Unit 4 - Training to Improve PerformanceAREA OF STUDY 2 - HOW IS TRAINING IMPLEMENTED EFFECTIVELY TO IMPROVE FITNESS?

Training Principles & Methods

Training Principles

An effective training program requires specific understanding and integration of the principles of training.

These principles include:- frequency

intensity

time

type

progressive overload

specificity

individuality

variety

maintenance

overtraining

detraining

diminishing returns

Frequency

Following any form of fitness training, the body goes through a process of rebuild and repair. The frequency of exercise is a fine balance between providing just enough stress for the body to adapt and allowing enough time for rebuild & repair to occur.

Aerobic Training the guideline for aerobic training is ideally 5 or 6 sessions per week. (min 3 sessions)

Anaerobic Training The guideline for anaerobic training is ideally 3 or 4 sessions per week.

Frequency

Resistance Training The frequency of resistance training is dependent upon the particular

individual and format of the program. Whole Body - a program that works every body part every session should

be completed 3-4 days a week with a day's rest between sessions. Split Routine - a program that focuses on just one or two body parts per

session could be completed as frequently as 6 days per week.

Intensity

The measurement of exercise intensity (how hard the athlete is working ) is vital for any training program as it allows for the principle of overload to occur in athletes.

Intensity should be monitored to ensure the athlete remains above the training threshold but under LIP (for endurance training).

Methods of measuring exercise intensity:- Percentage of heart rate maximum Rate of perceived exertion (RPE)

Intensity – Heart Rate Monitoring

Monitoring your heart rate is an accurate way to measure exercise intensity.

A commonly used criterion for measuring exercise intensity is as a percentage of maximum heart rate.

Calculating Target Heart Rate Zones Establish Maximum Heart Rate

• Max HR (bpm) = 208 X 0.7 age (years)

Calculate the target heart rate zone you should use for exercise. This establishes upper and lower heart rates between which you productively gain fitness.

Heart Rate Training ZonesHR

ZoneHR

% MaxObjective Application Feeling

5Speed & Power

90 - 100• Develop speed and

power• Increase V02 Peak

• Sprints• Intense short intervals

(up to 1 min)

• Very uncomfortable• Eventual muscle

failure

4AnaeorobicEndurance

80 - 90

• Increase LIP• Exercise longer at

anaerobic intensities• Increase cardiac

output

• Intense medium length intervals

(1-4 mins)• Time Trials

• Tempo workouts

• Difficult & uncomfortable

• Muscle feel heavy• Intense breathing

3Aerobic

Endurance

70 - 80• Increase LIP

• Exercise longer at anaerobic intensities

• Burn fat more efficiently

• Long moderate Intervals – (4 – 10 mins)• Endurance building

• Steady runs

• Increased RR & TV• Increased HR

• Muscle discomfort

2Aerobic

Development60 - 70

• Build aerobic efficiency• Build aerobic base

• Burn fat at higher rate

• Long slow distance• Base building

• Recognise changes in body but can

maintain intensity

1Warm - Up

50 - 60• Preparing to exercise

• Regenerate and recover

• Promote blood flow

• Warm up• Recovery

• Rehabilitation

• Raise body’s core temperature

• Prepare for exercise

Intensity – Perceived Exertion Scale

Perceived Exertion Scale (RPE) assesses the relationship between subjective workload and the successive physiological responses to these workloads. The rates of exertion employ the physiological stresses such as heart rate, respiration rate, blood lactate and oxygen uptake.

In other words, Borg’s rating is based on a feeling of how hard you think you are working depending on:- effort, fatigue, HR, RR, muscle soreness & stress.

1 – 10 Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion Scale

0 Nothing at all

1 Very light

2 Fairly light

3 Moderate

4 Somewhat hard

5 Hard

6

7 Very hard

8

9

10 Very very hard - maximal

Training Zones

ENERGY SYSTEM % MAX HEART RATE RPE

ATP - PC 95 + 10

ANAEROBICGLYCOLYSIS

85 - 95 8 - 9

AEROBIC 70 - 85 3 - 6

Time

Time or Duration usually refers to how long a training session should go for (in minutes) OR for how long a training program should be undertaken (in weeks).

Cardio Respiratory Training:- individuals with lower fitness levels should aim to maintain their heart rate within

the target heart rate zone for a minimum of 20-30 minutes. Increases to as much as 45-60 minutes as fitness levels increase.

in terms of the duration of the program as a whole, research suggests a minimum of 6 weeks is required to see noticeable improvement and as much as a year or more before a peak in fitness is reached.

