Unit 4: Learning and Cognitive

ProcessesCh 9: Learning: Principles and

ApplicationsCh 10: Memory and ThoughtCh 11: Thinking and LanguageCh 12: Motivation and Emotion

Ch 9 – Learning: Principles and Applications

• Classical conditioning

• A learning procedure in which associations are made b/w a _________ stimulus + a ___________ stimulus.

• A person’s or animal’s old response becomes attached to a _________.

• It’s a type of _________. This type of learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency that results from ___________.

• Discovered by ______________ – accidentally.

• Pavlov’s experiment

• Pavlov began by ringing a ________ + then quickly placing some meat on a dog’s tongue. He used a tuning fork b/c it was a neutral stimulus (a stimulus that ________________ any part of the unconditioned response).

• After only doing this a few times, the dog started _______ as soon as it heard the sound, even if _______ was placed in its mouth.

• This showed that a neutral stimulus can cause a formerly _________ __________.

• The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is an event that elicits a certain _________________ typically w/o previous training (the food).

• The unconditioned response (UCR) is an organism’s natural reaction to a stimulus – ______ (salivating at the food).

• The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a ________________ that elicits a given response _______________ _______ in which it has been paired w/ an unconditioned stimulus (the tuning fork).

• The conditioned response (CR) is the _______________ to a conditioned stimulus (salivating at the tuning fork).

• General principles of classical conditioning

• Helps animals + humans ______________ _______________ + to avoid danger.

1. Acquisition of a classically conditioned response usually _______________. Pavlov found that classical conditioning was most effective when the CS was presented ____________ the UCS (tuning fork before food).

2. Generalization occurs when an animal responds to a __________ similar to the original CS w/o prior training w/ the 2nd stimulus. Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate at the sight of a circle + found that it would salivate at the sight of an _______ also.

3. Discrimination is the ability to respond differently to similar but ________________. Pavlov was able to teach the dog to only respond to the ___________________.

• Generalization + discrimination are part of your everyday life + both ____________.

4. Extinction is the _________________ of a CR when the CS is repeatedly presented w/o the UCS. Eventually the dog quit salivating after hearing the tuning fork when Pavlov repeatedly ________ it food afterwards.

5. __________________ may occur after a rest period when the CS causes a CR but is not followed by a UCS. However the CR doesn’t come back at its ____________. After a while Pavlov used the tuning fork + w/o giving the dog food + found that the dog did salivate but not as much.

• _________ could be an example.

• Little Albert • John B. Watson + Rosalie Rayner used conditioning on 11 mo. old Albert. They taught him to _______. At 1st he happily played w/ the rats, but then they would strike a steel bar w/ a hammer when rats were nearby. Eventually, Albert began to fear the rats even when the __________ _______.

• What was the UCS?• _____________________

_____________________.• What was the UCR?

• _____________________.• What was the CS?

• _____________________.• What was the CR?

• _____________________.

• Taste aversions

• Summary of classical conditioning

• If you eat ___________ + then become sick, you will probably blame the illness on what you ate + will likely ________ if confronted w/ it again.

• It’s a type of _______________.

• It helps animals + humans _____ what is going to happen. So it can provide information that is helpful to ________.

• Can be helpful for __________ or finding food.

• It’s an example of a behaviorist theory. Behaviorism is the study of trying to understand behavior in terms of relationships b/w observable _______ + observable ________. Behaviorists are only concerned w/ what can be _______.

End Section 1

• Operant conditioning

• Learning in which a certain action is ______________________, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence.

• In other words, it’s learning from learning from thethe ________________________.

• The term operant comes from the subject operating on his/her ______________.

• Unlike classical conditioning it studies how _________________ is affected by its consequences.

• ____________ is the psychologist most closely associated w/ operant conditioning.

• Believed that a person’s behavior is influenced by his/her ________ of rewards + punishments.

• Skinner’s experiment on rats

• Skinner trained rats to respond to lights + sounds in a special enclosure called a _______________.

• Rats were placed in the box + every time they walked towards the bar, food was dropped in the cage. Eventually the rat would ____________ in that direction when they were hungry. At that point, Skinner would only drop food in the box if they pressed the bar. The rat learned to press the bar _______________________.

• Reinforcement • The food that appeared in the cage in Skinner’s rat experiment was a _________. Reinforcement is a stimulus or event that the likelihood that a __________________.

