Unit 3 Psychology - TSFX – The School for Excellence ...€¦ · The School For Excellence 2017 Succeeding in the VCE – Unit 3 Psychology Page 2 UNIT 3: HOW DOES EXPERIENCE AFFECT

Unit 3 Psychology

succeeding in the vce, 2017

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Some information and diagrams referred to in these notes comes from:

Edwards, Marangio, Moore, Blaher-Lucas, Ganino-Day (2016) Oxford Psychology: VCE Units 3 & 4 3rd Edition Oxford University Press. Grivas, J., Down, R., Letch, N. and Carter, L. (2010). Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 (4th ed.) Macmillan Education: Melbourne. Van Iersel, Blunden, Bradley, Park, Yancos, Young (2016) Nelson Psychology: VCE Units 3 & 4 3rd Edition. Thomson Nelson: Melbourne. Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, 2017-2021, Victorian Certificate of Education Study Design, Victoria.

The School For Excellence 2017 Succeeding in the VCE – Unit 3 Psychology Page 2

UNIT 3: HOW DOES EXPERIENCE AFFECT BEHAVIOUR AND MENTAL PROCESSES?

On completion of this unit, students should be able to examine the functioning of the nervous system to examine the contribution that classical and contemporary research has made to the understanding of the structure and function of the nervous system, and to the understanding of biological, psychological and social factors that influence learning and memory. Use these tables as checklists when revising. Tick off each dot point when you are satisfied that you have thoroughly covered all of the information associated with that topic.

AREA OF STUDY 1: HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ENABLE

PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING? In this area of study, the student should be able to explain how the structure and function of the human nervous system enables a person to interact with the external world and analyse the different ways in which stress can affect nervous system functioning.

Key Knowledge Includes:

The roles of different divisions of the nervous system (central and peripheral nervous systems and their associated sub-divisions) in responding to, and integrating and coordinating with, sensory stimuli received by the body

The distinction between conscious and unconscious responses by the nervous system to sensory stimuli, including the role of the spinal reflex

The role of the neuron (dendrites, axon, myelin and axon terminals) as the primary cell involved in the reception and transmission of information across the synapse (excluding details related to signal transduction)

The role of neurotransmitters in the transmission of neural information between neurons (lock-and-key process) to produce excitatory effects (as with glutamate) or inhibitory effects (as with gamma amino butyric acid [GABA])

The effects of chronic changes to the functioning of the nervous system due to interference to neurotransmitter function, illustrated by the role of GABA in Parkinson’s disease.

Sources of stress (eustress and distress) including daily pressures, life events, acculturative stress, major stress and catastrophes that disrupt whole communities

Models of stress as a biological process, with reference to Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome of alarm reaction (shock/counter shock), resistance and exhaustion, including the ‘fight-flight-freeze’ response and the role of cortisol

Models of stress as a psychological process, with reference to Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (stages of primary and secondary appraisal)

Context-specific effectiveness, coping flexibility and use of particular strategies (exercise and approach and avoidance strategies) for coping with stress.


AREA OF STUDY 2: HOW DO PEOPLE LEARN AND REMEMBER?

In this area of study, students study the neural basis of memory and learning and examine factors that influence the learning of new behaviours and the storage and retention of information in memory. They consider the influence of biological, psychological and social factors on the fallibility of memory.

Key Knowledge Includes:

Neural basis of learning and memory Neural plasticity and changes to connections between neurons (including long-term potentiation and long-term depression) as the fundamental mechanisms of memory formation that leads to learning

The role of neurotransmitters and neurohormones in the neural basis of memory and learning (including the role of glutamate in synaptic plasticity and the role of adrenaline in the consolidation of emotionally arousing experiences).

Models to explain learning classical conditioning as a three-phase process (before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning) that results in the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response, including stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination, extinction and spontaneous recovery.

Operant conditioning as a three-phase model (antecedent, behaviour, consequence) involving reinforcers (positive and negative) and punishment (including response cost) that can be used to change voluntary behaviours, including stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and spontaneous recovery (excluding schedules of reinforcement)

Observational learning as a method of social learning, particularly in children, involving attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement

The ‘Little Albert’ experiment as illustrating how classical conditioning can be used to condition an emotional response, including ethical implications of the experiment.

