocol Analyzers ...........................................................................................3-22

LAN Baselining ................................................................................................3-23

4 CSMA/CD Overview

Section Topics ...................................................................................................4-1


Ethernet Overview .............................................................................................4-3

IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD Protocol .........................................................................4-4

Ethernet Collision Detection ..............................................................................4-5

Ethernet Frame Formats ...................................................................................4-6

Ethernet II Frame Format ............................................................................4-7Ethernet II Frame Format Example .............................................................4-9

IEEE 802.3 with 802.2 Frame Format .......................................................4-10

Ethernet Cabling Options ................................................................................4-11

10Base5 Ethernet ............................................................................................4-12

10Base2 Ethernet ............................................................................................4-13

10BaseT Ethernet ............................................................................................4-14

Ethernet Repeaters/Hubs/Concentrators ..................................................4-15

Ethernet Transceivers ...............................................................................4-16

10BaseFL ........................................................................................................4-17

10 Mbps Ethernet Design ................................................................................4-18

The 5-4-3 Rule ..........................................................................................4-18

100 Mbps Ethernet Design ..............................................................................4-19

Fast Ethernet 2-1 Rule ..............................................................................4-19100BaseTX ...............................................................................................4-20

100BaseT4 ................................................................................................4-21

100BaseFX 100 Mbps Ethernet Building Backbone .............................4-22

Gigabit Ethernet ...............................................................................................4-23

Ethernet Traffic Characteristics .......................................................................4-24

Ethernet Errors ..........................................................................................4-25

10/100 Mbps Ethernet Switching .....................................................................4-26


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5 Network Operating Systems

Section Topics ...................................................................................................5-1


NOS Overview ...................................................................................................5-3

The Client/Server Concept ................................................................................5-4

The Dedicated Client/Server Network Environment ....................................5-5

The Peer-to-Peer Client/Server Network Environment ...............................5-6

File Service ........................................................................................................5-7Print Service ......................................................................................................5-8

Mail Service .......................................................................................................5-9

Communications Service .................................................................................5-10

Database Service ............................................................................................5-11

Directory/Security Services .............................................................................5-12

NOS Protocol Comparison ..............................................................................5-13

Typical UNIX Protocol Structure ...............................................................5-14

Novell NetWare Protocol Structure ...........................................................5-15

Windows NT Protocol Structure ................................................................5-17

AppleShare Protocol Structure ..................................................................5-18

Other NOSs ...............................................................................................5-19

6 TCP/IP Overview

Section Topics ...................................................................................................6-1


TCP/IP Overview ...............................................................................................6-3

The TCP/IP Protocol Suite ................................................................................6-4

Network Access Layer .......................................................................................6-5

Internet Layer ....................................................................................................6-6

The IP Version 4 Header .............................................................................6-7

IP Addressing ..............................................................................................6-8

Binary Numbers ..........................................................................................6-9

Subnetting .......................................................................................................6-10

Subnet Mask Overview .............................................................................6-11

Class A Subnetting ....................................................................................6-12


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Class B Subnetting ....................................................................................6-13

Class C Subnetting ...................................................................................6-14

Subnet Mask Examples ............................................................................6-15

Subnetting Examples ................................................................................6-17

Variable Length Subnetting .......................................................................6-20

Variable Length Subnet Mask Example ....................................................6-21

Default Gateway Overview ..............................................................................6-22

IP Address Servers ..........................................................................................6-23

The Ping Command .........................................................................................6-24ARP .................................................................................................................6-25

ARP In Action ............................................................................................6-26

IP Version 6 .....................................................................................................6-28

Host-to-Host Layer ..........................................................................................6-29

TCP/IP Ports .............................................................................................6-30

The TCP Header .......................................................................................6-31

The UDP Header .......................................................................................6-32

Process Layer Applications .........................................................................6-33

FTP and TFTP ..........................................................................................6-34

Telnet ........................................................................................................6-35

E-mail ........................................................................................................6-36

HTTP .........................................................................................................6-37

DNS ...........................................................................................................6-38

BootP ........................................................................................................6-40

SNMP ........................................................................................................6-41

7 Internetworking Overview

Section Topics ...................................................................................................7-1


Internetworking Overview ..................................................................................7-3

Network Segmentation ......................................................................................7-4

Networking Equipment ......................................................................................7-5

Physical Segmentation ......................................................................................7-6

Bridging and Switching ......................................................................................7-7

Bridge and Switch Operation ......................................................................7-8


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Bridge and Switch Types ............................................................................7-9

Ethernet Switching ....................................................................................7-11

Spanning Tree Algorithm ..........................................................................7-12

Token Ring Switching ...............................................................................7-13

FDDI Switching .........................................................................................7-14

ATM Switching ..........................................................................................7-15

Logical Segmentation ................................................................................7-16

Routing Overview ............................................................................................7-17

Routing IP .................................................................................................7-18Routing Protocols ......................................................................................7-19

Routing Metrics .........................................................................................7-20

Routing Protocol Operation .......................................................................7-21

RIP ............................................................................................................7-22

RIP Routing Tables ...................................................................................7-23

RIP 1 Message Format .............................................................................7-24