• Ex: training a dog to sit by giving it treats.• Reinforcers for humans often include social

approval, ________, + extra privileges.• Positive reinforcement occurs when an

animal/human is given something _________. Something is __________Something is __________.

• Negative reinforcement occurs when an animal/human has something ____________ _______. Something is _______________.Something is _______________.

• Involves taking something away or preventing something from happening.

• Escape conditioning involves training an animal/human to ______________ an unpleasant stimulus.

• Avoidance conditioning involves training an animal/human to prevent an unpleasant stimulus ________________________.

• A primary reinforcer is one that satisfies a ______________ such as hunger, thirst, + sleep, clothing, etc...

• A secondary reinforcer is one that has been paired w/ a primary reinforcer + through classical conditioning has ____________ + reinforcement.

• $ is the __________ for a secondary reinforcer.

• Schedules of reinforcement

• ______________ of reinforcement is an important factor in operant conditioning.

• Behavior reinforced __________________ is on a continuous schedule of reinforcement.

• When positive reinforcement occurs only sometimes, it’s on a ___________________.

• These responses are established slower but usually ___________ once learned. 4 types:

1. Fixed-ratio schedule – specific # of ______________ is required before reinforcement can be obtained.

2. Variable-ratio schedule - _____________ # of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained.

3. Fixed-interval schedule – specific ____________ must pass before a response will obtain reinforcement.

4. Variable-interval schedule – ______ amounts of time must pass before a response will obtain reinforcement.

______ = constant, unchanging______ = constant, unchanging

______ = changes______ = changes

___ = # of times an action ___ = # of times an action occursoccurs

________ = passage of time________ = passage of time

• Techniques in operant conditioning

• Shaping - a technique in which the desired behavior is “______” by 1st rewarding any act similar to that behavior + then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before __________ __________.

• Used for teaching _____________.• Chaining – a response chain is a

_______ _____________ that follow one another in sequence w/ each reaction producing the signal for the next.

• Behaviors are combined into _______________. Usually _____ ____ must be mastered before you can complete the response patterns.

• Ex. washing your hair, driving, etc…

• Aversive control

• The process of influencing behavior by means of _____________________.

• Unlike reinforcement, ___________ involves a particular behavior.

• _______________ occurs when an animal/human is given something it doesn’t want.

• _______________ occurs when an animal/human has something it wants removed.

• Punishment can have __________ ____________ like rage, aggression, + fear. Also, people learn to ______ the person delivering the punishment.

• Contrasting classical + operant conditioning

End Section 2

Classical Classical ConditioningConditioning

Operant Operant ConditioningConditioning

Always a _______ _______ (UCS) that elicits the desired

response.

No ___________ ________; learner must 1st respond, then behavior is

___________.

UCS doesn’t depend upon learner’s

___________.

_____________ depends upon

learner’s behavior.

Learner ________ to its environment.

Learner ________ ________ on its environment.

____________________________ ____________________________

• Social learning

• A process of _________________ by observing + imitating the behavior of others. There are 2 types:

1. Cognitive learning – focuses on how information is _______, processed, + _________. It may result from observation or imitation.

• A cognitive map is a _____________ of spatial relationships or relationships b/w events.

• Latent learning is the alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an ____________, observable change in behavior.

• Learned helplessness is a condition in which _________________________ _____________, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable.

- Some believe learned helplessness is a major cause of

____________.

2. Modeling is learning by _________ others’ behaviors.

• It involves ___________ + imitation.• There are 3 potential effects:

1. the chance that we’ll do the _________ (we already knew the behaviors, but were just learning how to apply them).

2. Observational learning – imitation of a ____________.

3. _____________ – If you see someone doing something that you think is ____, but nothing happens to them, you’ll be more likely to do the same thing in the future.

- This can help lessen/cure ________.

• Behavior modification

• The systematic application of learning principles (classical conditioning, operant conditioning, + social learning) to change people’s __________ ______________.

• Ways to modify behavior include (but are not limited to):

1. ___________-assisted instruction.2. Token economies – conditioning in

which desirable behavior is reinforced w/ _________________, which can be accumulated + exchanged for valued rewards.