Process of memory The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson-Shriffin) with reference to the function, capacity and duration of sensory short-term and long-term memory

Interactions between specific regions of the brain (cerebral cortex, hippocampus, amygdala and cerebellum) in the storage of long-term memories, including implicit and explicit memories.

Reliability of memory Methods to retrieve information from memory or demonstrate the existence of information in memory, including recall, recognition, relearning and reconstruction

The effects of brain trauma on areas of the brain associated with memory and neurodegenerative diseases, including brain surgery, anterograde amnesia and Alzheimer’s disease

The factors influencing a person’s ability and inability to remember information, including context and state dependent cues, maintenance and elaborative rehearsal and serial position effect


EXTRA NOTES ON THE AREAS OF STUDY FOR UNIT 3 Area of Study 1: How does the nervous system enable psychological functioning?

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Area of Study 2: How do people learn and remember?

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KEY SKILLS A set of key skills considered essential to Psychology apply across Units 1 to 4. A number of these key skills are linked to the research methodologies listed for each unit. These skills include the ability to:

Key Skills Include:

Develop aims and questions, formulate hypotheses and make predictions:

Determine aims, research hypotheses, questions and predictions that can be tested

Identify and operationalise independent and dependent variables

Plan and undertake investigations:

Determine appropriate type of investigation: experiments (including use of control and experimental groups); case studies; observational studies; self-reports; questionnaires; interviews; rating scales; access secondary data, including data sourced through the internet that would otherwise be difficult to source as raw or primary data through fieldwork, a laboratory or a classroom

Use an appropriate experimental research design including independent groups, matched participants, repeated measures and cross-sectional studies

Select and use equipment, materials and procedures appropriate to the investigation

Minimise confounding and extraneous variables by considering type of sampling procedures, type of experiment, counterbalancing, single and double blind procedures, placebos, and standardised instructions and procedures

Select appropriate sampling procedures for selection and allocation of participants including random sampling, stratified sampling, convenience sampling and random allocation of participants to groups

Comply with safety and ethical guidelines:

Understand the role of ethics committees in approving research

Apply ethical principles when undertaking and reporting investigations, including consideration of the role of the experimenter, protection and security of participants’ information, confidentiality, voluntary participation, withdrawal rights, informed consent procedures, use of deception in research, debriefing and use of animals in research

Apply relevant occupational health and safety guidelines while undertaking practical investigations

Conduct investigations to collect and record data:

Work independently and collaboratively as appropriate and within identified research constraints

Systematically generate, collect, record and summarise both qualitative and quantitative data


Analyse and evaluate data, methods and scientific models:

Process quantitative data using appropriate mathematical relationships and units

Organise, present and interpret data using tables, bar charts, line graphs, percentages, calculations of mean as a measure of central tendency and understanding of standard deviation as a measure of variation around the mean

Recognise the difference between statistics that describe a specific sample and the use of statistics to make inferences about the population from which the data were drawn

Use basic principles of reliability and validity in evaluating research investigations undertaken

Analyse and evaluate data, methods and scientific models (continued):

Explain the merit of replicating procedures and the effects of sample sizes in obtaining reliable data

Evaluate investigative procedures and possible sources of bias, and suggest improvements, with reference to identification of potential extraneous and confounding variables including individual participant differences, non-standardised instructions and procedures, order effects, experimenter effect and placebo effects

Explain how models are used to organise and understand observed phenomena and concepts related to psychology, identifying limitations of the models

Distinguish between scientific and non-scientific ideas

Draw evidence-based conclusions

Determine to what extent evidence from an investigation supports the purpose of the investigation, and make recommendations, as appropriate, for modifying or extending the investigation

Draw conclusions consistent with evidence and relevant to the question under investigation

Identify, describe and explain the limitations of conclusions, including identification of further evidence required

Critically evaluate various types of information related to psychology from journal articles, mass media and opinions presented in the public domain

Discuss the implications of research findings and proposals

Communicate and explain scientific ideas

Use appropriate psychological terminology, representations and conventions for reporting research, including standard abbreviations, graphing conventions and the components of a scientific report with reference to inclusion of an abstract, an introduction and sections for method, results and discussion

Discuss relevant psychological information, ideas, concepts, theories and models and the connections between them

Identify and explain formal psychological terminology about investigations and concepts

Use clear, coherent and concise expression

Acknowledge sources of information and use standard scientific referencing conventions


AREA OF STUDY 1: HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ENABLE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING?