RIP 2 Message Format .............................................................................7-25

OSPF ........................................................................................................7-26

OSPF Messages .......................................................................................7-27

IGRP .........................................................................................................7-28

BGP ...........................................................................................................7-29

Firewalls ..........................................................................................................7-30

Firewall Types ...........................................................................................7-31

8 WAN Components

Section Topics ...................................................................................................8-1


WAN Overview ..................................................................................................8-3

Telecommunications Infrastructure ...................................................................8-4

Connection Types PVC and SVC .................................................................8-5

WAN Technologies ............................................................................................8-6

WAN Circuit Switching ................................................................................8-7

WAN Packet Switching ...............................................................................8-8

Wide Area Transmission Rates ...................................................................8-9

WAN Media Types and Physical Interfaces ....................................................8-10


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WAN Signaling Specifications ...................................................................8-11

WAN Equipment ..............................................................................................8-12

Modems ....................................................................................................8-13

DSU/CSU ..................................................................................................8-14

Multiplexing ......................................................................................................8-15

Time Division Multiplexing .........................................................................8-16

TDM Hierarchy ..........................................................................................8-17

Multiplexing Example ................................................................................8-18

SONET ............................................................................................................8-19Overview ...................................................................................................8-19

SONET Specifications ...............................................................................8-20

9 WAN Services

Section Topics ...................................................................................................9-1

Section Objectives .............................................................................................9-2WAN Access and Services ................................................................................9-3

WAN Service Options .................................................................................9-4

Leased Lines .....................................................................................................9-5

DDS .............................................................................................................9-6

T1 Service ...................................................................................................9-7

Fractional T1 Service ..................................................................................9-8T3 and Fractional T3 ...................................................................................9-9

Switched Lines ................................................................................................9-10

POTS ........................................................................................................9-11

ISDN Overview ..........................................................................................9-12

ISDN BRI ...................................................................................................9-13

ISDN PRI ...................................................................................................9-14

SMDS ........................................................................................................9-15

DSL ...........................................................................................................9-16

Packet-Switching Networks .............................................................................9-17

X.25 Overview ...........................................................................................9-18

Frame Relay Overview ..............................................................................9-19

Frame Relay Components ........................................................................9-20

Frame Relay Operation .............................................................................9-21


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Frame Relay Frame Format ......................................................................9-22

Frame Relay CIR ......................................................................................9-23

ATM ...........................................................................................................9-24

ATM Implementations ...............................................................................9-25

ATM Layers ...............................................................................................9-26

ATM Service Classes ................................................................................9-27

ATM Cell Structure ....................................................................................9-28

ATM Virtual Paths and Channels ..............................................................9-29

10 The Internet

Section Topics .................................................................................................10-1

Section Objectives ...........................................................................................10-2

Internet Overview and Structure ......................................................................10-3

Intranets ...........................................................................................................10-5

Accessing the Internet .....................................................................................10-6Internet Applications and Tools .......................................................................10-7

The World Wide Web ................................................................................10-8

URL ...........................................................................................................10-9

HTTP .......................................................................................................10-10

Java .........................................................................................................10-11

Networking Resources on the Internet ..........................................................10-12Future Internet Trends ...................................................................................10-13

Appendix A: Token Passing Protocols

Section Topics .................................................................................................. A-1

Section Objectives ............................................................................................ A-2

Token Passing Protocols Overview .................................................................. A-3Benefits of Token Passing Protocols ......................................................... A-4

IEEE 802.5 Token Ring .................................................................................... A-5

Token Ring Token Passing Protocol .......................................................... A-6

Token Ring Design and Implementation .................................................... A-7

Token Ring Physical and Logical Design ................................................... A-8

Token Format ............................................................................................. A-9


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Token Ring Frame Format ....................................................................... A-10

Token Ring Frame Example .................................................................... A-11

Token Ring Active Monitor ....................................................................... A-13

ANSI X3T9.5 FDDI ......................................................................................... A-14

Campus Backbone Design Example ........................................................ A-15

FDDI Token Passing Protocol .................................................................. A-16

FDDI Dual Ring Topology ........................................................................ A-17

FDDI Token Format ................................................................................. A-18

FDDI Frame Format ................................................................................. A-19FDDI Frame Decode ................................................................................ A-20

FDDI Port Types ...................................................................................... A-21

FDDI Cabling Options .............................................................................. A-22

Ethernet/Token Ring/FDDI Comparison ......................................................... A-23

Appendix B: Section Review Answers

Section 1: Networking Overview ................................................................ B-2

Section 2: Standards Organizations and the OSI Model ............................ B-2

Section 3: LAN Components ...................................................................... B-3

Section 4: CSMA/CD Overview .................................................................. B-3

Section 5: Network Operating Systems ..................................................... B-4

Section 6: TCP/IP Overview ....................................................................... B-4Section 7: Internetworking Overview .......................................................... B-5

Section 8: WAN Components .................................................................... B-5

Section 9: WAN Services ........................................................................... B-6

Section 10: The Internet ............................................................................. B-6

Appendix A: Token Passing Protocols ....................................................... B-7

Appendix C: Crossword Puzzle

Networking Fundamentals Crossword Puzzle .................................................. C-2