3. _________________• Set up your own ____________ of

rewards + punishments.• Best way to start is to _________ of

the behavior. - How often is

it occurring? - What

triggers it?Read p.266 “Improving Your Study Habits”End Section

3

Ch 10 – Memory and Thought • Memory • The storage + retrieval of what has been learned

or ________________.• The process of memory:

1. Encoding – the transforming of information so the _________________ can process it.

- You use your ________ to encode memories.

2. Storage – the process by which information is ____________ over a period of time.

- Can be stored for a ___________ or longer.

3. Retrieval – occurs when information is brought to the mind __________________.

• 3 types:• _________• Short-term• ___________

• Sensory memory

• Very brief memory storage immediately following initial ___________________.

• Your senses (ex. sight or hearing) are able to hold an input for a ____________________ before it disappears.

• Serves 3 functions:1. Prevents you from being

____________.2. Gives you time to decide if

information is ____________ ____________ to.

3. Allows for continuity + _________ in your world.

• Short-term memory

• Memory that is ___________________ + in capacity to about __________ items by the subjects’ active rehearsal.

• Doesn’t necessarily involve __________ ____________.

• Maintenance rehearsal is a system for remembering that involves repeating information to oneself w/o attempting to _________________ in it.

• Ex. Repeating a telephone #• Duration lasts a bit less than _____

__________ w/o rehearsal.• Usually we can only remember 7

unrelated items (plus or minus ______).

• Chunking is the process of _________________ to make it easier to remember them.

• The Primary Recency Effect – refers to the fact that we are better able to recall information presented at the ________________________.

• Primacy – you had more time to ___________________.

• Recency – the __________ are still in short-term memory.

• Long-term memory

• The storage of information over _________ _________________.

• Stored according to ___________ or features.

• The capacity appears to be _________.• Starts as sensory, goes to short-term,

then becomes long-term (___________ __________).

• Ways of ___________ long-term memory:• Semantic memory is our knowledge

of _________ (including its words, rules, + meanings). Episodic memory is our memory of ________________.

OR• Declarative memory involves both

____________________ memory; it is knowledge that can be called forth consciously + used as you need it. Procedural memory is memory of _____ ______ that does not require conscious recollection (ex. riding a bike). End Section

1

• Retrieving information

• The ability to retrieve memories is based upon how we ____________________.

• Psychologists don’t yet know how memories are organized though.

• There are different methods of retrieval:

• ___________• _______• __________

• Recognition • Is the process of memory retrieval in which a person identifies an object, idea, or situation as one he/she _______________ _____________________.

• Ex. You might not remember your best friend in kindergarten but could _________________ of him/her.

• This ability suggests that much ____ ________________ in memory than one might think.

• Information stored in _______ __________ can be more easily retrieved.

• Recall • Is the process of memory retrieval in which a person reconstructs _____________________________.

• Involves more than searching for + finding information. It involves your knowledge, attitudes, + ___________.

• These influence what + how we _____________.• Reconstructive processes is the alteration of a

recalled memory that may be ___________depending on an individual’s experiences, attitudes, or inferences.

• Sometimes events get _________ in memories.• It’s why 2 people might remember the same

event ____________.• Confabulation is a memory mistake in which

we “remember” information that ____________ in order to fill in _______________.

• Our schemas (our ways of mentally organizing things) influence how we _________________.

• Few adults have a photographic memory, but about __% of children do.

• You’re more likely to remember things if you’re in the same _____________ +/or _____________ that you were in when the event occurred.

• Relearning • Recognition + recall are part of declarative memory. But relearning is part of declarative + ____________ memory.

• Ex. You learned a poem as a child + then forget it. Years later you can memorize the same poem w/ ______ _________ than someone w/ similar abilities to yours.

• Forgetting • Information that once entered long-term memory but is _____________________ is said to be forgotten.

• Forgetting may involve decay, interference, or repression.

• Decay is the ___________ of memory over time.

• Interference is when a memory is blocked or erased by _________________________.

• Proactive interference is when an _______________ blocks you from remembering related new information.

• Retroactive interference is when a _____________ or new information blocks you from remembering information learned earlier.

• Repression occurs when a person _____________________________ of an embarrassing or frightening experience.

• Amnesia • A ______________ that may occur after a blow to the head, brain damage, ______, or severe psychological stress.

• Infant amnesia is the relative lack of early declarative memories. Most memories from ________________________________.