KEY KNOWLEDGE: NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTIONING The human nervous system is divided up into two major components: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).


STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The human nervous system can be organised into two major divisions: Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

CNS

Comprised of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord connects the brain and the

PNS.

PNS

Includes all parts of the nervous system that lie outside the brain and spinal cord.

Links the CNS to all other parts of the body

Subdivided into the:

Somatic NS: Specialises in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs. Consists of sensory neurons (carry information from receptors to the CNS) and motor neurons (carry information from CNS to muscles).

Autonomic NS: Specialises in connecting the CNS to the body’s internal muscles, organs and glands. Does not require conscious control (automatic). Functions continuously. Further subdivided into the:

Sympathetic NS: Activates internal muscles, organs and glands to prepare the body for activity (fight or flight response)

Parasympathetic NS: Counteracts the activity initiated by the sympathetic NS to return the body to a state of calm (homeostasis)


CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) Consists of the brain and spinal cord. Spinal cord has the thickness similar to that of your finger. The spinal cord runs down

the middle of your back and is protected by the bony vertebrae that you can feel as bumps/lumps running down your back. Go ahead and feel your vertebrae – bumpy, isn’t it! But it serves a very important function for the nervous system and that is to protect the spinal cord (also important as part of the skeletal system).

http://health.allrefer.com/health/spinal-cord-trauma-vertebrae.html


The spinal cord consists of millions of nerve fibres whose job it is to transmit neural information between the brain and the rest of the body via the peripheral nervous system. The nerves higher up in the spinal cord control the functions in the upper areas of the body such as our breathing and arms, whereas those nerves exiting the spinal cord lower down control the trunk, legs and internal organs such as the bladder and bowel. The spinal cord consists of two main components. These are: White matter – tracts of bundles of axons running the full length of the spinal cord.

The axons in the spinal cord are covered in a myelin which forms a white, protective sheath around the axon. The myelin helps to ensure the speedy transmission of the neural message along the axon.

Grey matter – located mainly near the centre of the spinal cord are the cell bodies with

their axons and dendrites which are not covered by a myelin sheath. Think about a piece of electrical cable, maybe that which connects your computer or TV to the power point in the wall. The outer plastic covering is like the myelin sheath covering the axon and encased in this plastic covering are the wires (like the axon) along which the electricity will flow to power your computer or TV. The spinal cord has two main functions in connecting the brain to the other areas of the body. These are that it: 1. Passes sensory neural information from the sensory receptor organs and internal

organs of the body, via sensory neurons, from the peripheral nervous system to the brain.

2. Passes motor neural information from the brain to the peripheral nervous system

which activates the motor neurons bringing about movement of organs, glands and skeletal muscles.

(Anatomedia: General Principles and Applications)


QUESTION 1 The two main divisions of the human nervous system are the: A Brain and spinal cord B Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system C Autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system D Peripheral nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

QUESTION 2 What is the role of the spinal cord in the human nervous system?

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BRAIN

The human brain weighs approximately 1.5 kg and has the consistency of well-set jelly. If you were to squeeze the brain it would turn to mush! Covering the brain is a membrane which is a little like cling-wrap. For protection the brain is surrounded by a gap filled with fluid that acts to protect the brain from colliding with the skull when the head suffers a blow or rapid movement back-and-forth or side-to-side. The brain has a ‘wriggly’ appearance and would appear to be pinkish grey in colour when it is ‘alive’.

Cerebellum

Midbrain

Spinal cord

Cerebral cortex


STRUCTURE OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX The cerebral cortex is the outer convoluted (approximately 0.25 square meters of

cortex) covering of the cerebrum. It is the outermost layer of grey matter of the cerebral hemispheres. (Grey matter – in this part of the brain there are many cell bodies, dendrites and connecting axons which give the cerebral cortex a greyish colour.) The convolutions are important as they increase the surface area of the brain. The cerebral cortex is only approximately 3-4 mm thick, but contains most of the brain’s neurons. It is believed to contain approximately three quarters of all the neurons in the brain!

