Unit 1 - AP Objectives 1-4 – American and European Societies before 1492

1.What were Native American societies like before Europeans arrived.

2.What changes occurred Europe that made exploration possible.

3.What impact did European arrival have on Native Americans.

4.To what extent did Native Americans resist European encroachment.

America: Past and Present

Chapter 1: New World Encounters

NATIVE AMERICAN HISTORIES BEFORE CONQUEST

The chapter opens with the story of a fatal misunderstanding between members of the Wicomesses and the Susquehannocks at a trading post owned by British Captain William Claiborne. After being embarrassed by the Susquehannocks in front of the Brits, the group of Wicomesses gained revenge by killing 5 of their mortal enemies and three Englishmen from the trading post. Wicomess leaders approached the governor of Maryland to offer to make amends. The governor then expected the natives to hand over the offenders to suffer British justice. The Wicomesses were astonished that the visitors assumed the right to be in control of this legal situation even though they were the ones who had encroached and were truly little more than visitors in 1635. This would, of course, be just the beginning of a grand series of misunderstandings that would change the culture and history of natives and Europeans forever.

Certainly there were people on the North American continent before the Europeans arrived, people who had populated the land for thousands of years.

Their physical isolation (or absence of domesticated livestock) had protected them from various diseases such as smallpox, and measles, but that protection also meant a loss of immunity.

*”By placing these complex, often unsettling experiences within an interpretive framework of creative adaptations-rather than of exploration or settlement-we go a long way toward recapturing the full human dimensions of conquest and resistance.”

“Bering Straight” Land Bridge

“Indian” Virginia

The Great Transformation: Food, Climate, and CultureRapid population growth in the Americas

Sustained by abundant natural food suppliesHunting and gatheringAgricultural cultivationSW=beans, corn and squash

Agricultural Revolution Revolutionized early American cultures

Stable food supplies allowed other developments

Material cultureGovernmental hierarchiesPermanent villages4 million Native Americans lived north of

Mexico at the time of the original encounter with Europeans

Mysterious Disappearances

Anasazi Pueblo culture was sophisticated (NM)

Pueblo housing structures

Irrigation canals for agriculture

Hundreds of miles of roads

Cahokia (Ill.) had a population of 30,000+

Large ceremonial burial mounds remain

*Both cultures disappeared before Europeans arrived, survivors dispersed and built new cultures

Cahokia burial ground

Aztec Dominance

Many impressive cultures inhabited Mexico and Central America

Incas (Peru), Mayan and Toltec (Central Mexico)

Built vast cities (perhaps 100,000= in some)

Governed bureaucratically

Developed hieroglyphics

Had accurate solar calendars

Aztecs (Valley of Mexico)

Aggressive and warlike

Conquered established city-states

Tenochtitlan - major ceremonial center

250,000= residents

Site of human sacrifice to Aztec sun god Huitzilopochtli

Connected to agricultural cycle

Victims’ blood= fertility powers

Eastern Woodlands Culture (Check out the map on p.8)

Fewer than 1 million on the Atlantic Coast

Primarily subsisted on hunting and gathering, some agriculture

Women cultivated maize while men hunted and fished

English settlers were likely to cross paths with Algonquians (CAN)

Powhatans (VA), Narragansetts (RI) and Abenakis (CAN)

Spoke different dialects, did not communicate easily

Were often enemies but shared “cultural assumptions”

- Personal and familial bonds defined one’s “place”

“kinship”

- The “clan” was the basic social unit

- Authority was often egalitarian and loosely structured

- Some matriarchal with women owning the planting fields

and houses, maintaining tribal customs, and had a role

in tribal gov’t

Warfare was rare and conducted on a small scale

Motivated by revenge for insult or attack

Captives could be tortured or adopted

Eastern Great Lakes Indians spoke Iroquoian dialects

THE INDIANS DISCOVER A “NEW WORLD”

(Pretty clever of your authors, eh?) Perhaps they just want you to note that native cultures were profoundly changed by the influence of European explorers, conquerors, traders and settlers.

Creative Adaptations

1. Natives desired fair and peaceful trade with Europeans

2. Natives and Europeans saw their own culture as superior, although each desired aspects of the others material culture

3. Communication was aided by sign language and gestures

4. Europeans tried to impose their culture, language and customs

- Some natives converted to Christianity, others pacified the Europeans

- Native women were less likely to embrace conversion

- Preferred polygamy and systems that gave power, independence

5. Young natives rejected traditional European classroom education

- In cases of intermarriage, the couple usually adopted native culture

Dependency: Trade and Disease

Interaction between natives and Europeans

altered the landscape and led to debt

Debt led to dependence

Disease was more destructive than debt

- Natives lacked natural immunity to smallpox, measles and the flu

- Some historians estimate a 90-95% population loss

- Perhaps led to the importation of slaves

- Tribes who “kept their distance” were more likely to survive

Population loss led some to question traditional religious beliefs

Columbian Exchange - See Featured Essay (p. 12-13)