• Theories for infant amnesia:• Freud thought it occurred b/c

the memories were _________ due to the emotional traumas of infancy.

• Some think it’s b/c infants don’t yet ___________________.

• Others believe it’s b/c the hippocampus (part of the brain which helps w/ long-term memory) hasn’t ____________.

• Improving memory

• Repetition, or _____________________ is good for short-term memory, but what about long-term?

• Elaborative rehearsal is ___________________ to material that is already known.

• Ex. Perhaps as a child you had trouble spelling the word “together”. Then you notice that it’s just the 3 words “to” “get” “her” combined + can now spell it easily.

• A good way to protect memory is to “__________”. Keep rehearsing even after __________________.

• Avoid studying ___________________ together.• _____________ your learning.• Mnemonic devices are techniques for using

_____________ to memorize + retrieve information.• Involve some ________, but that may be part

of the reason they work.

•

End Section 2

Ch 11 – Thinking and Language • Thinking

(Try it sometime )

• The changing + reorganizing of information stored in memory to ________________________.

• Enables humans to put together any combination of words from memory + create sentences ______________ __________.

• The process of thinking depends on several devices or ____________ – images, symbols, concepts, prototypes, + rules.

• Units of thought

• An image is a visual, mental representation of an _________________.

• Most _________________ of thought.• It’s often not an __________ – usually only

contains highlights of the original.• A symbol is an ________ unit of thought of a sound,

object, or design that represents an object or quality.• Most common symbol is _____. Others include

punctuation, numbers, + letters.• A concept is a label for a class of objects or events

that have at least 1 attribute in common. - ________• Allow us to ____ large amounts of information.

• A prototype is a representative ______ of a concept.• Ex. When you hear the word car, you think of a

Toyota Camry. • A rule is a _____________________ b/w concepts.

• Ex. You can’t be in 2 places at once. 2+2=4. The sun rises in the east + sets in the west.

• Kinds of thinking

• Directed or convergent thinking is a systematic + ________ attempt to reach a specific goal or answer (like the solution to a math problem).

• Deliberate + _____________.• Nondirected or divergent thinking is a

_____ ______ of thoughts w/ no particular plan + depends more on _________.

• Usually rich w/ _________ + fantasies.• Can provide unexpected insights

into a person’s goals + beliefs.• Metacognition is the awareness of one’s

own cognitive processes (_________________).

• Thinking about your strategy might make you re-evaluate it + come up w/ a _________________.

• Problem solving

• One of the main functions of directed thinking is to __________________.

• Strategies for solving problems include:• Breaking down a large problem

into ________________.• ______________ from your goal to

the beginning.• _______________ options to reach

goal.• We tend to use the ______________ that

worked in the past.• An algorithm is a ______________________ for

solving a problem. • They can be time-consuming.

• Heuristics are __________________ or rules of thumb that simplify a problem.

• Can lead to _____ solutions, but may be bad ones.

• A mental set is a habitual strategy or _______ _____________________.

• Can lead to rigidity (an inability to look at other _________).

• Functional fixedness is the inability to imagine _____________ for familiar objects.

• Less likely to occur w/ ______ problems.

• To overcome this, you must look for new ways of solving problems – get _______!

• Creativity • The capacity to use information +/or abilities in a _____________________.

• Characteristics of creative thinking:• Flexibility – the ability to overcome

__________• Recombination – the rearranging of

the elements of a problem to arrive at an ________________.

• Insight – the apparent sudden realization of the _______________ _____________.

• Occurs when you step away from a problem for awhile but still think about it on an ____________________.

• The “aha” experience.

End Section 1

• Language • The expression of ideas through symbols + sounds that are arranged ___________________.

• Lets us communicate facts + _______.• It allows us to tell each other about the __________

_____________.• Consists of 3 elements - phonemes, morphemes, +

syntax.• Phonemes are ___________ – it may be a single

letter like t or a combination of letters like sh. There are about ____ recognizable sounds, but not all sounds are used in any languages.

• Morphemes are the smallest ___________ – it may be a letter, word, prefix, or suffix.

• Syntax are _______________ that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases + sentences. The rules of language differ in ___________________.

• Semantics is the study of _________________. You learn to determine a word’s meaning based in part on its context.

• Language development

• B.F. Skinner believed that children learned language through ________________.

• Adults would smile + nod at _______ sounds/words.

