University of Nigeria Research Publications

ARUA, Kevin C.

A

utho

r

PG/MA/91/12727

Title

John Stuart Mill’s Political Liberalism Against the

Background of the Principle of Natural Law

Facu

lty

Social Sciences

Dep

artm

ent

Philosophy

Dat

e

November, 1992

Sign

atur

e

JOHN STIJAH'r MILL % PPOEITICAL, L:I HE JIAIJSP AGAINST 'THE MCKGROUND OF' 'I'HK

PHIWCXPL,E OE' NATURAL LAW

. OEPARTNEN'I' OF PHILOSOPHY

IN 'IWL FACUILTY OF THE SOCIAL !;CIKNCES, UNIVERSITY OIP

MIGERTA , MSUKKA.

IN PARTlAL FULFlEIWNT OF THE R13ClUIHEPIEMT.'.; FOR THC AWARD 01.' THE DEGREE OF FASTER

OF ARTS (M.A . ) IN PHILOSOPHY (SOCIIAL ANP POLXTXCAL YHILOXJPZ~Y 1

in the Department of Phi lo sophy , s p e c i a 1 i : a i n g i n Sociiri

and P o l i t i c a l Philosophy, has sat isfactorl l l .y com~ :Lete:c.f

the requj,rernent,s f o r Course ancl R e s e a r c h Work f o r t h e

degree o f Plaster 01' Arts [M.A.: in P h i l o s c . ~ p h y . The

work erribc~di~d in his dissertation is 01-ig:Lnal and h a s

not been slirfimitted in part or i n f u l l for any othr:r #

diploma or degree of- this or any other Unllvc?rsity.

----- +---- DR. C. B. NZc ( SUPERVISOH )

Department od Philosophy University of Nigeria, Irlsukka,

JANUARY,, 1993

I' , ' i,. "

iv.

TC, ~4th GOVEI3NME 1VT THAT ACTUAL1 Z E THE IYl~TAPHYSICAL PR1NCI:PLE 01;'

NATUI?AL JUSTICE *

the i n t e l L c x t ~ a 1 : ; of our t i m e . He Lt is, who

pifinstakinl-l ly vetted t h i s work and Gave? i t - a bef"ll. , t , in(j

review, H i s c o n t r i b u t i o n towards the very' succc:~:, of

t h i s Thes i s is q u i t e invaluable,

In t h e same vein, my yrat i t .udd goes to t h e ot !ies

d:istfnguisht:d acaden~icians who have d i r e c t : l y con-

trributed ab~inbant;ly i n rsharpeninq and s t l n ~ u l a t i n g my

t h i n k i n g . i'kominent. w w n g these are: Dr. F, U, Wafer,

Dr. T. U. hbala , . Dr, E. M, Ome, Rev, Fr. : . 3 Xke

and Most, RervI F r , f~ - . T h e o p h i l u s i ) k e r e , 1 a ilso

htsreby eXpr.es:; my immense g r a t i t u d e to the vdriou::

a u t h o r s whose wor-ks have h e l p e d t:o r e - i n f orce my

Furthermore, my parent , Mother Lucy 0 . Arua ,

h a s h e r duel s h a r e of my g r a t i t u d e f o r her a b i d i n g

l o v e and a f f e c t i o n towards me, Play t h e Almighty

and Everlasting Cad g i v e e t e r n a 1 pa rad i se to my

Father, Pa V. L, M, Arua; May h.Ls g e n t l e * s o u l rest b

3'loreOver I I OI,V~-~. a n irnrnense debt o f grat: i tude to

,my brothercs and s i s ters: Goclwin, thnice: , S c i n o l i l s t ~ c : d ,

chi club em, and my re l a t ion24 for 111iikinq 1 lf'e cumf o r t i iLt .1 t b

fcm- m e especially i n d i f f i c u l t t imes.

Others who share my pr-ofoul.~d q r a t i tude w e :

Evarrs Ezet~gwu, a p h i l o s o ~ p h e r and s e n i o r teacher;

lJose!ph O b e t t a , a S e n i o r Seminar.4 an; Rev. Dr', Don. Eize,

la Pamtoral Priest; Rev. Fr. Or, G. m a h , Le!c turer

( Rome 1; Mr. B, T, Ikecheonwu, an econornis t and teacher ;

iDr, P, Om Mema, Provost: (K:3UT, Adada Campus 1; and

vii,

C o n c l u s i v e l y , 1 rather p l e d g e m y to ta l

! iubmis: j i~n to my I-iiqlrer-l&nius - (:I AM THAT I A P q ) ,

:Vor in H i m :L LLVE, MUVE AND HAVE: MY' BEING-

Arua, Kevin C,

bvernber, l%2.

which, t h ~ o l l g i h i t : ditl not ct:art t o d ~ l ~ , h a s becam<: a

i n t eqrill human cievel.opnic:nt a s w e l l ZLS i ts essenlcial. Y

u l t ir~iaite f u l f i I n e t ~ t . , And when an i s s u e rises f ~rorrr t l r e b

Levc:L of the e x c e p t i o n i ~ l to t h a t of t h ~ . u n i v t ? r . s ~ ~ l , 11

becomes a problem demarldin!~ the a t t e n t i o n of a1 l who

are :Ln a p o s i t . i o n to act or to s tu- ly the matt:er.

makeis peace precarious and unstable ,

As commonly reccqr~ized by critics of t h e prssen l-

hunlal-r ~ z o n d i t i o n , saw of the ul t imate causes of conf :.is t

ecr:,nomic and ! w c . i a l s y s t e m s and take: c o n t r o l of' the ".ay

b of t h e s o c i o - - p o l i t i c a l communi ty ,

TiJ~i31.J: 07 CONTENT .II._-.--.-ll.l-IIC-

Preamble .I . , . .) ,. 1

Sta.ternr:nlt of' t h~ problem . . . .. #

2

S i g n i f i.cance of t h e study e. . #I 3

Fiesea rch a b j e c t i v e s , . , a# 4

Plethod of t h e Hesea rch . , . , - ,. 4

S I o u r c e s . , , . , . a# 5

:;,cope iir113 O v e r a l l p l a n ctf t h e , thesis earn 6

2 .I I n t r o d u c t i o n - * a , ,

2 ; P ! i l l l 1s ~,. l fe and Career: a . ( a ) Biography . . , ( b ) E d u c a t i o n * , . (c) C'r thodox Utilitarian Career

(:I ) M e n t a l breakdown Cii) A c t i v e political caretar

2.3 P l i l T ~ s Works ,# , C a . .

( a ) ?:he. N a t u r e a n d Kncl of ljlan as the Pleasure of t h e Scope of I n d i v i r l u a l F reedom L . . . - . .

(b) The N a t u r e and End of Plan . -. M i l l ' s ; C o n c e p t 0 5 L i b e r t y 9 - . (b ) Tt11e value o f L i b e r t y e . ,* . ( C ) Absolute f reedon1 of tl-fc~ug h t

and express i o n . . . ,. ,.

( d ) Frleedom of' a c t i o n . . . I . ,* Function of t h t - S t a t e (:of' S O C . ~ C I ~ Authority a . .e .a

(1) State L c t e r f e r e n c e w i t h self- regarding and o t h e r - r e g a r ~ d :in9 ac t i o n s * . . . . . I. a

'The Issue o f t h e E n f o r c e n r e n t of MoraLiky: Freedom of t h e E n f o r c e n c e n t c € I n d i v i d u a l Obligation to S o c i e t y .. . . ,. *

4,,1 T h e F o u l ' l c h t i ~ n of' t h e Coc t r inc : . of Natura.1 Law . . - . . dm C t O'i

(a ) A, b r i e f hi,.stori.cal s u r v e y d, a 1. U 'I

(b) hlurnan naturle and n a t u r a l law ,) * I I 2 t:, ( i ) I s sue of method . . d l . Z 2 i:

( i f ) T h e s k r u c t u r e o f human n a t u r e .- o a dm ., .:I. 2 .!.?

I

4 . 2 M3n 15, iiwtirc?ne:,s of N a t u r a l 1,aw * .

i intuitive (gnoseolc~ 1i.caI 1 r e c o g n i t i o n of n a t u r - d l l a w .

(iii 1) Natural r e a s o n as r ; u t ) j e c t i v e rnorcil c o n s c i e n c e m e - .

j i v . i i J a t ixd :L r e a s o n as cloamon ob j t?c,t i v e moral c o n s c i e n c e

4. 3 Na t u r d l Law arl:-J N d t u r a l , H€?ason as Co-or-dinate P r i n c i p l e of E'osi t i v e J u r i d i c a l O r d e r of J u s t i c e and A u t h o r i t y rn . o a - . - .

(i.) Lirn. i ta t i o n a n d scolpe of n a t u r a l law ,

(ii) 1nd . i r ec - t extension 05 n a t u r a l . l a w b y n a t u r a l reason ., *

5.1 G u i d e l i n e Fo r a R , ea l i s t i r 3 .-3aldl?ce Betwcien Fr~eedom and A u t h o r i t y . . . *

1. '1 fJRI:AIYHLt. I---

The b a s i c a:;s lmption of ! .his thesis I; that a

proper understandiny o f nran i s arr essent 113 L rcquj.si tc:

for any rc:al ist ic: approach t o t h e problem o f hum12 n

r e l a t i o n s h i p i n pol. i . t ici31 s o c i e t y . For the idea of

t h e nature and purpose of human l ife necttssarf ly

c ~ n d u c i v e to it:; development and u 1 t inlate f u l f l l ~ w n t .

With t h i s assiimptfon, t h i s study foc:uses att e n t i o n

cm John Stuart Mill 1s tradition of socfo-politicn 1

J.iberali:;m, w h i c h has been a model. for the CJestex',n

l it:mral, c a p i t a1 i s t dernocriicy al-rd t:hi::., has f f r c t t , c t

almost hal f the wi~:::L~i tod;y. :I. t i:> tin a t kernpk tc shctc~~

that .the i1ndividl~uli:irn w h k h 1 t. u p h o l d s . i~ trlot: en::)cqh

to qualify as the concept of hurn+;.n rxi t lare, There.[ ore,

eff'ort will be made a t f i n d i n g t he proper gu id ing

principle o € order .in socio-pol l l r ica l c~anan~trrf k y 2 i l c ~

N:lg~eria.

The a.l.n~ anil purpose of' t h i s s t u d y A = to urrdtt,

J o h n S t u a r t Mill's i d e a of man, which i s bla:i;ic to

present-dsy libc?ra:l. c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y , i n order to

c?xplain ar~d to help others unde!rqritand why t h i n y s are

the way they art? in l i b e r a l c a p i t a l i s t : system of

clennocracy, and how t h e y could s70 changed. !For su-h a

f u ~ ~ c t , i o n of any moral teacher i.n so far C I S :melet. y and

p e : l i t i c s a x e e special branch ut e t h i c s .

l.3 S I G N 1 , F I C A N C E OF' THE STUDY I L . -- This t a s k i s of great importance a t t h . 1 ~ nlor~irent

that mas,k Afric im n a t i o n s ( p a r t k u l a r l y N i q e c i s ) a r e

~ > a m i n g th~rough a p e r i o d of fundamental c: hangea 8'rom

1:riidi tiolna l t o modern European forms of clernocracy.

"For such ii c:hange to be o r d e r l \ i , coherent. innd

reduce tlw dcrnqt:rs that: t!?reatt?n tlre c ) t i sk .cnce ol

political acciety.lv' To s e a r c h for, and to p o i n t o u t

cbf th,e present:-(:la y s o c i a - p o l i t . k a l phi looophers ,

c!special ly of' A f r i c a ;

p c ~ l i t i c s l ol.clen.* arrd t h e s t a t u ; of t h a t o r d e r i n the

skruc ture of b e i n g i s a great siervicc-. done to h \ ,m~n l . t y

mi?di.eval t r a d i t: ior;,, a:; w e l l a:; -moral t eachers oi nor+

European pre-modern c u l t u r e ~ , d n b p h i l o s o p h i e s . 'rhey

c m m u n i t y rr~us t be based o n a v i a l i d c o n c e p t i o n ol

human n a t u r e :

For communi ty is an on-derinq of human a g e n t s . They recognized t h a t inddequa te unclerstancling of t h e d e s t r u c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the human person i n e v i t a b l y results i n a d e f i c i e n t concept of t h e humNan conrmunity, and o f norms of i t s f u n c t i o n i n g . 3

Hence i t i s my c o n v i c t i o n t h a t much m y be hearr.rt.

and sense in w h j - c h f t wlas t r a n s m i t t e d t o subseq~rcznt: +

Hence, Hi~nrrlelfarb r i g h t l y n o t e s that

'JJhat J o h n S t u a r t Mill, more than anyone else , bequeath'etl to us is t:he idea of: t h e free Eind soverel.gn individuai ,4

T h i s explairls why i n \$ Jes t e rn ~ x m s u m e r f s t society

which means d i f f * : r e n t things I:o d l ff (!?rent pea{ it6 ,

crit.ica1 r f b f l e c t l v t : proc~'c1urc. Trr t.h~b cl l : ;c:~ursc o l

the individual humlan re la t ionsh ip with t h e socio-

t r r u t h l ' orn absolute freedom of i n d i v i d u a l en te r~ :~r i . se

i.n t h e face of t h e emergent i ~ n t : i - - ind iv i~duaTi : ; t i ( :

observes t h a t . mdri is always :,(.:fish wht . t ,ker ile be

r u l e d or he i a L t v - ruler, It w d r n s d g a f r , s t u n : ' a i r

of t h e mci3orit .y which l i k e a 1 l t y r a n n i e s is :;ti 11

vulgtkrly h e l d i . n d r e a d ,

pol iky, I n addition, I consult :x i numerou:; cr it ica?

and b loqrdph ica l . iwork:, of aut hors ( b e s i !e:; Mill ' s owln

. .. reflect ions.

W e i n t e n d . i n c h a p t e r orli? t o make a n i n t r o d u c t i o n

of' t h e research w r i t i n g w h i c h i n c l u d e s a n o v e r v i e w of

w o r k s , as w e l l a s t h e main o u t s i d e influences on hi:j

l i f e and i d e a s , I t a l so reveals how M i l l a s s i r n i l a ' : e d

his t r a d i t i o n a l l i b e r a l u t i l i t a r i a n ideds of irbdivs.- +

d u a l i s m as a creed and a s y s t e m t h r o u g l , ~ h i s p r e c o c i o u : ,

education a n d e a r l y i n i t i a t i o n i n t o it;:; 1 9 t h c r n L u r y

ethos. It a l : ~ ~ shows his l a t e r dissat l . s f actloll w i t 1 1

t h i s h e r i t a g e o f a m e c h a n i c a l c o n c e p t of man a:, an

t ~ c s n o m i c machine devoitJ of emu t f on, and how M i 1 1 r-;

a t t e m p t t o modify i t , i n the f a c t of c o n t e m p o r a r y

p u t him i n a p o s i t i o n of ambl.vale.nce i n .the developnient.

of h i s i u r c l i v i d u a l i s t i c p h i l o ~ c 2 p h y of' egc3isrn.

Chapter t h r e e , in i t s t u r n , s e e k s kc) dernonf;trate,

i n E 4 i l l I s tl-~esi:, , t h a t abso1u t : e nun-1nter.f erenct? w i t h

t h e l i b e r t y of a c t i o n of an e d u c a t e d a d u l t i n a

c : L v i l i z e d c a p i t : d l i st market smir*t y 1.:; the. upi)rcr;>r'ltr t.t.

a n d uncond i . ti okra 1 scope of order c o n c ; u c i v c f o r t Ie

enterpr j . : i ;e , It state:.; t h a t c~ policy OI rm coercive

s o c i e t y . , The o n l y l i m i t a t i o n l;o t h i s r u l e i:; ( ;e l f -

d e f e n s e 'and defence of o t h e r s h y social. c ~ u t h o r k t y as d

common protector. A t t h e same t i m e , Hj . l .1 declmr; .it:

a p p r o p r l a te t h a t t h e uneduca k t ~ l , t hr urrder-aqecl a m

non-capi talis t p e o p l e s r e s p e c t i v e l y , sl-wuld be b

s u b j e c t e d to des!oot ism a s a normal rrleana of ed.uc3tlnlj

them t o freedom i n o r d e r to q \ . ~ d l i f y foi c:i t : i ze lnsh ip

and p o l i t i c a 1 in(:.lependence.

To j u s t i f y t h i s u n c o n d i t i o n a l f reedom o f c a p i t a l i s t

i n i t i a t i v e , M i l 1 e x p l a i n s t ha t a n educated man's n a t u r e

Is un iqu (and complex which tloc?s nut aclmS t sub j e r l:l on

t o any or-gani*zed p a t t ~ r n of t:l.mught antl action, nor to

inc:ompal;ibil?lty 'of i n d i v i d u a . 1 . I n t e r e s t s are s u c h t h a t

t h e y must: :beloncj to p r i v a t e re :spons J.bi :lit:y and be

a c h i e v e d t h r o u q h I n d i v i d u a l e x e r t i o n . F o r t h e

i n d i v i . d u a 1 a l o n e i s t h e b e s t j r ~dge and q u a r d i a r of hi:>

own intc:,r,eats. klr?nce l i f e 11-1 socie t:y :is not: fclr- sclcielr

t o make t1ne i n c l i v i d u a l good, ;ilurnan be:lrlcls &.re sect:;r-e

f rom e v i l a t t h e hc.nds of other : ; t o t h e e x t e n t t h , ~ t

t:he*y are sc::P.E-dc,:pcrtdcnt:, They ach ieve . . success irk

t h e i r s t r u c y j l e w i t h n a t u r e o n l y when t h e y r e l y or,i what

e a c h car1 do for h imse l f r a t h e r t h a n on what o t h e r :;

c:an do for them. ?'he u l k i m a t e standard of r 'ufere~~ce

4.n t h i s t y p e of r e l a t i o n s h . i p is u t . l l i t y or p r i v a t . e

etdvantagc?, which .is also of social benefit , because

urhoever pursues h i s own good, pursues als'c) t h e gclod o::

t hc.: s o c i e t y i n t h ~ t t h e a d d i t i o n oP p r i v a t e good rrlake,; b

up t h e wealth and c u l t u r e o f soc:icty.

I n g e n e r a l , i t . i s recogni;:r:d t h a t i n making so

s t r 'onq a case for social n e u t r a l i t y , !Vlill c o n t r i b r r t e s

t.o an a t m o s p h e r e of moral re1a t : iv i sm and p e r m i s s i v e n e s s

i n which p e o p l e c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e l e g i t i m a c y of

s;oc: ial it1te:rf e r e n c x and t h e l e g i t i m a c y of nmra l

j uclgment of a . u t h o r i ty . T h i s i s t h ~ pheno~mnon

c h z r r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e presen t -day consumer societ y n

It: f :; corrrmonly agreed tha t : the p u r s u i t : of t h e

3 nclividuztl r s e x c l u s i v e in tare st:^ c a n n o t l e a d to l -amorly

and peace, n o r t o t h e growth of' everyonet Y welfare?,

For i t leads t o egolism and i n v o l v e s a n t a y o n i . s t i c

f e s l i n q s an11 a c t i o n s t o w a r d s r j - v a l s and irif'eriorb,,, 'J'Clc?

f ee t l i nq of l o v e and t h e s p i r i t of sha r . i ng w i t h ot lrers

g i v e w a l l t : ~ ) greed and envy and t h e desire to t a k e away

from ott~ers f o r onese1.f i n c r e a s e s . T t m;!k.~?g f'zr end lcs:;

st:rugglr? and dl.si::,r'der. I t i s rea'lized also, tha:,:

al.thoug11 socie.t.y miay not: grant £u:l.l freeldorn t o an

inclividua:L, wi t.hou. t s o c i e t y he c a n n o t ha-ve a t a l :h , t h a t

is, he cannot d d v e l o p his p o t t i t r r t i a l i t i e s . Fur th ,a rmore ,

c h a p t e r t h r e e deals w i t h M i l l I's r e c o g n i t i o n of t i r e nc,!cd

fcrr s e c u r i t y f o r e n t e r p r i s e and he a t t e m p t s t o de-

melrcate b y means of e m p i r i c a l c ' l a s s i f i c a , t ion t h e scope

of' social a u t h o r . i t y which h e , $ e g a r d s as a pwer p ~ ~ l r e : : i . \ ~

f cjr t h e d,ef ence of i n d i v i d u a l s from o n e another * :;

i n j u r y . His cl as s . i f ica t i o n f 01. l ows no d(3f Lni te r u l e :;

because hc r e j e c t s appeal t o Paw. H e f a i l : ; ta s e c u r e

t h e c i t a d e l of i n d i v i d u a l * s i r i v i o l ab le f r e e d o m wnen

he c o n c e d e s t h a t even private acts which . I n d i r e c t:ly

affect ciapendents are s u b j e c t to p roh ib i4 t . l on . Ht! re1.i.e~

on arbitr'ariness, hence , he f a i l s t o determine precisely

what should be t h e i n t r i n s i c inalienable r i g h t of the

i n d i v i d u a l ,

As a m a t t e r of f a c t , chapter f o u r is t h e f irral b u t

c r u c i a l s t a g e of o u r w o r k whose a . i m is t o rndke arb ovc:r.-

a l l c r i t i c a l asses:;ment crf Mill's p o l i t i c a l l i be ra l i : ;m ,

and a t t :h i s p o i n t , it i s necessdty for u:3 to have il

v a l i d priric::iple upon which o u r :ju::lgrnen-i: :C:; t o be made.

T h i s prin1c.i.plc> w i l 1 be d e r i v e d f~?cxr~ Aql.lir'lc\; t r a d i-

n a t u r a l law.

The r e a s o n for t h i s is that , , , i.n d e a l h y w i t h t h e

i n d i v f d u a l hurnan r e l.at i o n s h i p wJ. it11 t h e scrt.: l.c)-poli klcal

a u t h o r i t y , it is i .mpor tan t t h a t one knows t h e p r i m a r y

f. ~ u n d a t i o n of t h a t , r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n t h i s regard,

p1h i lo sophy and the). -li oremos t df w p i n a s pl-i i . losoph lcal

ancestors, has a p t l y 1a.I.d down an immor ta l g u i d e 1 lne

for st:arting any rareanfngful s e a r c h f o r a v a l i d socio-

p o l i t i c a l ph:illosaphy, which Aqu inas has s u c c e s s f u l l y

whoever would u n d e r t a k e a p r o p e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e ideal con;s t .Ltut ior? (or orqaniza1: ion) of t h e po1f t ic :a l s k a t e must det:errnine the most d e s i r a b l e form of lif'e :€or marl. For as l o n g as tha t p o i n t i s n.ok made clear , khe n a tur 'e of .the i.:lea:L s ta te must r ema in unc:eritain fr? t h a t t h e two are es : ; en t i a : l l y r e l a t e d . Hence t h e best. way of l i f e must g o t o g e t h e r wl . th the b e s t form of socio-po1i t : ical . order p o s s i b l e according t o t h e n a t u r e and c i ~ x u m s t ante of man. 5

I4ccorciingly, ~ r i s t o t l e ' s advice s:itnpl. y means for

Aquinas that t h e validity of any theory and proposals

r e g a r d i n g soc io -po l k t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p rn~uist: be ,*p udged

on the m r ? r i t of i k s a d e q u a t e ur rders tanding of t h e

n a t u r e and end O F m?;llr, For, unless w e know e x a c t l y

wihat man :Is and the p u r p o s e of: his l i f e , we ci lnnot

successfu:Lly d e t e r m i n e any 1 e . q i t i m a t e r e ! l l a t i o n s l ' ~ i p

c o n d u c i v e to h i s existence as a means ho t h e realizi3-

t i o r i of -its f 'u . lL lpurpose . I n lother words, a va-I.-id

moral phi.:losophy rnust depend For i t s just i f icat:;i.ari

om t h ~ s . V P ~ L d i t y ol': it13 p h i l o w p h i c n l csnt;t~r.c:qxil.orly.