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Understanding Networking Fundamentals 1-1


1

Networking Overview

Section Topics

Network Segmentation and Connectivity The Bandwidth Dilemma

Network Components

Network Design Issues

Network Types

Networking Applications

Networking Protocols

Speed vs. Reliability in a Network

Mainframe Environment

Transmission Formats

Transmission Methods

N t ki O i


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1-2 Understanding Networking Fundamentals


Networking Overview

Section Objectives

After completing this section, you will be able to: Define computer networking

Identify the key factors that influence how networks are designed

List the basic components of a network

Identify the various types of networks used today, including LANs, WANs, and

MANs

Define what a protocol is and what it is used for

Describe analog and digital signaling

Networking Overview


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Networking Overview

What Is Computer Networking?

Figure 1: What Is Computer Networking?

The term computer networking means different things to different people. But to most, it

indicates a combination of hardware and software that provides a means for the various

computers in an organization to communicate with one another.

In todays business world, each computer network is designed to fit the needs of aparticular company. No two companies networking needs are exactly the same, and no

two computer networks are exactly the same. Each network is continually changing with

the addition of new devices, applications, and services. Old technology is being phased

out and companies are upgrading at a fast pace.

Users and people who support a computer network need to continually adapt to the

technologies available in the market and in place at their company. In this class, we will

discuss many common components and uses of computer networks. We will explore thevarious aspects of todays and tomorrows networking environment.

FDDI

ISDN

TCP/IP

CAT 5 UTP

Modem ATM

Router

Ethernet

Tokenring X.25

FrameRel

ay

Netware

Windows NT

Hub

Fiber opticsSwitch

T1

DSU/C

SU

Intranet

Internet

Bridge

Networking Overview


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Networking Overview

Network Segmentation and Connectivity

Figure 2: Network Segmentation and Connectivity

There are many factors that influence the way that networks are designed. Some of the key

factors include:

The size of the network

The performance of the network (user application requirements)

The security of the network

The manageability of the network

The connectivity requirements

The budget for the network

For these and other reasons, we usually segment the networks into clusters of users and

attempt to locate their resources as close to home as possible. To illustrate this point, a

company with 200 users at its corporate headquarters would not install all users on the

same LAN (local area network). This company would more likely segment the network

into smaller departmental LANs, which could in turn be connected to one another.

20

2020

20

20

20

20

20

20

20200

Ten 20-user LANs200-user LAN(Not a good idea)

Networking Overview


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Networking Overview

The Bandwidth Dilemma

Figure 3: The Bandwidth Dilemma

Important Term

Bandwidthis the data transfer capacity of a communications system.

Computer networks have a finite bandwidth. Just as a water pipe allows a finite amount

of water to pass through the pipe, a network allows a finite amount of data to travel

through it.

Some of the factors that cause bandwidth shortage include:

LANs that use a shared media access control protocol, such as Ethernet,

token ring, and FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

An increase in user population

An increase in application requirements

An increase in end-station processing power

A network engineer must keep many factors in mind when designing, installing,

upgrading, or troubleshooting a computer network.

Network

Networking Overview


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Networking Overview

Network Components

Figure 4: Basic Network Components

The basic components of networks include:

The end stations

The applications being run on the end stations The network that will support the traffic between end stations

A network that was designed five years ago to support basic networking applications may

have difficulty supporting recently developed high-end applications (e.g., medical

imaging and live video teleconferencing).

Network designers and managers need to understand and monitor the types and frequency

of networked applications.

Real-World Application

For example, a large bank planning to implement a bank-wide document imaging systemshould take steps to predict the impact of the additional traffic on the existing and new

networks. With this information, proper component selection and deployment can be

accomplished.

End stations

Applications

NetworksLAN

WAN

MAN

PCsWorkstations

ServersPrinters

E-mailFile transferImagingVideo

RoutersHubs

Switches

Frame RelayEthernet

Networking Overview


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g

Network Design Issues

Figure 5: Network Design Issues

Network design often requires input from many sources. Each organizations network has

evolved through the years. Many organizations implement physical segmentation for

performance reasons and provide logical segmentation for security and connectivity

issues.

Network Design Basics

Physical Connectivity

Physical connectivity for each network device is typically accomplished by using a hub/

concentrator/repeater, cabling, and a NIC (network interface card) in a LAN environment.

Physical Segmentation

Physical segmentation is obtained by using bridges and switches that create separate

collision domains in Ethernet and separate rings in token ring. This improves the perfor-mance of the network for attached devices by limiting traffic flow based on NIC or MAC

(media access control) addresses.

Logical Segmentation

Logical segmentation is obtained using routers installed and configured to create and

connect different networks and subnetworks. Traffic can be directed between subnets to

meet connectivity and security requirements.

User requirements

Management goals

Security concerns

Performance issues

Legacy systems

Budget considerations

Traffic patterns

Protocols

Networking Overview


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Network Types

Figure 6: Basic Network Types

Computer network connections usually fall into one of the following categories:

Figure 7: Basic Network Types

For all practical purposes, most network connections are forms of LANs or WANs.

