University of Groningen

Towards ecological governance in EU energy lawGiljam, Renske Anne

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Citation for published version (APA):Giljam, R. A. (2019). Towards ecological governance in EU energy law: with a focus on biomass regulationand the use of ‘best available techniques’. Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.

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Towards ecological governance

in EU energy law

with a focus on biomass regulation and

the use of ‘best available techniques’

Renske Anne Giljam

Towards ecological governance in EU energy law

with a focus on biomass regulation and the use of ‘best available techniques’

ISBN: 978-94-6375-278-7

Author: Renske Giljam

Lay out: Marilou Maes (persoonlijkproefschrift.nl)

Printing: Ridderprint BV | www.ridderprint.nl

Copyright © 2019 Renske Giljam

All rights reserved. No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in

any way or by any means without the prior permission of the author, or when applicable,

of the publishers of the scientific papers.

Supervisors Prof. H.H.B. Vedder Prof. M.M. Roggenkamp Assessment Committee Prof. K.J. de Graaf Prof. M.G.W.M. Peeters Prof. M. Lee

Contents

Table of figures 8

Abbreviations 9

Chapter One | Introduction 13

1.1. Environmental degradation, societal change and the role of law 14

1.2. Theoretical foundations and terminology 151.2.1. Sustainable development 15

1.2.2. Ecosystem approach 18

1.2.3. Ecological governance 19

1.2.4. Ecosystem resilience 20

1.2.5. Demarcations 20

1.2.6. EU energy law 21

1.3. Research questions 23

1.4. Methodology, aims and outline 25

Chapter Two | Holisticity in the regulation of biomass and biofuels 31

2.1. Introduction 32

2.2. Outline of the legal framework 34

2.3. Core of the framework 382.3.1. Renewable Energy Sources Directive 38

2.3.2 Industrial Emissions Directive 42

2.4. Peripheral framework 442.4.1. Environmental Impact Assessment Directive and Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive 44

2.4.2. Energy Efficiency Directive 46

2.4.3. Fuel Quality Directive 48

2.4.4. Waste Framework Directive 48

2.4.5. Regulation of solid raw materials 49

2.4.6. Gas Directive & Electricity Directive 51

2.4.7. BAT Reference Documents 54

2.5. Conclusions 572.5.1. Holistic elements and the current framework 57

2.5.2. Carbon neutrality 61

2.5.3. Consequences for legal design 63

2.6. Late amendments 65

Chapter Three | Ecological governance through the use of ‘best available techniques’ 67