For, If, i%s L. E o c ~ l i o l o r i g h , t l y h o l d s , I t i t i s n o t

p o s s i b l ' e t o s t a t e what man is , t h e n t:he pmsaqe from

ainthropol.ogica:L to e t h i c a l agnos ticisrn becomes ;:m

irnevi.tab1.c l o g i c a l . setpel o f any such p h ~ i l o s o p h y t h a t

wou1.d a u t o m a t i c a l l l y r e n d e r an.y p r a c t i c a l p r o p o s a l 5

bracad on : I t hpust.rl.blta kto apy l. y, 6

( ~ q u i n a s agrees w i t h Aristotle i n t . h e clas::;ica:l

t r a d i t i o n t h a t t h e c o n s t i t ~ t i ~ o n upon which t h o f,reedom

of t h e human p e r s o n and u n i t y of t h e p o l i . t i c a l s t a t e

i s based :is the c o n c r e t e enlbodiment- of t h e n a t u r a l

m~oral law of ju:; tice : Inhe ren t in trun~an nature ( reason)

as an unw Fit ten co~nrnamd of a f:r i3.n scerxien t. autt'boi.-i t y t o

which human subject and human a u t h o r i t y are bourld i n

conscience:, and t:.n ic t l(aw is t .he true :-;ovt:?r.t~ign wrl lose

s e r v a n t s arc tht? ~Oc:io-politii.,I:L a u t n c x f i..i.~rs j . To ava id s u c h i n d d e n c e , I i n t e n d t o e s t a b l i s h

i n chapter- four, a s o l i d h2sc. ic:, serve as ;i point: of

~lapitrttlre fix- dlry :.;oc::ic~-politic:,il phiPo:;opl9ry wor;t:hy

of t h e nanw and t o b r i n g t h i s 1:o bear o n r~ l i - l l r ,:r;ystern

which I have been c o n s f d e r i n q . For t h i s reason, t h e

t fo l l c~wing ,steps s h ~ l l be t a k e n :. First, ecn exp0s.i. . . t iom

of ~ ( p h a : ; ' :; doctr:Lne of t r a n s c e n d e n t nat:ur. a l law,.

b a s e d on h i s i n h r r i t e d m o t a p h y ~ ; i c a l a n t h ropo loqy ,, i n

. order t o :;llow how i t : c o n s t i t u t e : j t h e t)asi.c:: p r i n c ~ p l t f ok'

e t h i c : a l and legal :jj ust:Lc,e upon which a n y v a l ' i d pt:) l i t ica l

~sy'stem s'hcmld rest T h i s undect akincj wi.3 l be prc..:ccckd.

by a b r i e f ' 11lstoric;iil :survey of the concxpt of n ~ i t u r t j $

law from t:he Grt?co--Roman ant iqi i f~I- ,~y t o thc:: med ic?v<il

C a t h o l i c acho la :~ t i c : era as a p r o p e r s e t t i n 9 f o r , s q u i n a s t

d o c t r i n e . A l s o , a c r i t i q u e of John S t u a r t . Mi11@:3

it ht2sJ.s s h a l l be e s t a b l i s h e d i n the l i g h t of a n t h r o p o l o -

( j ical , e t h i c a l , and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and economic

a s s e s s m e n t s .

F ina l . l y , chapil:.er f i v e wi l l . c o n c l u d e this t h ~ ! s i s f

w i t h an af'f i r fnat lor? t h a t socfu-.pol i t i c a l s t a b i l i l:y i s

. i m p o s s i b l e i n a' liberal d e m o c r a t i c soc:Fet:y wi.thoir.t, t h e

rae taphys icxd f o u n d i i t i o n of mora.1.-:jur i c l i c a l j u s t i o t

enti of man.. I n o t h e r words , the. n e g a t i o n of man 5

s p f r i t ua : l i t , y or p e r s o n who i s rh~e p r o p e r , s u b j e c t of

lati and :;oc:i.et:y i s t o deny him t:he means essentia 1 to

h i i j temporal, perf , e c t i o n and ul kirnate end , And t h i s i:;

t:o deny hinl fundarnenta l jus t ice! , which eng,enders n o t

peace and harmony but c n n f l i c t and d i s o r d e r . Hence, #

whoever wants s o c i o - p o l i t i ca l peace must restore t c s

. marl t h e basic r i g h t s of t h e human pe r son .

CI-rapt t ! ! r I: Footnotes -- .- ----

5 . ~rctstotle, P o l i t i c s , trans, wi ch i . n t r o d u c t i . o r i by Em B a r k e t , T7'jxf'm- C1arenc:lon Press, 1964 ) , I:n t r o d uctiorr , F.IPa 61-62.

CHAPTER TWO

The u n u : ; u a l l y w i d e r a n g e of J o h n S t u a r t M i 1 L I s

i n t e r e s t s and abi l l.ties d o e s much t o make him a n

i n t e : l l e c t u a l l y l i v e f i g u r e ! f o r rnore t h a n a c e n t u r y

a f t e r his d e a t h . C t a l so poses a p r o b l e m i n an *ittell pt.

t o p r o v i d e a c o h e r e n t , c o m p r e h e n s i . v e and gre t t o l c x a b l y

b r i e f a c c c m n t of 1 7 1 s career.' M l l l eked t:)ul: h i s living

as a f u l l - k i r n e of f i c i a l of t h e East Indiit Company. try

t h e t i m e c h e company was d i s s c ~ l v e c l i n 1858, he hbild FI

1 p a s i t i o r ~ c:omrrens~1r;~3te t o t h a t G F ;I sec:rt":~:-.,' of t at-t .

t h e o r y . I le ccm t r ' i bu ted a gmci dc!;i.l t o t h e d e v e l (:rpfllerx t

( 3 i s t i n c t : i v e role i n b o t h t h e ph i1osoph ica :L a n d the

p r a c t i c a l , dcf ence of socia 1 f r:,te8edom. I n f a c t , t h e . .

t w e n t i e t h century l iberals and soc::ialist:s a l i k e crr!m

l o o k t o him as t h e . l r p r e c u r s o r * I n some of t h e s e careas

Iq111':; "theory of comparative-. advt intaqet aar~d h i s a n a l y s i s of' how the ga ins f rom ' t r a d e are d i s t r i b u t e d bet:ween t r -ndinq p a r t n e r s nark a n irnpclr t a r ] t advance i n economic: t h e o r y , 2

Again , M i l l 1 s cc>nl : r ibu t ion to tht i t h e o r y of dedc~c t:ive

l o g i c , w i t h h i s c l a i m t h a t l t a , l l infer en^::^. 1s f r c ~ m

by someone w i t h a t leas t a l l $ . t t l e t r a i n . l n ( j i n l c ~ j i c ,

hlhat maklzs i t : d i f f i c u l t s i m p l y to l e a v e :such i s s u e s

t.o t h e e x p e r t s i s a f ac t abqut Mill's v i e w s which i : i

i.n itself b o t h i m p o s s i b l e arid c o n t e n t i o u s , Henc'e,

Piill t h o u g h t t h a t suc:h a p p a r e n t l y reconc i i tel puzzles were, event:u(iilly, p r e g n a n t w i t h p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s , The de t e r m i n a t i ~ o n with which he occasional 1.y p u r s u e d u n p r o f i t a b l e l i n e s of a rqument i s o n l y t.o tie e x p l a i n e d by h i s be1 l.ef t h a t human I:Jrajres:s hung on such prob lems a s t h e e :p i s temologica l . s t a t u s 0.1 Mathe1mat:ics. 4

N i l 1 bra.-, 3 p::Llic t n : l n k e r , who a d d r e s s e d m y p ~ l r t : of t h e e d u c d t e d p u b l i c who m i q h t J.iste11 t o him, and W ~ C I 1ic3W h imse l f ' as bour1c-l t o p romote t h e i.mpt-ovement of ~nank i rv l I n e v e r y t h i n q h e wrote. 5

2.2 M I L L ' S L IFE AND CAREER -n- -.-

(a) Bioqraphy: -I

John S t u d r t Mill i s t h e eldest son of the Brf tis11

h i ~ t o r i ~ j r ~ , e c o r ~ o ~ n . i s t and phlll.o:;opher J<unas Mlll. John

S t u a r t Hi 11, p a p i l l a r l y known a:; t h e yolincyer M i 11,

P e n t c n v ' i P l e , Lcrnl Ion. H e w a s e d u c a t e d t::xc:lus Cv+!l y

by h i s f a t h e r , wlro was a strict d isc ip : l . i .na r ian . By

hi:; e i g h t h year he had r e a d 113 t h e o r iq i r~a l G r e e k

Ae:sopt s P;lbles, ' tenophen "s -...--.--? Anabasis arrcl the wrrole

of t h e h i s t o r i r 1 n Herodotus . lie also wcis acqua in t ec l w i t l ,

t h e S T , t..iri.st L u c i a n , the h i s torl.arr of p h i l o s o p n y ,

Df oyer~t.~-; L a e r t i u ;, t h e A t h e n i a n writer anti e d u ~ : a t i c , n ~ - i l

wi 'khfr~ t h e same .age too, h e s t a r t e d L a k i r l , t h e

geomet::r.y of E u c l i d and a lgebra and e v e n , bcqan to t:.eac.h

t h e youncjec c'ri~.'E i~.szn of h i s .FarrlJ'.ly. kill.:; m a i n interest

wa:i st f. 1.1 h i s t o r y , b u t h e went t-hro,igI-I a t 1 t h e L a t i n

and G r ' e , :lc author : ; common1 y read i n :;chool s and

P l a t 0 .3l\d t h o nthcnian s t a t c ~ v r n d r ~ Demos.tl?ennes w i k h i!,iufd.

bout tr~c age of t w e l v e , h e bcqan a t h o r o u g h st:udy of

s c h o l a s t i c logic a n d a t t h e same! time r e a d i n g

A r i s t o t : L e i s l o g i c a l treatises .in i t s or . i .q inal . A t

t h : i r t e e n , he was i n t r o d u c e d t o p o l i t i c a l , economy a n d

s t u d i e d w o r k o f t h e S c o t t i s h p o l i t i c a l ~!c:onornii;t and

ph: l losophcr Adam S m i t h a s w e l l as t h a t ok t h ~ ? r . ; n q l i s l ~

Economist David i ; l ichardo,

(b3 H i s E d u c a t i o n : ----..----.--a

J o h n S t u a r t M i l l 's e d u c a t i o n i s p r o b a b l y t h e

best-known t h i n g a b o u t him. t i i s own cc:lm~ment: upon .it b

. is i n t e r e s t i n g l y d i f f e r e n t f r o n i what: we s h o u l d now

expect, It i s ttle r e s u l t , of hi:; f at :herts expel-irnent,

h e says, t h < l t p r o v e s how e a s i 1 . y a c h i l d m a y ~ic t . lu i~ - t?

a n ainourlt of adviiinced Icnowledge which i s selclor~fl

: tha t .C c o u l d d o , c o u l d a s s u r d l y be done. ,by any boy or g i r l of a v e r a g e capacity ancl heal thy p h y s i c a l c o n . s t ; i t u t i o n : a.nd if I have ziccc.tmplished anything, I owe i t , m o n q other f ' o r t u n a t ~ ? c ~ i r c u ~ ~ ~ s t a n c e s , t c : , I:hu fact thdi: !Lnrouqi? t h e early t r - a i n i r , ~ , ~ bestotle3 upon me b y ~riy f a t h e r , i. startt?i:l, I may f a i r l y s a y , w i t h a n a d v a n t a g e of a q u a r t e r of a c e n t u r y over my c o u n t e r p a r t s ,

a s p e c t bas t h e close a s s o c i a t i o n i t fostered w i ~ h the

s t r e n u o u s c h a r a c t e r and vigor-uus i n t e l l e c t ofz h.is

f a t h e r , . From h i s ear l ies t d i lys , h e spent: much t i r n e :

i n his fakherts s t u d y and h a h l t u a l l y acc~crnrpariietl him

o n his w;sllcs. Me thus i n e v i t a b l y acqua1nt :ed many o'

h i s frai:hPr s s p t x u l a t i v e opinion::; and his f at.her s way

of d e f e n d i n g them. But h e di.d n o t r e c e i v e t h e

i.rnpresr;ion pass:lvt=ly and m e c h a n i c a l l y . The d u t y of

c ~ o l l e c t ~ i n ~ ~ and we:Lghinq e v i d e n c e for h i m s e l f was a,t

e v e r y .t:urn impressed upon t h e boy. H i s childhood wi l s

not unhappy, but t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t :lt was a strain

on h i s c o n s t i t u t : i o n and t h a t he s u f f e r e c l from l d c k of

Jeremy Uentham, the E n g l i s h L Lliitar. iail i . , ; t i ivJo,. r ier ,

economi sc , and t h - j o r e t i c a l j u r i s t : . Copkous e x t r a c t s

from a d:Lilry k e p t a t t h l c ti;,,,: JIOW how m i : t h o d i c a l l y hi;:

read ar~~cl wrote, s k u d i e d Cheml s t r y and t3o t:any, t dc:k led

advanced Matheinat Leal p r o b l e m s , a n d rnaclc:? rroke:; : : l n tl-,c

s c e n e r y iind t h e p a o p l e and cu!jitoms of the: c o u n t r y , H e

a1 so g a i m d a ttm:'oug:h a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h the Fre$nch . .

l anquage . On . h i s return i n 1 8 2 1 , he added t o h i s worlc

t h e s t u d y of Psycho logy and of Roman l a w , wh i ch h e read

w i t h J o h n A u s t i n , as a r e s u l t of h i s f a t : t w r * s d e c i s i o n

o n t h e biX as t h e best p r o f e s s . i u n open to him. T h i s

i n t e n t i o n , however was abandoned , and irr l 8 2 2 , i v l i X 1

had reald P.E.L- Dumont 's expos . i t l . on of Bentharnv t;

d o c t r i n e 2 j i n the ' r r a i tes d e L e c ~ . l s : l a t i o n wh ich made a -.- - 1

l a s t i n g : i inpressioa~ upon him. The i m p r e s s i o n w a s con-

f i r m e d b)! t h e s t u d y o.f t h e Eng1;Ls.h p: ;yck~ologis t : s ;3nd

E t i s n n e Bonnot d e ~ o n d i l l t c and C l a u d e Pd l r i en H c l v e t i w s ,

who w e r e n o t e d f o r t h e i r e m p h a s i s on p h y s i c a l s m : ; a t i o n s ,

Soon after, i n 18;?2-1823, M i l l t ? s t a b l i s h e c l amonq a f e w

f r i e n d s , the u t i l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y , t a k i n g the word, ias

hs te l l s u s , from ~ n n a l s of t h e Pariah a n o v e l of - * S c o t t i s h coun t ry1 :L fe by J o h n Gal t, '7

what: concern:: ; u s most, however , is t h e moriil

a . tmospheru i n w h i c h Mill grew t o nranhood,, and t h i s c a n

be felt 1.n his owrl a c c o u n t of h i s father s p rFncaLp le s

and belieifs. Hence, James M i l l . was w r i t i n g of L h e

l i f e of the S c o t t i s h h i s t o r i a n John Dlil.l.er.. i n '!S06.,

whe* his ;ran w'is I:mrn, t h a t :

F'or thci elder M . i l 1 , t h i s is ;L matter sf pr imary

scicimce, or t h e a c t i v e busknti::;~ of rnankirr~A, TPt!

younger M i l l s e d u c a t i o n was :, he says, v i r t u a l i l y a

' course oi' B e n t h a , m i s n r c or mox-e exactly, a hlena af #

E3entharnisrrr w i t h F l a r t l e y ' s metaphysics and psycho:l.oyy,

(;c) O r t h o d o x c J t 1 , l i t a r i a n C a r e e r : ---a- ---*..-

The e d u c a t i o n which Jnmcss M i l l gave h i s son wa,s

i i currs:ls~t:ent: expression sf t h e p:;ycholcvgy i n w h F c h .set

l>elieved, but it is a l s o a symbol s f t h e ea,r:ly r~i.nc:?-

sncsurayod Inore .tnteres;t i n h o w people ~icc . lu ire( 1 t h e

s0c: ka l , po:llbica.k ; m I r e l i g i o u s ; i t t l r t u c k s which now

seemed so c h a n g e a b l e , C o n s e r v a t i v e s and ~ a d i c a : I t s

b o t h had t o pay a t t e n t i o n t o the problem, and in d u e

course it is t h e t w o g r e a t t e a c h e r s of the a g e k h a t

Mill s i r l u t e s Bentham and C o l e r i d q e , Man*( radic$.s

t ,hought that i f men ware only educated, they would

see c l e a r l y what: was needed for better and mare

hioneat government: even t h e h a b i t u a l l y p t : s s i rn i s t i c

James M i l l sometimes found this a too ternpt inq

assumpt:ion. But: t h e r e were a 1 so

u t i 1 i t a r : i a n s were conce rned w i t h b

back at. Iiobbes, t h e most e m i n e n t

wcglairul why,

good r e a s o n s why the

e d u c a t i o n , A gl .ance

of t h e i r p r e c u r s o r s . ,

Hsbbes, l i k e James M i l l , . thought of* ruwn a s nattlra2.

e g o . l s t s ; , t h e y d o wha teve r y i e l d s them the: most

s a t i s f a c t i o n . 7 ' h . i ~ i s not: q u i t e t o say that th8.:y are

s e l f i s h ; i n t h e o r d i n a r y s e n s e , b u t a l t r u i s m i s a t

least rare i n a na t .u re , and n o t t:o be relied on as a

check t.o hurnan greed and p r i d e , T h i s rncik:cs social l ii'c

p r o b l e n i a t i . ~ , f o r , i n t h e absence of law a n d gover'rment.,

what wclulld s t o p men from r e 1 a p s i . n ~ i n t o c i v i l w a r ?

The ans.wtar, o f course, i s t h a t t h i s :Ls jutit whal; t h c , y

I J .,~,f!;??.r~; t . would rel.iipse .irti~.:, i.1.1 the s i t . .q i l . c? u t I , I ~ ~ \ , I I ~ . + " ~ - ,"

a11 u t ~ l . ! . L a r L n n : , ; (:uncut: to Hobl.msla Ise1:Frrrf' t t ~ , . ~ t "in

pcrrsuas:ivrt; ancr i t . m i n i m i z e s the d i f f e r e n c e s to be

f o u n d atnorrq u t i 1 . i t . a r i a n s . Bu t3 i t offers lone rea: ;on

b e h i n d the u t . i l i t a r i a n c o n c e r n w i t h e d u c a t i o n . t i t a

time when educs l t i cm was t h o u g h t of i n a much w i o e r

sernse than formal school . ing , mii amounted to whal: w e

ncrw term l s o c i a l : l z ~ a t i o n ' , t h e t r a : l n i n q of i.rraticmi:dl l.y

s e l f i s h c h i l d r e n f n t o r a t i o n a l l y s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d

a d u l t s was t h e f i r s t necessity for a s t a b l e and happy

social life. But s e l f i s h n e s s was n o t t h e o n l y rn~otivt?

which u t l l . i t a r i a n s c o n ~ s i d s r e d . Even Hobbes was pre-

pa red to g r a n t t h a t men f e l t ii c e r t a i n n a t u r a l

sympathy which COIJ l d be deve loped by educa t:ion. By

James Mill ' s . day , t h e more u,tcq).i.;i of his cont-,ernpcxar.'.tts

w w e : . ;uggest.inq . t h i a t , w i t h enough of tihe r i g h t k.:~.nd i ~ f '

eclucal:.ion, sympathy c o u l d be ~nade to outwtaigh

s e l f l s h n c s s , and t h a t t h e c o e r c i v e f oms of aut. hor:L t y

c o u l d be: dispensc!d wk t h .

AdnC;:,l'lc:] s u c h t l t o p i a n u t i l i t.ar i a n s , Robert Ot~lorn

txc:upiles a p e c u l j a r l y impor t a r i t place i n Plil l ' :;

career. Own snr:red James M i 1 1 @:i beli~: ?n tht'. o o w t r

of e t luca . t ion . 10 B u t h e wen t much f u r t h e r t h a n ,James

1'1111; once he had d e c i d e d t h a t

W t r ~ ' :: mar a c f : @ r s were rnacfe f o r t h e m anc! not. 1 y them, h e went on to =miss t h e -. k r m e - i d e a of' i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a s a muddle , and s o c i a l c o n t r o l by mearc:j of punishment ; as inhumane , i n e f f e c t i v e , and outmoded. 11

b J b t Owen t hough t . was t h a t t h e e d u c a t o r ' s corrtg*c'>l o v e r

h i s c h a r g e s ' f u t u r e s was a b s o l u t e ; what t h e y twr lec l

o u t t o bt2 was e n t . i r e 1 . y up t o him, and i f he waz; sk i . lPe l l .

trnough, t : k y would turn o u t who1 ly soci ab1.e arlc

unself'.i,z;h. The i m p a c t of t h i s view fell o n J O ~ I I I I

S t u a r t M i l l . The y o u n g e r Mill became i n t e n s e l y

:iansit:Lve: t o t: he s u y g e s t i o n t h a t h e was a ~rnanu~ 'ac t : l r red

c o n s e q u e n c e , hie never ceased t o see Owen's view:; o n

t:he f o r m a t i o n of c h a r a c t e r as a t h r e a t t o h i s own

cloctrine of I self - cu l t u r e ' . ~ : L t h o u g h Jamres Mill was n o t an u t o p i a n , he s h a r e d

d e c l a r e d t l m t a teacher c o u l d i n c u l c a t c t wha,t.ever moral

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t.h~$rrr w a s , p e r h a p s , t h a t Ciwn

tc!nded t o :;'tress t:he n a t u r a l sympatny which c:hil.d~.'en

p o s s e s s e d , where Jarmes M i l l was i n c l i n e d 1:.o ernpha::;ize

the way i n wt~:ich d i s c i p : l i n e worked upon th~c? c h i l d s

st31 L:i:ih Fsct 1 lir~ls. I"cw O w s n tho!.~qfrt,

Social peact? c o u l d be s~t:curccl a s socrrl ,321 a1 J. c h i l t l r e r ~ were brouq ht: up i n bar-moniou:; sur'round:Ln i n t h e care of benevolent t e a c h e r s * 43:;

James ill relied r ' i the l r on t h e f a m i l i a r f ; h c t that a

process whj.c:h heq in : ; by c o e r c i n g c h i l d r e n into respect-

ing t h e happinus: : 01: others e n d s by i n : ; t i l l i n c l i l

conscience which w w k s : I n d e p e n d e n t l y of s u b l s e q u e n . ~ ~

coercion.

I n many way::, Owen's u t o p i a n a rnb i t io r r s are a

more c o n s f s t e n t expsc?ss;ion of a s : m c i a t i o n i . s t , t h e o r y

t h a n James M i l :L 9 :s 1i .mi tsd hopes,,, F o r , wha t . sver t h e

c o n t r o l cwer the :~.nf a n t t s f u tbire. There i s n o m a s o n

i n pr inc i .p le why men s h o u l d not be i n d u c e d , whet: h e r

by s e l f i s h or :;ympathet:ic i nc .1 i . n a t i o n , t:o iissocl ,a.t:e

h l t h e r t o unknown, But t h i s i'; not a d e b a t i r r q p o i n t .

111 Llt i l i t iwirkanj s m J o h n S tuar lc Mill accounts as st: - U - L L - 9

he can f o r t h e f a c t that

M,E?I-r not: o n l y obey mori3:l rtlles wh:i.ch rttst:r.lct t : h c i r own pursuit of h a p p i n e s s , but: e v e n s h r i n k from r:ontempl a t i ng b e h a v i n g i n s u c h a way as t o darr~age the i n t e r e s t of o t h e r s . 33

His exp l a r r a t i o r r rests on t h e p l e a s a n t and pairrf u:l

a s s o c i a t i o n s set LIP be tween gcmd and bad a c t i o n s ; ;

t t l r e a k e n f r q pz2.i'; f o r t h e v e r y idea of hnrnlinq o t h e r s . ,

But bes. ldes f a i l i r q to c o v e r ~nuch t h a t we ~~ndcf r .~ , . : anc i 1,y

c o n s c i e n t j . o u s Leherv;i.owr, t h i s leaves l u l i l l i n t h e s;sm>:t

dl. lemma a 5; h i s fat : h e r :

if e d u c a t i o n , r e s t i n g on t h e a r t i f i c i a l a s s o c i a t i c r n of ideas, c a n do so much, why car1 i t . not: c o m p l e t e l y e r a d i c a t e c o n f 1 i c : t s of i n t e r e s t be tween men?M

I f i t c a n n o t e rad ica te s u c h c o n f l i c t s - a n d t h e

it: c a n n o t - them why s h o u l d w e s u p p o s e t h a t i s in11

t h i n k , rr.3 u s e l o o k i n g for a c o m p l e t e arrswtx i n t h e

~1111 CZlrnC:! close,,

alf f u r t h e r disc,us: ; ion later. 'Phis i s t h a t it w ~ ~ ~ l d be

q u i t e t:o t a s s c c . i a t e ~ h i s s o n i n k 0 t h e f , ~ c t u a l b e l i e f ..;

hie wished h im to h o l d . For, as Mill l a t e r c o m p l . a i n e d ,

more t i m i 2 was d e v o u t e d i n ei<a~rrinl.nq t h e ast ;sociat . ion: .

of i d e a s he had already b u i l t , u p t h a n in t r y i n g t c r

build up more. A l t h o u g h i t 3.s i m p o s s i b l e t o scq,larel:

t h e role of the a c t i v e a n d crj . t ica1 i n t e l l e c t w ~ . t : h

t h e a s s o c . i a t i o n i s t t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n q , i t is trw

b e y o n d any q u e s t i o n t h a t , i n t h e practice o f t h e

t h e o r y , Jarrros M i l l i n s i s t e d on t h e c o n t i r r u o u s u : w ol

a cr i t ica l i n t e l l i g e n c e . Hok~ever , two 4:~re!atest e v e n t s

occured 3.n du r inq M i 1 1 ' 9 o r t t i o d o x U t i l i t a r i a n educa--

t:iofn: h1.s m e n t a l d e p r e s s i o n and h i s act- i v e pol. i t.ic,al

shrouded i n m y s t e r y ; M i l l t s own a c c o u n t does not: t e l . 1

u s just: how l o n q t h e cr is is I.aste!d n o r quite whi-*n .it:

k e g a n , t h o u g h t h e most s t r a i q h t f o r w a c d I n f e r e n c e f s

t h a t i t : began lilte i n t h e wint :er of 1 8 2 6 4 and l a s t e d

some s i x nionths. Q u i t e what t h e crisis was i s n o t

clear'. r.;nliE:e of ill. I::; i .L.Lnesses w h i c h kl:pt

t r i m o f f work and s e n t trim to a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y to

r e c u p e r a t . e , t h i s had n o o v e r t : s\rrrnptotns. 'T'her'e :Ls no

e v i d e n c e i n t h e let ters and d i a r i e s of h i s

a c q u a i n t a n c a s t o s u g g e s t tha t : tht-:y n u t i c ~ ? d a n y t t l i n g t

amiss; M i l l t s e n s t r a r q e m e n t f'r-OI~I his f r i e n d s dces n o t

date from t . h i s time but: from y e a r s l a t e r , a f t e r h i s f r ier)

s h i p w i t h Harriet. Taylor:, h i : j c l i s i l l u s i o n w i t h ' the

Reform A c t of 1832, and h i s e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h ttac? Lonilon

and W e : s t n ~ i n s t e r R:evie!w, T h e d e s c r i p t i o n Mil 1 q.ivc?s o f

t h e crisis i s not: e x p l i c i t , . h e s a y s h e was ' i n a

d u l l s t a t e o f n e v e r s f and i n that c o n d i t . i o n askt?d

h i m s e l f w h e t h e r t.he r e a l i z a t . i o n of a l l t .he socl(3l

c-hanges he had worked f o r would g i v e him t h e jo f

h a p p i n e s s he3 had s u p p o s e d .