The cerebral cortex is involved in mental processes such as language, memory, thinking and planning, problem-solving, bodily movements and learning. In fact, any activity you choose to do will need your cerebral cortex!

There are three main areas in the cerebral cortex: sensory areas, motor areas and

association areas. Whilst the sensory and motor areas of the cortex have specific functions, the largest areas (association areas) do not have such specific functions but are involved in integrating information from all over the cortex and from other structures within the brain to allow us to think and respond to our environment.

The size and complexity of the human cerebral cortex is what distinguishes our brains,

capable of speech and higher levels of thinking, from those of animals. It is our larger cerebral cortex that allows us as humans to think, plan, problem-solve, and make decisions.

The cerebrum has two halves, known as the cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere is specialised in specific cognitive and behavioural functions. The left hemisphere dominates verbal and analytical functions; the right hemisphere dominates non-verbal functions such as spatial abilities. The hemispheres do not work in isolation as most processes require both hemispheres to interact and are connected by the corpus callosum.

The corpus callosum is a very large band of nerve fibres, containing over 200 million

axons, that is responsible for communicating information between the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum. The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres of the brain to behave in an interdependent manner when we are undertaking any activity – from thinking, to eating, to making decisions, in fact in just about everything.


The cerebral cortex can be divided into four cortical lobes, each with differing primary functions. The brain is the control centre for all human behaviour. Below is a diagram of the main lobes/structures of the brain. Familiarise yourself with these areas (covered in Unit 1 Psychology).

THE CEREBRAL CORTEX This is the outer layer of the forebrain which contains ¾ of the brain’s neurons. It is folded to increase cortical surface area. The cerebral cortex is responsible for voluntary movements, language, memory, learning, thinking and solving complex problems. The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres (left and right) which each contain four lobes. The left and right hemispheres are connected by a bundle of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum.

Review brain functions from Unit 1 in table over page.


Lobe Structures Function

FRONTAL LOBE Largest of the four lobes. Located in the upper forward half of each hemisphere. Responsible for: Higher mental

functioning: logical thinking, planning and reasoning

Receiving and co-ordinating messages from other lobes

Motor control: planning, initiating and performing voluntary movement

The structure only found in the left frontal lobe is

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(located at the back of the frontal lobe in both

hemispheres).

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(all the rest of the lobe other than the PMC and Broca’s area in the LH).

Responsible for the production of articulate speech (clear and fluent). Involved with coordinating movements of the muscles required for clear and fluent speech. If damaged it results in Broca’s aphasia (patients can understand language but cannot speak in a clear and fluent manner). Controls voluntary bodily movements through control of skeletal muscles. Different areas along the cortex control different parts of the body. Parts of the body with more ‘precise’ movement take up more space. Responsible for the integration of sensory, motor and other neural information between the lobes. Responsible for higher mental abilities such as reasoning, planning and problem-solving. Also for personality and displaying emotion.


PARIETAL LOBE Found at the top of

head – behind the frontal lobe and above the temporal lobe.

Registers sensory information (touch, pressure, pain, temp., bodily movements).

Right parietal lobe plays a key role in spatial orientation and perceiving 3D shapes and designs.

Left parietal lobe plays a role in the ability to point to your own body parts and knowing where something is in a room. It is also involved in reading, writing and arithmetic involving mental manipulation.

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(located at the front of the parietal lobe in both

hemispheres, directly behind the PMC of the

frontal lobe)

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(all the rest of the lobe other than the PSC)

Receives and processes messages from the sensory receptors in the skin (touch and temperature. Parts of the body with greater sensitivity and sensation take up more space. Processes messages about muscle movement and position. Receives and combine neural information from within the lobe and structures and areas of the brain. Attention and spatial reasoning. Senses the position of body in space by integrating neural information about the body’s limb positions and movements with information about vision transmitted from the Primary Visual Cortex in the occipital lobe and sound from the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe.


TEMPORAL LOBE Side of the brain above ears

behind temple.

Primarily associated with auditory perception, language comprehension and facial recognition.