3.1. Introduction 68

3.2. BAT under ecological governance 72

3.3. Internal changes in the definition of BAT 743.3.1. The Polluter Explains Principle 79

3.3.2. Substitution and Sunsetting 80

3.4. External application of BAT 803.4.1. Biofuels and biomass 81

3.4.2. BAT in agricultural land use and forestry 85

3.4.3. Extraterritoriality 87

3.5. The role of information 883.5.1. Normative precaution 89

3.5.2. Independent auditor 90

3.6. Conclusions 91

Chapter Four | Trade law compatibility of an expanded application of

‘best available techniques’ 95

4.1. Introduction 964.1.1. Ecological governance 96

4.1.2. Aims & outline 98

4.2. The debate on process measures 99

4.3. The legality of process measures 1034.3.1. World Trade Organization (WTO) 103

4.3.2. Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) 110

4.3.3. European Union (EU) 111

4.4. BAT and energy production 1154.4.1. Defining energy 118

4.4.2. Categorisation and differentiation 120

4.5. Conclusions 124

Chapter Five | The role of technology neutrality in incentivising energy-related

innovations 129

5.1. Introduction 130

5.2. Regulation of the EU energy sector 1345.2.1. Characteristics of the sector 134

5.2.2. Material norms 137

5.3. Technology neutrality and stimulating innovation 143

5.4. Implementing ecological governance 1475.4.1. Uncertainties 148

5.4.2. Externalities 149

5.4.3. Adaptability 150

5.4.4. The BAT concept 151

5.5. Conclusions 153

Chapter Six | Conclusion 159

6.1. Implementing a holistic approach in EU energy law 1606.1.1. Answering the research questions 160

6.1.2. Applying the findings to (the regulation of) the energy sector 169

6.2. Broader implications of the findings 1706.2.1. Hiatuses in the current approach 170

6.2.2. Required levels of change 171

6.3. Connecting the dots: the overall research theme 1736.3.1. General 173

6.3.2. BAT 174

6.3.3. Paradigm change 176

6.4. Working towards ecological energy law 1766.4.1. Ecological BAT approach 177

6.4.2. Ecologically responsible use of biomass 178

6.4.3. Lifelong learning 181

6.5. Taking a helicopter view 1856.5.1. Be humble 185

6.5.2. Think circular 187

6.5.3. Limit growth 188

Annex I | Policy update 193

I.1. General amendments and headline targets for 2030 194

I.2. New Renewable Energy Sources Directive 196I.2.1. Transport sector rules 197

I.2.2. The sustainability of biomass and biofuels 199

I.2.3. Compliance and calculations 201

I.3. Regulation on the Governance of the Energy Union 203

I.4. General appraisal of the new framework 205

Annex II | Posters 210

Annex III | English summary 215

Annex IV | Nederlandse samenvatting 221

Annex V | Acknowledgements 229

Annex VI | Curriculum Vitae 233

Table of figures

Figure 1.1: The redefined sustainable development concept 17

Figure 2.1: Legal framework applicable in consecutive phases of biomass life cycle 36

Figure 2.2: Flowchart of rules applicable to different biomass applications 59

Figure 4.1: Mandatory use of BAT 117

Figure 6.1: The potential of technology neutrality 168

Figure 6.2: Ecological EU energy law 181

Figure II.1: My research as presented at VMR Conference, March 2016 (poster 1) 210

Figure II.2: Second half of my research depicted (poster 2) 211

Figure II.3: Dissertation in a nutshell: correlation between the four articles (poster 3) 212

Abbreviations

AB Appellate Body (of the WTO)

AEEL Associated Net-Electrical Efficiency Levels (BAT)

AoA Agreement on Agriculture (agreement part of WTO)

BAT Best Available Techniques

BATNEEC Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Costs

BAU Best Available Use

BREF Reference Document on Best Available Techniques

CAP Common Agricultural Policy

CCS Carbon Capture and Storage

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

CEN Committee for Standardisation

CHP Combined Generation of Heat and Power

CJEU Court of Justice of the European Union (formerly ECJ)

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

COP Conference of the Parties

CUP Cambridge University Press

DLUC Direct Land-use Change

DSO Distribution System Operator

EC European Community (predecessor EU)

ECJ European Court of Justice (now named CJEU)

ECM Economics and Cross-Media Effects (REF)

Eco-AP Eco-innovation Action Plan

ECT Energy Charter Treaty

EEA European Environment Agency

EEC European Economic Community (predecessor EC)

EED Energy Efficiency Directive

EEELR European Energy and Environmental Law Review

EELF European Environmental Law Forum

EFS Emissions From Storage (BREF)

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

ELV Emission Limit Value

ENE Energy Efficiency (BREF)

EPR Extended Producer Responsibility

ETAP Environmental Technologies Action Plan

ETS Emissions Trading Scheme

EU European Union

FCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change

FQD Fuel Quality Directive

GAEC Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions

GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services (agreement part of WTO)

GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (agreement part of WTO)

GC General Court of the CJEU (formerly Court of First Instance, CFI)

GCEL Groningen Centre of Energy Law

GESP Groningen Energy and Sustainability Programme

GHG Greenhouse Gas

ICT Information and Communication Technology

IEA International Energy Agency

IED Industrial Emissions Directive

ILUC Indirect Land-Use Change

INECP Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan

INRA Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

ISO International Organization for Standardization

JEL Journal of Environmental Law

JERL Journal of Energy and Natural Resources Law

LCP Large Combustion Plant(s)

LRN Legal Research Network

LULUCF Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry

LVOC Production of Large Volume Organic Chemicals (BREF)

MFN Most Favoured Nation

MW Megawatt

NDC Nationally Determined Contribution

NEEAP National Energy Efficiency Action Plan

NeVER Nederlandse Vereniging voor Energierecht

NOx Nitrogen Oxides

npr-PPM ‘non-product related’ PPM

NREAP National Renewable Energy Action Plan

NT National Treatment

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OJ Official Journal of the European Union

OUP Oxford University Press

PBL Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving

POT Phase Out Technique

p.p. percentage point

PPM Processes and Production Method

pr-PPM ‘product related’ PPM

RE Renewable Energy

REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (Directive)

RECIEL Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law

RED Renewable Energy Sources Directive

REF Reference Document (type of BREF)

SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment

SFM Sustainable Forest Management

SMR Statutory Management Requirements

SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (agreement part of WTO)

TBT Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement (agreement part of WTO)

TEU Treaty on European Union

TFEU Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union

TPA Third Party Access

TRIMs Trade-Related Investment Measures (agreement part of WTO)

TRIPs Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (agreement part of WTO)

TSO Transmission System Operator

UN United Nations

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

US United States (of America)

VMR Vereniging voor Milieurecht

WAT Worst Available Technique

WFD Waste Framework Directive

WI Waste Incineration (BREF)

WMO World Meteorological Organization

WT Waste Treatment (BREF)

WTO World Trade Organization