And a n i r r e p r e s s i b l e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s d i s t i n c t l . y a n s w e r e d , No 1 . . . I seemed t o h a v e n o t h i n g l e f t t:o l i v e for.16

The, r e s u l t w a s a deep d e p r e s s i o n , exacerbated b y i t s

very ~or.diriarj.ne:.;s; the numb con i i t i o n of h i s : ; , ~ i r B ~ t :

seemed I:(:, imply t h d t he was "a : ; tone or d stoc:l: devoii

Rel. ie! f carnz f r o r n an unie i k 1 3 l . y q u a r t e r ; i t c:cmlii

n o t come froir~ rt1Jrni;in sr>ur-ct!+ s i n c e thlc. i - b ! ' ! l ~ < ) : j : i i l ) l t ?

c o n f i d e n t would have b e e n h i s father, and Mill shriink

not h i i ~ ~ ? comprthended and w h i c h w o u l d I - ~ ~ w e seenied t:o

13uk w k w r M i l l w a s r e a d i n g , Maximonte1 s P4ernoirs, h e c:am

t h e passage w h i c h relates to h i s fa the r ' s death, t h e distressed p o s i t i o n of t h e f arni l y , a n d t h e sudden i r r v p i r a t i o n b y w h i c h h e , then a mlsre b o y , f el I: l m c l made t hem Feel t h a t h e wou : l d he e v e r y t h i n g t o them - \dou1Cj s u p p l y the pPac13 of all t h a t they had l o s t . 18

The? scents came vFvid.ly to m i n d , and h e was rnovttd tic

tears. This was a p o s i t i v e proof t h a t khle erno tional

s p r i n g s w e r e n o t d r y , and c h e e r f u l n a s s r e t u r n e c l . Of

c o u r s e , t h i s was n o t t h e end of' the crisis, .in t h e

sense t h a t M i : L l d i d n o t r e - e s t z z b l i s h t h e n or ever the

serene c:onfidf?nca i n t h e right:ness of tids view23 t h a t

,4t t3'ii:; j u n c t:: use, . I t i s rrc!ce::;sary t:o make

it with P i i l l r s critical s ta te . From t h e f o r m e r m s

p:3ychoarmlysis , a t w e r ~ t l e t h - c ~ = r ~ r t u ~ ? y r e a d e r c a n say t n a t

P ! i l l I s d e p r e s s i o n was $3 r t a c t . i o n to h i s dleep but repressed ha t red f o r h i s ove r - missterin(3 f a t h c r , 19

W:i. t h o u t l n v o k i r r y more t h a n m i n f . m a ' L l y Freud ftan el l?merl ts,

it is e3s.y t o see how #

kht? f ierce!n@s:; of h i s f a t h e r , t h e Pack <.it a!-f ' fect ion i n the home, and h i . s own clel.ayed escap65 from p a r e n t a l tutelage might well. have c r e a t e d a re~.-:entr::cnt ;:.hdi; t her! converb tl.nr!s a? t h e t.j.:ne made i!: i.mpos:s:i.ble t o u t t e r o.r even, per haps t r ) recogni..z.e, 20

the a t t e m p t t o f i n d h i s own c l ~ a r a c t e r and become h i s

own man,. We b v e a l r e a d y seen how Mill f e a r e d !:hat

h i s e d u c a ~ k i o n had sapped h i s O\nln w i l l , arid how c ~ t h ~ e r

observers, d i d i n f a c t t h i n k tha t ; h e was o d d l y lethargic

s.imply the first r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t h i s h e a r t was not i n

the work h i s f a t h e r h a s ass igned him, and t h a t , If h e

had to r e l y on. h i s own e n e r g i ~ s t o k e e p h i m a t t'he t3sk,

unde r ly inc l causes of his d e p r e s s i o n supports this

same picture, t;'c)r, he argues t ;hctt h i s educ:at.ion had

beein e x c e s s i v e l y analytical:

:f now saw, or ,thouqh,t. I: saw, what I l~ad alwtiy:; b e f o r e received wLth i n c r e d u l i t y - t h a t the h a b i t of m a l y s i s has a t e n d e n c y t o wear awa.q t h e fe !e l ing : j ; as i n d e e d i l : ; ha:; when n o of h e r mental h a b i t :Ls c u l t i . v a t e d , and t h e i sna lys i r lq s p i r i t : . r e r ~ l a i n s w i t h o u t i t s n a t u r a l complemen t:i iand c w r t . : c t i v e s . 21

( i i ) .-- Ac:kive p o l 9 . t i c a l Career : W h i l e e n g a g e d C h e s e ---

remit h i s i n t e r e s t i n c u r r e n t p o l i t i c s . ~ e ! supporttleci

t h e N o t t 1-1 i n t h e U.S. c i v i l d a r , u s i n g a1 1 h i s

s t r e n g t h t o e x p 1 , t i n t h a t t h e 1-ed1 issuc-. d i t st:aPe i n t h t ,

s t o o d a:; parl:larric.:ntary c a n d i d a t e for- Wt!: 2; t :min:;tcr, on

c o n d i t i o n s s t r . ic . l ; ly i n a c c o r d a r ~ c e with h i s p r i n c i p l e ,

He c o u l d n o t can.:.ras or pay agents to canvas f0.r:- h i m ,

nor w o u l l ~ he erug -qe to a t t e n d t:o t h e loccil busf n e s s

of t h e c x m s t i t u e r ~ c y . H e was p e r s u a d e d e v e n to address

a rneetinq:; of t.h+! electors w i t t i di f f i c : l rJ . t !y , b u t was,

e l e c t e d s . H e took an a c t i v e p a r t i . n - t h c debate:;; of the

1867 R,eiform B i l l , and h e l p e d to e x t o r t f rom t h e

.3 :3 . gover'nrnen t s e v e r a l u s e f u l mod i f ica t i o n s o.E t h e t ) i l 1 , for t h 8 preven t .Lon of c o r r u p t p r a c t i c e s . ~ h f t ref orrn

o f l a n d t e n u r e i n I r e l a n d ( 1868) , t h e r e p c e s e n t . ~ i t i c m

of worncnr t h e r~eclucti .on of t h e n a t i o n a l d e b t s , the

ref o m cd.' Lonc!o,n yovarnmen t , ismd t h e a h r o g a t ion of

t h e I : )ec l i i ra t icm of P a r i s ( 18!36) , which c o n c e r n s tho

c a r r i a g e of' p r o p e r t y a t s e a ~ L I ~ ~ I K J t h e Crinrean Nar ,-

w e r e among t h e t o p i c s on wh ich .J. S. M i l l spoke. lie

kook o c c a s i o n more t h a n once to e n f o r c e what ht? had * of t en a d v o c a t e d , Eng:Landc s d u t y t o i n t e r v e n e in fore iyrr

pol l t i c : : j i n s u p p o r t of f reedom. As e :';p~!~aker', M i l l

(J.S. was so~~~c?wi;- at h e s i t a t , f ng , b u t he showed qreat

r e a d i n e s s t o ex t empo . r aneous d e b a t e .

M i : L l 1 s s u b s c x i p t i o n ' t o t h e election e x p e n s e s of

t h e free t h i n ' k e r and r a d i c a l p o l . i t 1 c i a n C h a r l e s

B r a d l ~ ~ q l ? and h i s a t t a c k o n t. h e conciucl: of Governor.

E. J'. E-yre? i n .Jamaica were pe.rhaps t h e main ca8use.s of'

his defeat i n t h e g e n e r a l p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n of

1868. Eiu t, h i s s ' t ud i ec l advoc:acy of u n f a m i l i a r pro jt?c t::;

o f refo c.:n had made him unpopu 1 ELK- w i t h tl~rnc,der at r?

l iberalsl~. H e r e t i r e d w i t h i3 sense of r-t?lit::E to

Av'fqnon~, H i s v j l l a was f i l :Led 'w i t h b o o k s and

ne,wspapc.rr; the cSou r l i r y rountl it: f:urni:;hc:d h4.m w i t h ii

v a r i e t y of w a l k s ; hence , h e r e a d , wrote, dl. , s c u s s e d ,

wa lked , and botan i :zed . H e was e x t r e m e l y f o n d of music

and was h i m s e l f a f a i r p i a n i s t . H i s s t e p - d a u g h t e r ,

Helen Taylor : ( d i e d J a n u a r y IgO?) , was h i s c:onst:arrt

compzinion a? ter hi::; w i f e 1 s death. M i l 1 was an

, e n t h u s i a s t i c b o t a n i s t a l l h i s 1.il.e and ii f'requcrtnlt:

c o n t r i b u t o r of n o t e s and s h o r t p a p e r s t c ) the Phy t o l o g i st..

Duritlq hi:; l a s t julurne1y t o ~ v i g n o n he was 1.ookiml f o r -

ward t o s e ' e inq t h e s p r i n g flowers and c o n ~ p l e k i n g a

f l o r a of l.:ne l o c a l i t y . b

M i l l cl id not. r e l a x h i s l a b o r i o u s habi.t:.s or his

a r d e n t ~ ~ u t l o o l k lor1 human a f f a i r s , 'The e s s a y s i n t h e

f o u r t h vc:Lurne of h1i.s ~ , i s s e r t a t ; i o n c (1875; v o l . 3 ha.d

a p p e a r e d :Lrr '1867) .,-. on endowment::, on l a n d , , or' 18.ibou.r-,

and o n rr;~ei:aphysi:~;l!. and psycholoqi.ca1 quc:sst:iont; we.re

w r i t t e n for t h e F ' o r t n i g h t l y Rev Lew a t i n t e r -va l : ; (if t e r -- -- h i s s h o r t p a r l i a m e t ~ t ~ a r y career ,

In 21367 he ira1.1 been o n e of the founc l e r s , w i t h

Mrs. P I A . 'Taylor , Emily D a v i e s , of the f irst i Jolr ,engs

Suf frage ,..;ocie t y , \which d e v e l o p e d f rrto the? Nat Lonal

Uni-on of \Jc>nac?n q b ? 5;df f r a g e S0cicl.t k!s, and '1069, hli

publ.lshc:d the Sui*?ct ion of Womt?n ( w r i t t e n 18611, t:htb -C ..I___-.._--

c l a s s i c a l theoretical s t a t e m e n t of t h e c a s e for wornerr's

35 ., b i - s u f f r a g e . H i s last public activity was c o n c e r n e d

w i t h t h e : i t c ~ t i n q of the Land T e n u r e R e f o r m

~ssocial: ion, for which he wrote in T h e 1 2 ~ a 1 n i n e r iind -- made a p u b l i c speech a1 few morltlns before h i s clesl.tl.

T h e i n t e r c e p t i o n by t h e s t a t e of ?:he u n e a r n e d incre-

ment o n l a n d ant1 the p ron lo t io r l of co-operative ac j r i c \ r l -

t u r e were t h e most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r ' e s i n 1n.L:; progr am,

w h i c h h e regarded '3s a t:imel.y c:ornp-omise .Ln view of

? t h e i n ~ p e ~ ? d i n g s tr-uqgle be tween capital a n d lab our i n

Europe. 1

H i s , 4 u t o b i o q r l i p h y and T h r e e Essays o n Re1 f q i on ".. -- -- --..--.--.- ( 1874 ) we,ce published posthumously. John S t u a r t Mil l

& d i e d a t ~ v i g n o n on May 8, 1873. A bronze s t a t u e of

him stands on thc Ttrames embarkment i n Loncion, and

G. F. uJart'tqs c o p y (of h i s o r i g i n a l . p o r t r a t of M i l l

hangs in the National Gallery there.

c u r i o ~ r s i t y as a p r e c o c i o u s phermmena, a tlrr~ade ~rlanl~,

a n i n t 4 e l l e c t u a l mach ine set t o g r i n d c:c:rf-,ain t u n e s ,

The e 1 . d ~ ~ M i l l r like P l a t o , would h a v e p u t poets

u n d e r b,3n as e n e m i e s of t r u t h ; he subox-ciinated

" f e w n c q i l a i n t a n c e s , fewer f riencl s, and n o f mil iarl. t iesu

had hi, s cordial a p p r o v a l . rhe ;-;lurlyx- ~ w i i L now f el t

hirnse1.f f o r c e d t o abandon t t~,tsse doctr:i.nc!:;. Toc~ much

i n awe oil h i s f a t h e r t.o make him a con l?P( lan t , he

w r e s t l e d w i t h h i s d o u b t s i h g loomy s o l i t u d e , I-ue en~errjec-f

from t;hu ~ t r u g c : ] l c ? w i t h a more c a t h o l i c v i e w of human . .

h a p p i n e , s s , a d e l i g h t i n p o e t r y f o r X t s own sakeb, a

more p l a c a b l e a t t i t u d e i n c o n t r o v e r s y , a hatrecn of

s e c t a r i a n i s m , ~knd an ambiticm n o less noble ana ~ i i : ~ - #

i n t e r e s t e d b u t moderated t o p r a c t i c a l po : ; s i b i l J. t i e r ; .

G r a d u a l l y , t h e debates i n the u e b a t i n y S o c i e t y at:trbactel:

men w i t h whom c o n t a c t was i n v i g o r a t i n g and i n s p i r i r ~ g .

M i l l c e a s e d t o attend t h e S o c i e t y in l82Y, b u t he c:arr*.kc,

away f r o m i t t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t a t r u e s y s t e m of

p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y was,

s o m e t h i n g much more complex and many-sided t h a n hi? had p r e v i o u s l y had a n y i d e a o f ; and t h a t i t s off ice was t o s u p p l y , n o t a set of model i n s t i t u t i o n , b u t l p c i n c i p l t ? ~ from' w h i c h t h e l n s t l t u t i o n s s u i t a b l e t o 2:! a n y given c i r cum:s t ances m i g h t be deduced ,

Mill.*.s letters i n The Examirrrcr i n the autumn .---. of 1830, after a v i s i t to Paris, where he ~ m d e th12

acquaintarncc of t h e younger l ibera l s , may be t a k e n as

marking hi:; r e t u r n to h o p e f u l a c t i v i t y ; and a series

of article:; on 1I'rhe S p i r i t of t h s Ageu appeared in

1833 , he c o n t r i b u t e d many essays to T a i t t s Magazine, -- T h e Jurist and The t l o n t h l y R e p o s i t o r y , I n 1835, sir 3Ul.llll --- --.*I-

M i l 1 as edi,tor. I t was arnalg?m<s.t:ed with -.--------v t h e Westniinster

a!3 London arid Westrni n s t e r Review i n 1836, and MJ 1 I

in the f i r s t : t w o v o l urrres ( 1859) of Mil 1 8 s Disserteic~tion ..--- ---- arrd I3isc:ussl o n s and gave evidence of: t h e irrcrearsir~q . I I I . . . I I I C L I I . . . - * I . - r -

\width of: h i s interes,ts, Among the rliore important ones

are flTl~outlhts on Poetry and Its Varietiesu ( 3.833) , t ' ~ r l . t i n c l s 6f A l f r e d de Vigrryfl ("1183U), l*beritham" ( 1 ~ 1 3 8 ) ,

mC'olericlgetvv ( 1040 ) , *'A D e T0cque:rvil le On Demwracy i n

,41merica" (1840 ) , "c;uizot* s Essays. and Lectures on

i i i s t o r y " ( 1I3fL5 1, . and l l ~ i c h e l e t s is tory of rpr ancell

.

(1844). The t w i n e s s a y s o n Elentham iuld c l u l e r i d q e

show M i l l ' s power a t t h e i r s p l e n c l i d bes t a n d i n d i c a t e

very c l e a r l y t h e new s p i r i t t h a t he krietl t o b r e a t h e

i n t o ~ r i g l i s h racliczilim.

(ii) hlorks o n 1,oqic a n d P o l i t . i c a 1 Ecorlor%: -I - --.--.-

Dur.ing t h e s e y e a r s M i l l arlscr w r o t e h.ls g r e a t

s y s t e m t t t i c works o n L o g i c and ton P o l i t i c l a l Economy.

H i s reawakened ~!nt-,husia,srn for huni~ani ty had taken shiupe

p r o o f for c o n c l u s k o n s i n moral and socl-al l s c i e n c e ; t h e

F'rewrch p o s i t i v i s t p h i l o s o p h e r ' .Auguste Csmte had some

influerrcci? h e r e , b d t t h e main i n s p i r a t i o n u n d o u b t e d l y

came from t h e ~ r r g l i s h S c i e n t i s t a n d M a t h e m a t i c i a n sl r

I aaac hlewtan, whose! p h y s i c s hI,:id a lready been x x e c p t u ti

a s $3 model of s c i e n t i f i c expositl .on by such ear l i e r

B 8 r i t i s h ] : ~ l ~ i l o s o p h ~ : ? r s as J o h n Rocke, i)av:Ld Hurne,

Jeremy Bc-,ntham, and James M i l 1. B u t hc? was detf:rn\iri~e:l

tha t : t h e new loq ic s h o u l d not: sin- ply o p p o s e t h e o l d

l o g LC. I n h i s W e s t m i n s t e r review ( ,182tj 1 , ot d i c h a r c i

W'hatf2Lyq s E l e m e n t s of L o g i c , he was a l r e i n d y de fend i rvy

t h e sy l . loq i sn r against the S i ~ l c . t i : ; , h p h i l o s o p h e r who trad

t a l k e d oE' super : ;e . j ing i t by a supposed :;y;;tern of

inductive! logic. H e requi r led hi:; i n ~ l u c t . l v e Xoq I. 2

years t'12 sc:arched i.n \rain for tho means of' con-

c a t e n e i t i o r ~ . Final l y , in 1837, on r'eadinq ~ ~ . i l l i m . r

Whewell * s yhi lc)sayhy of t h e I n t l ~ i c k i v e science:;, m d

re-read.ing J o h n F. W. tiersc he I. s I 're1 iml n ar'y L)is::our:;e

o n tile :s tudy of NaturaLfi Philo:':;ophy, M i l l at l a s t saw

his way clear b o t h t o i 'ormulat . i .nq the method of

s c i e n t ; i i ic i n v e s t i g a t i o n and to j o i n i n g the new 1.ogic.:

on.to t:ht: o l d as a s u p p l e m e n t , A S y s t e m of Logic i n -- ---,

two v ~ l u m e s , was p u b l i s h e d i n '1843 ( 3rd - 13th ed.Ltioris,

liuineiin terms, a f o r r n u l i ~ t i o n t n a t has latt::.l y cane i n f o r

rncnt as; a politl ical~ economist. In 184 4, he p u l ~ 1 . 1 shed

t:conorn-n, w h i c h Ire had written :several years e a r l i e r , --- and four st-rl; of f l v e of' t h e s e c3s;s;ayS are solutior1,3 of

p e r p l e x i n q t e c h r ~ i c a l problems; for example, the

cli s t r i b u t i o n of t h e q a i n s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l commerce,

the i n f l u e n c e o f cm:;umption on pr-oduct ion, the de l ' i n i -

-+- -t : isn of' proctuct i v e and irnproduct i.ve labour ' , m d th(:

p r e c i s e r e l a t i o n between p ro f i t s and wages. ~t t h : ~ ~

j u n c t u r e , t h e most p a r t of M i l l *appears as t h e d i s c i p l e

olf David R i c a r d o , s t r i v i n g a f t e r rnore precise sti3tc:-

men t s and r e a c h i n q f c.wwar-d t o f u r t h e r consequences. ,

I n his seclmci stage, o r i g i n a l i t y arsd i ndependence

b1ec:orne more cor~spicuckus a s he st~:uqq: les toward t h e

s t i l n d p o i n t from which h e wrote 'h.l:s P r i n c i p l e s of . P o l ! i t i c a l E c o n o x . l h i s was pub:L:ished i n 1848

- 1 - * - . 1 1 . 1 -

( 2 ~01s.; a n d 2nd ancl 3 r d e d i t i o n s , w i t h s i g n i f i ca r r t

dlf fcxencers , 1849, 18521, and, a t a b o u t the same time,

M i l l was a d v o c a t i n g t h e c r e a t i o n olf p e a s a n t

p r c ~ p r . i e t o r : s h i p s as: a remedy for kt\@ d i s t r e s s e s and

disorder i n Xreland. T h e r e a f t e r ,, he made a thorough

s t u d y of S o c l ; i l i s t w r i t e r s , He was conv inced th i i t Wit.:

Soc. i4l que:;t:l o n wals 61s i m p o r t a n t iis the pol$ t i.cal.

oc9.g i n a 1 l.y to secure peace i n a p t - l r r d t i v e slot i.e t y , ,is

nec:essarily s a c r e d i n i t s ; e x i s t i n g development:^ i n it

qui. tr t d i f ' f 'eremt st:aqes of s o c i e t y . He sepa.c ,a ted

quest:.ions of procicic t - i 3;; dcnd d i s t r i b u t i o n , amu Coul(:i

n o t rest s a t i s f i e d wi t.h the di.strl.bution t n a t

condemned t h e l a b c u r i n g c l a s s c r s t o a cramped and

w r e t c h e d e x i s t e n c e , i n many ccises to s tarva t ion . He

d i d not cc~rne t o i3 : s o c i a l . i s t s( : ) lut . i .on, but: he had t h e

It i s g e n e r a l :ly supposed that:; M i 1 , l wrj. tes w i . t h

her l o v m :; e x t ~ ~ i v i q a n ~ e about Harriet * s powers, t ic

express1.y says, i n d e e d , that "'he owed n o n e of hi:;

t e c h n i c a l d o c t r i n e t o h e r , that: she i n f luerkced crb l y

h i s i c l e i i l s of- llfe for t:he inclivic-lual and for soc.i.ety,

and tt'lafr the o n l y work c l i rec t1 .y I n s p i r e d by' he r i:; the

became he;ilif of t h e e x a m i n e r ' s o f f i c e i n t h e Ind1 a House,?

and for two y e a r s , t i l l the! o ! i . s s o l u t i o n o i t h e tl::ornpi:my

i n 185E1, h i s o f f ' i c i a l work k € p t him f u:l :l y occupf.ed.

It f e l l . to him a s head af t h e o f f i c e t o w r i t e t h e

d e f e n c e of t h e cornparry's government of Incl ia when t t i e

t r a n s f e r of i t s powers was proposed , M : i i l opposed

t h e trrin:sf er , and t h e documon t.c in which he d s f rtndatil

t h e Con~p~any ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e models 01.' t r e n c h a n t

and d i c f r ~ i f i e d p l e a d i n g , On the c f i s s o l u t ~ i o n of t h e

company, M i l l was o f f e r e d a s e a t i n t h e r w w c o u n c i l

b u t he d e c l i n e d i t : and r e t i r e d w i t h a p e n s i o n of

6,1,500. His r e t i r e m e n t f rom o f f i c i a l l i f e was f o l l c ~ w e d

a l m o s t i m e d i a t e l y by h i s wife's d e a t h a t A v i ~ n o n ,

France, H e spt3nt; most of t h e res t of hi:; 1.Lf e , t i t a vi.1 1 1

a,t sa.iriC-Veran, n e a r Avignon, r e t : u rn lng t t s h i s r ~ o u s r

a,t B1ac:klheath or11 y for a s h o r t pe r io i l in e a c h y e a r ,

(ii) p l i l l c s L a t e r Years: --- - ~1.11 s o u g h t r e l i e f by pub1 i s h i n g a series of b c o k ~

oln e t h i c s and p o l i t i c s t h a t he: hiid m,~ditijtted upon and

part1.y w r i t t e n i n c o l l a b o r a t i . o n w i t h h i s w i fe . 'rhe

essays I,ikrerl:y a p p e a r e d i t - I 11359 w i t h a t o u c h i n g ------.