“Ecological Revolution”

WEST AFRICA: ANCIENT AND COMPLEX SOCIETIES

Islam was a major cultural force in W Africa starting in 1030 AD

Muslim missionaries made many converts in this region

Intricate trade networks linked regional cultures

Mali, Benin and Kongo were major states during initial European contact

Governments and languages varied widely within the region

Euro contact began with the Portuguese

Lateen (triangular) sails and new ship designs enabled these voyages

African trade networks charges tolls and fees to Europeans

Slave sales were negotiated as local currencies

Slaves were readily used in the Madeira and Canary Islands

(note—near the coast of Morocco)

More Africans than Europeans “emigrated” to the America from

1650-1831

Madeira and the Canaries

EUROPE ON THE EVE OF CONQUEST

Yes, the Vikings were the first Europeans on American shores

984 AD - Eric the Red traveled from Iceland to Greenland

His son Leif founded Vinland in Newfoundland

[see map of L’Anse aux Meadows]

Other Europeans (Columbus) were unaware of these voyages

L'Anse aux Meadows (from the French L'Anse-aux-Méduses or "Jellyfish Cove") is an archaeological site on the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland, located in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, where the remains of a Norse village were discovered in 1960 by the Norwegian explorer Helge Ingstad and his wife Anne Stine Ingstad, an archaeologist. L'Anse aux Meadows was determined to be Norse because of definitive similarities between the characteristics of structures and artifacts found at the site and those of Greenlandic and Icelandic sites from around A.D. 1000

Building New Nation-States

- Ignorance, disease and provincial loyalties discouraged early exploration

- But, changed conditions led to a greater desire for exploration and trade = population growth, general prosperity

• The Renaissance – fostered an expansive outlook• Improved food supplies• Greater earnings for landlords-more people, more land needed• More $$ and desire for luxuries from Asia• Centralized political authority-New Monarchs

Powerful Nation-States 1400s•Tudors ended the “War of the Roses”

[between the Houses of Lancaster and York for the English crown]•Ferdinand and Isabella’s union brought the reunification of

Spain (Aragon and Castile) and the Reconquista-all of the Iberian peninsula united under Christian rulers

•Ancient knowledge of geography became more widely known•Printing press/movable type facilitated communication-communications revolution 1440s Johann Gutenberg

MAKING SENSE OF A NEW WORLD

Those seeking the infamous “Three Gs” (God, Gold, Glory) spurred the urge for adventure in Spain - ”los conquistadores”

Spain became the leading world power in spite of a lack of natural resources

Sugar plantations were created in the Canary Islands

Native deaths led to the growth of African slavery

The labor system was brutal

Calculating Risks and Rewards

Our Italian friend Columbus made a plan to sail west to China

Portugal wasn’t funding…

The King thought Columbus underestimated the length of the voyage [est. 3,000 nau. miles was 10,600]

They funded Vasco de Gama and others instead

Spain was interested = hired Columbus

King and Queen provided leadership and

support for overseas exploration

The voyage took Columbus to the W Indies

Columbus returned three times—no gold or spices

The “new” continent was named for Amerigo Vespucci

Pope Alexander IV arranged for the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Prevented war over “Asia”

Divided the “new world” between Portugal and Spain

The Conquistadores (Spainsh)

These “adventurers” certainly left their mark on the Americas

They desired instant wealth (not permanent settlements)

Bernal Diaz—the Caribbean Islands

Hernan Cortes “Cortez the Killer” - Cuba, Mexico

He apparently looked like a god (or at least an agent)

The guns and horses were also quite impressive

Montezuma’s indecision cost him dearly…

Spain and the conquistadors gained great wealth-precious metals

From Plunder to Settlement

Conquistadores were awarded encomiendas

Main goal—to re-establish royal authority

Dominicans and Franciscans were also sent to protect and convert

Bartolome de las Casas defended Indian rights-Historia de las Indias-some reforms as a result

A mixing of cultures and peoples occurred

Catholicism and native traditions combined

La Virgen de Guadalupe-symbol of Mexican nationalism

Many single men came from Spain…

Mestizos=Spanish + Indian

Mulattos=Spanish + black

Other terms: peninsulares=pure blood Spanish from Spain

Criollos=Spanish heritage but born in the New World

A caste system helped keep folks in their places

Spain could not rule these vast land claims

- The area was too large and too distant

- The treasure bankrupted the economy due to inflation

Spain became dependent on “American” wealth

THE FRENCH CLAIM CANADA [see map]

Jacques Cartier looked for a NW passage through the Americas (1534)

Navigated through the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Left in 1542)