Resistance Training:- duration of resistance training session is no longer than 45-60 minutes. Again,

intensity has a say, and particularly grueling strength sessions may last as little as 20 - 30 minutes.

Periodization

Periodization is an organized approach to training that involves progressive cycling of various aspects of a training program during a specific period of time. Varying the training program at regular time intervals is set to bring about optimal gains in strength, power, motor performance, and/or muscle hypertrophy.

This system of training is typically divided up into three types of cycles: microcycle - generally up to 7 days. mesocycle - may be anywhere from 2 weeks to a few months and can further be

classified into preparation, competition, peaking, and transition phases. macrocycle - refers to the overall training period, usually representing a year.

Periodization

Tapering – involves a reduction in training volumes in the lead up to an important competition. It provides opportunity for the athlete to freshen up both physically and mentally. It is particularly common when preparing for endurance events.

Peaking – a tapering in training will ensure that the athlete is in the best possible or ‘peak’ condition for competition. A decrease in the training volume but a maintenance or even rise in the intensity will help to ensure optimal physical and mental shape for the big event.

Phases of Training

Pre - season

In - season

Off - season

Pre - seasonIn - seasonOff - season

Off-season remain physically active remedy weaknesses in physical profile

Pre-season develop energy systems practice individual skills develop team play patterns

In-season practice individual skills and team play maintain energy systems

Type of Training

Methods of Training include : Continuous Fartlek Interval Circuit Resistance Flexibility Plyometrics

The type of training planned and implemented needs to be sport specific and meet the physical demands of the sport being trained for : energy systems fitness components muscle groups movements or skills

Progression

Chronic Adaptations (as a result of a progression in training) are the long term improvements in the body’s systems brought about by a well planned training program.

Progressive overload is the gradual increase of stress placed upon the body during exercise training. If a training effect is to be achieved the body must be forced to adapt to a load that is above and beyond what it has previously experienced.

Application of Progressive Overload

Continuous Training increase distance increase difficulty of course decrease goal time increase heart rate intensity

Interval Training decrease goal times increase reps/sets decrease rest periods increase heart rate intensity increase distances Ensure that when manipulating

variables you continue to remain specific to chosen energy systems.

Circuit Training increase reps decrease goal time increase number of circuits

Weight Training increase weight increase reps increase sets Ensure that when manipulating variables

you continue to remain specific to chosen fitness components.

Application of Progressive Overload

Specificity

Training methods, exercises, intensities and workloads should be specific to:- energy systems fitness components muscle groups movement patterns

Application:- work rest ratio the same as that

identified in competition distances covered specific to

those involved on game day exercises mirror movement

patterns involved in game skills training heart rates specific to

game intensities

Individuality

No two athletes are identical. Individual circumstances, needs and responses to

training should be considered when implementing training programs.

The following factors should be considered ; genetics age & gender prior experience & coaching prior training & fitness skill & ability illness / injury motivation & goals individual responses to training

0 2 4 6 8 10 12Time in Training

Diminishing Returns

When unfit athletes begin a training regime, their fitness levels improve rapidly, but as they become fitter the amount of improvement is less as they approach their genetic limits.

As fitness levels increase, more work or training is needed to make the same gains. When designing training programs, remember that fitness levels will not continue to improve at the same rate as athletes become fitter. Lo

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Fit

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Leve

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As fitness increases Improvements plateau.

Variety

Planning for variety in any training program is important to ensure that athletes : don’t become bored. remain fresh mentally. stay motivated. are continually challenged.

Variety can be incorporated via ; a change in environment. a change in training method. a change in coach or

coaching style. cross-training.

Maintenance

Once a certain level of fitness is achieved it can usually be maintained with a reduction in training volume.

By training at a similar intensity but just twice a week, an athlete should be able to maintain their current level of fitness.

APPLICATIONS : During the off- season athletes

would be wise to apply this principle to avoid detraining.

Coaches should plan to maintain the fitness their athlete’s achieved during the pre-season when they wish to start spending more time on skills and team work during the in-season.

Overtraining

If training frequency, duration or intensity is too high and/or recovery times are too short then athletes may be at risk of ‘overtraining’.

Overtraining can lead to : decreased performance. chronic injuries. increased risk of acute injury. increased risk of illness. fatigue and tiredness. aches, pains, soreness. headaches. insomnia. depression

Detraining (reversibility)

When athletes stop training, their hard-won fitness gains disappear, usually faster than they were gained. The actual rate of decline depends on the length of the training period before detraining, the specific muscle group, and other factors.