Reform in . the s;:;~::.: ysar. I n hi:; C o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n -11- -- ---.c*---, . -

o p i n i o n s already p~.it, f lorward i n rnany casual articles

and essay:;, I t ha i; been r - e rna rk~x l how M:L I . I. coml:,inecl

e n t h u s i a s m f o r dcwtxrat . ic qove rn~ i i en t: w i t:h p e s s i m i sin

a n d t o ren\otre nrisc:oncept.loms ,d;lclut It., He was

g r a t i f i c a t i o n of Lfre higher e~not:ions; anci to :rials: .! a

p1ac:e i n h:Ls system for se t t led rules of conducl,:.

Mill also beqan to write a g a i n on t h e wider

ph i :Losoph i ca l q u e s t i o n s t h a t h a d o c c u p i e d him i 1 1 1 t h e

l o g i c . I n 1865, h e p u b l i s h e d bo th h i s E x a m i n a t i o n o f -------.-

S i r w i l l i i m H a m i l t o n ' s F ~ h i . l o ~ a p h y and hi13 Auqust.e Ccmtcl! - - - .-r-

l a r g e l y p o l i t i c a l . I t w a s b e c a u s e h e regarded *;he

w r i t i n g s a n d sayings of sir 1~. H a m i l t o n as the qrealc

fortress o f i r r t u i t f or la l philosophy i .n G r e a t Drl. t a i n *--

that M i 1 . l u n d e r t o o k t o c o u n t e r his p r e t e n s i o n s , In

Comte s ear l . ier philo m p h i c a l d0ctr.i ne of pc>c;i t iv i ss i ,

and h l i s 1at.er re1 iqi.orn of h u m a n i t y . The dockr- i n e hi?

recommended luecause h e r e g a r d e d i t as a natural

Hune; t h e r e l i g i o n he a t t . a c k e d because he saw i n i t

mlere1.y a n o k h e r attempt to f o i s t :I p r i e s t l y hierarchy

upon suffering humani ty . I t is rmticeable that Mill ' s

l a n g u a q e in these books .i:; much closer t o t h e l a n g u q e

of Human Mind with a d c l i t i o n a l il l u s t r a t ions and "'--.--I".-

~ i r x p l a n a t o r y notes.

Jo S . M i l l , ~ ~ ~ t a b i o g r a ~ h & W o r 1 . d ' ~ Cli3s:;ics e d i t i o n , ~ p . ' T m

Ibid pp, 49-50, -*

A, gain, James Mill: A ~ i o q r a hy, (Lonclon: .--.. Longmans, Green p. 57.

T. Hobbes, Leviathan (London: Forrtanir edn., 19631, p. 1 ? ~ '

J.F.CI. Harr ison , Q u e s t for the New Mol."inP World, ( New York : sc:ribners , 1 9 b J T ; - 3 r -

Ibid -, a ' , P* 139.

Alan Ryan, John S t u a r t M i l I;, ( London : Houtl.eclge and Kesgan ~-374), p. d.9.

l-oqraphy, e d , J , S t. . i .P l l.ngezb , -- on Press, 197.11, pp. 80-84.

I b i d -4. !J

Ibid p. 85. ,,,-* 'J

A+ Ryan, -- op. I_ cit., , p. 31.

A. W u Levi, T h e Mental C r i s i s of' Jolhn S t u a r t ill" Ps c h o m a l y t i c Review 32, ( l .945) ,

8 &&-- ---' PP*

J. S. Mill, ~utobio'graphyf, p. 83, ,

I b i d In. --" 7 '1 C 2 ,I 8

J. S . Mill, l:~:i.ssestations and i>i:~.czu:;:;j..,oris, ',,Io.Z, 2, --- -,---- --em.-.----

( ~u,otc"d :in '.;?1?=6$= t31: :ft-anni ca ,, Vo 1. , 1.2 , London, 19;tiC)), p. 198.

MILL'S CONCEPT OF LIBI2FIALISM

( a ) T h e Nature am1 t:nd of Man cis the Measurc? of .--------.A -

fhe7Fgpc of t n i m u > l r t d o m --* .1-_- -- ..- --. ___11-1-- *----I

The t e r m " n ~ t u r e ~ ~ comes f rcrrr the h t i n w o r d

t mean: "The ~ ~ n : i v e r s ~ i l . e x f s t i n g system of al. 1. t h a t

c:a\lse (produce or create) e x i s t i n q pP'lenomeria; the

pr imitfve s ta te of t h i n g s unadul t:ei:aked by hcnin:.tn:j. That

wh l c h happens w i t h o u t human i n t e c f erenca.

It: is " t h e power that creates and regulates the

world: the power of growth; the e:jtitblished order of

t.,h.Lngs; the coma:;; the external qica1itl.t.s of a n y t l ~ i r q

wh:Lch malce i.t what i t : is; essence: , . , ( :on~: i t i tu t : i cm:

. . . c:onformi.t:y to truth, or r ea l it:y: , . . a p r i m i t i v e

u~ntf ornest.Lcat.tx~ condi Lion. l1 2

It c a n also mean l'irinate or essent ia l q u a l i t i e s

of p e r s o n or t h i n ~ ~ : c lass , sort. ' l 3

The i ssue of w h o and wha t man i s ha:; k e n a

probllem r ' i : ~ h t from the b e g i n n i r v ; of p h i l o s o p h y an 1

human e x i s t e n c e , P h i l o s o p h e r s of d i f - f e r e n t e p o c h s

h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o a ' ffer t h e i r own v i e w s of t h e

q u i d d i t y of man; as s u c h many I - n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h a s

t e e n givcm in t h i s i s sue . ,

m e a s u r e o f a l l t h i n g s , of- t h i n : l s th'lt: ace, ant1 of t h i n g s that: ;,re n o t , t h a t t h e y are no t . 4

Th.is mesanc; t h a t man q i v e s meaning t o t h i n g s . , so t:,Imt

l ~ f thout man, e v e r y t h i n q is meaningless, he resltb t of

, t h i s P r O t q ~ l ? a s t h o u g h t was t h l r g e n e r a t i o n of i n t e r e s t

on t h e p a r t of ;some p h i l o s o p h e r s w h o went: s e e p c r t o

Man is a b e i n g who g i v e s rneaniny to r e a l i t y , n o t o n l y t h r o u g h knowledcje but a lso t h r o u g h 1abour.S

I n s t i e ad of b e i n g a pass ive observer man has chanqecl

t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d t h r o u g h h i s labour. Th.is i s 'vhy

Ben j amf ne rank 1 ine d e s c r i b e d niarr as 'la tool-mak i n g

6 ::inirnaltl. PIm*,s p o w e r to fabricates and us(:! tools is

::I unique power , tlw power ,of a b s trac t.ion ar:d v:i sua.i:.i za-

t:.i im which I:; possessed by m a n al.one among t:hc ar~imal s

j n the universe. H i s labour h a s been m a n i f e s t e d i n

nlarly t h i n g s a s he aid n o t s t o p at n ~ a k i n y tools only,

but went i n t . o procluct-ion w i t h t h e s e tools; cind a s

s u c h d l , s t i n q u i s h e c l h l m s e l f from the a n i m a l kingdom.

T h i s unique p o s i t i o n of man was clearly s ta ted by

As far as wt.: c;,m d~:jcrl)Qel[', nim a s m,nn a l o n e invein is repctafredly ,, makes cornplcx tools, anc! builds rncchini?s. H e . l i g h t s fire, t ~ ~ i l d s i n t r i c a t e s h e l t e r , wears clothes an,d ornament:^, He has learnt: to f l y in t h e a i r , t o t r i t v e l beyond t h e e a r t h 1 s a.trnosphtwe, t:o journey under the s e a , and to p r o j e c t h i s image! and v o i c e around t h e world.7

Man has also been described as fftlomos sapien:;",

11 llomt f aber" and ( * H o m o asper'ansft O- the h o p i l ? ~ man,

Sel,f is a bounclle or c o l l e c t i o n of d i f f e r e n t p e r e e p t i o n s which succeed one another w i t h unconce ivab le r a p i d i t y and which are i n f 1 ux and perpetual movement, 8

H:lLa problem .is how t:o i d e n t i f y t h ~ a t "self** w t w n ha

cmnot separate t v i tv from perceptions like c o l d ,

wi~rtnth, h e a t , etc; The Itselffr becanes something

transitory f rorrr one p e r c e p t i o n t c ~ t h t other- cic:perkdi.iicl

0117 the climatic c:ontlit ions.

the w o r l d , nC- i tu re and miin himse l f a r e merely s e l f .-

miikes hFmscll an i n t i i v i d u , a l and a specie, 'l.'hus he s a i d :

The w h o l e of lhistory i s notAi.ng h u t a con t..lnued tr.ar~s€ormat.ion of human nature. '3

How?ver, Kant i n h I.:; u B c a t c g o r i c a l irraperat ivtt " conce i ves #

man a s be ing an end i n i t s e l f . Human being ecre not

to ]be seen a s a means to o t h e r ends o u t s i d e himself , 4

1 T h e r e f o r e , we should accord ing to Kant , act ;is to treeit hum'anity, whether in your o w n p e r s o n or i n that. of a n o t h t : r , always at t h e same (as a n c!nd never rnerel. y as i: means ,. 10

'The great psyc:t:oII.ogi:j t , Sigm nncl w e u d retlucefil r,im r

tcll ithe nrechanism o?' the c o n s c i o u s . For him, every

ach:leve~nant both ol kr~owlt?dge, art., m o r a l i t y , anti

r e l i g i o n are explained i n terms t h a t ttccep ts t h e

ttserlsual" and probably "sexua lq t .

phli:Lo:30phers abound s i n c e most of t:herr: see man from 3

d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e ; n o f i n a l word i s y 2 t t o i ~ e

said of Enan, a s FXich Fromm h a s n o t e d :

PJu f i n i a l s t a t e m e n t about what: i t : means t : ~ be I-rurniirr c a n be made now, It i s p o s s i b ; l e t h a t i t may never be a b l e to be made even if human e v o l u t i o n we!re t:o f a r tr i imscend t h e . p r e s e n t pol.n;t.s of h i s t o r y i n which man h a s h a r d l y begun t o be f u l l y humari, l l

Speak ing on t h e i s s u e st i l l , s y r n e and Maziarz s t a t e d :

Plan i s a n open-ended of all b e i n q s w i t h which w e are a c q u a i n t e d , i t is v e r y doubt;f u l t h a t any t h e o r y can ewer s a y t::he f i n a l dorcls a b o u t man, 12

'4, SO, "it i.!; i n fact:. almost impc~:s;sible t o g i v e a

11 s ; n t i s f a c t . o r y def i r u i t i o n of man t h a t w i l l s a t i s f y all

schools off philosciphy., lt 13

P e o p l e 1 i k : e From1 have a d v i s e d that t h i s e l u s i v e

c o n c e p t of man shclu.ld be sought t:hrough evo1u t : ion ; but

e v i d e n c e have shokln t h a t e v o l tl t i o n could n o t sa) evebi-y-

t h i n g a b o u t man. The e v o l u t i o n i s t : sees man as capable

of: f u r t h e r ' development., For t h e n 1 ,, rnan s t a r t e c i f ,-om one

Celled animal and since human b e i n g s are s u b j e c t to

e v o l u k i o n z r y change:;, t h e r e 1:; t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t

w h a t "rniintr is rnu.;t be different, f r o m whdt man w i l l bc?

irr f i v e thousand years ahead. I f t h i s i n d e e d i s t h e

case t:hc?n "What is u n i q u e or' special i n man? Whiit

c : o n s t i t u . t e s human n a t u r e f s a c:om t i n u a l l y evolvkr~~cj

Moreover, P a l e o n t o l o g i s t s h a v e d i s c o v e r e d t:hiat

s i n c e thc emerqencer of hurnan cc:)r isciousness i n t h e

p r o c e s s of e v o l u t i o n t h a t man has n o t e v o l v e d f u r !:her

a n d the Apes s t i l l r e m a i n Apes., They have n o t c h m g e c i

t o humrtn b e i n g . T h i s qaas on t:o elnpha;3ii:e t h e po l -n t

t h a t t h e r e mus t be s o m e t h i n g u n i q u e i n t h e cronstil:u-

3. 'rHr N I ~ T L J N E ' OF M A I J -s- .-.-

Man s n a t u r e o r human n a t u r e i.s that-, which

cons t i t .u i : e t h e essence o f man, I t i s t h a t wh ich

m ~ a k e s man wha t h e i:.; and i t is f rorrl t h i s d n q l e t h i ~ t

t h e n a t u r e of nun can be g r a s p e d , Acclord.inc) t.0

Encyc1opt:di.a H r i t a i n n i c a , man *:i; n a t u r e r e f tzrs to:

iln o r i g i n a l , i n b o r n nature characteristic of a l l man or t h i s p a r t i c u l a r m a n OJ: t b * ~ ~ i t : ~ p u t icular rwn. It is t.hc?rt.for@ 1 1 1 ~ 3 1 1 s c ; p e c i a l f o r m of t h a t whi.ch i s b i o : L o q i c a l l y i n h e r i t e d i 1 . 1 a n y a n d all sy:lecies.'l!5

T h i s seems t o sugges t : t h a t what; c o r r s t i t u t e : ; human

n a t u r e i s i n n a t e i n man. B u t E ; r i ch Fromm h a s anot:hc:r

o p i n i o n . He sees i t as a p r o d u c t of c u l t u r e , Thus

h e w r i t e : ; :

Man' :; rratlrr 2 , h i s p a s s i o n , and his an:rcietj.es are c u l t u r a l p ~ x d u c t ; as a matter of f a c t , man h i m s e l f i s the impor t a n t c r e a t i o n and ac: hievement of t h e c:ontinuous human effort, t h e record which w e cal. 1 h i s tory. 16

So the effect: of c u l t u r a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f 1uen::e

i s s t r e s s e d here by F'romm. Rut :lust as he h e l d that:

i s hi.s o p i n i o n a b o u t g i v i r r y a cief i n i t i o n of I-iumm

Mance nature c a n n o t be ricblined i n terrrrs of specific q u a l i t i e s s u c h a s l o v e , h e a l t h , reirwrl, good and ev l.1. , b1.1 t. only i n t e r m : ; of fundamen ta l contr 'acl ic t b n s t h a t c h a r a c t e r f s e s human e x i s t e n c e anci hiave t h e i r root i n the b i o l o g i c a l d i c t i o n a r y between m i s s i n g i n s t i n c t s and self- awareness. 17

However, he went further t o exp1a:ln t h a t t h e scep tit:: a.1

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s the p o s s i b i l i t y of making ;r f i n a l

i n any way at a l l mean t h a t a number of useful s t a t e -

mti!nt c a n n o t be made on t h i s i s s u e . Even though these

vli.ev~s bear s c i e n t i f i c c h a r a c t e r s of w h a t man i s , there

i s still t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of an increase i n the : d i s -

covery of what lnan i s i n a c t u a l i t y . Fromm s e e s man a s

pc)ssess ing a number of p o , s s i b i l i t i e s and a s such , h c

is not: of the: o p i n i o n tha.t: man should be s p ~ : c j . f i c a l l y

body as t t ~ 1 . r isoni:r of: ithe sou 1 ; i ~ u t rersot'r i:; t ne

highe!s t ! p a c t of the: soul, and t h i s sou l h,.r:i t h e

gu:Ldance cd' conduct:. a s i t s f u n c t i o n .

A l s o , A r i s t 0 t l . e d e m o n s t r a t e d the r e l a t i o n s h i p

between t h e soul . and the body. He i n t r o d u c e d the

~ ~ F s t o t l u maintained t h a t man :is man by v i l r t u e of his

ra t : ionalS. ty . A c c ~ r d i n q t o him;

Reason i s the h i g h e s t f a c u l t y of khle soul , and sets man a p a r t from t:he sub-human n a t u r e . 18

This points again t o a n o t h e r d i s t i r ~ c t i v e 1Ctmture ~:d:

man which i:; as a r e s u l t of h i s s p i r i k u a l n a t u r e .

Frolm t h e r e l i g i o u s p e r s p e c t i v e ;

t h e J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n u r rde r s t ands man as a c r e a t u r e among other c r e a t u r e : ; 5.n t h e universe, but m a i n talne1.1 tlhiit, man is i n d s p e c i a l way r e l a t e d t t r t h e c r e a t u r e , which makes him unique m s n g

- o t h e r c r e a t u r e s . 19

c:)riqin is ~ ? r l ; ; l : ~ , ~ i i - ~ i ? < ; i:l the f c ~ t k!>;?k pi<? z . : 2 ~ : : ~ b ~ ~ , ~

c::rl3ated by. (:oil i n ~ i : ; o w n irnzlge, as t h e B i i : ~ l t ? t e s t i f i e s

mlan is piu'tli1r EI f i n i t : e b e i n q bound t o t h e wor1.d and

b par. t1.y a spl.r.'i t~i.12 :)e i n g who t r a r w c e n d s na t tir'c!. Mz II

. .

. i s a b e i n g with alrnc,s,t unlimited possibilities for

good or for: e . .v i l , !-fe i s entlowed w i t h a u n i q u e

a t ' t r i b u t e of a free a g e n t capable of. rising to great;

h ~ : = i y h ! t s i n h i s strength and in His weakn.:?ss rnay f a1 l

to t h e .leve:l of t h e b r u t e s ,

4. KND OF' PlAI'J OR DESTINY -----,-...-

~ e : s t i n y i:; a noun d e r i v e d from t h e verb * d e s , t i ~ ! ~ e ~

whi8ch means "to a p p o i n t " , or ordain bef o~:ehar~d, a:; ;;:EY.

d:l.vin'e decree, t o set: aside for a par t l cu la l : use,

De!stiny, therefore means, " t h a t w h i c h i s ,.. pre-

destined to happen , the predetermined coming of events;

fate , one's I.& or f o r t u n e . " 20 T h u s ,

tl-it3 purpost? o r end t o w h i c h a person or thing i s a p p o i n t e d ; ~ lnavoic iab l .~ t fate; n e c e s s i t y ; . , , soniet,?ing pelrsonf i'ietl a s power wl?.ic.h c a n n o t be resisted. 2:1-

O t h e r word:; of sirni l a r meaning are p r e d e s t i n a t i o n

ant1 dct:el?m:i.nism: P r e d e s t i n a t i o n means,

,, . . God s d e c r e e f i x inc j crnal t e r a b l y d'rc-rrn a l l e t e r n i t y w h a t e v e r i s t o happen , e s p e c i a l l y t h e E: ternal h a p p i n e s s o r m i s e r y of mcn.22

Havinq s e e n t:his, wha t can we say about t h e ebnd

of rnan or human dtts t:iny? The where from ; i r u l wher i? t.o *

of man? In a l l h i s u n i q u e n e s s , ac t . iv ic ie : : ; iknti

m y s t e r i o u s p e r sondl t t y , where docs he qo I[ ro,rn h e r l !?

physical body'.' Tan t h e r e ", 11f e a f t e r dci!at.h 01:' do

~ c c o r d i n g to M i l he lm von H~lr lholdt :

The end of man, or t h a t which is ,

prescribed t ~ y the e t e r n i i l or i r m r r t a b l e dl.ctates of rctason, and n o t suqges t e d by vague i ind t r a n s i e n t dt::si.res, i s the highest and most harmoni.ou s deve lopmen t of' his power ,s to a c o m p l e t e and c o n s i s t e n t whole; . ,, . the ob,ject towards' which c?ver,y human b e i n q must c e a s e l a ! s s l y direct

h i s c?f'for t s , and o n which especiall 'y t h o s e whc:~ d e s i g n to inf .l-cren(::e t h e i r fel low-men n ~ t l s t e v e r k e e p t h e i r eyes, is the i n d i . v i d u a l j. ty of power and deve lopment., 24

$ a r i . c t y of si t u a t i r m ;; and unit.i.rrq 1: l x m arises

i n d i v i d u a l i t y is p,~rtly a matter ot: dt:liberat::ely

.rtreedom t c ~ choose is a

A k thi:., j u n c t u r ~ ? , w e s h a l Z ::onsider Mil . : i . s not i o n

of l i b e r t y l ~ h i c h i s levoted t o a qenera l r l e f ~ m 3 ? oc

i t i:; no t t'orcinq 1 ~ : ; to do s o m e t h i n g ;tgain~st our w i l l .

13ut i E anyl.)ocly forces us to act contrary t c l our \ d i l l ,

Lt means t:hak we iuqe a c t i n g unler compulsictn. WP

also u,;e t.hc word "liberty1 in a p o s i t i v e aensc: ::a

.is free im'i from r. 'e+straints but t o do certain thing;

Weedom i:; to will something determinate, ye t in this determinacy to be by o n e s e l f ;I 8 and to revert once m o r e t c z the uniw?rsal .

1 it~erty. v i z : Private l i b e r t y , Poli tical I:lk)lerty, i r n d

Ecclnomic 1 i b e r t y . 5tric tl y speak in9 , POL it ica l 1 i .ber t .y

relates t:o the rapport that e x i s t s b e t w e e n the

:Lndividual.:; , g roup : ; , and t h e st:-1t.e- h r i t h i n t h ~

f ramework of t h e state,, how do w e d e f i n e i n d i v i d u a l . 1 s

a n d groupts l i b e r t y ? L a s k i gave: u:; a n i n s i g h t t u

I t i s in b h i s l i n e t h a t L,eoni Elr'uno defines freedom

a,s t h e b

i \ s s u r ance t h a t e v e r y m m s h a l l be [jrlstected i n d o i n g what h e b e l i e v e s I.<L~ be h i s v ~ e r y d u t y a g a i n s t t h e in i ' l u c n c e 01 a u t h o r : i t.y and major k ty , c:usl:orn an( i ' o p i n i o n . 30

u n d e r thc:. : ;me £'r'~im~:.work. He w,rote :

I Incan b y l . i b e r t y t h e absence of r e s t r a i n t ; upon t h e ~v i:; ller-~ce o f t:ho:;e soci, a% c o n d i t i o n w h i c h in no-!ern c i v i l i z a t i o r r a r e .the! n e c e s s a r y 1 .1a ran tees of . indivic lu ;s l

91 h a p p i n e s s . -

T h i s :Latt.er d e f i n i t i o n calls irr the q u e s t j . o n o f tilae

e x i s t e n c e of o p p o r . t l . ~ n i t ~ y . Cer t :a : in l .y , 'the! fclea of

freedom wi:L 1 n o t be a d e ' q u a t e if i.17 a poli.1: l.cal. arr-iinge-

merit t h e r e cious nu t e x i s t s i ~ c h o p p o r t u n i t y t - h a t cdn

~ . t i b n d each member of t h e "city-s&a~t.e" o n an equal

foot:lng to a s p i r e for the?' good l i f e . Nor can t h e r e

be reaL free!dorn wtlerea tho. c i t i z e n s abrogate their

re:;ponsibill . ty t o the!! s tate and the s t a t e w i e l d s i t .s

a u t h o r i t y capricious1.y. The q u e . s t i o n c a l l s for a

ba:lance between unlirni t ed a u t h o r i t y and unguided

af freedom. A per;cl.orr i s f r e e t o riwinq him arms but am

N Lagic.1 i ~ a p e r a t i v e must be h n d f u l of another

rrose, That is t h e paradox of freedom; where man i s

free and a.lways i n chains . several p o l i t i c : a l p h i loso-

phere have thrown thcsir weight t o the solut:ion,

p a r t i c u l a r l y , John S t u a r t n i l 1 whom w e w i s h t o d i s c u s s

c m u p r e h ~ n a d v s l y e Mi11 formulated his essay on ~ibder_ty UI

wf t h h. i s aro:3t famous and less cau tirrvs words, thus:

The on ly purpose for which p o w e r CiBrb be f igln t f u l l y s.xerci sed ove r any mcsmlbsr: of a c : i v i l i z e d community a g a i n s t his w i l l is to prevent harm t o ~tR%rs.. ,, 32

In, a l luding to nil1 *s w r i t i n g as landmarks in t h e

t$e~valopment of liberalism and w e n as raasonably

i a d l q m t e t t3xpressions; of l iberal thought, i t j.8

intportarat, therefore! , to oxamime ill * s writf ng to1

determine what prec i se ly is the nature of ~ i l l l s

liberal p o l i t . k a l phi losophy and, in par t icul.ar , his answer t o the q u e s t i o n , what is the funct:ion of t h e

: S t a te?

I(b) The Value of Liberty: 1311-C-

The arvawed intantion of On L i b e r t y is to axzunf nca --- 1:he nature! arrd l i m i t s of the power which society can

1.lsgi t b a t e l y exexci se over the icndivid ual , and the

reasonable conclusiom t o which,it comes 1s that the

atolLe end for which t h i s power may c ightful1 .y bc3

e ~ x e r c i s d is ths protectioa of society, ~ u t as t h e

arcglutmnf p.receede, Mill f inds i t necessary to Lntro-

dlucr, two subord inate pleas which together really

constitut;e the a f f i r m a t i v e core of the entire essay: 1

t h e firrrt: I s for complete libarty of thought and

T dilscuosircr~m w i t h i n t h e p o l t t l c a l order; ttra aeeoard is

for t h e free devellopment of i n d i v i d u a l ity howewar and

wherever ik may meed to flower. The two pleas se1:m

c,ourse. T h i s i s because the c h i e f rss '&rictf lons

algainst t ,he absolute f reedon af the inte1 l .a~ t i n its

thought and expression o r d i n a r i l y come frcaat the

p ~ l i t i ~ a r l prsrogativers of church and u;tat;ea, wharaas

t h e ch ie f im]ped.irnent to that free exprrinl~!r~~t w i t h

~ d i f f t ~ e n t n~odas of l i f e * is the faore I.nformal tyranny.