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(left hemisphere only)

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(upper part of temporal

lobe – found in both hemispheres)

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(all the rest of the lobe other than the Primary

auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area in the left

hemisphere)

Responsible for interpreting the meaning of language. Involved in interpreting sounds, especially of human speech and giving these sounds meaning. Also important for locating words from memory. If damages, results in Wernicke’s aphasia will result an inability to produce meaningful sentences. Involved in processing auditory information. Front responds to sounds with low frequency and back to sounds with high frequency. Responsible for remembering and perceiving features of our environment. Plays an important role for the processing of memory and is directly connected to the hippocampus (structure involved in the formation of long-term memories).


OCCIPITAL LOBE Positioned at the base of the

cerebral cortex.

Lobe where visual information is received and processed.

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(all the rest of the lobe other than the PSC)

Receives and processes visual information that is transmitted by the eyes, along the optic nerve via the optic chiasm to the brain.

Information from left visual field is processed in right hemisphere and information from right visual field is processed in left hemisphere.

Integrates and organises visual information with information from other areas of the cerebral cortex and sends neural information to other areas of brain for interpretation.

QUESTION 3 The outer layer of the human brain consisting of neural tissue is the: A Primary visual cortex B The cerebral cortex C The association cortex D The corpus callosum QUESTION 4 The part of the human brain that contains almost three-quarters of the brain’s neurons, and that is responsible for reasoning, planning and imagining is the: A Frontal lobe B Parietal lobe C Cerebral cortex D Cerebral hemisphere


QUESTION 5 Which statement relating to the cerebral cortex is incorrect? A The cerebral cortex is approximately 3 mm thick. B The wrinkled nature of the cerebral cortex decreases its surface area. C The cerebral cortex covers most of the forebrain. D The cerebral cortex is divided into 4 lobes. QUESTION 6 (REVIEW FROM UNIT 1) Visual information is first transmitted to the __________________ for processing. A Primary visual cortex B Association areas C Primary auditory cortex D Secondary visual cortex QUESTION 7 (REVIEW FROM UNIT 1) For most people, a function that is performed mainly by the right hemisphere is: A Controlling speech B Receiving and processing sensations from the right side of the body C Detecting emotions. D Evaluating problems. QUESTION 8 (REVIEW FROM UNIT 1) Lee is reading his psychology text book. Which part of the brain plays the most crucial role in helping him comprehend what is written? A Broca’s area B Wernicke’s area C Occipital lobe D Parietal lobe QUESTION 9 (REVIEW FROM UNIT 1) Planning, reasoning and logical thinking are major functions of the __________ lobe. A Temporal B Occipital C Parietal D Frontal


THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

The human nervous system is organised into different divisions based on the main functions carried out. These two divisions are the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The Human Nervous System

Central Nervous System transmits

messages to the body via the PNS and receives

them from PNS.

Peripheral Nervous System carries messages

to and from the CNS.

Spinal Cord connects brain

and the peripheral nervous system.

Brain organises, integrates,

initiates, and interprets

neural messages.

Autonomic Nervous

System carries messages from CNS to modify

or change activity in

muscles, organs and glands in

PNS

Somatic Nervous System carries

sensory messages from PNS to CNS,

and controls voluntary

movement of skeletal muscles via

messages sent from CNS to PNS.

Sympathetic Nervous System

activates internal muscles, organs

and glands enabling body to

deal with strenuous

activity or threat.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

maintains a balanced internal body state, and returns body to calm state after activation of the

sympathetic nervous system.

Cerebral Cortex

Sympathetic Nervous System activates internal muscles, organs

and glands enabling body to deal with

strenuous activity or threat.


In the space mark in, label and distinguish between the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (the system of all other nerves in the human body).


THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM: THE NEURON The human nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and all of the other nerves which connect to our muscles and organs. It functions very much like a huge communication centre with networks relaying information to and from the command centre (the brain). The nervous system allows us to interact with and understand the external world and the internal world of our bodies. It transmits information to the brain from all of our senses to allow the brain to interpret the incoming information and respond. The brain responds to this incoming sensory information by transmitting messages initiating action or movement as required in nerves in different areas of our bodies. The human nervous system is made up of billions of neurons each linking with other neurons at trillions of connection points called synapses. These connections between neurons are referred to as neural pathways. Neural pathways allow the transmission of neural information between neurons and throughout the body and brain. A neuron is simply a single nerve cell. Every activity you engage in relies on neurons which are organised in precise networks communicating with each other and the brain. Even the simple act of picking up your pen to write your name involves messages being transmitted from the brain via the spinal cord to the peripheral nervous system to activate the muscles in your arm and hand to pick up the pen. Of course there is much more involved in this simple action, and the neurons in many different areas of the brain are called into action to allow you to effectively pick up the pen and write your name.

