Unit 9

The use of English (II)

ReviewReview

• What are the three aspects of a What are the three aspects of a speech act, according to John Searle? speech act, according to John Searle? Use an example to illustrate.Use an example to illustrate.

Major contentsMajor contents

• 10.1 Cooperation in using English10.1 Cooperation in using English

• 10.2 Politeness in using English10.2 Politeness in using English

• 10.3 Face considerations in using 10.3 Face considerations in using EnglishEnglish

• 10.4 Developing pragmatic 10.4 Developing pragmatic competencecompetence

10.1 Cooperation in using 10.1 Cooperation in using EnglishEnglish

Cooperative PrincipleCooperative Principle

Make your conversational contribution such Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.engaged.

H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation, 1975H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation, 1975

Maxims of the principleMaxims of the principle• Quality: Be truthful.a. Do not say what you believe to be

false.b. Do not say that for which you lack

adequate evidence.

• Quantity: Be informative.a. Make your contribution as

informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange)

b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

Relation: Be relevant.Make sure that whatever you say is

relevant to the conversation at hand.

Manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief(avoid unnecessary

prolixity)d. Be orderly.

Plausibility of the maximsPlausibility of the maxims

• P. 172 No. 9P. 172 No. 9

Flouting of the maximsFlouting of the maxims

He is a machine.He is a machine.

A: Where were you last night?A: Where were you last night?

B: I went out.B: I went out.

A: Do you like the sisters?A: Do you like the sisters?

B: I like the younger sister.B: I like the younger sister.

A: What do you think of my new A: What do you think of my new hairstyle?hairstyle?

B: Your dress is nice.B: Your dress is nice.

A: Let’s get the kids something.A: Let’s get the kids something.

B: Okay, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.B: Okay, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.

ImplicatureImplicature

• It is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance. When any of the maxims is blatantly violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated, a particular conversational implicature arises.

Some properties of conversational Some properties of conversational implicatureimplicature

a. It can be cancelled, either by an explicit declaa. It can be cancelled, either by an explicit declaration that the speaker is opting out or, implicitlration that the speaker is opting out or, implicitly, by the co-text and context. (cancellabilityy, by the co-text and context. (cancellability 可可取消性取消性 ))A: Do you want some coffee?A: Do you want some coffee?B: Coffee would keep me awake. (But any way, B: Coffee would keep me awake. (But any way, I’d like some.I’d like some.

b. It can be inferred (calculabilityb. It can be inferred (calculability 可推导性可推导性 ))

P. 170 No. 3P. 170 No. 3

How to calculate an How to calculate an implicature?implicature?

a.The conventional meaning of the words a.The conventional meaning of the words used, and the references of referring used, and the references of referring expressions;expressions;

b.the cooperative principle and its maxims;b.the cooperative principle and its maxims;c.the co-text and context;c.the co-text and context;d.background knowledge;d.background knowledge;e.the supposition that all participants e.the supposition that all participants

suppose that all relevant items falling suppose that all relevant items falling under (1)-(4) are available to them all.under (1)-(4) are available to them all.

A professor writes a recommendation A professor writes a recommendation letter as follows:letter as follows:

““X has regularly and punctually attended all X has regularly and punctually attended all my classes. All his assignments were handed my classes. All his assignments were handed in on time and very neatly presented. I in on time and very neatly presented. I greatly enjoyed having X in my class.”greatly enjoyed having X in my class.”

ASKASK: What is his implied meaning?: What is his implied meaning?

1 Since I have good reason to believe that she 1 Since I have good reason to believe that she has information about X’s writing skills, the has information about X’s writing skills, the speaker has deliberately failed to observe speaker has deliberately failed to observe (flouted) the maxim “Be informative”(flouted) the maxim “Be informative”

2 But I have no reason to believe that she has 2 But I have no reason to believe that she has really opted out of the cooperative principle. really opted out of the cooperative principle. So, she is only being apparently uninformative.So, she is only being apparently uninformative.

3 If I draw the inference that X hasn’t got very 3 If I draw the inference that X hasn’t got very good writing skills, then the speaker is being good writing skills, then the speaker is being cooperative. She knows that I am capable of cooperative. She knows that I am capable of working this out.working this out.

4 Therefore, she has implied (or “implicated” to 4 Therefore, she has implied (or “implicated” to use Grice’s term) that the student’s writing use Grice’s term) that the student’s writing skills are not very good.skills are not very good.

c. It may be indeterminate:in many cases,the list oc. It may be indeterminate:in many cases,the list of possible implicatures of an utterance is open.(if possible implicatures of an utterance is open.(indeterminacyndeterminacy 不确定性不确定性 ))

P. 170 No. 4P. 170 No. 4

d. Non-detachability [given the same proposition]d. Non-detachability [given the same proposition]

A: Are you coming to the concert tomorrow?A: Are you coming to the concert tomorrow?