06 s o c i a l pressure and t h e strarrylimg conformity which

. L t sacrks t;o imptase, B u t the p~ol l i t i ca l and t h e social

w e shot fiwaX1y realms which race so easiY y separated.

M l l l l s farnous essrsiay nOn L.ikmrtym is lolfton mPs-

read as ~rf.mpYy a tract opposing s ta te intarvcsmticm i n

tho privat;e affairra of ind iv idua l s . It is t h a t in

sow m a s u m , but t h e con t en t ' e f ' On Liberty i s at

Ileast much ccmcermad with the t h r e a t of society

-4 1:yrannizing ovmr tl-la imhdividud through the enormous -.

power of p u b l i c op in ion as it : L s w.fth t h e prospect of

rrtuter tyranny. I n t r y i n g to a r t i c u l r t e the proper

Liari ts off social intervention I n i ~ a d i v i d u a l affairs,

Mill IEJ brought to provide an irccaunt of what self-

r 'ea l ia t r t ion and i n d i v i d u a l autonomy amount to, and t o

provide a t least a s k e t c h of the social p r ~ e r e q u i s i t e ~ ;

M,ll*s d e s c r i p t i o n of the aman who possesses

Q,,ie~divl.dual i tyt@ turns orr an i n t c t rp re t a t ion \of whet;

i t means tco chosse one's way of lire* The contrast

w i t h indl .v idua, l i ty i s i n coraf ormity to C U S ~ U ~ ~

To corrform t o c:usitorn, merely as custom, dolet$ not: educate or develop i n a mirrl any ot t h e q u a l i t i e s wllic:h are the dis t inc t : ive t endowment of a human bttkng, The: human faculties of p e r c e p t i o n , ju~dymmt:, d i s c r i a . l n a t i v e : f e e l h g , matntal i t c t i v i t y , and elrsn moral ~pr'sfsrence are exerc iscdl o n l y i n m a k h g ng choice . H e who does any th ing jg 'because i t i s t h e custom makes no cho ice , .

M i l l r s accoun t of the Meaning of q8frlctcf choicxVQ

Sn t h i s context i s c l o s e l y bound up w i t h t h e d s a c r i p -

{t ion of a form of character which is b o t h r e q u i r e d

:for &d f ostared by autonomous, ac:tion. Hence,

Even i n what p e o p l e do for p l e a s u r e , c o n f o r m i t y i s the first t h i n g though t of'; . , . p e c u l i a r i t y of taste, e c c e n t r i c i t y of conduc t , are shunned e q u a l l y w i t h crimes, u n t i l by d i n t of not f o l l o w i n g t h e i r own n a t u r e , they hinve no nature to foPlow; t h e i r human c a p a c i t i e s are w i t h e r e d and ~tarvuci; they become i n c a p a b l e of any strong w i s h e s or n a t i v e pleasures and u a g e n e r a l l y lwithout either o p i n i o n s or f m l i n g s of home growth or p r o p e r l y their own, 34

I n fact, i n chapter two of hi8i book, 18The l ~ h i l o a c ~ p h y of

J, S. M i l l t r , Anschutz h a s observed

ill ' 8 d i a t r i b e aga ins t . canf orrni ty at t i m a s bacones so rt:ronc) t h a t he seems t o be c e l e b r a t i n g mare j!j e c c ~ n t r i c i t y for Its own firaka.

But i t :is clear enough, even Bn Our L i b e r t y mcl

cspec ia : l ly i n borne!: of Mli l l*s other writ inlg, tha t :

ill 9 s c e n t r a l c o n c e r n was

b e i n g s who could be active

merely e c c e n t r i c ,

r5!j ,

w i t.h cu l t l l va t f .ng

and r e s p o n s i b l e ,

hu:nari

and n o t

~i11~1s llberali.sm, theref ore, can be rreithez' a

,s imple view about. khe p l a c e of l i b e r t y in the stlate,

nor t h e view t h a t the f u n c t i o n of t h e s t a ~ t e corrsists

:sole ly i n the promoting of l i b e r t y ; i n s t e a d , i t nnclst

13s a view which e x p l a i n s t h e p.Lace of l i b e r t y i n ktre

c:ontsxk of ib gerretral view of the p~?oppesr f unctfon or

f u n c t i o n s of t h e s t a t e , ~ i l l b : ; w r i t i n g s have t h e mer:Lt

of showing some awareness of thf s.

his most celebrated and mast quoted corrtrikw-

p o l i t i c a l phi losophy, tihe essay On L i b e r t y

M i l l i s concerned p r i m z r i l y t o argue t h a t

j s essential if a s t a t e ! compoaad of c i v i l i z e d

1 h 2 object of: t h i s Escreblg L:r t o assert one vary s imple p r i n c i p l e 61s e n t i t l l e d to govern al : ,solutely t h e d s a l i n q s Crf s o c i e t y w i . t l V \ t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e ? way el soinpu 1 si .m and control , whethar t h e mtatans u s l ~ be p h y s i c a l force i n t h e form of l e g a l p e n a l t i e s , or of moral c o e r c i o n of p u b l i c op in ion . Ths t p r inc ip le ! i s , that t ho sole end for which mankind are warran ted , : l ind iv idual ly or' c o l l e c t : l . v e l y , i n i n f e r f e r h g w i t h t h e l i b e r t y of. a c t i o n of any of t h e i r number, i s s e l f - p ~ o t e c t l o n . ' r k t t hc o r r I! y gur poou for which power Can

be1 r i g h t f u l . l y e x e r c i s e d o v e r amy ~ae~urber of a c i v i 1 l z e d cornmuni t y , a g a i n s t h i s will, is to p r e v e n t halrnl to o t h e r s , H i s own good, e i t h e r phys icad or mora l , is not a suf f icier~t warrant. . . . . The o n l y p a s t of t h e corlcluct of any one:, for w h i c h he is amenable t o societ.y, is t h a t which concerns otzhers.36

I n defendirrg and circurnsc~ri ,bincj t h e r i g h t t c )

l i b e r t y , lvlli.11 impl i c i t1 .y develops a view of the

f u ~ % c t i o n a9 t h e state. I n b r i e f ,

d t h a t t h e end of t h o s ta te i s to maxirnizei t h e goods of true knowledge, rational b e l i e f , self - ( j i r e c t i o n , self -

% perf - t i o n , moral character and r e s p o n s f b i l . i t y , h a p p i n e s s and p r o g r e s s . 3 7

M.311 d e v e l o p s t h i s t h e o r y f u r t h e r i n h i s discussi.orr of ly

its a p p l i c a t i o n s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t it i s p a r t of the

1:unct.ian ad t h e wel.1-run state t.o r e s t r a i n people from

l , ives , and, more i m p o r t a n t , t o make moral judgment::^ and

to a i d m ~ o r a l i t y as w e l l as t o .Lmpede immoral i ty . T h i s

is i n d i r e c t l y c a r r i e d uu t by ncm-coercive rwthadn s u c h

(18 e d u c a t i o n , arrd d i r e c t l y , by I J I S ~ I I ~ force to ensure

l:he f'ulf i l l i n c j of l N a s s i g n a b l e drnt ies~@ and to p r e v e n t

people p.ro1'iting from t h e imlnolrality of o t h e r s . But

Mill expresses some u n c e r t a i n t y on t h i s latter po in t .

:Phus, w h i l s t t h e p r e c i s e view of: t h e func.tion of the

st.at;e that P i i l l assu~mes o r devel.ops i n h i s on Libel-ty_ ,.

La n o t always c l e a r , i t is obvious t h a t he does not

,regard 1.il~ert.y as the s o l e o r main end of ~ I I I L ~ sta te ,

ncc even i 3 ~ always a necessary c:ond:t.tion of i t s

l e g i t i m a c y . However, i n Icon Liber ty" , N i l 1 claims that he

will. j u s t i f y l i b e r t y i n terms of its u t f l i t y but the

term "uti l l f tSy" i s mis lead ing and crbe;curao :F~ram Mil l

t h e c h a r a c t e r of h i s own arguments. H e does try t o

idefe!nd l i b e r t y i n terms of' its* utility, but not i n the:

senso sugqested by his u t i l i t a r i a n i ~ ~ m , for imst of h i s

( a r g u ~ e n t s are d i r e c t e d a t showirrg t h e u t i l l t y of

l ibetrty as a means of knowledge, t r u t h , r a t i o n a l i t y ,

ira.ti,onal be1 ief , prog re s s , moral. rc :sponsibi : l i ty and

se'lf -perf ect ion, Me a1 so n o t e s mrnt i : considctr'ations

vh~ic:h relate! t o l i b e r t y a s an aid to happinass , but.

,laccr: usuajbiy t h e arguments 1 inkiny I. i b e r t y S I L I ~ happknc:.is

relate t o happines:; expanded t o irrc.l.ude l i ;be.f ' ty as

part: of rathex thara d;j a means to the end,.

(c:) AbrioPuCe Freedom of Thouyht and Expression: ---- .- a .-. --- In hiis essay V n L ~ S G L - C ~ ~ ~ , M i : L l . espousexl a d~ttr'tri~ne

68.

u ~ ~ i v e r s a l and i rbsolu~te r u l e for s o c i e t y and thus

Ihighest good. TWO d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s are given f o r

-lYill@s mdc>pt.ion of such a p o s i t i o n . F i r s t , he i s

supposed to have been somehow obXivious to the

~da~nqers of- un l imi t ed freedom; second, 1 fbeirty was

viewed by him as such an a b s o l u t e p r i n c i p l e Lhast i t :

mnu~st: be m a i x r t a i n e d a t a l l costs. Irb chaptar two of

lhia On Liberty, M i l l d e c l a r e s :

The t i m e , i t is to be hoped, i s gone by, when any de fence would be necessary of t h e ' l i b e r t y of the press* as one of ttra s e c u r i t i e s a g a i n s t cmrrupt or t y r 8 m n i c a l government. 38

i?a,r h i m , kbre is no argument needed against psrmi t t inc l

$13 l e y is1at:u:e.e or an e x e c u t i v e , not i d e n tif :Lead .in

Lmterest w i t h t h e peop le , to prescribe opinions to

Ithem, and ddxmniros what d o c t r f raes they s h a l l be allowed

went is a r i k i r e l y at one w i t h the: people, an0 never

1th.inks of n.nettirtg any power of c o e r c i o n unles s in

~,agca:emmt w i t h what i t conceivwr to be the:Llr voice .

M i l l m a central p r o p o s i t i o n s are on t h e one hand,

'his insiste~rlce on defend ing freedom of expr&ss;ion,

along w i t h f 'reed~m of thought i t se l f , as though i t

wkro sonre1:hinq i n the n a t u r e of arr abrsolute and,

therefore i sv io lab le r i g h t ; and o n t h e o t h e r hand,

Ihls cecogrhi t ion t h i ~ t s o c i e t y ha$; a r i q h t to l.nterfe:rcet

wi thr an i r ~ d i v i d u a l " con,duct for' t h e sake of i t s own

q~preservation, a r i g h t which corner; i n t o p l a y whenever

t h e i n d i v x d u a l *s conduct is bourrcl to af f sc t adversely

the i n t e r e s t s of others. Plainly, these two p f ~ p ~ l t i i -

tiorrs cancel each other out; for i f , as MILL concecies,

' a l l expression i s b y i ts nature o t h e r reqa,cding, i t

. lof the i n d i v i d u a l , Indeed, Mill himself i s forced to

admit that under cw t ain c i r c u m s tamces - e'mmple,

where urrtctstraaiined e x p r e s s i o n i s l i k e l y to -pr'aduce

heirntful effects - : soc ie ty can p r o p e r l y t a k e s t e p s to

SO far as t o make a r e d u c t l o ad absurdurn o u t of tkLs -.---

of' Freedom argues t.hat -L----'

OI.IC(E: a breach i s made w:Lt.h r e g a r d t o freedom of e x p r e s s i o n i n ( r snc r~ l , thii p r i n c i p a l vj..etfr;; is bound to be freedom o F csxpi:*c>:tisic:~rr orr p o l it icxl :tssues. 39

But if' t h i s is so, i.tccord:lng to t h e crit ics, w h a t 131111

Lndividual. to speak h i s mind f r e e l y , b u t h.Ls r i g h t

to do so o n l y when, and t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t , he does

n o t t r a n s c p e u s socJety8s c la ln~ to p r o t e c t .itr;self from i

Ina.rm~. Thus ill a f f i r m s :

The approlpria te reg i o n of human l i b e r t y ., . l i b e r t y of conscienc:e i n t h e most Comprehensive s e n s e , libar t y of t h o u q h t arid f e e l i n q ; a b s o l u t e freedom of op.1nion and s e n t i m e n t on a l l s u b j e e l : . ~ , p r a c t i c a l or- s p e c u l a t i v e , s c i e n t i f ic, moral or t h e o l o g i c a l , . , , 40

'Then, af tar conced.Lnq t h a t t h e l i b e r t y of e : ~ p r e s s i nq

anid publishl .nq o p i n i o n s nay se&r t o f a l l under a

. different p r i n c i p l e , since i t bal.onc:ls t o t1h4at: p a r t of

the conduc:t of an in~dfvi t lual which c o n c e r n s other

people , he necver theless seeks to bring it w . i t h i n t tre

r p r ~ t ; e ~ t l . ~ n of the same princlplct by c o n t e n d iny tha,t:

freedom of expressicln,

k~irr0.l al~r~osrt of ae much importance a s the Liberty of thouqh t %tucllf and r e s t i n g i n qireat p a r t on the same reasons, i s p r a c t i c a l l y i n s e p a r a b l e f lXJU1 i k e 4 1

M i 3 1 1 does n o t say tihat freetj,ona of e x p r e s s i o n .is

of- the sane hnpor'tartce o w freedom of- though t ; h e says

1prac:tical:Ly i s s e p a r a b l e from k t , ~ r r y i n t e : r l p r e t a t i o n

of Millls t e a c h i n g t h a t ignores these nuances of'

qualification and d i s t i n c t i o n does less thlan j u s t i c e

to i ts nieiurinq, and this becomes all thtf mo~?cs certrli n

when1 w e c o n s i d e r t h e c o n t e x t i n wh ich t h i s p o r t i o n of

rqi1l.s aquiment occurs. F o r , as i t h a p p e n s , t h e v e r y

,sa.me paragraph which s p e c i . f i @ s khe various liberties

necebssary tl:, man i s also t h e paragraph which c a u t i o n s ,

Ln unmistakable terms, t h a t they are to be exercisad

lonlyr so lonlg a s they do n o t i r rvq lve harm t o o t h e r s ,

The o n l y freedom which deserves t h e nim:l i s t h d t of p u r s u i n q out. own goo(i in 3 u r own way, so long as we do noit atitelapt to d e p r i v e others of theirs q2 or impede t h e i r e f f o r t s to cbtafn Bt,

All these leslis ku t h e I r ~ e s c a p ~ r b l e cow Jbusion that .

PI111 did mt r e g a r d f r eedom of e txp res s ion ia:a an &mlut:s

r S natural. r i g h t , as something krhictl may not be c ~ ~ r b e d

iunder m y chrci.m&t;lirt:~s. H i s ac:'gumcrnt nust rather be

rreadl to wmn that freedom of axpres:;fon c o ~ . r a t i t w t s r ~ a

sight of t h e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y , a r i g h t whic:h can be

ju,st:if l e d p e r se, wh,erea,s t h e r i g h t of government su.

(of s o c i e t y t o curb freedom of e x p r e s s f o i i i ,s a

subordinate one.

In h i s book,, On L i b e r t y , M i l l appearred to suggest

t h a t freedom of a c t i o n was a value! i n itself irrctspec-

t i v e of i t s contr:ibu.tion t o u t i l i t y i n a s imple

q u a n t i t a t i v e s ense , Indeed, in uti l i tar :Linnism, he

undermined t h e f o u n d a t i o n s of the doc trine? by drawinq

h i s n s to r . i ous d i s t i n c t i o n between f h ighe r and ' lower * pleasures.. By t h i s M i l l meant: thii.t ce r t a i i n a c t i v i t i e s

were of a higher q u a l i t y t h a n o t h e r s even if they

appearecl to yield lesser u n i l s of h a p p i f " l ~ 3 ~ ~ i n a

q u a n t i t a t . l v o sense,

Desires for i n t e l l e c t u a l contempWation, s c i a n t if ic auld art is t ic e n q u i r y wad uo on, t h e r e f ore, have a claim to s a t i s f a c t i o n i n a ut i1 . i te r ' ian s o c i e t y , and t h e i r value cannot be asscssswi by the crude h e d o n i s t i c calculus,43

M i l l i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e sa t i s fac t :Lon of much

e l e v a t o d ~ deslres was c o n s i s t e d wi t:h u t i l f t:y , b u t i t :

was a "brcxideneci u t i l i t y qroluntj upon t h e interests

what he 9:; d s f e n c l i n q , as a l l hds t lef ini t l lot~s r e l e ~ ~ t e t o

freedom of actiorl. He seerns t o hold bhat, there s,hould

ble c o m p l e t a freedom c , d speech prc~v'ided tha.t. i t s

e x e r c i s e doe:; not i n c i t e o t h e r s t o i rnmediate harnnf LI 1

riotous b e l ! ~ a . v i o i ~ r , kience he slay:;:

iiC t s , or what e v e r k i n d , which , w i t h o u t just,FfiabLe cause, do harm t o others, may be, and I.n t h e more Fr r~pa r t an t cases i*~~lButCi!llr r e : q u i r e to be, c o n t r o l l ed by t h e unf i lvouri tble s e n t i n e n ts, and, when ns~ealfnl , by t.he a c t i v e i n t:erferencer of mankind. The l i b e r t y of t:he i n d i v i d u a l must be t h u s far l i m i t e d ; he must n o t 45 Inace h i m s e l f a n u i s a n c e to other p e o p l e ,

1 t i s not tth'it of lhd t i n y l iber t.y ffor the sake of b

l i b e r t y , as i t is dfl 'eet txi a t p r o k a c t i n y t h e p r o p e r t y

of speech 'wi renever such freedom .resu:l ts i n harm .to

rimcather' s person or property; for .h!.?: 1 uriui~~es; co

a1 1 q d f 'reedcm of specixh which r e s u l t s i n ha~rnr t o

p e o p l e a s per-,so~lrji and p r o p e r t y , kK:;o, hu cY a i ims:

Each will receivce its proper s h a r e , i f e a c h h a s 'thal:: wh.lch is more p a r t i c u l . a r l y concxrns 1 t , TO i n d i v i d u a l i t y vhoul d belong th,s p u t of l i f e i n which i t : 1.5 cliirtlfly trhe I.ndivitlup1 thcst Xa S.ntretrw~ltatd; t o :;lociat t h e pa r t whic:h chiefly I.ritsrests society. 4 P

M i 1 1 urges t h e : l i m i t i n g of l : i b a r t y of action Igr

khe sake crf p r e v e n t i r r g harm or 'in jury, these b e i n g con-

: ; t rued very rrarrow3.y t o mean p h y s i c a l harm o r harm i n

r s s p e C t t o cmels p r o p e r t y or h a p p i n e s s , n o t lrarrn i n

1:eapect to knowledqe , moral intc!gr:L t y or v i r t u e .

Mill thereby i m p l i c i t l y a d m i t s t h a t l i b e r t y is a

1.esser goold, a n d a lesser good than a good eomor1.1y

reqarded a s i tself: a lesser qood t h a n other goods ,

Mi311 soraekimes w r i t e s as i f he .is :;uggestir.ry ttrat t h e

1.ioni t . a t i o n s t o f'reeldom of acttiam s h o u l d be zonr hadl

to a c t i o n s which i n t e r f e r e w i t 1 1 cyt:kler p e o p l e ' s

traedorn. Hut ht? dales not consistently hold such (3 v l .12~

a m he contends that c a u s f ng harm cons t i t u t s o a qr ouncl

for r e a t r i c t i n y lllbberty, even b w t ~ e ~ ~ the harm is noe

itself a restrict i.om o f l i b e r t y , ,

( all I n t e r f erence with S e l f -Reaard!ina A c t i o n s

for' freefie:;; of' ac t ion . ~t t h i s j u n c t u r e , he useEl

t : rue bcrl.iek , sel f .-improvemen t, r a t i o n a l i t y and r 6 1 t iorbil

'!'h,.it: nlilt~kilrrti are n o t i r r1 : a l l i b l s ; tha t ithti!ir t r - u t h s , for- t h e rnolst p a r t , ace o n l j r '3 hiil f -(.;rut hs; the unit-.y sl o p i n i o n , rlnlecu r e s u l tirrg from t h e i'ullest urrd :freest c o m p a r i s o n of o p p o s i t e opd nionrn,

i s n o t clesirabl.e, and d i v e r s i t y n o t arr e v i l , but zr good, u n t i l mankind are much laore capabl. e that a t 1p.ce:s;ent of recognizll .ng a l l sides of t h e t r u t h , are p r i n c i p l e s

' a p p l i c a b l e to men's mod.c?..s of a c t i o n , n o t less t h a n to t h e i r opik?:i.sn:o, AS i t i s u s e f u l t h a t w h i l e mank.ind are i m p e r f e c t t h e r e shoull.d be d i f f ererrt: o p i n i o n s , so I t is t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d be d i f f e r e n t exper iment : . ; of l i v i n g ; t:ha t free scope stmu8d be c.1 f ven t o v a r ic:ties of character, short of iru j u r y to o t h l e r s ; and tha t the:! WCIK' th OI? d.:l.f f erent rnod'e:; of life :jhoul.il k)e p1-137lrecf pr-a:::t:i.call wherl m y cme t.hink s ftit; .to . t r y them. 4 v

Thus t h e wgurrients imply that., if t r u t h , ra l : iona l

be l i e f 2nd self,-pe.rfcerstisr; an be achieved w i t h greater b

success t h r o u g h i n t o l e r a n c e and colerciorr ,, t h e n f ceedcsm

o f a c t i o n w i l l lose i t s j u s t i f i e a t : i o n . To show t h a t

freedom of act:lorl does achieve! these good:;, i n

pa r t i cu l t a t ' , the qood of s e l f - p e r f e c t i o n , M i l 1 invoke:;

o t h e r cons iderzr t ic rns , i r r c lud inq t h e argument "each i:;

t h e best j u a g e ancl g u a r d i a n of h i s own l intearest~:;~' ,

s u p p o r t i n 1 0 conuide!!rat ions. M i,l. l argues t h a t o u r

perrromal pecu lka r i l t ies c o n s t i t u t e a qrourrd for i reedan

Of erctSon, in that I n d i v i d u a l perf ectiorh el?tail:i t h e

development of t:hose p e r s o n a l traits, mcl w e s h w l d

have a beLtes kmowledlge arid a k e e n e r interest i l r h o u r

s e l f - p e r f e c t i b n , and t h a t in s e e k i n g i t freely w e

shotrld tlevel.op and improve furthter our mental. and

IL is not: by wearing down i .nto unii'ormi t:y a l l t h a t i s f ndirrldual in I:hemselvas, but by cu:l t.S.vating i t , and c a l l i n g i t f o r t h , w i t h i n the l i m i t s l.mpoaed by thtr r i g h t s and interests of o t h e r s , thdk human beings becone a n o h l e and beaut:Lful object of con templation.48

Ftirither~no.ce:, M i l k ar'gues:

The intarf crencc! of soc.L~!ty to o v e r r u l e hLs, jutlgnnenl. and purposes i n what only r~eqihrds him:;elf must be clroundetd c m genieral premmpt i o n s ; 0 wh ic:h may be a1 t.oqe t h t x wronc? , and evem If r i g h t , are! as 1 f k c l , y a!; &tot to be rnisappl. i t ? d t o indfviduii l cases, by ;:f:j:sons nc; better acquainted w i t h the circunhs t ances sf such c a w s than t h o s e are who lalok at t i ~ e r r r merely from without . , In t :his depisrtmen t , t h e r e f ore, ;;- human at f a i r s , I w l v i d u 3 1 i11.y hiss i t s proper field crF act..i.on, 49

Although it is used as a sub:i idiary ii.flqumnerrt in

On Liberty,, the argr.nment "each f s the best: judgett is 1 -

one of which w ill, in company w i t h &.her I . iberals ,

makes e x t e n s i v e )use e l s ~ e w h e r e . :It receivelri i ts

Interpret.ad l iteral ly , it is an lar.gurner~t I'm- anarc bisn6.