Can you list all the different areas of brain activity that you think would need to be activated to allow you to write your name?

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TYPES OF NEURONS Nerve impulses are responsible for the way information is transmitted from one neuron to another throughout the nervous system in a rapid manner. Neurons are able to communicate through bodily chemicals called neurotransmitters which are released at connection points between neurons called synapses. When neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap they attach themselves to receptor sites on the dendrites of the next neuron. If there are enough neurotransmitters the pre-synaptic neuron will fire an impulse and the neural message will be transmitted across the gap and be received by the post-synaptic neuron. This same process will be repeated along the neural pathway until the neural impulse reaches its destination. There are three main types of neurons (or nerve cells) found in the human nervous system. These are sensory neurons (also referred to as afferent neurons), motor neurons (also referred to as efferent neurons) and interneurons. Each of these types of neurons exhibit a very similar structure. The diagram below shows a typical neuron structure:


The main parts of the neuron that you need to be aware of the function of are: Dendrites:

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Soma:

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Axon:

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Axon terminals:

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Myelin:

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Synapse:

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QUESTION 10 On the diagram of the neuron label the main parts and indicate the direction of the neural transmission.

Sensory (or afferent) neurons are specialist neurons that detect and

transfer sensory information away from the body’s sense organs in the PNS via the spinal cord to the brain in the CNS for processing.

Interneurons transmit neural information between sensory and motor neurons.

Sensory and motor neurons do not make direct connections with each other. Interneurons are the most numerous neurons and are only found within the CNS.

Motor (or efferent) neurons are specialist neurons which transfer

motor information away from the CNS to the muscles, organs and glands in the PNS to enable bodily movement, activation of internal organs and glandular secretions.

Most textbooks tend to show an image of a motor neuron when asking to label or show direction of the neural impulse. Just like a mobile phone has a SIM card, so does the neural network: Sensory neurons, Interneurons, Motor neurons


These three types of neurons are highly specialised and only perform the specific role outlined above. Motor neurons are specialised to convey messages away from the brain to the body’s skeletal muscles to produce movement. Sensory neurons are specialised to carry messages away from the sensory receptors scattered throughout the body to the brain for processing.

It may help you to recall the difference between sensory and motor neurons and the direction they transmit neural information by remembering:

SAAMEE: Sensory (Afferent nerves) Arrive at CNS for processing.

Motor (Efferent nerves) Exit the CNS to initiate a response.

QUESTION 11 Explain the role of afferent nerves in the human nervous system, compared to efferent nerves.

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QUESTION 12 The neurons that are responsible for transmitting neural information from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system are known as: A Motor or afferent neurons B Sensory or afferent neurons C Motor or efferent neurons D Sensory or efferent neurons QUESTION 13 The correct sequence in which information travels along a neural pathway is: A Dendrite, synapse, neurotransmitter, axon. B Synapse, neurotransmitter, axon, dendrite. C Axon, dendrite, synapse, neurotransmitter. D Dendrite, axon, synapse, neurotransmitter. QUESTION 14 Explain the role of the axon terminals in the process of transmission of a neural message.

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QUESTION 15 In the space below, draw and label the key structures of a neuron, showing the direction of the neural impulse. QUESTION 16 Go to https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/reacttime.html and conduct reaction time experiment.


THE SYNAPSE

Additional notes: _________________________________________________________________________

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The message that is passed along the neuron is electrical, but neurons don’t actually touch each other. There is a small gap between them called a synapse. When the signal travels across this gap, it is sent as a chemical signal using neurotransmitters.


Neurotransmitters are… Chemicals that are released from a synaptic vesicle into the synapse by neurons.

They affect the transfer of an impulse to another nerve or muscle.

These neurotransmitters are “taken back up” into the terminal buttons of neurons

through the process of reuptake. Synapse: The gap between the end of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron.