Maintaining a moderately high level of fitness year-round is easier than detraining at the end of the season and then retraining at the beginning of the next.

Decline in Training EffectsDays Since Training Ceased Decline in Functional Capacity

1 - 2 Adrenaline levels drop

3 - 5 Muscles lose elasticity/ 5 % drop in aerobic capacities

7 - 9 Reduction in O2 concentration in blood /10% drop in aerobic capacities

10 BMR drops – promotes weight gain

11 - 13 Noticeable loss of muscle tone - max HR / Q drops by up to 15%

14 - 16 Mitochondrial activity decreases / loss of muscle mass/strength

17 - 19 Reduction in thermoregulation efficiency

20 – 21 VO2 max reduced by 20%

22 - 25 10 – 20% loss of muscle mass – replaced by fat

26 – 29 Muscle strength drops by up to 30%

Training Methods

An effective training program requires specific understanding and integration of the methods of training.

These include:- CONTINUOUS TRAINING FARTLEK TRAINING INTERVAL TRAINING RESISTANCE TRAINING PLYOMETRICS TRAINING CIRCUIT TRAINING FLEXIBILITY TRAINING

Performing an exercise such as running, cycling or swimming over an extended period of time (20-30min +).

Continuous training is performed at a sub-maximal level: (continuous training zone = 70-85% max HR)

Energy System Targeted • Aerobic

Fitness Components Targeted

• Aerobic power• Body composition

Methods of Overload • Increase duration – run for longer• Increase distance – run further• Increase intensity – run faster• Decrease time to complete a set distance – run the same course in a quicker time• Increase the difficulty of the course – tougher terrain

Continuous Training

Continuous Training

Calculate your training HR using the KarvonenFormula

Method 1 - Maximum HR 220 – age

Method 2 – PMHR = 208 – (0.7 x age)

Step 1 :

Max HR – Resting Heart Rate = Heart Rate Reserve

Step 2:

Training Heart Rate = Heart Rate Reserve x Training Percentage + Resting Heart Rate

Example:

Age: 30

Resting Heart Rate: 60 bpm

Training Zone: 70% HR max

• Maximum Heart Rate:

220 - 30 = 190bpm

• Heart Rate Reserve:

190 - 60 = 130bpm

• Training Heart Rate:

(130 x 0.7) + 60 = 151bpm

FARTLEK is a Swedish word meaning ‘speed play’. a form of continuous training where bursts of

faster work are interspersed with times of low intensity work.

Energy System Targeted • Aerobic • Anaerobic

Fitness Components Targeted

• Aerobic power• Body composition• Anaerobic capacity• Speed

Methods of Overload • Increase duration – run for longer• Increase distance of each burst of speed• Increase intensity of each burst of speed• Increase the frequency of each burst of speed• Decrease the period of slower recovery between each burst of speed.

Fartlek Training

Interval Training

Interval training is a type of physical training that involves bursts of high intensity work. This high intensity work is alternated with periods of rest or low activity. enables more intensive work to be completed

without high levels of fatigue as recovery allows for replenishment of energy stores (partial replenishment of ATP/CP stores) and removal of waste products.

depending on the manipulation of work periods and rest periods (the work : rest ratio)interval training can be used to target any of the three energy pathways.

Types of interval training :-

Long interval training

Medium interval training

Short interval training

High intensity interval training (HIIT)

Long Interval Training:

Long periods of work followed by shorter periods of rest.

the intensity is at or just above LIP ( 85% max HR ).

aims to improve lactate inflection point.

Energy System Targeted • Aerobic

Fitness Components Targeted

• Aerobic power• Body composition

Work / Rest Ratio • 1:1 • 2:1 •3:1

Methods of Overload • Increase work distance• Increase work intensity• Increase work duration• Decrease amount of rest• Increase reps and/or sets

Long Interval Training

Medium Interval Training:

Aims to improve tolerance to metabolic by-products.

intensity is above the LIP (85 - 95% max HR)

Energy System Targeted • Anaerobic Glycolysis

Fitness Components Targeted

• Anaerobic capacity• Speed• Muscular endurance

Work / Rest Ratio • 1:2 • 1:3

Methods of Overload • Increase work distance• Increase work intensity• Increase work duration• Decrease amount of rest• Increase reps and/or sets

Medium Interval Training

Short Interval Training:

Aims to improve speed. involves training with maximal intensity

for 10 seconds or less.

intensity is above 95% max HR.