Network Type Network Characteristics

LAN (local area network) Connects users in a department, company, or group

Building backbone Connects LANs together within a building

Campus backbone Connects building LANs together

MAN (metropolitan area network) Connects sites in and around a large city together

WAN (wide area network) Connects sites around the country and the world together

Enterprise network Connects many, or all of the above, types of networks

Server

User

User

WAN

Router

Building

Backbone

Sales

LAN

Hub

AccountingLAN

Server

AdministrationLAN

User

User

Server

Hub

Hub

Connectivitydevice

User

User

Other sites andnetworks

Switch

WAN LAN

WAN LAN

Networking Overview


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LANs

Figure 8: LANs

Important Term

A LAN (local area network) normally connects devices to each other and to resources at a

departmental level within an organization.

A LAN generally supports from 10 to 40 users and is often centered around one or more

file servers. The LAN uses an NOS (network operating system), which is the software thatallows the devices to communicate with each other.

A NIC is installed and configured for each device on the LAN. The devices on a LAN are

typically connected together using a hub (repeater) and a category 5 UTP (unshielded

twisted pair) cabling system. The LAN usually has a connection to the building backbone

for access to other departmental LANs, MANs, and WANs.

NOS clientsoftware

Hub/repeater

Patch panelPC

Laptop

Workstation

Printer

CD-ROM/WORM

File/application/print server

Router or switch

To buildingbackbone

Typical LANComponents

NOS server

software

Category 5 UTPcable system

Networking Overview


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Examples of current LAN standards that provide this connectivity include:

10BaseT Ethernet

100BaseTX Ethernet

16 Mbps token ring

155 Mbps ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

100 Mbps FDDI

Gigabit Ethernet

Networking Overview


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Building Backbone

Figure 9: Building Backbone

Important Term

A building backboneis a network connection that normally carries traffic between depart-

mental LANs and an internetworking device such as a router or switch.

A building backbone can also provide the connectivity to other networks such as campus

backbones, MANs, or WANs.

A building backbone usually consists of a fiber optic cable system that connects the

electronic components (e.g., hubs, switches, bridges, and routers). It is usually a high-

speed connection in order to support the high volume of traffic between LANs.

LAN

Router

Hub

Hub

Hub

LAN

LAN

To WAN,MAN, orcampus

Building

backbone

Fiber optic

cablesystem

Patch cablesFiber opticpatch panel

Users

Users

Users

Cat5 UTP

Switch


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Networking Overview


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Campus Backbone

Figure 10: Campus Backbone

Important Term

A campus backboneis a network connection used to carry traffic to and from LANs located

in various buildings on a campus.

A campus backbone is designed for sites that have a group of buildings at a single

location. Examples of campuses include corporate headquarters, universities, airports, andresearch parks.

A campus backbone is usually made up of multimode and/or single mode fiber optic cable

installed between the buildings.

The fiber optic cable is used to connect the internetworking devices, such as bridges,

routers, and switches. The backbone is high speed in order to carry large volumes of traffic

between sites.

WAN

Building 1Building 2

Building 4

Building 3

Fiber opticcable

LANs

LANs

LANs

LANs

Router/switch

Router/switch

Router/switch

Router/switch

In this diagram, the campus backbonecontains connections between therouters and switches on a campus.

Networking Overview


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Examples of campus backbones include:

FDDI

16 Mbps token ring

155 Mbps and 622 Mbps ATM

100BaseFX Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet

Networking Overview


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WANs

Figure 11: WANs

Important Term

WANs (wide area networks) are networks that connect geographically dispersed sites.

A WAN connects different cities, states, or countries. WANs are obtained through a

service provider and normally come in the form of a leased line or circuit-switching

technology. Often, the WAN connects routers in different locations. Speeds have histori-

cally been low to medium (less than 1 Mbps). In recent years, however, speeds of 45 Mbps

and more have been implemented by organizations.

Examples of WANs include:

56 Kbps circuit

ISDN (integrated services digital network)

T1 and T3 connections

Frame relay

X.25

ATM

Modems and regular telephone lines

1st

Tokyo

New York

London

Chicago

SeattleService

providerWAN

RouterRouter

Router

Router

Router

Networking Overview


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MANs

Figure 12: MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks)

Important Terms

A MAN (metropolitan area network)is a network designed to carry traffic between locations

within a single metropolitan area.

MANs are obtained through a service provider for a fixed monthly fee.

The MAN connects routers and switches. The process of obtaining a MAN is similar to

that of a WAN, except a MAN stays in one city or metropolitan area.Examples of MANs include:

SMDS (Switched Multimegabit Data Service)

FDDI

ATM

ServiceproviderMAN

1st

Manufacturing

facility

Research

building

Headquarters

LANs

LANs

LAN

Chicago metropolitanarea

Networking Overview


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Enterprise Networks

Figure 13: Enterprise Network

An enterprise network has many or all of the following components connected in a

cohesive and managed fashion.