SYNAPSE BETWEEN 2 NEURONS

Pre-synaptic neuron Post-synaptic neuron


What you need to label: 1. Direction of impulse

2. Axon terminal

3. Synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter

4. Synaptic gap (synapse)

5. Dendrite

6. Receptor site


PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) The peripheral nervous system is comprised of all neurons outside the central nervous system and includes almost all nerves in the body with the exception of the spinal cord and the cranial nerves of the skull (these enter the brain directly, not via the spinal cord). The peripheral nervous system provides the pathway for two-way communication between the brain and spinal cord and all other glands, organs and parts of the body. The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous systems work together. It is the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that carries the sensory neural information from the various areas of the body to the central nervous system (CNS), and the CNS that transmits and carries via the spinal cord, motor information to the rest of the body. Think of one activity you have performed today and in the space below describe the activity of the CNS and the PNS required to complete the activity.

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The peripheral nervous system is divided into two divisions with different functions: 1. Somatic nervous system – transports messages between the sense organs (sensory

receptors) and the spinal cord via connections with the skeletal muscles, and controls voluntary body movements. (NB: somatic nervous system DOES NOT control any of the non-skeletal muscles such as heart, stomach, lungs, etc.) Sensory function – afferent neurons transmit information from sensory receptors

located around the body to the brain.

Motor function – efferent neurons transmit information from the motor cortex away from the CNS to enable the movement of the skeletal muscles (muscles attached to the skeleton). Note that during REM sleep there appears to be a blockage which stops these messages from the motor cortex reaching the somatic nervous system and the skeletal muscles become almost totally inactive.


2. Autonomic nervous system (autonomic means involuntary) – network of neurons connecting the CNS to internal muscles and organs. Functions continuously. Controls all the automatic functions such as breathing, digestion, blood flow, arousal levels and all other automatic functions. Controls non-skeletal muscles controlling the activity of vital internal organs and glands. Controls the fight/flight response. Most autonomic functions occur without any conscious control, but some can be easily controlled and some others can be controlled with training. E.g. blinking can be easily controlled whilst with training in yoga or meditation can provide control of some of these functions. Biofeedback (where the individual receives feedback about a particular internal bodily function such as heart rate, respiration etc.) can be used to control some functions (most often used for reducing symptoms of stress). Assists people to learn to control their physiological responses. Autonomic nervous system has two branches:

The sympathetic nervous system is the division of the autonomic nervous

system that regulates the activity of internal muscles, organs and glands so the body is energised and prepared for action in times of high arousal. Under stressful or threatening situations, the sympathetic nervous system functions as a survival mechanism. It activates the adrenal glands to secrete the hormones adrenalin and noradrenalin that act on specific cells to increase blood pressure, respiration rate and heart rate to maximise the amount of oxygen supplied to the muscles that need to work. Sugar and fat are released instantly to supply the energy to the skeletal muscles for rapid movement. Some physiological functions not required in dealing with the immediate threat reduce their activity (e.g. digestion, urine production, immune system function).

The parasympathetic nervous system is the division of the autonomic nervous

system that calms the body after times of vigorous activity or the need for high arousal has passed, and maintains the body in a state of homeostasis (the body’s balanced and healthy state).

Two main functions are: 1. Return the body to a clam state by reversing the direction of the changes to

physiological functions that were activated by the sympathetic nervous system.

2. Minimise energy use and keep the internal systems of the body constantly regulated in a state of homeostasis.

The parasympathetic nervous system is usually dominant in everyday functioning (digestion, elimination of wastes, etc.). The actions of the sympathetic nervous system are instant with the release of the hormones into the bloodstream, but these tend to linger in the blood stream resulting in the actions of the sympathetic nervous system occurring over an extended period of time.


THE ‘FIGHT-FLIGHT-FREEZE’ RESPONSE When the brain perceives an experience as a threat to the organism the sympathetic nervous system is activated and this prepares the body to deal with the stressor. When activated the adrenal glands release hormones adrenalin and noradrenalin. These cause the heart, lungs, sweat glands and gall bladder to increase activity, and the stomach, salivary glands and bladder to decrease activity. This response energises the body in preparation for flight (allowing the organism to flee) or fight, (allowing the organism to confront) the stressor, or the organism may become paralysed in the face of danger, like the stunned ‘deer in the headlights’. This response is known as the ‘fight-flight-freeze’ response. The fight-flight-freeze response is activated via the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, a self-regulating system involving the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal glands. When the perceived threat has passed the parasympathetic nervous system reverses the above activity, and returns the body to a state of homeostasis. QUESTION 17 The primary function of the autonomic nervous system is: A The control of the skeletal muscles. B The regulation of the visceral muscles. C To provide biofeedback to the brain. D To coordinate the activity of the adrenal glands.