Energy System Targeted • ATP/CP

Fitness Components Targeted

• Anaerobic capacity• Speed

Work / Rest Ratio • 1:5 • 1:6

Methods of Overload • Increase work distance• Increase work intensity• Increase work duration• Decrease amount of rest• Increase reps and/or sets

Short Interval Training

High Intensity Interval Training:

Usually performed on exercise bikes.

Short periods of High Intensity work followed by periods of Low Intensity work – usually repeated for a duration of 20-30 minutes. has been found to improve aerobic

fitness ( similar effects as with continuous and fartlek training ).

best undertaken by those with a good cardio-respiratory fitness (not for the ‘un-fit’).

Energy System Targeted • Aerobic• Anaerobic glycolysis

Fitness Components Targeted

• Aerobic power• Anaerobic capacity• Body composition

Work / Rest Ratio • 1:5 • 1:6

Methods of Overload • Increase work distance• Increase work intensity• Increase work duration• Decrease amount of rest• Increase reps and/or sets

High Intensity Interval Training

Resistance Training

Often referred to as weight training, resistance training can be performed using body weight, free weights, specialized weights machines, weighted balls/kettles or resistance bands.

Muscles contract against a resistance with the aim of increasing : size strength power endurance

Apart from improved sports performance, other benefits of resistance training include: improved body composition, increased

bone strength, improved balance, better posture, improved body image and confidence

.

Resistance Training - Terminology

Load – The weight to be lifted, pushed or pulled. Repetition Max – the maximum load a muscle

can lift for a predetermined number of times. 1RM = max weight you can lift once.

Repetition – the number of times you will continuously repeat an exercise before you rest.

Set – the number of times an exercise will be included in the resistance session.

BICEP CURL - 3 sets of 1O reps means you will include bicep curls 3 times in your session and each time you will perform it continuously 10 times.

Resistance Training

Energy System Targeted • Anaerobic

Fitness Components Targeted

• Anaerobic capacity• Muscular strength• Muscular power• Muscular endurance• Speed• Body composition

Methods of Overload • Increase the load• Increase the sets• Increase the reps

Resistance Training

Structure - the way that resistance training is structured will depend on the aims of the program. The load, sets, reps and speed of

contraction will vary depending if you are training to gain, strength, power, hypertrophy or endurance.

OBJECTIVE LOAD (%RM)

SETS REPS REP SPEED

STRENGTH >85% 3 6 - 12 SLOW TO MEDIUM

POWER <70% 3 3 - 6 FAST

HYPERTROPHY 70 – 85% 3 6 - 12 SLOW TO MEDIUM

ENDURANCE <70% 3 12+ SLOW TO MEDIUM

Program Design

Plyometrics Training

Plyometrics is a type of exercise training designed to produce fast, powerful movements, and improve the functions of the nervous system, generally for the purpose of improving performance in sports.

Plyometric movements, in which a muscle is loaded (eccentric phase) and then contracted in rapid sequence (concentric phase).

Plyometrics is used to increase the speed or force of muscular contractions, providing explosiveness for a variety of sport-specific activities.

Safety Precautions:- progress gradually through skills. use correct techniques. a certain level of fitness is required

– particularly specific strength and flexibility.

complete warm up before undertaking session.

limit repetitions to 100 per day.

Plyometrics Training

Energy System Targeted • Anaerobic

Fitness Components Targeted

• Muscular power• Speed

Methods of Overload • Increase work intensity – jump higher or longer or faster• Increase the sets• Increase the reps• Decrease rest times

Circuit Training

Circuit training is a sequenced combination of high-intensity exercises and resistance training designed to be easy to follow that can target multiple fitness components.

An exercise "circuit" is one completion of all prescribed stations in the program. When the circuit is completed, one can begin the first exercise again for another circuit.

Traditionally, the time between exercises in circuit training is short, often with rapid movement to the next station.

Well designed circuits are specific to the energy systems, fitness components and muscle groups of your sport.

Circuit training is great for building variety into training.

Types of Circuit Training

Fixed time – complete as many reps of each exercise in a pre-determined time frame.

Fixed load – complete exercises for a pre-determined number of reps. Individual load –

Step 1 - complete a minute maximum test on each exercise. Step 2 - training loads are established by halving the test results. Step 3 - repeat two or more circuits at specified training load. To build in challenge, the time taken to complete the two circuits can

be recorded and athletes try to better their times next time.

