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Unit 2: Research Methods: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science. Why is Research so Important?. Unit 2: Research Methods. Hindsight Bias. Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Unit 2: Research Methods: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
WHY IS RESEARCH SO IMPORTANT?
Unit 2: Research Methods
Hindsight Bias Tendency to believe,
after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.“I knew it all along”“Hindsight is 20/20”
OverconfidenceThink we know
more than we do!Together with
hindsight bias, can lead to overestimate our intuition
The Scientific Attitude Three main components
Curious eagernessSkeptically scrutinize competing ideasOpen-minded humility before nature
Critical Thinking Critical Thinking: Thinking that does not
blindly accept arguments & conclusions. “Smart thinking”Four elements:
Examines assumptionsDiscerns hidden valuesEvaluates evidenceAssesses conclusions
WHY IS RESEARCH SO IMPORTANT?
Unit 2: Research Methods
The Scientific Theory Theory = A mere “hunch” Scientific theory = Observations Scientific theory = explains through an
integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
The Scientific Method Evaluates competing ideas with careful
observations & rigorous analysis to describe and explain human nature.
Observations Problem Hypothesis Experiment Data Conclusion Replication
Observations Information about the problem.
Problem Question based upon
observations.
Hypothesis A statement of relationship
between or among variable. A suggested solution to the
problem.
If…Then…
Experiment
A procedure to test the hypothesis.
Control – experiment without the variable
Variable – factor being tested
Data
Results of the experiment.
Conclusion
The answer to the hypothesis.
Replicate In order to verify the results,
experiments must be retested.Operational definitions
The Scientific Method
A good theory is useful if it:Effectively organizes a range of
self-reports and observationsImplies clear predictions that
anyone can use to check the theory
The Scientific Method1) Identify a Problem2) State Observations about the problem3) Form a Hypothesis about the problem (if…
then…)4) Design an Experiment to test the
hypothesis5) Collect Data6) Form a Conclusion7) Replicate
Experimental Projects @ WHS Observations Problem Hypothesis Correlational study?
Positive or Negative? Specific Experiment
All steps included Operational
definitions Data Collected Conclusion Replicate
What is your population? How did you find
sample? Control Group Experimental Group Independent Variable Dependent Variable Confounding Variables Blind/Double Blind? Placebo Any Bias?
OBSERVATION AND BIAS
Module 2: Research Strategies
Observation
Gathering of information by simply watching subjects
Can lead to bias
Bias
A factor unfairly increases a researcher reaching a particular conclusion
Researcher Bias
Notice evidence which supports one point of view or hypothesis.
Objectivity tends to reduce bias.
Participant Bias
Subjects respond in ways they believe the researcher wants them to behave
Know they are being observed Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic Observation
Observing & recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
Unaware they are being watched
CASE STUDIES
Module 2: Research Strategies
Case Study Observation technique in which one
person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Very open to bias… Why?
CORRELATION
Module 2: Research Strategies
Correlational Study Determines the degree
to which two variables are related to one another…
Correlation Coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).
Positive Correlation Value of 1 variable increases (or decreases)
so does the value of the other variable.
Negative Correlation Value of 1 variable increases, the value
of the other variable decreases.
Zero Correlation There is no relationship
whatsoever between the two variables.
Correlational Study
Don’t imply a cause and effect relationship Doesn’t determine why 2 variables are
related-- Helpful in making predictions.
SURVEYS
Module 2: Research Strategies
Survey Method Relies on self-reports: questionnaires,
interviews, and surveys. Efficient and inexpensive
Population The total group being studied from which
a sample is drawn.
Random Sample Represents a population fairly:
Equal chance of being included. If it is not random it is said to
be biased.
Experimental Projects @ WHS Observations Problem Hypothesis Correlational study?
Positive or Negative? Specific Experiment
All steps included Operational
definitions Data Collected Conclusion Replicate
What is your population? How did you find
sample? Control Group Experimental Group Independent Variable Dependent Variable Confounding Variables Blind/Double Blind? Placebo Any Bias?