I t imp1ie:s even a condemnation of l e q i s l a k f on preu e n t i n y

Econonly,, K i l l noted t h a t i t m u s t be q 1 ~ a l : i f h d i n - va~rilous v a y s , fox' example, to a1 l o w interfc.xence to

prevent hlarm, to promote goods. Again, whether hter - p r e t ~ s d as cl a i ~ i t i q t h a t w e may secure moiji: sf f ect.ive1 y

our happiness , sel fr-perf ectior~ , or si~lrpllr our se 1 f i s h

interests, t h e argltment d e f e n d s L i b e r t y as a mearvs tell

other goa~.ls, and, in ssrrre versions of t h e i ~ r g ~ ~ ~ e l ; ~ ~ t , also as part of t h ~ end. Thus i f it: coulld be shcwn

that eac:h was n o t t:he best judge, or though t h e best

judge w a s not the! !=st guardfan of hf:s mu1 inttnr8ests ,

t h e p r i a c i p l e of t h e argument would suggerst t h a t

l i b e r t y b43 r e s t r i c t e d and r e l i i a n c s placed on t h o s a who

were the. h e s t judgc!s or guardians of our hterests.

A t this junc ture , i t i s ptartinent to ctamplete

our tcxam~ination of the view of the funct.l,ori of the

a t a t e ru~gyssted crr s t a t e d in -- Lllberty, W h t ~ l ; new

p r i n c i p l e , if any, 1-23 introductsd by t h e qrra l i f i ca tior'

t h a t t h e s t a t e may never i n t e r f e r e w i t h se11.f-regerdirig ,

and o n l y mmetilmes w i t h other -regard ing act ions?

ill cs c :r : l t i c s have sugges ted t h a t t h i s formula

virtually d e s t r o y s h i s theory, s i n c e f e w if any

a c t i o n s are se l f - regard ing . ~1i:ll noted t h i s o b j e c t i o n :

Tile ci ist itlet i o n h e r e p o i n t e d out bet-weer\ the p a r t of a p e r s o n 8 5 l i f e which c o n c e r n s only h i m s e l f , and that which c o n c e r n s orhers, rmny persons w i l l ref use! t o admit , tlow ( i t RlilY be asked can any p a r t of t h e c:cmduct, of a member of s o c i e t y he ia m a t s f indifference t o t h e other members? 140 person i s an e n t i r e l y i s o l a t e d Lceing; i t : i.:; impc)ss:~.ble for a p e r s o n to do any th i r lg s ; rsr iously or permanen t.1.y i~lur t f u l to tr:lmseli-, wPt-.hou.t m i s c h i e f r e a c h i n g at l eas t t o h i s near c o n n e c t i o n s , and of kerb f ar beyontl them, 50

Every act has social r e p e r c u s s i o n s wh.ich m l t q be

c a t i o n t h e n aliou l?t.:~ cy t~ :':I#:! restr i~ted whentr uer

unconvinc:incj b u t i m p o r t a n t :

1 f u l l y admit t h a t t h e n ~ P ~ c h i , e f which a p e r s o n d o c s to h i m s e l f may seriously aff eet, bc1t.h t h r o u g h tkreir sympathks air i their i n t e r e s t s , t h o s e n e a r l y c o n n e c t e d \ n r . L t h hl-m, and 117 a minor. degree, society ark large. When, by c o n d u c t of .this sort:, EL ptz*son 11.s l e d t o v i o l a t e a d i s t i n c t atr l cl:3siqn,iblct obliqation tso any other per sowl

crr person:;, t h e case 1.3 taken out: of t.hv self-regardin() class, and becomes arntmabhe kc:, m c x d t i i s a p p r o b a t Larr i n t h e prc3rper sense of t h e term.,, , But 1dl.t.h r e g a r d t o t h e nlcx-ely cot1 t i n q e n t , or, as i t may kt(?: cal rli~d, c:snstruct:ive :in jury wrri.c:h a person ciausc::s kc:, society, by czonduct. whlch m i thsr tr.ioltlte?s iiny s p ~ a c i f i c ditty to t:he publ ic- nor occas.lons p e r c e p t i b l e h u r t to any il;ssign&lt! i n d i v i d u a l ~txcept h i m s e l f ; the S.i?convenlence is one rihlch society can idford to bear, fo r t h e sake of t h e greater good of human 53.

~*inssfqnabll clutit?sIt by non-coercl.ue means,

Hlmeive r , M i 1.1 ' :; concern 1s not for t h e ind iv l d w al.

aqa:~nst the state!, h u t rather b f o ~ : the indfv iduak

agamst a:L1 form:;, of s o c i a l pre:isure. Hence, i n the

inrtroduc:tfon of t:.hl2 essay On Liberty , ME11 aimed i31:

st.oppinc~ "the idea that the l i k i n g s and di ,s . l i .k ings of

s o c i e t y should be a Law to i n d i v i d u a l s . w 5 2 P r Mil 1 , 1n0~ra11 freedom should not be read as if i t referred t o

lthe legal enforcement of morals; f o r in a l l of Mill qs

alrritimqs, firnoral' can be read as a synonym for

~ s y c k o l o g r i c a l @ , for i n s t a n c e , he t a l k s of orre* s

p h y s i c a l good. 53 ~i .Ll*s statement of h i s aims i n

t~rritinq t h , s essay i s hackad to t h e hi1 t by t h e eus.ky

i.koeLL , whore km i z l irruch more conct?rtlcd 1wl.L .Pi the

inkruskom ot socicr. ty upon the i n d i v i.duali in mat tw:.;

whfch are not. .str..lctlly moral m a t t e r s , t h a n he is almut

-4- thrs state enforcement of morals, In terms, wtmther

of' space, or of i n t e m s i t y of f e e l i n g , t h e r e i s no

dau:bt whws ~ l i l l t s i n t e r e s t s lay . Even when the

i r : ~ o ~ e i~ p a r t i c u l a r l y one of a t a t u a c t i o n , tihie e v i l s t o

bc! Feared from such a c t i o n are r a r e l y p o l i t i c , a l , b u t

r ~ k 1 h e . r concerns t h e progress of human i n t : e l l f g a n c s ,

t w t e and enl . i~htenrnant .

It follcrwln t h a t .i,f M i 1 1 was nol: writ : ing about: thab

4 fu~mct ion of the s t a t e i n t h e essay, then he c o u l d n o t

hawm beem a r g u i n g that: l i b e r t y was t h e ob jsc: t, of state

@c:t.Lon. But there amit s t r o n g e r than a forticti grounds

why such ti suggestion is mis taken, Prom Mill@s not:Lon

of l i b e r t y i t follows t h a t l i b e r t y l o g i c a l l y c a n n o t

bet prow tsd hy l a g islation and costrcion, whett harr t:h:ls

telrlrcss the $ o m of soc:lally l a i d down and errf arccratd

mcwlal rules or expl ic:lL t laws backed by government

f c m a . Libex:*ky is e s : s e n t i a l l y t h e absence of sbl igs -

ti.an ( n o t t h e absence of n a t u r a l obstacles), e n d the

saidiay i s about the r e ~ a l m s where o b l i g a t i o n s 6u.e

rsrcrsonable and where khey are not , r3ut an oh1 i~a_!Aorr

i e l p r e c i s e l y some Eusrn of s o c i a l r u l e , backed by thi3

t tweat of; punishilnenl , whether by force or opinion,

The fact that i t i s punishment, and n o t rmtical e v i l s ,

that m a k e s for o b . l i g a t i o n s i s e x p 1 i c : l t l y trcouqhi; out

., . , that dhe :sole end for which m~salrlkind are wUrainted, indivirlual ly or col'l l e c t : i v e l y , j.17 interf ( ? r i m 3 with the 1 iber t y ad ac Lion crf any of t h e i r number is self -pro tectitzn, 3'hiil: tl~e o n l y purpose For r~hi.ch power Ctan tw r i g h t f i l l l y e x e r c i s e d over any mtsrnber of a c i v i l i z t ~ c l community, a g l i i n s t his w i l l , is to prevent harm to c)thers .54

~ u t frorln this it must be e v i d e n t that socitaty and tht?

s ta t e c a n r m t d o other than impc~tse o b l i g a t i o n s on eacn

oc:casion 01 t h e i r a c t i n g i n the way w e are concerned b

with irel'e, Every law, e v e r y :juclqc!ment that "such anci

such is wrongva, i s a d iminut ion of l ibert ,y . Thus it

is impoasi.ble t.o take sarious:l .y even t h e s q g e s t F o n

was the increase of l i b e r t y , I t may be t h a t t h i s

Unless tha demand for liberty is quali Fied bT/ ref c?rt:nca to the properr f u n c t i o n of governn~~at , it would imply anarchism; or i t would become t h e vielw t h a t it: !Lr j t h e f u n c t i o n of government: to max Lmize liberty- 55

It X:s to be noted t h a t McCLoakey d i d not set? the

o d d i t y of t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t yovernwnts should

maximize l i b e r t y , If he had done so, the second clause

of t h a t skatement 1s nonsense . AS to the: f i r s t :I.auze,

it is c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t t h e way for' a qolverrrrnc:!tlt: to

maximize i s to a b o l i s h i t s e l f , and t h i s wa~uld bo

anarchy, A11 government is r e s t x a i n i : ujmn us; :so nc:,

r e s t r a i n t : i m p l i e s no governmein t:, But., s q u a l l y

sbvi~~rrs l y , no-one has ever den k d t h a t some restraint

i:s necessirry for i l t o l e r a b l e e x i s t e n c e . The pof.mt o E

K i l l . f s 1l .beral i sm i s that each ~ ; q g e s ; t e d curtailuarenl:

o f 1,ibe.rt.y has to be c :weful ly ' s c r u t i n i z e d to see

whether the benef i. t outweighs Lht! 10s s, T o praise b

M i l l for xue ing tibat government: i s not designed to

d . l s t inc t . (loud,. w h l c h outweighs thtt gtmd of everlf

ground2 m d r e p r o s much inunor,l.t i ty. AY t:er a l l , are

not 1 ies,, cheakj, nqs , promise-breakings, etc., b.:'cact-es

of ass iqnable ( J u t Les? Thus M i l l * s lfberttl thca:.y a1 lows

the enf o~:cemen.t of a very c o n s i d e r a b l e . etmount 0.i' moral i t b .

I n h i s discus:;i .on of gamDl.inq and p r o s t i t u t i o n

folr gafrr, M i l l v i r k u a l l y q u a l i f les h i s i n f ' i i l l k b i l i t y

argument 13u t of: e x i s t e n c e . HE! :, however, w g q e s t s t h a t

i t may be right to restrict t i le l i b e r t y ofr those who

make a. 1. if lrelihood o u t of t h e i m m o r a l i t y of' o t h e r s . Fie

If people I V ~ L I S ~ be pllowed, i n what:ever c o n c e r n s olr~ly t hemael.vas, to act as ueoms best to thc:mselvss, a t , t h e i r own p e r i l , t h e y mus t e q u a l l y be free t o conisult w i t h oine arrott1e.r a b o u t what:. is f i t t o be 150' done; t o e:xchanqe opin i lons , and qive and receive s u q g e s tions, , Wha t.ever i t :Ls p e r m i t t e d to do, i t must be p e r w i t t e d to a d v i s e to (do, The q u e s t i o n i u d o u b t f u l m l y when t h e i n s t i g a t o r d e r i v e s a p e r s o r m l b ~ e n e f i t from h i s a d v i c e ; when he mi.3kea i t : h i s o c c u p a t i o n , for s u b s i a : t e n c e or p ~ c c u n i a r y g a i n , t o promote what s o c l a t ~ and the r; t a te ccrrisicier to be an rw:i 1 . 5

I'ht.: f o r n i c a t o r and gamble r must be tolerate~:l, b'ut

and the gaming-ahou se k e e p e r , H e n o t e s the argum,c:nts

f o r interference,, b u t states:

TI-ere is c o n s i d e r a b l e force i n t h e s e a.rqmeruts . I w i l l not: ve r r tu ra t o ,decide wlrct .her t t ~ t y are s u f f l.c:ient t o j us t . i f y the m~oral anomaly of p u n i s h i n g t h e accessory, when t h e p r i n c i p a l i s (and .

must be:) a l l o w e d to g o free.57

The fact tha t . M i l 1 oo sympa t h e t i c a l 1 . y considers

8 !:I . t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of rruch l aws suqgests that: he was

vaguely awizce that: !such atate inkerfersnce may be

e s s e n t i a l fn a ~ e 1 1 . ~ - o r d e r e d st.at;e. If ~ $ 1 . 1 , d e c i d e s

i n f a v o u r c ~ f i n t o l e r a n c e h e r e , much possib1.y ha rmless

immoral it.) would Die l e g a l l y banned. M i l l suggest:.:;

t h a t t h e qi~rlrbler c:ould :sti 11, qa,mble privat:;eil y, ~inc I

presumably ,that .tti,c foriiiciiksr i:ijik:ld f tsrnica te wi.-:h

a raa tews. But obvic:x~sly* such r e s t r i c t . i v e : l e g i ~ l ~ i t i o n

would m a k e many immoral a c t i v i t i e s impossi.t:~l e or l e s s b

ilcces:;ible., u t i. k i d a l methods of birth-c:oru t rol were,

' u n t i , l t h i s cerr tury , a lmos t univer::;ally jutlysd t o j)e

On M f l l l * s principle,, t h e s t a t e migh t be j u s t i f i e d in

p. revent ing t h e rnmu.l: a c t u r e and sale of "inst.rumcnt,; of

birth-contr-121; and t h i s would be t o prt?vent. a v e r y

important i arm of: p r i v a t e w i m m a r ; n l ity". ?:ht~s thi,.;

suggested :;elution to t h e problem of prost : l . t .ut ion for

judgments,, - and t o e n f o r c e them up to a looint, or1 e v e r y

i m p o r t a n t moral i s s u e . Thus, i f ( m y r e l i q i c r u s or moral

view, e,g, atheisnl, p a c i f i s m , euthanasia* f a m i l y

p lann ing , etc., is judged e v i l , t h e state can make

.

i l l e g a l t h e having of paid advo<::ates of t h e view,

that: is, t h e c l e r g y ; and i t can ban a l l qa.inf ul maw-

€a.ct:ure upon which tire p r a c t i c e of these kinmural views

is dependent:, That t h i s i s not a s t u p i d lapse on

114ill's p a r t , but a y u a l i f icatiorr sugges ted hy t h e

113eedls of h i s t h e o r y is e v i d e n t frlorn the f a c t that

much t h e sane p r i n c i p l e u n d s r l i e : ~ his d l s c u s s b o n oE

( t h e state's r i g h t to tax ~ s t i n ~ u ~ a t n t : ; ~ heav:Llly to gidn

n e c e s s a r y r12venue.

Mill's tlfscus:;iorr of t h e :%%ate#s rLqlrrt to tdkt.8

, step~s to prevent crLnes and accr.cdent:s - e.:~,. by

Ln s i s t k n g on the Y 'Eq rrinq of a poi son reg is+: t a r and c m

warning l ~ i b ~ z l s on po l c m n : : , 1s s ~ q n k i i c a n t tsn'ly a s

show in:^ i u i dwarcne:rs tha t the i r r d i v i dual i w y not

always be t5ic b e s t judge ar guar d i m of hi.:; own

Ln ts!~:eut,s.,

The suqqested means t e s t f c . ~ mdrrb4go a~rd M i l J 1s

~diseussion of clf f erlces a g a i n s t decency throw l i g h t on

l n i s q u a l . i f i c a t i o n of l i b e r t y i n terms of harm to

lot hers. The: former b r i n g s out t he e~tensllvcs restr ic-

t i ons of' l i b e r t y "harm t o o t h e r ~ ; t ' m i 3ht just i f y , w h i l s t :

t h ~ e l a t t e r ' extends the concept of t~irrn, from f n j u r y 1:a

person, h;rppiness cllr proper1 y , t:a o f f e n c e s aqia.in:~ t

nanuc!rs, 'Phey are i n c l u d e d in t:he class of a c t s

"which, . it done public:Ly, are a v i o l a t i o n of gootl

raannrss, and coininc~ thus. w i t h i n the c a t e g c x y of:

(Such an extension Cs needed i f M k ' l l i s t r : ~ j u s t i f v

Evrsn V J L Z ; ~ a l l these qua1i.f :Lcat ions, e!xplanaticns

:j ust:lf i c q a k i o n at i n t o l e r a n c e o f those crcreL to

q u a l i f lc:ahions to e x p l a i n this v a r y p r o p w restrlct.iun

on liberty, it is clear that. the l . ibe sa1 point 01.: v i e w

expraassd i n - L i b e r 2 -. i s a verys Compli~attXl o n e , 2hnd crne

which al-llous a great deal of a c t i v i t y by klre s t a t e

towards promotinq goods , and l rrr restr i c t . i n q and

Mi11 re:jec:ts t h e two pretvai l irq views, in terms of

the end o~li t h e - state Is t h e p.~:arrrotlon of the

he havia now, therefore, obtained kt

founda t ion for a twofold d i v i s i o n of t h e m e r i t wilrich any set of po1itic:akl. i n s t i t u t ion ; can possess, I t conni,stei pcarntly ot the degree i n which they pcomote the g e n e r a l mental advmce!rrrent of t h e c~mmuni ty , incluciirug under that: phrase advarrcernent in i n t e l l e c t : , in v i r t u e , and i n p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y and efficiency; and p a r t l y of the degree of pwfection w i t h which they organize the m,c,r-al, inte t l e c ' t u a l , and a c t i v e wc:br't::h alreatry e x i s t i n g , so a s to operate! w i t h the greahes I: effect on ptrbl ic i i f f :air-s .5'")

k i n d s of measure.s are good or bad by ref ereirrce t o

. . well-being so colnceived.

In slpiite of t h ~ a c e l e b r i t y of L i b e r t y emd

problem. Lr'l Uool~ V chdpter I , Iq1.11 e x p l Fckt ly csri-

s l d e r s the problern (sf the proper sphere of i l c t iv i t y OL

t h e skate! and of s t a t e i n t e r f eriznce, and rc!;jects rnany

formulae r e l a t i n g 1.0 it, i n c l u r l i r q various of t.htbser

"force a r ? , ? i. r.auclN d orrn~tla popu:Liar w i t h e a r l i e r

But en'ough has been said to,show that the adiiaitted functions of qova!r:~nment emkxacs a much wider f i o l d t h a n cilm e a s i l y be irrcluded within the r i n q .. .fence olf any restrictive def in l l t f on, arwl t:h;~ t is hardly pmwible to find any ground oit j u s t i f ic:a t : im common to 1:hm all , t:,xcept t h e co~nprehtmsive one of: garseral e:xpedienc y ; nor Ito 1 : t m i . t the interference of qic:wi?rnrnent by , m y universal r u l e , save t h e sf.nniple and vaque o n e t h a t i t shoulcl never be ad,rnitt:eu but: when t h e case of exlpcdiency is slcconq.~~ 50

Mill states t h i s after not l .ny t h e fo lLawiny w r l r i e d ,

1eg:ltimatle {nucessary and o p t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s of

government, involvirrg as t h e y d o a u t h o r i t a t i v e and non-

authoritor t ive in terf erarrce ; pre:rervatiun of peace ~ m d

order; laying down 1 aws of inhe I-i t ance; d e f i n i t i o n : ; of:

aildl nrt'lasurc!..;; p a v i n ~ ~ , l i g h t i n g , iimd c l e a n i n g street s ;

mak irrq arrd iwprovJ.n~l hdrbours, 'I L c ~ h t h o l ~ ~ + s , 5 *lr*rdA*- - . L 1 3 1

maps, etc:. -; f ostcx irrq axploraticwr ,, colon%zat i o n ,

c u l t u r e , ruset::arch and c ~ n i v e r s i ties,

Mill .Later s u g g e s t s t h a t Nrarly oi t h e s e a c t i v l t

car) be exp.talncd !.n t ermz; of t h e s e fc~rmulae ( 'Yeacl~ :LS

berit judgeti*, " f o r c e and fraudt*, ttseln-recjardirrg an=

o ther-regardl .ng ", aut. h o r i t a t i v e ii13d non-author'i t a t i v e

int:erf e r e n c e , nk?ct:ssi~~ry and optio.tiid1 state ackivi tj es) ;

bul: his we 11 - cons idered view i s that expressed abo\'e,

th~nt: the f ~ r i c t . . ton ot the state ct3msPi:;t in t ht? prono-

t i o n of. l l a~p incss s ancl t h a t concern for l i b e r t y m d

non- tnterfer erce h a s i t s j u s t i f i c a t i o n as a! tl:lctattd of

e xpediency ( whit h for M i l e 1 i s t h e f.mposi.nq of a ~noral .

p e r s p e c t i v e 1 , Howevtx , he writes :

1'tw suppox-t~er 's o f in terference h,wrt? beer2 c;a;:-rtdnt wi!;h assert;:Fng i3 c<jer~ii'iil x:Bqhi; ~ t r d d u t y on the pe l r t of: ~pvt?rnmen t f:o h k e r v e n e .,, vheravi?r i t s iinterventiorb would be cisc2f: u l ; arrd when those! who have been c a l l e d Laisscr-faire s c h o o l have a t t e m p t e d i i r 1 ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ r ~ 1 ~ i t a t : i . o n of' t h e province? of qovernrnun t , t h e y hIirva w u a l ly restricted iit t o t ,he p r o t e c t i o n of par s o n and p r o p e r t y aga : l n s t force arid f r a u d ; a c l e f i n i t i o n t o which n e i t h e r t h e y nor anyone else can d e l i b e r a t e l y adhere , s i n c e it e x c l u d e s , as h.ins beerr shown i n a p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , some of t h e most 3.ndksplensable, and unar~:Lmou:;ly r e coc ln i zed , of t h e dut i 'es; of governrnemk ,

Withou l: p r o f e s s i n g ent i r e : l .y fzo suppl'y t h i s clef icimency of a general t h e c r y , a n a q u e s t i o n which does n b t , -3s I corrc:el.ve, admit of a n y u n i v e r s a l s o l u t i o n , 'It s h a l l a t t e m p t . t o af fo.rd same 1:LttXe a i d towards t.he r e s o l u t i o n of t h i s c l a s s o f q u e s t i o n s as t h e y arise, by examin:Fnq, i n the most g e n e r a l p o i n t of view i n which t h e sub j ec l : can be c o n s i d e r e d , what i x e t h e a d v a n t a g e s , , and w h a t thle evf 1s or i n c m n v e n i e n c e s , of

- gove rnmen t :Ln te r f e r e n c e ,6'l

Thf 6; Mi11 does by ref arsncn! to par t icmlar i s : ;uea ,

b u t h i s " ' s c :~ l ' u t i ons l are o f t e n i n terms of n u n - l i b e r a l

or illiberi3.l p r i n c i p l e s ; y e t s u c h p r i n c i p l e : . ; e m e r g e from

t hough t fu l1 a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n ti?(-. state':; t i q h t s and

4, - d u t i e s .