• Critics argue that children _________ language before they speak + believe that children learn the rules of language before they receive any ___________.

• Some psychologists believe children use ______________ (observation + imitation).

• Noam Chomsky believed that reinforcement + social learning both played a part in language development but theorized that infants inherit a _____________ that enables them to learn grammar.

• How language develops

• There are 4 steps in every language/culture:

1. _______ (around 4 mo.) – infants are learning to control their vocal cords + to make, change, repeat, + imitate the sounds of their parents.

2. ________________ (around 1st yr.).3. ________________ (around end of

2nd yr.).4. ____________________ (2-3 yrs.).

• Gender + cultural differences in language

• People use language to communicate their _________ + express their ideas.

• Some believe that our language affects our _____________________ of the physical world. This is known as linguistic relativity.

• Also some believe that our language affects our _________________.

• Some words create _________ _____________ (ex: congressman, chairman, ballerina, etc…).

• We tend to automatically use ___________________ for certain jobs (ex. teachers tend to be “she” + doctors tend to be “he”).

End Section 2

Ch 12 – Motivation and Emotion • Motivation • An internal state that activates behavior

+ directs it _______________.• Causes us to act certain ways at

_____________.• B/c motivation can’t be _______________,

psychologists infer motivation from goal-directed behavior.

• In other words, they determine what your motivation is by looking at what you are __________________.

• There are 4 theories about motivation:• ________• Drive-reduction• ________ • Cognitive

• Instinct Theory • It’s been proposed that humans are motivated by a variety of _______.

• Instincts are natural or ________ _________ of an organism to make a specific response to certain stimuli w/o involving _________.

• Innate tendencies that __________________.

• Occur in almost the same way among all members of a _______.

• Human instincts include things like parental love, sociability, sympathy, curiosity, __________, etc…

• A flaw in the instinct theory is that instincts don’t explain behavior; they just ___________.

• Drive-Reduction Theory

• A need is a biological or psychological _______________________________.

• A need produces a _______.• A drive is an ______________ that can change

over time + orients an individual toward a specific goal(s).

• It motivates an organism toward a _____.• Ex. Hunger drives us to eat + fatigue

drives us to rest.• Psychologist Clark Hull traced motivation back

to basic __________ needs. He believed when an organism is deprived of something it needs or wants, it becomes _____ + agitated. It strives to maintain homeostasis (the tendency of all organisms to maintain a ________________).

• The organism will engage in _______ behavior until it does something that relieves the ______. It will then ______ that behavior next time that drive is felt.

________ _________

__________ ____

_____________________

Drive-Reduction

Theory

• Hull believed that all human motives are extensions of __________________. Ex. the need for social approval could be __________ through having a smiling parent fulfill your needs as an infant.

• BUT in Harry Harlow’s experiment, baby monkeys would often attach themselves to a cloth surrogate monkey w/o food instead of a wood + wire monkey w/ food, showing the _____________________ __________.

• Overlooked that some experiences are just _____________________.

• Don’t reduce biological drives, but serve as __________ or goals.

• Also, we sometimes engage in behavior that the __________________ (ex. riding on a roller coaster).

• Read p.318 “A Balance for Living”

• Incentive Theory • Stresses the role of the _________ in motivating behavior.

• Believe that _____________ are directed toward a goal or incentive (an external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward that motivates behavior).

• Drives _____ us to reduce needs, but incentives _____ us to obtain them.

• Ex. Hunger drives us toward the kitchen, but the sandwich is the incentive.

• The _____ the drive, the ______ the incentive must be.

• Cognitive Theory

• Supporters believe that we ____________ _______ at certain times as a result of extrinsic + intrinsic motivation.

• Extrinsic motivation refers to engaging in activities that either reduce _______________ or help us obtain __________________.

• Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in activities b/c those activities are ________________ or b/c they fulfill our beliefs or expectations.

• We often ___________________ b/c of extrinsic + intrinsic motivations.

• The over-justification effect occurs when people are given more ________________ than necessary to perform a task + their _________ motivation .

End Section 1

• Biological motives

• These are needs that are _____________ _________ + physical well-being.

• The ______________ is designed so that dramatic variations in blood sugar, water, oxygen, salt, or essential vitamins lead to changes in behavior designed to ________ _____________________.

• Ex. – Your body temperature drops + you are cold, you shiver + put on more clothes. If your body temperature rises + you are hot, you sweat + remove some clothes.