QUESTION 18 When experiencing the fight-flight-freeze response the: A Sympathetic nervous system will be activated and will decrease the activities of the

sweat glands, bladder and intestinal system.

B Parasympathetic nervous system will be activated and will decrease the activities of the sweat glands, bladder and intestinal system.

C Sympathetic nervous system will be activated and will increase the activities of the sweat glands, heart and lungs.

D Parasympathetic nervous system will be activated and will increase the activities of the bladder, intestinal system and salivary glands.

QUESTION 19 Our voluntary movements are controlled through: A The autonomic nervous system. B The muscular nervous system. C The sympathetic nervous system. D The somatic nervous system.


QUESTION 20 The central nervous system (CNS) consists of: A The somatic and autonomic nervous systems. B The brain and spinal cord. C The brain and vertebrae. D The brain and somatic nervous system. QUESTION 21 Your heart keeps beating even though you may be unconscious because the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is: A Self-regulating and not dependent on voluntary control by the brain. B Self-regulating and not dependent on involuntary control by the brain. C Mainly controlled by the motor cortex. D Mainly controlled by the cerebral cortex. QUESTION 22 Karina was attending a concert performed by the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra. Describe with reference to the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system how Karina would be able to process this experience.

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QUESTION 23 Identify the major functions of the autonomic nervous system.

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QUESTION 24 Using an example explain the function of the parasympathetic nervous system.

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© The School For Excellence 2017 Succeeding in the VCE – Unit 3 Psychology Page 1

SUCCEEDING IN THE VCE 2017

UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGY

STUDENT SOLUTIONS

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QUESTION 1 Answer is B QUESTION 2

The main role of the spinal cord in the human nervous system is to allow for neural communication between the brain and peripheral nervous system. Sending neural information to the brain for processing (via sensory neurons) and sending neural information from the brain for initiation a response in the PNS (via motor neurons). Another role is the spinal reflex.

QUESTION 3 Answer is B QUESTION 4 Answer is C QUESTION 5 Answer is B QUESTION 6 Answer is A

NB: Question is asking about pain threshold and therefore B is correct as there has been a distortion in Gerard’s perception of pain.

QUESTION 7 Answer is C QUESTION 8 Answer is B QUESTION 9 Answer is D QUESTION 10


QUESTION 11

Afferent nerves are sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from sensory stimuli towards the central nervous system and brain, while efferent nerves are motor neurons that carry neural impulses away from the central nervous system and towards muscles to cause movement.

QUESTION 12 Answer is C QUESTION 13 Answer is D QUESTION 14

Axon terminals are stimulated by an action potential to release the neurotransmitters that are stored within the vesicles found in the axon terminal.

QUESTION 15

QUESTION 16

This refers to an online prac. Individual results will differ. Discuss extraneous variables, etc.

QUESTION 17 Answer is B QUESTION 18 Answer is C QUESTION 19 Answer is D QUESTION 20 Answer is B QUESTION 21 Answer is A


QUESTION 22

The auditory sensory information would be detected by Karina’s sensory registers in her peripheral nervous system and then transmitted to the brain via sensory neurons. The auditory information would be received and processed in the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe in the central nervous system. The visual sensory information (watching the orchestra) would be detected in the retina by photoreceptors and sent to the occipital lobe (primary visual cortex) for processing also. Information would also be processed in the association areas and linked to other parts of the brain to allow Karina to appreciate the full experience of the music.

QUESTION 23

The autonomic nervous system is self-regulating – consisting of the parasympathetic and sympathetic branches responsible for the communication between the body’s visceral (non-skeletal) muscles and the internal organs and glands.

QUESTION 24

The main function of the Parasympathetic NS is to both maintain a level of homeostasis or to calm the body down after a threat or arousing experience.

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