A f t e r d i s c u s s i n g t h e p r o v i ~ z c e of cjover-nment early

i n t h e 1c.st; c h a p t e r of p r i n c i p l e s of ~ s l i t k c : a l li<ccmomy,

ill s t a t e s :

But he t h e n q')es on to qua.l:i.t y t h i s c o n c l u s >,on,

coniprsten~ t judge of' t . h e conunodity , can be aclrni t te1.l

o n l y with numerous aba.tements am4 ~"xc."yt.i.c:.-:z." 63

\ H i l l intentcis h i s q ~ l . l a l i f i c a t i o r t s to j u s t i f y state

ixmpuls i,oll i n rcs p t x t of edtKat:ion ; st: ate protcix 1t:iorr

of c h i l d r e n , lunat; i.cs, and a n i m a l s ; skate! 1.nter-f erence

with joint:. s.i;ocic c:cjrnpar?i.es ; Conipul s i o n in the :;pl,rer.'e

of lab'our' and i n d u s t r y ; state charity;" s t a t e supt.!cvisiorr

and contro:l of c o l o n i z a t i o n ; s't;at.e promot:icrm of goods

su,ch as cu.1 t u r e , s c i e n c e , resea!%h, etc. The tlr,:~stic::

na ture of mrne of these q u a l i . f : l . c z ~ t i o n s rewcals t h a t

Mill invok:e:; prin,c:i.ple:s of a r i r d i c a l l y d i i f e r e n t kind

:from those:: usua.1l.y associated with lik)era~li:rrrr,

To l o o k a t YBi:Ll's discussion of t h e s e excepl;.,:ions,

f irst , he a.:Llow:; t h a t t h e ordintinrv ~ 1 t i ~ e l 1 . 1 inay n o t be

,a czornpeterit judge of' h i s own irrterest i n c e r t a i n a r e a s ,

for example, educat.ion. He argues :

b t

:d.ruation, i n need of s t a t e p r o t e c t i o n . In e i t h e r '

:3ugq~sts t.he a l t e r n a t i v e account. that children, I m a t lcs

iand an im'a l s are weaker p a r t i e s i n a "c0nt.r actual'"

c u e , the ilrqumt::nk involves t h e remarkable suggesicion

(:hat ani1aa.1 s I-1a'v.e ..:.l; , s ta tus cornpiir a b l e w i t l̂ l t:ha t ~ r i

1 . u n a t . i ~ ~ . P o s s i b l y because h e :is ,;inea :;y about t h i.s

:;uqqastion,, Mil$ offers t h e t h i r d account:

T h i s i l l i b e r a l sugges t ion 1.:; m i l l * s most

A f u r t h e r qua1 if icat ion conclones atate compuk #ion

his own e~cctsunt ac.hkeve w r a a t he jr~irqes t o be: hi:; ,:lwn

i n t a r e s t , Mill sees i n t h i s a j u s t i f il::atl.<m of lehout-

interest to I. i.e in shorter hours under bet tsr concii t l . (ms

of hi9he.r wages, b u t only compul.~;ory urriformity kr L l l

allow them to rea l i z e t h e i r good, The argument assumes

t h a t the :state has t ,he right arrd cornptl:terrc:e! to m i k e

his va lue juclgmerrt; and i n effect :Lt :Is c:.bc;dmed to

j u s t i f y coerc ion o f others against what tthr!y ju&;je t c . ,

apparent1 y fnvolvej uniformity to achieve ~ o r a L ew3s

help for the needy, provided various condiir: i.cms, w! i Pch

i.mount to such aid b d n q be~1ctfiCfi31 i n i t s t:otal.

tlf f ec t : s , a r t ? f ulf ill13d. He argues:

The argument a g a i n s t government in,tt?rf erence grounded on the max.im th.at i n d i v i d u a l s are the best Judges of t h e i r own interest., cannot app ly to t h e very larys class r ~ f cases, i n wtri.c:h tho:xt act:; of i ~ n d ~ i v i d u a l s w i t h w l a i c h t h e govtznlnen t c: :!.aim,s to inte~:lere, ,WE! n ~ o t do~ne by thcsa i n d i v i d u a l s fcrr t h d r c:wn i n t e r e s t , k~u t for t h e in1 t:ercs t c:& sk; her. people. 'rhi;:i; i n c l u d e s , arnonq olr.hetr t h i n g s , the i.mpoctan t. and rnueh iaqit:at.ed sub:jjec,t 0.l' pl!.cblic chari ty"f ' j8

r i g h t l y c o m x r n l n g their own in teres t ; , for the good of

here a:; w i t h s t a t e clnari ty. H e observes:

If it 4s desirable, as no orre wi.:.:L dens( 1.k to be, khat t h e p1;lninihg o.f co l . on ia s should be! conducted, not w i t h an c?xclusir re v.hw t o t.h,~i: p r i v a t e i n twre:st:s 01 f .ir:i t f o u n d e r s , i3u t w i t h a c k l lberate rxqard ti^ the perrnmxmt w e l f a r e of the n a t i i sns afterwarcls ta arise from thest. srnclI.1 b e g i n n i n g s ; such regard can o n l y be secured by placing the e n t e r p r i s e , from i t s commencemeart, u n d e r r e g u l a t i o n s c:onstruct:ed w i t h the t ~ o r e s i g h t ana e n l a r g e d v:i .ews of phl.losophica1 1ecjislat.o~::;; a n 3 the qovNr'l- murrt allme has power e i tiuer L o f rtme atlc,'l rtsqu lat f (-m .:;, or t o enf cxce t h e i r obs(er'crancu.

16 9

d i s t i n c t one of inktrfereruce f o r the good of f z l t w r

q t n e r a t i o n s ; and i t : is really' an e x t e n s i o n of khct

. q u a l i f i c a t l o m aboutl harrrbincj others, bu t cmc whf-cla

amounts t c . r a new p r i n c i p l e , invoXvFnq as i t , docits,,

r e f e r e n c e to t h e w e 1 1-beinq of ~ l n b o r n gerirerr a t iwa-;,

Such an extension of t h e pr inc j.pPe w o u l d q ~ a l i f ' y 1 iber ty

i n all it:; context: : ; ; y e t M i l l is forced to a d m i t t h i s

1princ:iple to expla In and j u s t i f y what i s undoluljtttdly

,n nec:sssar;'y and p r o p e r a c t i v i t y of qovern~mcs~nt . M i l l further n o t e d t h a t t h e r e are goods which arle

l'lot any one pcr:3on ' s goods, wh Lc:h ought ko be ;cc.bmated

by t he stare; and he a c c o r d i n q l y n o t e s t h e d e s i r t n b i l i t y

of state hterf e r e n c e in the f ormm of t : axa~ t ion antj s t a t e

; subs idy to promote goods s u c h a s s c i e n c e , culturt:,

r e s e a r c h an.1 explor ihtio.n,

:In b r i e f , ttlen, the argument "'each is the M:;t

judge" hcrlds on1 y fl.:,r r a t i o n a l ot?.irrgs; anil then 0 lily

where it h o l d s , that: is, where t h e qootlls ,.ire good.; of

p a r t i c u l a r i n d i ~ i c l u ~ r t l s , and where the lncl F v i d u a P xs i r ,

f a c t the best: juilqe or g u a r d i a n of h i s own intsrer i t , .

H e is not: t h e best judge of c e r t a i n commodities, m d

. applicab1,e pr inc ip l tr by which to judge whcrl the

i n d i v i d u a l is the b e s t j ~ ~ d y e of h i s own i n t e r e s t , and

neglects to cons ic ler here t h e v e r y relevant,

important areas of m o r a l i t y ancl . r e l . i g i o n . The

nirudividual" may a l s o not he the best quartlian of h i s

alwn i n t e r e s t , for example, if he i s a chi: l t l . , a luutat:ic,

or an animal, or if compu1.sor.y j o i n t action i s es:ietntl.al

for. h i m iirarJ other:; to reral,ine their intercersts; mn I he^:^,

koo, state interference is a l lawed . T h i s m?ans t h a t

nruc:h moral behaviour may proper ly be e n f o r c e d , if i t

i s expedient to e n f o r c e i t , for compulsory sbservimce

cjf d u t i e s such as t ru th - t e l l incy , promise-'keeping, and

9 13 .,

i r e a l i z a e f ' f e c t i v e l y t h e i r indivli.dual i n t e r e s t s .

F u ~ r t h e r , w e n w h e r e the i n t i i v i d t . ~ a l . Is t h e l.raat )udqe

anid guardian of hi:; own interest;, t h e s t a t e may inl.er-

felret for t h e good ai f u t u r e 3 qerwr'ation, or to promote

those goOtis w h ~ i c h , ,ar I-. not: iUIY i r i d i v i c l u a l :5 31:1<4:1s.

These esst int i a , l yu,nl if icat : . I ~ S l-t!pr-e sert; a V ~ T V $;U!I-

star1 t i a l rnocl i f i c a , c, Lon of' the nor)-iru k e r f ert?rrr:e! thas ..s . In the I l i r g t l t . C ) i M i l 1 @ s d isc:usuicm:? here and e l s e w h e r e

i r l Y~rin(::iplwlsl of ~ ~ o l i t l c r s l Won<my, on ~ I L u ~ r ' k y thr~cl

Rapresentat ive! Government, t h e b view of the f unction

and proper a c t ; i v i . t i e s of tha s t a t e which resrrlts frcrm

M J . 1 1 f a c i n g the cone retc! problem:;, 01- p o l i t i c a l I f f e is:

s e e n t o be a v e r y 3itf.erent theory to the non-

i f r t s r f e r e r n c e t h e o r y commonly a s c r i b e d to him and wl.riclr,

n o doubt, h~f? somet inres be1 i e v e d h i m s e l f to be advzmcir\g.

Mill's; o p i n i o n i s thint i t is t h e busine:ps of t h e

sitate to secure iand promote g o o d s s u c h a s hap pine:,^,

t r u t h , ratj.mal belief, self - p e r f e c t i o n , se l f - d i r c + z t i o n ,

moral charzkctar, end culture; and that i t may int t5rfera

w i t h 11bert:y i n special cases t o promote t.h~ese ~ O C J ~ S ,

even when the behavfour of t h o s e i n t e r f e r e d w i t h .Ls

n o t harmful1 to others. Mill doet; not regard it a,J

--- p a r t of the funct io ir~ of t h e a t a k to prornot.t. moral

s t a t e m y l t~glt irnat: .e ly t a k e s t e p s which f r ~ effect ,n~ake

.lit may poss : lb ly be l q i t i m a t e tc; s u p p r e s s , br rd i rec t l y ,

t h o s e p r i v a t e immora l . i t i e s which can usrral.1.y or o n l y

be p r a c t i s e d if o r g a n i z d d i n some way by o4:hc!rs folf-

t h e i r own gain, And t h i s would make i m p o s s i b l e or 7

:ILess e a s y t o engage i n , such i m m o r i s l i t i e s as gambling,

:Its c o n s t r ~ ~ e t i i n a very ela&t:ic w'ny, : 3 o r n ~ t i n c ! : ; narr( :wly ,

:!jrome t irne s w. lc le1 y to c o v e r cuff enc:t.,s aga4.n~ t good ma 1.1 ner 51 , ,:and harm to unborn g e n e r a t i o n s ) mdy be p u n i s h e d ; i n

o t h e r words, if t h i s r e s u l t s i n :Less harm <x:c:urinq.,

Again, any i rnmora l i t i s s which i n v o l v e lcrilurej t o f l - ~ l f i l

Itass ignab1.e may be s u p p r e s s e d ; m d the a t a ~ e

((or soc ie ty ) is to be judged b o t h of w h a t i t ; an

, n s s ignab le d u t y , and of what i s an e v i l p r n c t i c c frc c m

wh ich lgairr l u l employrnctnt may not: 1 awE (11 lly I:m madm,

T h e r a we still1 very ~ l i g n i f i c s n t d f f f e r o n c e s

lbetween M i l l ' s v i e w and t h o s e of' t h e Thomfs t s ; but

M i l l ' s l i b e r a l t h e o r y i s n o t the! s i m p l e t h e o r y a s

srlcll. It f s n e i t h e r the s i m p l e ~ n u l i t i p l e o r i t e r f a

theory which could k l e m o d i f i e d t n t o becominrj, rt.rther

it i s a very complex theory and :s:t.~c:ll that if it weare!

c o n s u l t e d t.otlay, it- would probal3.i y ~ ~ e u w l t i n

C l m ~ t e r Three: Foo tnot:es

1. N , Abbaqnano, "t-lurnan~isrn~~ 11-1 T'he -*--.- ~ h i l o : s o ~h vol. 3 8: 4, ~ t l . by 7m7~p' Matmillan Pub. 0 . 19721, p. 70.

1 E m t'rolnrtr, Escap: frclm Freedcm, (New York , 1965 '1 , -.-.. p. 27,.

20. PI. Pe:L, l ed, )I , L.exicon Wel>st:t?r r.')it:t lonar Vol .,, I, -,. --.--.--.,---.-- x.9

U . S m , 1973.). p-

30, A,, Appadorai, .-.---------.--.- Tl11c Slubstance of ~ o l f i t i c ~ -9

(Madras, 1975 1 , p,

33. Wn L,ibertytv i n M a Cowling Ged,) , Selected Writincis of Jah~rr S t u a r t Mill, (New York: New -- I-.. .-.-- -.--. ~nleactz ~ i b r s r y v , p, f74.

3 6 J<. S. rdill, op. c i t pp, 95-96. . -* Q

41. Ibidem, I--'-

2 . @'On I,i!DertytY 4n M a Cowling (ed, ) , Se1ixr;ed dr 1 tincys of John S t u a r t Mill, (New Yock: N&~-;G~G-~---- Z E - 7 - 3 3 5 ~ ) - - 7 7 5 ,

c C Y 9 9 P

"On L i b e r t y " , , 9, : c . , p., '154,

5 3 . J. :;,M.111, Htrpre:sentat ivf! Goverr~menl: I b i d . , -- I-.- - .--.- r -" .-.. p. ' ! ' I S *

w 62. .--.- Ibid sec. 7 , p, 575,

63, Ibicl ssc. 8, p. 575, --:

A CRITIQUE OF MILL'S POLITICAL LIBERALISI\l MAINST .-.(--..-.I

TH E B A C K G R ~ ~ ND OF ~3-f ~NC IPLE~'FFTATRAC"~X- em- _II- - ---

-.- i i a ) A wief Historical survey: ---I

v:lLewpoint of history, has a lonq and honourable

t h a t for a r l n l i e to be accorded ,t:t~u d i g n i t y and s t a t u s

of t h e word l''law", 1 t m u s t s a t i s f y the univer*:.jal moral

slkandarcls. Q u e s t i o n s a b o u t v a l i c l i t y t u r n n r x e s s a r i l y

upon the content of t r w r u l e s i n a legal sy.'st:rem, Tlhi~s,

a par t i cu lar rule would not: bct e r ~ t Ltlud to b e ? cal Lad a

~ i l i l i d law 1.f i n s u b s t a n c e it breaclwcl a moral. princ:ip,le

- w e n .if 1.t emanated from an a u t h o r i t a t ' l w e source arid

P' wds legitimate i n a f lormal sense. A brief t r l i s t o r i c d l

s~.~r"vey will. help us ir:~ th is i s s u e ,

~ccctrcling to one of t h e most modern Thornistic:

t h i n k e r s , ,I. Maritain,

at. a l l perj'.ods of h i s t c x y 13efore the 10th C e n t u ~ y R a t i o n a l i s r n undermined it, 3

fni k i i d l y , the! process of il.evelopmen t of t h e

c:onc:erpt:: of n a L u r a l 1 aw f 01 loweld a,l.cmg myt hol.oy l.ccr.-

r - e l i q iuu.; ;arri! i=o:-;iric ' l c x ~ i .cc)-phll o: ;ngni .ca~ Ih~i:?k';.lr>d~ C."-

i ipproach. In the f ormer, the c3a.r l y G r e e k thinker ::;

began frm an a~;su~r i .p t ion of "ne~turc?.~f a s f!kc? CS::ZG:; &r.;lil

a l l . t h a t exists i r . 1 i t , irrcludilrq miin, as ~o:rf.girrat~rq

from t.hc gods. And from t h i s vkewlv)oint, r ~ j ~ k u r a l baw

was seen a:% a pr incy ip le of t e qovtxnment (of the gods; P -

o v e r t h e world. of v i s i b l e thinq:;. Man's s l p e c i f ic

n a t u r e or - or ig in iind t h e law qiritiinq his Iper'sonai ' and

s o c i a l c o n d u c t are theref ore e x p l a i n e d as :the g i f t:r of

the! gods.. Herac1:Ltus i d e n t i f if:cl. human nl:;l.ture ( physic::;)

w i t:h an jinter for s p i r i t , and m;:~intainetl t t -1~3 L.,

nlclng with thf s s p i r i t , an e t e r n a l a ~ n d imlm,utable law was intplemted i n m a n "31s t:he foundat ion of human l a w s . 4

I n t h e latter approach, st: i l 1 connected w.L th t tw

f or'mer, Greek t h i n k e r s used experience and ref 1ect.ion

to d i s c o v e r an order i n t h e universe (nature) that thc:y

a.ss;ocfated with p r e d i c t a b l e r e g u l a r recurrence of

evemts. With regard to act i v i t:y , behaviour and rnotl-or1

o f animate and i n m i m a t e n m t t e r , t h i s r e g u l a r i t y was

and c o n s i d e r e d the a r i g i n of mati and of t h e laws ct

ltion~ ot: man's naturhe and natural. l d w emerrged

l I ~ a l f - r e ? l i q i t ~ u ~ and hcrl f -phi losopI?ical proc:c?tfur-e. It

paved t h e way for the f u t u r e i n d u c t i v e m e t h o c i adopted

later by Aslstot le and bequeathed to Aquintls as a

:legacy, Y

The co:,mologir~a 1 c o n c e p t of ndt:ure thikt di.s.-

rank of realism, ~ r i t t t o t l e resumed the clntological

the u n i v e r s e it.sel f', T h i s i ; ir~t l in~l r e l a t i o n s h i p 1s

this f nher ent princip1.e of- motion i.s t h e substaritid11 form whiclr is a natural law, s~uw~unin~j each b e i n q I:o t h e f u l l rw3 iz ; j i t i~bn of i ts exasterrce accolrclirrg to its specific k i n d or species i n the U T I ~ V ~ ~ se . Hence t h e f u l l rea.l izitt Lon of t h e ~~rnot icmt~ or growth of each e x i s t e n t is; the end of that substantial being accordi.n(j to its na tux-e, 6

In the order of a1ct:ivity or behavfour, ~ r b 5 ~ ~ t o t l t 2

inst incts , But. men alone, as an intellectual aru.I.rna1. .,

' t h e f i r s t cause a n d iman. 7

human existence as the basis for the nat;uritB mor'al

::Law of man revealed to him the inn12rmost s1 : ruc tu r e of

t h e human being. The use of the . Inducti ,ve--ontological

method (experience alnd r e f l e c t i o n ) considers man as

ir part of cosmic exi stenlee ( o n t o l o g y ) , espe:c la l l y

from the aspect of plhysiology, bio:lagy and, above : i l : L ,

animal psych~oloqy. T h i s f u r t h e r Xed him to cfiscuwtr

:I,n man an e;L(erncsnt of thought which is urllcq~~el and

uri~sw of thir; element, Ar.istotle ai'f irms 'that man i:.;

th~a supreme I3e:ing un e a r t h ,

For he alone is c a p a b l e of i n t e l l e c t u a l knowledcjc, and h e alone is const;it;uted by i t m,3teria.l body and a s p i r i t u a l mini13 (form) i n ,a type of ~at:ter-and-form compes i ti on, 13

is a dominarit iand delkermininy f ac to r i n man, Ariutc.btlo

asaligned to human thought ( r a t i ~ ~ n a ! . i t y ) i n t h i s

h y l o m o r p h i ~ doctrine of h i s natural philb:mphy f a l l e d

to harmonize with t h e more s p i r . l t u a l (metaphysics l 1

concept.ic)n uf man i n h i s E t h i c s arld Polit:ic:e, In -*. -.".-I

o t h e r hor4d,s, h i s anttrropologi&l conceptiorr of rnan

p o l i t i c a l conceptj-on of man as a social animal

(nolon Yol.itikon), A l l t h e same, he left Wational i ty i '

as the: es;senco of man, which he~s farmed a s o l i d f s ' a r e - .

work of Western p h i l o s o p h y and an irnpartar~t base for

A.qulinasn p h i l o s o p h i c a l rcformat.ion i n t h e medieval.

P J ~ C ~ I O O ~ of' S c h o l a s t s i c f sm.

i n hi:;

a universal n a t u r a l order of just . i . c t? east4 s t s b;h Scl-r bindri o n s t1 1 human bte:l n g s , a l o n g s i d e t h e p o s i t i v e l i i w , l O

hie extends t h l i s doc krine t:o h i s ~ o l i t f c s , where he! --- diefines man as a soc ia l arrhal ( zoon ~ o l i t W o n ] orr

the ground th i i t :nanU s n a t u r a l i n c l i t m t i s n t:o socri:i 1

based o n in~~:anter . i . a l human reason.,

the norr:Is of human moral and jurPd. l .cal behctvi.our- fl'orn

~ i t h a hidden rnetaph~yskcal reallty in a joint . forrr of

i r c I innt i ons . I' 11 'Chis s t e p is kmsetl on t h e 31ssumpt:ion~

th,at: moral virtues start w i t h * the! c o n t r o l o:F p a s s i o n s

i n rrlan, thak It i s when harmony ~ t x i s t s between the

,nnirrlal i n s t i n c t s and reason i n man or when both unl . te

1peac.ef u l l y to work t o g e t h e r that: a r i g h C moral coni j tuc t

emerges. F'rom t h i s psycho1ol) ical a n a l y s i s , Aristot le

declares tnnn~te lra l i n c l inati ons" a s an ontalocjical

t:hese i n c l inat ion:, p r o v i j e s t h e precise d o c t r i n e of

Iris great: m o r a l i t y . According to ' t h f s it.eac:hi.nq,

human .LnclinatLlms are a mixture of mate!rial.

Wmref ore, f a r from being mere material i n s t i n c t s fin

1:hs estimatiion of. t h e n a t u r a l sclit?ntista, tqi.rucl irrai:.ionolt

( v i r t u e ) . Me:nc:e! t h e y are: posi l::ivet moral eincrqy a!:

t:he irral~ional level; but stilil they s p u r m a n to good

bet~av.luu~:. Aristot le discern ( k marked d i r t i.nc t iotrl

k1et:ween wh2.t is rational and sl.drf t u a l and what: 1.:;

i .rr'aticmal and n,a tural i n :Irnpul.ses of hurnan nat.ur ri,

a d declares t h a t the a . p p e t i t e or: feelirtg of

e,xc!al l ence i s nii tural and irrpt:i.onal. But: It is

n,at:ural, v i r t u e which I s to b e p e r f e c t e d w h t ~ ~ thau~;;lht:

(re!ason) elevates it from inferior to hiqlrer virt,reu,

Ariat lot le concludes from t h i s a n a l y s i s and

r e f l e c t i o n that every human being possesses

"inclinationsw to r a t i o n a l virtues like courage i n

self-defernce, and justice; and t h a t from these basic

inclinations man can d i s c o v e r and f ormulake moral and

l e g a l norms of: j u s t i c e , Consequently, he applies

t h i s to tris P G ~ ~ ~ F C S and asserts that mart It:, - - .--.- t ~ ~ i c l e t n t l y td sucia~ 4 m l ~ ~ ~ u l t ~ : c d i ~ : ~ c ~ O: r lq -~ tur ' i s~

Inclination of his mason to socilitty,

Regardless oY his synt:.hetic Fnvestigat:ion an l

h l e c~,)ncq-~I:rr,~l ~n,u.~.~~t-cncl.aal prabvl wrr: ly notstl, i l l M

1.rarmon.ious perf oct.1.m (sf the d x t r i n e of ntj t u r d

t h e i n v a l u a o l e corrtribt.ttions of mistotlle a.re evi.dent S.rr the thoughts of his later d i s c i p l e s , and that i t : womLlld be d i f f i c u l t not t . ; r ~ acknc:>wlc:ige t h e gene ra l outlines of: IhLs Ideas L n t h e phi1 o:;or)hi C notions; tha t hnve been t,ranshnitted to us thyouql; Boethiu::; and st ,, Thofl1~3s ~ q u i n a s . 12

Thus valuable are ~ristotlE!?; concept. of man as

ristional, his idea of "natural l a w f ' as the l i n k bc:twee(n

the f irs t uncaused cause and mati, and his idea of ,a

conkingent world of w h i c h man is a part ana at the

his intellectual n iture. These not1 ons are t.he p i1 lar:;

of ideas mls to t l e htss p l a c e d at t h e root of any

phil .os~ophy of man and natural l a w bdsic to :;ocio-

political ethics.

A f t e r Ar'istotle, however', t h e mtrtaphysical ,Ldlea

of eternal amr.1 u n c h a n g e a b l e o r i g i n of na.tur*ii~l law was

rejected by t he Soph:ksts and was replaced wi t1.r

uncomprom.tsiny legal. .Lndivibual.iLstic posit ivi .sm, w h i c h

holds that law or ig i n a t e s f ' r o m and ends i n men as

miitt-ari.al : f a c t on1.y. T h i s view w a s i n h e r i t e d l a t e x b y

S c ~ p h i s t and, Epicurean schoo l of S k e p t i c i s m qiive wzi {

s h o r t l . y t o t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of tlmc: concept olf a cxmaon

and unchangeab1.e o r i g i n of l a w , based on t:hi? 0 u t : l j ne

a ' l r eady mapped o u t by A r i s t o t l e . The Stoics qerrer'ally

aPf i r n l that: the basic n a t u r a a law .in al.1 a,nirnals i i?d

. p l a n t s Is the b i o l o o i c a l inclinatt:l.oxat to self.-

con swva t Ion,

But human bai.n(js a r e endowed w l t h reason ( loqos )

aa a more p e r f e c t lw which e n a b l e s them to l i v e

according t:o v i r t u e which i s sirnil ar to 1 j.vli.ng i3~(::0rdi.n(~

t o th& I n s t i n c t of :self -conservet.Lon. For the S t c ics,

this .Law of "natureu or ( l o g o s 1 founded on i rn thro~~;ology

and e t h i c s i s n o t common tb t h e whole u n i v e r s e b u t

exclusive8 ,to human b e i n g s a l o n e , However:,

t h e Stoics admit t h a t a u n i v e r s a l law or 1.ogos e x i s t s which is v a l i d f o r t h e whole c:osmic order, his law, which i s :Lnbuilt i n t h e e s s e n c e of a l l ex i s t : en tu , emanates as common r e a s o n or providence ,13

j u s t i c e I ~ a ~ n s c e n d s the confine: . ; of t h e c i t:yr.-estate,

every hurlnar?, tvei i~q i s a c i t i i z c t n of- I,he wor L C ; he is

al lso a moral. u n l t qovernecl by t . k uni.vc?rsal I aw

whf.ch p r e s c r i b e s a p a t t e r n of tsehaviour m;ul l f es t Lo

reason . Unf ~ r t u n ~ t t e l y , howeSer, t h i s Bat# .I:;

i t l e n t i f i c A w i t h f a t e , which c l r i v e s men to v i r t u e :)y

k n ~ e c ! e s s i t y , thereby nu1 lif y i n g h~trnan free w.i L 1 ,

Thu:;, t h e Greek:;, sxcep t i n g t h e Soph:Ls't s,

c:om~monly r e c o g n i z e t h e e x i s t e n c e of natural law as a u n i v e r s a l objective cmsmic law which has i t i s o r i g i n beyond the world itself - 1 4

? B u t . i n g e n e r a l , they failed to safeguacd tlm i d e a of:

%- - man s nror-a1 f reedtsm when they i.cten kif i e d 1.1 5kuraf 1.aw

wit.h "f at:erl, which by nlecessity c o n t r o l s t h e action

sf men surd of t h e gods, tiencc t-ilcy regard Inen as a

par t of nature, sub ject t:o the same p h y s i c a l l . a w , and

F o r t h i s reason, the contribrrtio~l~ of tk~,:! Honnan jur ists

and p h i l o s o p h e r ~ t s well as t h e ~ n t ~ t l i c ~ v a l ~ecrt!ti:.,t:,c

f L'OI~R t h e legal. a:,pcc. t was a w a l t w l for the f i .nal

. Roman Jurists and Leqal Phi los ,ophers : c - - - --- Cicero was t:he most; r e p r e s c m t a t i v e f i ' q u r s in the

Roman phi: losophica: l school of! 1 itw who under t:ook the

ideel of n(itura1 law as t h e hiqhctst reason in~planteri i r ~

man and in khe world. F o r Cic:er'o, A s W, Schl*ler notes,

n'i tural law i:; inborn, ~ m w r l t t e n , heavenly, an.d d i v i n e ( l e x nata, norn s c r i p t a , l e x c e d e s t i s , ].ex d i v i n a ) , ,If3

T h i s expression - w a s v i t a l in C:at:hollc Medieval t.hotlght ---

~ o n ~ rrnturali law, esptzcj.al ly for :;t. ~?rugustlne. A s

.pe!rson hi:; due: i n l a , w and promotes the cornlncri-1 qcbor;' +

by chack,inc) :fra.uc- i f nd theft: in s o c i e t y .