Figure 14: Enterprise Network Components

Component Usage

LAN For each department or group

Building backbone Ties together LANs in a building

Campus backbone Connects buildings

MAN Ties sites in a city together

WAN Connects geographically dispersed locations

CorporateWAN

Dallascampus

New YorkMAN

Seattle

Chicago

LANs

LANs LANs

LANs

LANs

Router

Router

Router

Router

Networking Overview


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Figure 15: Networking Applications

The applications running on todays computer networks vary greatly from company to

company. A network must be designed with the applications in mind.

A general categorization of networking applications includes the following:

Figure 16: Networking Applications

Different applications affect how well a network performs. Each network has a finite

bandwidth or capacity. Thus, network designers and engineers should be aware of the kind

and frequency of the traffic traversing the networks.

Application Examples

Standard office applications E-mail, file transfers, printing

High-end office applications Imaging, CAD, software development

Manufacturing automation Process control

Mainframe connectivity Personal computer and terminal support

Multimedia applications Live interactive video

High-end officeapplications

Manufacturingautomation

Mainframeconnectivity

Multimedia

applications

Standard officeapplications

Network

Device

Networking Overview


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Networking Protocols

Figure 17: Networking Protocols

Computer networks use protocols to communicate. These protocols define the procedures

that the systems involved in the communications process will use. Many protocols are

used today to provide networking capabilities. Often, protocols are combined into a

communication architecture orprotocol stack.

Important Term

Protocol A set of rules allowing communication between computers for the exchange of

information.

Each protocol in the communication architecture provides for a function needed to make

the networking possible. Multiple protocols are used so that the job can be broken up into

manageable pieces. Each module that implements a protocol can be developed and

updated independently of other modules as long as the interface between modules remains

constant.

T How much data can I send?

T How shall I send it?

T

How shall I address it?

T

How will I check for errors?

Network

Networking Overview


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Protocol Overview

Protocols used in networks usually fall into one of the following groups:

Figure 18: Protocol Overview

These protocols collectively supply the details that allow computers around the world to

communicate with each other.

LANThese protocols define how datatraverses LANs. Issues such as framestructure, media access, and physicalrequirements are detailed.

Ethernet Token ring FDDI ATM

WANThese protocols define how data movesbetween distant locations.

Frame relay X.25 ATM ISDN

Networkingsoftware

NOS software provides logicalconnections and application support forthe user and devices.

TCP/IP Windows NT Novell

NetWare

RoutingThese protocols assist in connectingmultiple networks and transporting databetween these networks.

RIP OSPF IGRP

LANThese protocols define how datatraverses LANs. Issues such as framestructure, media access, and physicalrequirements are detailed.

Ethernet Token ring FDDI ATM

WANThese protocols define how data movesbetween distant locations.

Frame relay X.25 ATM ISDN

Networkingsoftware

NOS software provides logicalconnections and application support forthe user and devices.

TCP/IP Windows NT Novell

NetWare

RoutingThese protocols assist in connectingmultiple networks and transporting databetween these networks.

RIP OSPF IGRP

Protocol Group Description Example

Networking Overview


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Speed vs. Reliability in a Network

Figure 19: Speed vs. Reliability in a Network

There are many factors involved in designing a computer network. Some of these factors

include:

Goals of the network as defined by the management of the organization

Security of the data on the network

Up-time requirements of the network

Response-time requirements for the network

Cost of the network and its resources

The main balancing act in networking is finding the right mix of speed and reliability.

Often, the performance of a network is slowed down by error checking, encryption, and

acknowledgments. However, in many organizations, they are required, and are therefore

incorporated into the protocols.Some networking protocols are very reliable and require a significant amount of overhead

to provide this level of service. These protocols are referred to as connection-oriented

protocols. Other protocols are designed with speed in mind and forego some of the

reliability features of the connection-oriented protocols. These quick protocols are

referred to as connectionless protocols.

Speed Reliability

Networking Overview


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Mainframe Environment

Figure 20: Mainframe Environment

There are several different mainframe environments in use today. Connectivity options

vary depending on the mainframe vendor, model, and connectivity strategy. Three

mainframe connectivity options are shown in Figure 20:

Traditional SNA (Systems Network Architecture) environment

Software emulation for LAN-attached PCs

SNA/LAN peripheral gateway

MainframeConnectivity Options

Mainframe

FEP(front-endprocessor)

Mainframe/

LAN/gateway

Router

Router

Clustercontrollers

Dumbterminals

LAN-attached PCwith mainframe

emulation software

LAN-attached

PC

Hubs

Hub

Traditional SNA

Communicationscontroller

1

3

2

Networking Overview


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Transmission Formats

Data on computer networks can be sent two ways:

One character at a time (asynchronous)

In groups of characters (synchronous)

Asynchronous Character Format

Figure 21: Asynchronous Character Format

Asynchronous character format is a transmission method in which single bytes of data aresent serially onto a network. It is a simple and inexpensive method of sending and

receiving data. An implementation example would be a modem connection.

Synchronous Frame Format

Figure 22: Synchronous Character Format

Synchronous frame format is a transmission method in which large portions of data aresent on a network. This is calledframe transmission. The frame usually contains

addressing, a variable-sized data field, and error checking. An implementation example

would be an Ethernet LAN.