Samuel de Champlain returned to settle the region in 1542

French explorers hoped for three Gs also

Rivers and Great Lakes helped establish a profitable trading network

All exports and imports had to go through Quebec

Pere Jacques Marquette traveled down the Mississippi

Robert de LaSalle followed the river through the Gulf of Mexico

Louisiana was then established

New Orleans was the most important port city on the Gulf

Priests (Jesuits and Recollects) had some success at conversion

Small population and harsh weather hampered France’s imperial dreams

*French viewed the natives as necessary economic partners

*French crown remained indifferent to Canadian affairs

THE ENGLISH ENTER THE COMPETITION

John Cabot and his son Sebastian sailed for England and explored the Hudson Bay while looking for a NW passage

*England behind in exploration a. Henry VIII no standing army, small navy

b. international diplomacy-English merchants enjoyed

limited rights to trade in Spain’s Am. colonies

Birth of English Protestantism

Yes, the Reformation.

Henry VIII (Tudor) broke with the Catholic Church over some great matter of theology

Cardinal Thomas Wol$ey did his part to sway the people

[flaunted his wealth-symbol of spiritual corruption] = led to anticlericalism

Pope Clement VII refused the king’s request for an Annulment - this got Henry angry

The King severed ties with the Church, assumed property & leadership of the new Church of England (1534)

Henry and many others continued as observant Catholics

*Land owned by Cath. Church passed into private hands-gave people a vested interest in Protestantism

Mary I (the first) attempted to return England to the Church

Dissenters were martyred (recorded by John Foxe)

Book of Martyrs

Mary died, Protestants returned – now Marian exiles exposed to Calvinism become leaders of the Elizabethan church

Elizabeth I established English Protestantism

*Max Weber-German sociologist-argues Protestant ethic led to diligence, large profits thus economic impact

Militant Protestantism

The Reformation proper begins in Germany 1517 = Martin Luther

God spoke to ordinary men through the Bible

Indulgences and rituals did not gain one salvation

Salvation was through faith alone

John Calvin (Swiss) stressed God’s omnipotence & the idea of “the elect”

“The elect” would exhibit proper holy behavior [predestination]

Not knowing whether or not you were saved caused a bit of tension

French Huguenots and Scottish Presbyterians shared these beliefs

Those in England who shared these beliefs were known as “Puritans”

Woman in Power

The Pope referred to her as a “woman of illegitimate birth”

Elizabeth pursued moderate change, preserved old rituals

Radical change and persecution seemed impractical to her

Pope Pius V excommunicated her

Spain vowed to restore England to the Church and overthrow theTudors

Religion, War and Nationalism

English Protestantism became an accepted part of the national identity

English “Sea Dogs” seized Spanish treasure for the Virgin Queen

Philip II constructed the Spanish Armada to counteract the arrogant Brits

The small, maneuverable British fleet defeated the Armada

IRISH BACKGROUND FOR AMERICAN SETTLEMENT

English settlers inhabited N Ireland in hopes of civilizing the inhabitants

The “natives” were Gaelic-speaking Catholics who did not take well to

rule by British Protestants

This conflict will continue…William Wallace anyone?

English Conquest of Ireland

The English ridiculed Irish pastoral farming, customs, superstitions, etc

The English began to structure Irish society “as it ought to be”

English Brutality

Irish resistance to English rule led to violence and brutality

Sir Humphrey Gilbert beheaded captors

* Conquest in Ireland led to conquest in the Americas-here the English first learned to subdue a foreign population.

• • After Irish Catholic

rebellion and civil war, Oliver Cromwell, on behalf of the English Commonwealth, re-conquered Ireland during the time from 1649 to 1651. Under Cromwell's government, landownership in Ireland was transferred overwhelmingly to Protestant colonists.

AN UNPROMISING BEGINNING

Roanoke Mystery

Elizabeth I granted the land to Sir Walter Raleigh but didn’t help w/ $ -

Sir Walter Raleigh founded Roanoke in 1584-difficult to reach on

NC Outer Banks [see map]

When Sir Francis Drake returned from a Caribbean voyage and visited

Roanoke colonists all went home

1587-Ralegh launched a second colony

John White was left in charge – The settlers landed on Roanoke Island on July 22 1587. On August 18, White's daughter (Eleanor) delivered the first English child born in the Americas: Virginia Dare.

Spanish Armada severed as communication

-all Eng. vessels in military service so no ship arrived.

When Raleigh returned, the colony was gone

Croaton? Ask Stephen King

*Failure of Roanoke colony may have been a blessing in disguise

Spanish would be aware of English intrusion and send out an expedition

or build forts on entire coast and it was likely the English would not return

Dreams of Possession

Richard Hakluyt the Younger published The Principall Navigations, Voyages, and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589)

He told readers they would reap without sowing, ignored toil and suffering

Hakluyt’s central point-England needed American colonies – they were essential to the nation’s prosperity and independence

*His writings greatly encouraged colonization-without him the dream of American colonization might have died in England.