Circuit Training

Energy System Targeted • Aerobic • Anaerobic

Fitness Components Targeted • Aerobic power• Anaerobic capacity• Muscular strength• Muscular power• Muscular endurance• Agility• Speed• Flexibility• Body composition

Methods of Overload • Increase weights / loads• Increase duration of each station• Add more stations• Add another lap of the circuit• Decrease rest between exercises• Increase reps of each exercise• Complete same circuit in less time

Types of Flexibility Training

Static Dynamic Ballistic Proprioceptive Neuromuscular

Facilitation (PNF)

Static Stretching

Static stretching involves gradual lengthening of a muscle to an elongated position (to the point of discomfort) and hold that position for 10 seconds to 60 secs.

Best performed after training as part of a cool down. Advantages:-

safe and unlikely to cause injury when part of a cool down overcomes the stretch reflex

Disadvantages:- doesn’t increase flexibility through full range of motion takes time

Static Stretching

Dynamic Stretching

Dynamic stretching involves moving a joint through a full range of movement with momentum in a controlled way.

Ideal as part of a warm up when it simulates the movements that are performed during training or competition.

Advantages:- stretches the major muscles that cross the joint stretches though full range of motion prepares athlete for upcoming movements / skills

Disadvantages:- could lead to injury if not performed in a controlled manner

Ballistic Stretching

Ballistic stretching uses the momentum of a moving body or a limb in an attempt to force it beyond its normal range of motion. Advantages:-

similar in speed and movement to actual sporting movement Disadvantages:-

can cause muscle damage extensive use can reduce flexibility appropriate in only very limited circumstances

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

PNF stretching is considered to be the most effective way to increase static flexibility and is a combination of static passive stretching and isometric contractions. Phase 1 - move through the range of

motion until discomfort is felt.

Phase 2 - perform isometric contraction against your partner (6 sec).

Phase 3 – relax, then stretch a little bit further.

Phase 4 – repeat.

Advantages:- facilitates muscle inhibition –

increases stretch reflex develops a range of motion assists in rehabilitation

Disadvantages:- requires help of a partner who

knows what to do

Revision Questions

1. The greatest emphasis on developing energy system capacities should occur in which phase of the year:-a. off seasonb. in seasonc. pre seasond. in all phases

2. The gradual increase of stress placed upon the body during exercise training is known as:-a. progressive overload b. gradual frequencyc. progressive intensityd. sequential training load

3. List the ways in which the principle of overload can be applied when modifying the following types of training programs :

• Continuous Training

Answer: increase duration, Increase distance, increase intensity, decrease time to complete a set distance, increase the difficulty of the course.

• Resistance Training

Answer: Increase the load, Increase the sets, Increase the reps.

• Plyometrics Training

Answer: Increase work intensity – jump higher or longer or faster, Increase sets, Increase reps, decrease rest times.

Revision Questions

4. Activity Profile of Soccer Player Based on the data in the activity profile, which type of training would be most appropriate to develop the energy system requirements of the midfielder? Explain.

Answer: Short duration high intensity interval training. This type of training is most appropriate as the midfielder is involved in short duration high intensity workbouts interspersed with periods of rest. The midfielder would also require a sound aerobic base to promote recovery.

Measure Midfielder

% time spent performing work

9

Number of bursts 28

Average duration of high intensity burst

3 (secs)

Average duration of low intensity recovery

32 (secs)

Revision Questions

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Time in Training

Low

H

igh

Fitn

ess L

evel

5. Which training principle is represented by the diagram below?

Answer: Diminishing return

Explain why this occurs and how this influences training loads.

Answer: When unfit athletes begin a training regime, their fitness levels improve rapidly, but as they become fitter the amount of improvement is less as they approach their genetic limits. As fitness levels increase, more work or training is needed to make the same gains.

Revision Questions

6. Complete the table below to indicate appropriate training zones :

7. When designing a resistance training program explain how the load and repetitions may vary depending on whether the aim is to improve muscular strength versus muscular endurance.

Answer: If the focus is strength then the load will be approx. 85% RM with reps of 6 – 12. If the focus is endurance then the load will be lowered to around 70% RM with reps of 12 – 25.

ENERGY SYSTEM

% MAX HEART RATE

RPE

ATP - PC 95 + 10

ANAEROBICGLYCOLYSIS

85 - 95 8 - 9

AEROBIC 70 - 85 3 - 6