Start1 bit

Character8 bits

Parity1 bit

Stop1 bit

Control fieldSource address

Destination address

Data fieldVariable size

(large amount of data)

ErrorChecking

Networking Overview


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Transmission Methods

Analog Signals

Figure 23: Analog Signals

Analog signals move down wires as electromagnetic waves. The speed of these waves

indicates the frequency, stated in hertz. When the telephone was invented in 1876, it used

analog signals to carry voice traffic. A problem with analog transmission is that, as the

signals travel over a wire, they get weaker and pick up electrical noise from power lines

and other sources. The weakened signals need to be amplified, but the amplifier is unable

to tell good electrical energy from bad. Therefore, the noise is repeated as well. Today,most of the public telephone network is digital. However, analog services, such as POTS

(plain old telephone service), are still common.

Figure 24: Analog Frequency Measurements

Abbreviation Name Description

Hz Hertz Complete wave cycles per second

kHz Kilohertz Thousands of complete wave cycles per secondMHz Megahertz Millions of complete wave cycles per second

GHz Gigahertz Billions of complete wave cycles per second

TimeAmplitude

Period(frequency)

Phase change

Wave propagation direction

Networking Overview

Di it l Si l


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Digital Signals

Figure 25: Digital Signals

Digital transmission is signal transmission over wires, fiber optics, or through the air

where a digital encoding technique is used to transmit binary bits (1s and 0s) through the

medium. The benefit of this technique is that, as the signal passes through devices (e.g.,

repeaters, routers, switches), the digital signal is sampled and retransmitted as a full, clean,

new signal. Examples of digital encoding schemes include Manchester Encoding for

Ethernet and AMI (alternate mark inversion) in T1 lines.Digital signaling has the following advantages over analog signaling:

Higher speeds

Fewer errors

Clearer voice quality

Figure 26: Digital Frequency Measurements

Abbreviation Name Description

Kbps Kilobits Thousands of bits per second

Mbps Megabits Millions of bits per second

Gbps Gigabits Billions of bits per second

Tbps Terabits Trillions of bits per second

1 1 1 1

000

Networking Overview


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Knowledge

Checkpoint

Section Review

1. Networks are physically and logically segmented in order to achieve performance andsecurity goals.

a. True

b. False

2. This network type is used to connect users in a department, group, or company.

3. Networking applications used on a network, such as e-mail and imaging, have no impact

on how the network should be designed.

a. True

b. False

4. This network type is used to connect distant locations and is obtained through a serviceprovider.


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2

Standards Organizationsand the OSI Model

Section Topics Standards Organizations

IEEE and ANSI Standards

OSI Model

OSI Network Communication

OSI Layers

Comparing the OSI Model to Real-World Networking

Standards Organizations and the OSI Model

Section Objectives


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Section Objectives

After completing this section, you will be able to:

Recognize the relevant network standards used in todays networks

Identify each layer of the OSI model

Describe how the OSI model is used today for comparison and educational

purposes


Standards Organizations


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Standards Organizations

Figure 27: Standards Organizations

These organizations influence and add to the networking specifications available today.

Figure 28: Standards Organizations

Acronym Name of Organization

ANSI American National Standards Institute

EIA Electronic Industries Association

IAB Internet Architecture Board

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IETF Internet Engineering Task ForceIRTF Internet Research Task Force

ISO International Organization for Standardization

ITU International Telecommunication Union, formerly CCITT (International Telegraph and

Telephone Consultative Committee)

TIA Telecommunications Industry Association

ATM OtherFrame relay

ITU IEEE

EIA/TIA

IETF IRTF

IAB

ISO

Vendor Forums

ANSI



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Note

Networking standards can be obtained from Global Engineering Documents:

1-800-854-7179 (U.S. orders)

303-397-7956 (international orders)




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IEEE and ANSI normally work on local and metropolitan area committees and subcom-

mittees, including those shown in the tables below.

IEEE

Figure 29: IEEE Committees and Subcommittees

ANSI

Figure 30: ANSI Committees and Subcommittees

Committee Subcommittee Subtask

802 802.1 High-level interface

802.2 LLC sublayer802.3 CSMA/CD (Ethernet) networks

802.3u 100 Mbps Ethernet

802.3z Gigabit Ethernet

802.4 Token bus networks (ARCnet)

802.5 Token ring networks

802.6 Metropolitan area networks (DQDB)802.7 Broadband technical advisory group

802.8 Fiber optic technical advisory group

802.9 Integrated voice and data LAN working group

802.10 LAN security working group

802.11 Wireless networking

802.12 Demand priority access methods (100VG AnyLAN)802.14 Cable modems

Committee Subcommittee Subtask

X3 X3T9.5 FDDI standards


OSI Model


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Figure 31: OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model was created by the ISO as a basis for

communication systems. The seven layers of the model are set up so that each layer works

independently of another and allows a modular change of protocols. This model is a

foundation for comparing protocols; however, most protocols deviate from the rules set up

by the OSI model.

The OSI model is normally used for educational and comparative purposes with respect to

products and technologies commercially available in todays networks.