B1: There will be an exam soon.B1: There will be an exam soon.

B2: Won’t there be an exam soon?B2: Won’t there be an exam soon?

B3: There will be an exam, won’t there?B3: There will be an exam, won’t there?

10.2 Politeness in using 10.2 Politeness in using EnglishEnglish

Leech’s Politeness PrincipleLeech’s Politeness Principle

• MinimizeMinimize (other things being equal) the (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs andexpression of impolite beliefs and

• MaximizeMaximize (other things being equal) the (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs.expression of polite beliefs.

The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPThe 6 maxims of Leech’s PP

approbation

tact generosity

modesty

agreement

sympathy

• Tact MaximTact Maxim– Minimize cost to otherMinimize cost to other– Maximize benefit to otherMaximize benefit to other

• Generosity MaximGenerosity Maxim– Minimize benefit to selfMinimize benefit to self– Maximize cost to selfMaximize cost to self

Please wait a Please wait a secondsecond..

Give me Give me a handa hand..

Could you sharpen these pencils, please. Could you sharpen these pencils, please. (less polite)(less polite)

Could these pencils be sharpened, Could these pencils be sharpened, please. (more polite) please. (more polite)

Could I have some more soup? (less Could I have some more soup? (less polite)polite)

Is there some more soup? (more polite)Is there some more soup? (more polite)

I can offer you my car if you need it.I can offer you my car if you need it.You can offer me your car because I You can offer me your car because I

need it.need it.

Do have a bit more.Do have a bit more.Just have a taste of the fish.Just have a taste of the fish.

• Approbation MaximApprobation Maxim– Minimize dispraise of otherMinimize dispraise of other– Maximize praise of otherMaximize praise of other

• Maxim of modestyMaxim of modesty– Minimize praise of selfMinimize praise of self– Maximize dispraise of selfMaximize dispraise of self

What a marvelous meal you cooked!What a marvelous meal you cooked!

What an awful meal you cooked!What an awful meal you cooked!

A:A: This is one of the best articles I’ve This is one of the best articles I’ve ever read.ever read.

B:B: Yes, it’s brilliant, isn’t it?Yes, it’s brilliant, isn’t it?

•Agreement MaximAgreement MaximMinimize disagreement between self and Minimize disagreement between self and otherotherMaximize agreement between self and Maximize agreement between self and otherother

•Sympathy MaximSympathy MaximMinimize antipathy between self and otherMinimize antipathy between self and otherMaximize sympathy between self and Maximize sympathy between self and otherother

I’m terribly sorry to hear about your I’m terribly sorry to hear about your cat.cat.

I’m delighted to hear about your cat.I’m delighted to hear about your cat.

Politeness scale: DirectnessPoliteness scale: Directness directdirect

Could you possibly answer the Could you possibly answer the phone? phone?

Would you mind answering the Would you mind answering the phone? phone?

Can you answer the phone? Can you answer the phone?

Will you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?

I want you to answer the phone.I want you to answer the phone.

Answer the phone.Answer the phone.

indirectindirect

Politeness scale: Cost - Politeness scale: Cost - benefitbenefit

benefitbenefit

Have another sandwich. Have another sandwich.

Enjoy your holiday. Enjoy your holiday.

Look at that. Look at that.

Sit down.Sit down.

Hand me the newspaper.Hand me the newspaper.

Peel these potatoes.Peel these potatoes.

CostCost

10.3 Face considerations in using 10.3 Face considerations in using EnglishEnglish

• Face, the public self-image that every Face, the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself, member wants to claim for himself, consisting in two related aspects:consisting in two related aspects:

According to Brown and Levinson (1978/1987):

• negative face: the basic claim to negative face: the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction - i.e. to the freedom of non-distraction - i.e. to the freedom of action and freedom from impositionaction and freedom from imposition

• positive face: the positive consistent self-ipositive face: the positive consistent self-image or ‘personality’ (crucially includinmage or ‘personality’ (crucially including the desire that this self-image be apprecig the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactaated and approved of) claimed by interactants.nts.

Presentation sessionPresentation session

• Strategies for doing FTAs in EnglishStrategies for doing FTAs in English

AssignmentsAssignments

• PP. 172-173 No. 10PP. 172-173 No. 10

• PP. 176-177 No. 2, 3PP. 176-177 No. 2, 3

• PP. 178-180 No. 11PP. 178-180 No. 11