EXPERIMENTS: INDEPENDENT
AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Module 2: Research Strategies
Independent Variable vs.
Causes something to happen
Manipulated by the experimenter
Should change the dependent variable
Effected by independent variable
Outcome of experiment
Variable being measured
Dependent Variable
Control Group
Not exposed to the independent variable Results are compared to those of the
experimental group
Blind procedure Participants are ignorant (blind) to the
expected outcome of the experiment Single blind procedure Double blind procedure?
Placebo Non-active substance or condition instead
of a drug or active agent Given to the control group
Placebo Effect Video Time… http://
player.discoveryeducation.com/index.cfm?guidAssetId=5F290E71-AB90-4842-A4D7-FB0DB55A682C&blnFromSearch=1&productcode=US
Experimental Projects @ WHS Observations Problem Hypothesis Correlational study?
Positive or Negative? Specific Experiment
All steps included Operational
definitions Data Collected Conclusion Replicate
What is your population? How did you find
sample? Control Group Experimental Group Independent Variable Dependent Variable Confounding Variables Blind/Double Blind? Placebo Any Bias?
LONGITUDINAL AND
CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
Module 2: Research Strategies
Longitudinal Study
Study same group of individuals many years Very expensive and difficult to conduct
Cross-Sectional Study
Simultaneously study subjects from different age groups
Cheaper, easier Differences may be due
to factors other than development
Longitudinal/Cross Sectional Study
ETHICS:HUMAN RESEARCH
(4 BASIC PRINCIPLES)
Module 2: Research Strategies
1. Informed Consent General nature of the research Any potential risks Refuse participation or withdraw
2. Right to be Protected from Harm/Discomfort Conducted under certain circumstances Only with the informed consent
3. Right of Confidentiality
Individual data about participants should never be discussed or released.
4. Right to Debriefing Receive complete explanation of research
at end of the study. Important if research involves deception.
ETHICS:ANIMAL RESEARCH
Module 2: Research Strategies
Reasons for Animal Research Interest in animal
behavior Data may apply to
humans Easier due to the
shorter life span Easier to control Not ethical to
perform on humans
• http://videos.howstuffworks.com/hsw/23818-the-brain-and-spinal-cord-an-experiment-video.htm
Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life
Describing DataMeasures of Central Tendency
Central Tendency = a single score that represents a whole set of scores.
Describing DataMeasures of Central Tendency
Mean = the average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the # of scores.
Describing DataMeasures of Central Tendency
Median = the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.
Describing DataMeasures of Central Tendency
Mode = the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Describing DataMeasures of Variability
Range = the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution.
Standard Deviation= a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
Describing DataMeasures of Variability
Normal Curve (bell shaped)
= a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scored fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
Making InferencesWhen Is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Representative samples are better than biased samples
Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable
More cases are better than fewer
Making InferencesWhen Is a Difference Significant?
Statistical significanceThe averages are reliableThe differences between averages
is relatively largeDoes imply the importance of the
results
THE END
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Research Methods
Play “Aliens Have Landed” (11:25) Segment #3 from Scientific American Frontiers: Video Collection for Introductory Psychology (2nd edition).
Follow with a discussion on the unbiased scientific research.
Scientific Method
Technique using tools such as observation, experimentation, and statistical analysis to learn about the world
Psychology is thereby considered a science. An application of critical thinking through
observation and statistical analysis
Research and Research Methodology
• Method of asking questions then drawing logical supported conclusions
• Researchers need to be able to determine if conclusions are reasonable or not (critical thinking).
Common Sense
• Conclusions based solely on personal experience and sensible logic
• Can lead to incorrect conclusions• The scientific method can help you
better evaluate your hunches
Common Sense
What are the Odds of Each?
What are the Odds of Each?
1 in 2,598,960
What are the Odds of Each?
1 in 2,598,960 1 in 2,598,960
How to Read a Correlation