Physical

Data link

Network

Transport

Session

Presentation

ApplicationUser networking applications andinterface to the network

Encoding language used intransmission

Job management tracking

Data tracking as it moves througha network

Network addressing and packettransmission on the network

Frame transmission across aphysical link (LAN or WAN)

Transmission method of bits onthe network

7

6

5

4

3

21

Layer FunctionName


OSI Network Communication


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Figure 32: OSI Network Communication

Each layer implements a specific communications function. Each layer should be

independent of all others. This independence provides for modular development and later

enhancements or upgrades.

Characteristics of network communications include:

A header, created by each layer, implements the function for that layer.

Important Term

PDU (protocol data unit) The combination of header and data

H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D T

H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D T

H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D

H4 H5 H6 H7 D

H5 H6 H7 D

H6 H7 D

H7 D

H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D T

H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D T

H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D

H4 H5 H6 H7 D

H5 H6 H7 D

H6 H7 D

H7 D

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Frame

Frame

Packet or datagram

Frame

Frame

Packet or datagram

Application protocol

Presentation protocol

Session protocol

Transport protocol

Network protocol

Data link protocol

Physical protocol

H2H3H4H5H6H7DT

Host A Host B

OSI layers

D = Data H = HeaderT = Trailer

Interconnecting media

Sender Receiver


The PDU created by one layer is passed as data to the PDU created by the next

layer below For example the layer 3 PDU would contain H4 through H7 plus


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layer below. For example, the layer 3 PDU would contain H4 through H7, plus

the data, plus H3 information.

The target device of the network communication processes data from the

bottom of the OSI model up. The header is stripped off before being sent up to

the next level.


Layer 1 Physical Layer


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Figure 33: Physical Layer

The physical layer of the OSI model defines connector and interface specifications, as

well as the medium (cable) requirements. Electrical, mechanical, functional, and

procedural specifications are provided.

Components of the physical layer include:

Cabling system components

Connector design and pin assignments

Hub/repeater/concentrator specifications

Wireless system components

In a LAN (local area network) environment, category 5 UTP cable is generally used for

the physical layer in individual device connections. Fiber optic cabling is often used for

the physical layer in backbone connections. For example, fiber optics would typically be

installed when connecting a hub on the twentieth floor of a building to a switch located inthe first-floor data center.

Cat5 UTP

Wall jack

Patch panel

Hub/repeater

Device

NIC


Physical Layer Connectivity Devices


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Figure 34: Physical Layer Connectivity Devices

Characteristics

Connectivity devices are used to connect devices on a LAN. Examples include

10BaseT hub and token ring MAU (multistation access unit).

The hub samples the incoming bit stream and repeats a good signal to the other

devices connected to the hub.

Ethernet, token ring, and FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) hubs operate

differently. An Ethernet hub logically connects users into a bus (as shown in

Figure 34.) Token ring and FDDI hubs logically connect stations into a ring.

The hub does not look at data to see what the destination is. It only looks at bits

as they come into the hub. For this reason, it is classified as a layer 1

component.

Connectivity devices, such as a 10BaseT hub, provide a convenient means to connectdevices to a LAN. Prior cabling systems, such as 10Base2 Ethernet, used coax cabling

connected in a physical bus topology. This method was plagued by network downtime and

difficulty in moving users.

10BaseTEthernet hub

10BaseTEthernet hub

Fiber optics

A B C D E F G

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

1

1 1 0 1


Layer 2 Data Link Layer


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Figure 35: Data Link Layer

LAN networking components that operate at the data link layer include bridges, switches,

and NICs (network interface cards).

The data link layer accomplishes the following functions:

Builds and sends frames (containing the NOS (network operating system)

information plus user data) out to a network

Destination and source MAC (media access control) address fields (NIC

addresses) Error detection fields

Synchronization field

A field which specifies the network layer protocol being implemented

On the sender side, the NIC passes the frame to the physical layer, which transmits the

data to a physical link. On the receiver side, the NIC processes bits from the physical layer

and processes the message based on its contents.

Ethernet switch

Hub

Frame

Fram

e

Hub

10BaseT hub10BaseT hub

A B C D E FNIC NIC NIC NIC NIC NIC

BRIDGE

HubtoE

toEG

NIC

H

NIC

I

NIC

J

NIC

K

NIC

AK = MAC address of NIC

T MAC addresses are typically 6 bytes long.T 02 60 8c 42 19 7a is an example of a NIC MAC address.


IEEE 802.2 LLC


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Figure 36: IEEE 802.2 LLC

Important Term

LLC (logical link control) is the IEEE 802.2 standard on how networks such as Ethernet or

token ring process information to and from networking protocols.

LLC is a sublayer of the data link layer and serves as an interface between a variety of

MAC techniques and the upper-layer protocols. Its functionality is designed to be

independent of the MAC protocol used.

The LLC packet is used in IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/

Collision Detection), IEEE 802.5 token ring, and ANSI FDDI frames to provide:

Support to connection-oriented and connectionless services SSAP (source service access point) The address of the entity in the source

station that originated the communication

DSAP (destination service access point) The address of the entity in the

destination station that is to receive the communication

When LLC is used, it is contained in the first part of the data field of the frame.