• Some biological needs include food, water, oxygen, sleep, + __________________.

• Hunger • Your body requires food to grow, to repair itself, + to ______________.

• The lateral hypothalamus is the part of the hypothalamus that produces _______________.

• More active in ______ temperatures.• The ventromedial hypothalamus is the part of

the hypothalamus that sends signals that tell you to ________________.

• More active in ______ temperatures.• Your blood sugar (or glucose) refers to the

amount of _________ available in the blood. If these levels drop, you get hungry.

• There are other factors besides the biological that influence hunger. These are known as ______________ hunger factors.

• Include: smells + appearance of food, watching others eat, ________________, boredom, stress, habit, etc…

• Obesity • More + more evidence is showing that a person’s weight is controlled by ________ __________.

• There is a _________________ that may predispose some people to be obese.

• An overweight person is ___% over his/her ideal body weight.

• An obese person is ___% over his/her ideal body weight.

• Studies have shown that obese people are more likely to respond to __________ (for reasons other than ________).

• Social motives

• These are needs that are learned from our __________ w/ other people.

• The _________________ concerns the desire to set challenging goals + to persist in trying to reach those goals despite the __________.

• Studies have shown that ___________ are not always the most interesting + they aren’t usually _________________. They are also less likely to value intimacy in a relationship. They often prefer to associate w/ experts who will help them achieve, instead of w/ more ___________.

• Some people are motivated not to achieve, but b/c they have a ________________.

• These people tend to _____________ tasks + prefer easy ones that they are confident they can _____________.

• They often find _________ to explain their poor performances to maintain a _______________. However, this prevents them from taking _____________ for their own actions.

• Some people ___________ b/c it may mean that they are a _______ in some other way. For ex, a woman may feel as if she is too successful in a traditionally male-dominated profession, than she is a failure as a woman.

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

• Abraham Maslow created an order of needs that he believed _______________.

• He proposed that after we satisfy the needs at the bottom of the triangle, we ___________ to the next level, but if one of our lower needs ceases to be satisfied, we may ____________ the hierarchy.

• Fundamental needs are biological drives that must be satisfied to ___________.

• Psychological needs are the urge to belong, to give + receive love, + to acquire _________. *Like fundamental needs, these can

only be filled by an ___________.

• Self-actualization needs are the pursuit of knowledge + beauty or whatever else is required for the realization of one’s ____________________.

• Not everyone reaches the ______________.• Some debate his belief that there is an ___________

________.

COPY THIS!!!

End Section 2

• Emotions • Are a set of _____________ to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, + _____________________.

• Provoked by real or _______________ or events that have high significance to the individual.

• They help us ____________ + communicate what is going on inside of us.

• Result from 4 occurrences:1. You must interpret some ___________.2. You have a subjective ____________.3. You experience _____________ responses.4. You display an _____________________.

• All emotions have 3 parts:1. ________ – arousal of the person/how the

body responds to the emotion.2. ________ – outward expression of emotion.3. _______ – how we think about or interpret

a situation.

• Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, imagine, + understand emotions + to use that information in _________ _________.

• It helps us gauge the situation determine an _______________.

• Studies have shown that certain basic facial expressions are innate – part of our ___________________.

• Emotions are ___________, but the expression of them is _____ by learning how to express them. We are taught how + when it is __________ to display certain emotions.

• Theories of emotions

• We associate feelings w/ a sudden or in energy, muscle tension + relaxation, + sensations in the _____________________.

• Physiological theorists like William James argue that we don’t feel emotions b/c of a stimulus, but that we feel emotions b/c of the ________ __________________ to a stimulus.

• So ________ don’t cause bodily changes, instead, bodily changes cause _________.

• Similarly, the Facial Feedback Theory states that our conscious experience of emotion results from the ________ _______ we receive from the _______ in our faces.

• Critics argue that bodily reactions _______________, but don’t cause them.

• Cognitivists argue that ______________ + thinking work together to produce emotions.

• What you feel depends on how you _______________________.

• Perception + arousal interact to create ____________.

• When people can’t explain their physical reactions, they take cues from their ____________.

• Researchers believe that _______ may play an important role in our ______ as humans + in our ability to achieve goals b/c they spur us into _________.

• Emotions + physical changes are _________.

End Section 3