Network protocols

Logical link control

Media access control

Physical

Interconnecting media

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

OSI layers

UNIX NovellWindows

NT

Network protocols

Logical link control

Media access control

Physical

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

UNIX NovellWindows

NT

Ethernet/token ring/FDDI Ethernet/token ring/FDDI


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In network layer addressing, the IP (Internet Protocol) address indicates to the routers

connecting multiple networks which user on which subnet at a specific company the data


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is intended for.

For example, in Figure 37, the IP address 172.20.10.17 at the company JBI, Inc. may

mean the following:

Figure 38: Network Layer (cont.)

172 .20 .10 .17

Up to 254 subnets possible (1254)

Internet-unique

(JBI, Inc.)

z Host address for the subnetz Up to 254 hosts possible (1254)


Layer 4 Transport Layer


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Figure 39: Transport Layer

The transport layer provides end-to-end integrity between two devices communicating

through the network.

The transport layer provides two types of basic services to an upper-layer protocol:

Connection-oriented services provide feedback about the status data as it

travels through networks, for example, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

in the TCP/IP stack.

Connectionless (datagram) service does not provide feedback from the receiver

about the data, for example, UDP (User Datagram Protocol) in the TCP/IP

stack.

The transport layer may support: Data tracking

Connection flow control

Sequencing of data

Error checking

Application addressing and identification

In a connection-oriented system, each packet of data is assigned a unique sequence

number and an associated acknowledgment number to track data as it travels through a

network. If data is lost or damaged, it is requested to be resent by a device.

Network

Acknowledgment

Acknowledgment

Data

Data


Connection-Oriented Protocols


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Figure 40: Connection-Oriented Protocols

Connection-oriented protocols are designed to provide a high degree of reliability fortraffic as it moves on the network.

Characteristics of connection-oriented protocols include:

A connection process (handshake) occurs between two stations before the

transmission of data. Connections are also referred to as sessions, virtual

circuits, or logical connections.

Most connection-oriented protocols require some form of acknowledgmentroutine as data is transmitted. Protocols using acknowledgment routines

provide a high degree of network reliability.

Connection-oriented protocols often provide error detection and error recovery

routines. When data is found to be in error, the sending side is requested to

retransmit it. Or, if the sending side has not received an acknowledgment, it

will retransmit the data after a specified period of time.

When a connection is no longer needed by end users, a defined handshakedrops or takes down the connection.

TCP is an example of a connection-oriented protocol in the TCP/IP stack.

Setuprequest

Setupresponse

Data

Connectionclear

Acknowledgemen

t

Clearresponse


Connectionless Protocols


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Figure 41: Connectionless Protocols

Connectionless protocols do not provide the same high degree of reliability as connection-

oriented protocols. However, connectionless protocols do offer a significant advantage in

terms of speed of the transmission.

Characteristics of connectionless protocols include:

Connectionless protocols simply send data with a source and destination

address appended. No setup handshake is done to determine if the destination

is available.

Connectionless protocols usually do not support error recovery or

acknowledgment routines, and would therefore be known as unreliabletransmission services.

Connectionless protocols are often used because of efficiency and because the

data does not justify the extra overhead required by connection-oriented

protocols.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is an example of a connectionless protocol in the TCP/IP

protocol stack.

Data

Data

Data

Data


Layer 5 Session Layer


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Figure 42: Session Layer

Session layer protocols provide the logical connection entities at the application layer.These applications include file transfer protocols and sending e-mail.

Real-World Application

Examples of session layer functionality include the establishment, management, and

termination of connections between applications. If a large graphic needs to be broken up

in order to send the data out onto the network, the information to put the data back togetheragain would be provided.

Session layer characteristics include:

Virtual connection between application entities

Synchronization of data flow for recovery purposes

Creation of dialog units and activity units

Connection parameter negotiation

Partitioning services into functional groups

Clientsoftware

(NOS)

Serversoftware

(NOS)

nServicerequest

oServiceresponse


Layer 6 Presentation Layer


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Figure 43: Presentation Layer

The presentation layer specifies how end-user applications should format the data.

This layer provides for translation between local representations of data and the represen-

tation of data that will be used for transfer between end-systems. The results of

encryption, compression, and virtual terminals are examples of this translation service.

Examples of presentation layer functionality include:

Encryption and decryption of data

Compression algorithms

Character sets, including ASCII and EBCIDIC

Formatting information

Network

Type Options

ImagesJPEG, PICT,

GIF

Video MPEG, MIDI

DataASCII, EBCIDIC,

encrypted


Layer 7 Application Layer


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Figure 44: Application Layer

User application processes require application layer service elements to access thenetworking environment. There are two types of service elements:

CASEs (common application service elements) Generally are useful to a

variety of application processes

SASEs (specific application service elements) Satisfy particular needs of

application processes

CASE examples include: Association control that establishes, maintains, and terminates connections

with a peer application entity

Commitment, concurrence, and recovery that ensures the integrity of

distributed transactions

SASE examples include:

Figure 45: SASE Examples

SASE Description Protocol Stack

FTP File Transfer Protocol TCP/IP

SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol TCP/IP

Telnet Virtual terminal protocol TCP/IP

SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol TCP/IP

PC Applications

Database

Word processing

Spreadsheets


File transfer

E-mail

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