In t h i s ; way n a t u r a l Pisw, w h i c h is for trre C;recrk:j

the 'tj uotllt I.n corrduct , becomes khe "r i q h t t t i r r leg k :;la-

t i o n for t h e Roman j u r i s t s and phiPosophers . Fc:w

pra::tical p u r p o s e s , Ga ius and U'lplanus see i r a nrlturak

l a w t h o bas i s for- evalvinq t h e d o c t r i n e o f Itthe 30tbd

of nat ions t1 ' , They use i t to j u s t i f y t h e e x i s t i n g

civil c o n s t . L t l ~ t i o n which is limit-w.l to the Porrrar~

- c i t i z e n s alone, arid to make wider provfisicrn f o r t h e

r~ecoqni t l ,on of the :Legal r i g h t s of c i . t i . z e n s of: other

n a t i o n s hli.ct.lin the: [.loman Enrpf re, ~onmquerrkPy, t1ne:s.e

j u r i s ti; r eqard t-.t~t: Law of n a t i o n s ilu a un l lv txsa l

n a t u r a l I.aw, i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e ( e x i s t i n g C ~ L I J ~ ~ , s t ~ t . u t : t ~ ,

which clave v'a1iclit:y to the four.ic 'I t i o n o f leqal u n j t y

l a w of nat:ions became a positive. law, conskructed

:~Proa~ the c:olnmon n o m s and p r i n c i p l e s found In t h e legal.

iis an implementation of the natur , l l law whlc:t~ is t i ~ l e

t s x p r e s s i o n of Universal Reason. 'rlrus, f rorir tihe

d o c t r i n e otf the l ( a w uf nOations,':;uch terms as

n a t u r a l law, natural reason, and nat.ura1 justice, are a l l e x p r e s s i o n of natural law i n COINIIOI? or univer s d l a p p l f ca t i on , mexqed. 17

To sum up what: has been said I : ~ L L S $50 f a r , the

i d e a of n a t u r d law, as w e have seen, arsqul.red sevt-!ral

nuancerr i n i t s his tor ica: l evoluti.crrr, I t ramgad f'rc.m

~ ~ l w c x l d law", univer siil reason, cO:in~f c order:., to

u m lvllsrsal custom, a tc:. at3 it advnriced from GmCCb-

Ranan a n t i q u i t y towa~-ds Medieval C a t h o l i c S c h o l a s t s eisr~i .

And one common c h i x a c t e r i s t i c st 3ancl.s out: clearly,

c31anely its basic s i y r r i f i c a t i o n a s n beyond human anA

h y o n d cosmic law which is a u n i v e r s a l objective n o r m

of a.11 earthly moral and l e g a l o r d e r . I:n short, iks

x

c;~b;ligatilons :irr~~:>osad 1 . 1 8 ~ revtealed ].a#, even t.hiO~gh t h e y

clo nmolt have :it, :In t:,hls c o n t e x t , ft is bel l .eved t h a t

!it. Paul i s ,speak.Ln.cj about t h e ptigiin prrictic.e! of . ,

rwtural law :From t h e C h r i s t i a n p o i n t , of view. Fbr

the natural law concept of t h e pagan tradi'tf.om had to

he gradually modi:€i.ed and adapted to the ne!c:rds and .

circum:stsmlctm of the early church Ixtfare i t : was

finally transformec:l .in the l i g h t o f Chrristiarl

understanding into C a t h o l i c tradition.

In th i : s ta sk of adapt,at ion and t rans format i o n ,

, !s t . ~ugust:irne w a s thi? fir a t pioneer to o u t l i n e and

3,23,

formulate a uraturajl. law d ~ c t b i n e : according to early

(;atholic t.honyht I n a religious aspect, Ha was able

t:o ach:Leve t h i s b y a harmoniou:~ s y n t h e s i s of t h e dual.

concepts along which Catholic natural doctrine wiaa

dImvrlqt;,tilg in a p a t r i s t i c : w a r ,

The successful t r a n s f ormat. ion of the concept of

eternal 1 . a ~ of Roman Stoici snr, handed down by Cicero,

and its ha~rmonization w i t h platonism, was t:he greates t

- p h y s i c s i n .this process, natural. h a d f e w s t . Auf~u:3tFne

pantheistic law of p h i l o s o p h y ,

This stldf t l e d to Augustincmn theolog ical

,an thropaloyy baaed o n the Christian metaphya. lcs of

mternal law and divine i n s p i r a t i o n , I t considers ruan

,#ss an image of Cad in whom divim .inspiratfor~ of

t:onscidnce! :auf f i cas f o r the pagan r a t i o n a l irrcPinakion

124..

Fronl this persipact i v e , Augu!;l:ine t:eac:he:s thaz

natural law is eteri-131 .Law, which is the lounclatic:)n

sc:it=ncca a~na (so:iit:ivo law is tha7t i n t h e 1at:tsr roat: rrali

limw i s an adaptakiorr to t h e chanqinq sktuat ions,

wtli:Le remainincj immutab1.y fixed 1.n the former-. The

dockr ime [of St:. Augustine paved t.he way for h i s

successors Frr the? medieval era for f u r t h e r advance:.

e:labolrated t h e i r das t r ine on this framewar~lc of S t ,

~ ~ u c ~ u s t i . ~ ~ ~ ? from a juridical. aupe!c:t. For them,

natural 1,kh i s d i v i n e i r x oriqin and a liourrt af l ega l justice, Is idore Gratianus imd Rufint.1~ were pronrir112nt l ega l e)<p~lWLIt2; and interpreters of the: idea af c l : l ~ r . h . ? rmtural law, They lairi tne way opt?li for f:tm Medieval Scholast.ic:s, to) c a r r y t h e process of ,perfection of t h e ccmccn~pt of natural law to i ts f i n a l stage. This f i n a l achievement was t h e effort of Sk. Thomas Aquinas, assisted by the cotrtrfbu- t i a n s of h i p forebears l i k e st , Al.bast tht2 Great,

i4quinas' cont.r.:Lbution m a ~ k e d the f'inal staqe of

the phi losophica l e v o l u t i o n of the doc t r i n e of nar-,un-al

equlped him w i t h che a b i l i t y t c l supersede h i s i . r n n u +

of' t h e ph.ilosophli.c,sl na tura l law,

In t h i s , project , Aquinas ir~c:atporated ,the Hornzm

l a w Into i l l s heri tage to supersede the necretists' .

Pa1rnulaticm, H e t t ~ e n inserted into i t the A r istotel f an

0::onc:ept of justice to transcend . the idea of the Ronlatl

la~wylers and legal. philosophers,. The :t'irra;L f u s s i o n

ca.me ~i t:h thi3 comb h a t ion of t h e :; toic l . t k i l of

eternal law as transformed by !St, ~ u y u s t j ~ r r e w i t h the

Aristoh?Y:Lan conce~:)t of natural i nc l ina t .~ .ons , BLIC

before a,l:L this, ~ ~ l u i n a s * problem was how to b r h g

the various branch.!s of his tradition intm heumony

,wi thou6 destroy f nq the philosophical baafs of !:he!

:Link between t h e tr ansc:anden t i ~ ~ d :hmanent pnlr~s c>f

moral isnl:1 Laga'l j!..x;,tice in man, led to an Ilnger~~,ltrl~.~:r

1,kdc t h r o w l h. ltow t h i s was achieved i s t.lw s t a r king

( b Humm Nature iand Natural I,iuw -------- -a-

( i :) The I a s u e tsf N e t hod: ---I-- - . - ) 3 1 1 1 1

St. Thomas Aquinaa predecessors furn i shed him

w i t h the hi l s i c concept of human nature, but not ki.ith

llawtv w i t h pisgan n a t u r a l law in such a Wiay t h a t man

can know natural law by i n t u i t i o n throuqh t h e physical

;and psychiCia1 sxperilence of his corporeirl c m c i s p f r i. tual

being. Th~i: j was what enab led him to solve ttr'e r / --- r~aethodalog~ i c n l puzz le t h a t had dsf i e d the cxmpetence

b of h i s a n c i e n t and m~edieval forebears. Aquirras

:lln this famn: Thint: inan i s a reir:sona~ble bel.rrc] i s se l f -

r e a l i t y hedps him to a b t a i n the bqasl.c stru(:t:ure upc:m

,,as a, permzrn~ent p r i n c i p l e of mora 1 and 1ega:L j us t i ce ,

a

( !ii ) _The Slt:ruct tare of Human Wakur c?: -*-----.-a --.--..I-"-

22 A~ccordl-rrg to ~c&iines anal ysiku , humtnrl raticmal

nature i s o n t o l o g i c a l l y cons t i tu t ,e :d i n t o three

etsscant..ial s t r u c t u r e s , namely: vegetative, psyctro1,ogi-

cinl and r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s . The f i r s t : two p r i ~ ~ c i : ~ l e s

- represent t:he b i o l o q i c o - s e n d t i v e ma t e r i a l n a t u r e of %

man as a substance !Like e v e r y okher cosmic exf sterrt.,

But the t h i r d d e n o t e s the s p e c i f i c r a t i o n a l natr,~rtt of

man exclusive to him as an i q t e l l i q e n t . . beimg . These t h r e e pr l ~ n c i p l e s or @fac:u l t ias farm an

. i i n t e g r a l on t o l o g k a l un.it and a i m i v e r s a l st a b l e :;eat

of man's e s s e n t i a l L n c l i n a t i o n s t o his b a s i c encis.

These i n c l i n a t i o n s (a te t h e unchangeable chemnel s kn

the e v o l u t i o n of human and s o c i a l l i fe , th rough w:al.c:h

s p e c i f i c n a t u r a l moral law is rec:ognizc;d by human

reason.

From t h i s on to l log ica l s t r u c tu r ' e of hunnan

inel i rrai t i .o~ns, Aquinas d e r i v e s a sol i d foundation for

his p h i l p s o p h i c a l e x p o s i t i o n of the doctr:tne of

m~et.aphysicnl natural law as t h e b a s i c norm of n ~ o r a l .

a,ncl po1,il:ica:l j u s t i c e i n n a t e i r r man. :In t h e

Aqwina:; e x p l a i n; t h a t there L:1 in marl., iiS a

khe human race and cronfer s the r i q h k to appr'opr h a t i o n

of t h e relevant cjoc)dii of nature c?:s.se.ntl.,i~l for t h e

ciischarge of t h i s ciuky i n tho f a m i l y . ~ u t : over an^

above t h e ~ i e , t h e r e is t h e t h i r d s p i r i tudl appetite

11: specif ic and exc lus ive to man ) , wnich tor.-n-c?spenrPs to

the needs a:€ h i s niiture as a rat.f lone1 being to be met.

':tn t.hP,s regard, the t h i r d precept of na.tur;rl law

,aa:s igns the d u t y t o mora l and c u l t u r a l devi&:loprnctnt i n

a just order of s o c i e t y .

Accord ing t o !j t . Thomas A q u i n a s , t h e s e t h r e e

Ibas ic drives a t t h e root of l i f e impose a ~miversak.

a~bl igation of respect and t h e i n a l i e n a b l e 1r:Lghts of.

Inam are a t t a c h e d to them as urrques t i .onnble e s s e n t i z t l s i

€or an int:egiral hurnan development:.

Conunonl y , these n a t u r a l i n c l i n i ~ t ions are reduced

to t w o hasic cateqor ies: namely, i n c l i n a t i o n t o l l - f e ,

~ z o v e r e d by the n a t u r a l l a w of J6~1.f -prest?rva3t ion and

t h e c o n r r e r v a t i o n of t h e human sl:>ecies t h r o u q n

propagat:ion i n t h e b a s i c . cornmuni t:y, t h e fan] Lly, and

i n c l . i n a t i o n t o moral and social I . i i t!, govo;rr?cd by the

From this orntli ne, based on Ar'.i.stotls ' s model,

St:. Thomas teac.he:s that t h e s e basic impuls ' es i n men,

rooted in h i s essent i a l n a t u r e [ r e a s o n ) , demand

u n i v e r s i ~ l respect.. They are t h e b a s i s of rnarr s nd !:usel ii

r i g h t s and d u t i e s e s e n t i a l for h i s i n t e g r a l d e v e l op-

mc?nt: a.s recjtrirad b y the cornmand o f natural law.

The? '$1 kal i m p 1 i c a t i o n s of thc:;u basic' r i g h t s ~md

d11t.L.e~ of n a t u r a l L ~ I W lhikvts been h i g h l i g h t e d by L ~ i c l s

wtbdever desires t h e r e t u r V n of peace in s o c i e t y , he d e c l a r e s , m u s t f i rs t reskore t o human p e r s o n h i s fun~iamcntal r i g h t - s and d i g n i t y . For instance, he m u S t rest:olre to man the! right, t o life, which imp1 ies, i n p r a c t i c e , t i l e ma in tenance a n 3 development of p h y s i c a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l and moral l f f e , He must r e s t o r e t h e r . i ( j h t of r e l i g E o u s w o r s h i p , t h e freedom to c h o o s e oneYs v o c a t i o n i n l f f e , and the r i g h t t o family l i f e , w l t:h a l l t h e ew6!nkia lu th i ik w e due kc:, f ts pr-osercqat.f o n and h e a l t h y growth , I-It? must be g i v e n t h e r i g h t t:o m f f i c f e ~ ~ t litbsur-wage Lndiupansab lc~ for fa l~11l .y suppor t , He needs the ~:.ighl:. to rnel'terial well-beinq, Lrwolving ttre use of m a t e r i a l gclod s w i t h cunsc iousnes : i ; o f i ts s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and l i m i t a a t i o n s . 2 4

'4.2 MAN'S AWARENESS OF N P R U R A L LA4 lClll --- --- Now that w e h a e seen t h e basic s t r u c t u r e of

h~~mzm nature: upon, cdh Lch rral:ur:.al law is impla,:.hted, v i e '

nerecl to consider m ~ i n @ :j awarenes!:; of i t :in i t..3 dauCll!.e

The first, e l e m e n t t.o be r e c o g n i z e d i n A q u i n a ~ . ~

nati.on of metaphys ic !a l n a t u r a l ]Law fs its ontology or

e x i s t e n c e a s the n o r m a l i t y of f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e human

b e i n g i n t h e sane way as every k i n d of e x i s t e n t in

the c:osmos sl-roultl a c h i e v e it:s f!uJ.Bness of b e i n g in

it:; qrowi:h or i n i ts behaviour acxording to i t s

esr;eritial na ture . ilJh11le f o r i n f a:a-human be ings ,

n&t:ux:al ]Law assumes t h e shape of zl physical law, for-

man lit becomes a nroral law which,, i n i t s e x i s t : e n t i a , l

a s p e c t , implies an fcleal order s e t t i n g a boundary

between what i s suitable a 1 d u n s u i t a b l e for the nor r11a1

f ur1cl:ioninq o f hunrar~ nature a s m m .

. con ttsx t. , i s t h e irnnlediate o b j e c t of ethfco-ju!-kdic:al r w m , , c!xpc!riencecf i w ttbe.Lngiw r a t h e r than as W a a l i ~ e t ~ . For, i n concrete ac: t i o n , man j*~e.ccraive~s certain irnpulatsa whlch wca s p i r i t u a l t hrougtr ctsr t a in b i s l o g f c a l a t t e n t i o n , 25

t'.he t e r n nakural law to :3uggest t h a t

i t , m i t o l o g i c a l l y , i s the non-moral and biol.ogicai d r i v e s which art? improper 1 y

- call.cod I*l;nww , but which unc'ierl ie man * s moral act:Lvity a c c o r d i n g to natural snorzrl law i n t h e proper s e n s e oi law pert lx lninq to r e a s o n , 26

t h a t ,

p.riar- Lo a l l moral law t h e i m p u l s e t ~ o w s d s :self - x - e a l i z a t i o n i s , the very law of ex is torrce of' a l l t h k 1 q s . 2 7

For t h i s au tkior, human 1::ognition is, Lrr t h e f :Lr:;t

p l a c e , an in t .u i t r ion t h a t is both sen:si. t:ive anlj

starts w i t h e x . t s t e n t i c t l i n c l i n a t i o n s perceived 3.n t h e #

c o n c r e t e action of man in p u r s u i t of sn end c o n v i d e r e 11

cLg11t or just. b y nature. I n effect, the on to l~oy ica l

aspt3ct of nat.u~?al law presupposes a primary p r i n c i p l e

i n t h e order of gnoseo1,oqy (knowledge) which w e s h a l l

now c o n s i d e r ,

concerns t h e p e r c e p t i v e r e c o g n i t i o n of natura.1.

inc:l!f n a t i o n s i n a c t i o n , t h e m e t i c cz Lement: rci3f'ers

Co man s intuitive metaphys i ca l knowledge of the

inc: l l imatisns a:€ human rational nature.

In t h i s rcsspecf, na tura l law is an ide!a l , rooted

pu , t , ;.,is we ha.vrz!: said, because n, :~ tur a1 :lisw in i t.:s

n,oe:t f c: curttcx t: is an unwritten object:: ive commdnd , P t:

m a n i f e s t s ji t s e l f t.o p-actf c:al t:ex;on in certai.rb

prcceeds froin the i n t u i t i v e awadmes::; or in.crlr?ltat of

ooc: i e t ty ) in I-tunvm n..r t u r c a:% good or 1.) id to t t l ::

chiiris~t:er lof natural law, men kn:% i t with various

dlegraes of accuracy and risks of e!r.ror.

N~!varthc?le:~s, ttle o n l y pract i.c:;r 1 knowledge or

r,erceived irr view of its indemonstrable chm',ac: ter .l.s

Aquinat;, t h i s f a d u l . t 9 / i s called . z ~ d e r e s i s ---me-- or h a b i t:

moraf. cor rscience ( ntz1t u r a l reason :I, We have a 1-50 no(i;ed

m t u r a1 LLiw pr01+~,1Xr-jdb2!d in i t s l i * , \k ioiw I I I , I t~~rr? r-rr

w:L1T-~a:,-11-- t u r c ? ~ r r the abstract, k1ut: Lh."lt {'-he

e:sselrtw.t. i . .inc:l i n . i t i o n s t c ~ l.if E:, t : ~ ) fiilimi-'l\f at'l(j t 4 . h

!;oc 131 order oa j " ls t icek have prov Pdetl dl) ~ ~ n s k ~ d k l ' t i b l t

tp43s:Es 2-01: its j ~ d ~ ] e m e n t . ! n l . b ! ' ! . f : i r -1s - ) - ' 1 . ~ 1

~ : ~ ~ o ~ ~ I ; ~ r r i t = ~ r ~ - t s l ~ ~ i r k concrete s i t : u a t Lon at i. ts m a t u r i t y ,,

' i ' l ? ~ ~ , nLit .ura8 1 f ~ f ' t h e jI.n:! '. , : i A r i L nU11l-ii1 P C - ~ T ~ O I ~ h r i ~

4;ht.t A c ) ~ Y I : CAI l d w ( m l y i n at,> lor k t 1 : ~ ~ r w w t b # I I R I

~ le1iberatx:I jr tlxpr t 3 ~ : s ~ : d in t h e ds tier t ion oi r n L ~ C i l ~ . t ~

c:ansc:ienc:c i n concret:e cases., Ornl y then can i t k r c ~ c r > m ~ ~

khu law (11 r:otr:;cj enca for him dtn 1 a measuc-a of l l h s

appl icat iorr ,. Accord I, ng to D. Ccbmpos ta,

Cqnsc: ience cmd v i r t u e are t h e i n t e r n a l pr.inci .ples oi moral acts insofar as tru~nal-I zonscience draws .its ~crnclusFs~~a of rncsral e v a l u a t i o n from t h e general norms of n a t u r a l moral Paw. 3.1

e t h i c a l nor::&.; o r cbs t t r m s , called social con: : ;e iencc ,

rea:;oni in i t s s o c : i , i l ciiilnerrsion as :;oc:;,al moral

Natural. reason, w e must note, i s not a bclnd of

agtmt. i n te:ll.act cclrlceived by the Averrois t s a:; t h e

monolithic p r o p e r t y of mankf n d , s o a r i n g above t h e

inclivf d u a l persans. luor is i t . Hegt?l:lan mind abso,rbi , ~ g

all I n d i v i d u a l realititi:.!~ i n t o itsell',. Hather ' , f t i s

f O J " ~ is th:3 . , d r i i c ; , U ~ I 1.1 o m and im~nimt:af , le in I t ,; ti nc F 1 q

cleduc t i o n s f rorn thest? general pr irrc : l p l e s kc:. cont incjent

of: knowledge and expc-riemces of t:Iw imp1 iciiiti ons of

I:ha n a t u r a l l a w i .~n it.5 i d e a l Order,

Consequrnt 1 y , n l t u r a 1 reason a;, coirmolrr

[t is a conrnunion of minds and wills of t h t i human

person wii:tl other persons on the: same moral olbject:;,

rP1.i~; is wily variou.. c u l t u r e s are the mere , a f € e c t i v t !

I:ons:c ierrce which i:; el i ibora t ed s p o n t , a n e o u s l y in to c.1

tire accept.,?d a n d ourtyed in every b a s i c hum;:~n

c:ornmuni.ty, ; t a r t i n q v i t h t h e rno:;t lir~cie.lt or primitive.

pec.)pile ol ,?'on I n :$eni n l i epub l i c c o n c e i v e s n c l t u r a l i . iw a s

thc? will of c b d , transmil . t :ed t o f a m i 1 i . e ~ t h r o u g h hurnanr ancestors as a moral' and c u s t c m a r y 1 ~ 1 ~ princ:iple 0 1 justice,35

A l s o , t h e 1Cybos ot Nigeria h a v e t h e i r o w n li.dcI~s of 1:he

sane real . i tdy. For t;henl, n a t u r a l law (Ns,? A l a ) is ttle

i l n rnu tab l s u n i v e r s a 1 injunction of: t h e Supresnt? God

(Chukwu 1, ccrr:intit; tecl L ~ J t h e earth goddess ( A l l ), who

nrld is t r a n s m l t tt3d From one a n c e s t r a l genere i t i o n t o

natura.L l a w i n ccrt..aj.n abnormal cdses: s u c h as

. i . , e~ i s f t h d t : trhc;! L . ~ . : ~ I . ; : ; C ~ J S : ~ . ~ , ~ ~ S of lit::; violq:ll.:;.l.on are not: . .

I i~nited t o t::he ofi 'entier d l s n e . S h e y e x t e n a to a w l l o ' l e

f arnily, c l a n , t o w r l , t iepending o n t:lw t y p e at viola ion

invo.lvetd. For. t h k s t-eason, c u m m u r r a l respon:,il)xl~t;,

for- e d u ~ c a t icm and v i g i lance to ellsure thdt such

i n c : i d e n t:; r a r e l y occur are t a k e n far g r d n t ~ c l , *

A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s te 11, u s thal: these unconscious^

ruclimen t s o f c u l t u r a l rilles or' e l:hics form t h e bas1 c:

m l a t e r i a l recognized n ~ ~ t u r a l . l y and intuitively as q~i-diricy

p r i n c : i p l c s in social m o r a l i t y ; t h a t any compr3r.ison 06

t lhe o r i g i n of t h e v.ir l o u s b a s i c cornrnuni ties shows that:

these p a t t e r n s of c u l t u r e , t h o u g k ~ recognized con€ used ly,

are t h e r o c ~ t of cuskorns cornmorl t c hdrn.~nit:y, They

human practi.ca1 reamn i n t h e course of h i s t o r i c a . 1

b tro.rcls and ac: t i o n s , t!?e resul ts c ~ f h Ls urtderst andint]

consensus as, an i n t u . l t i v e guide ot' n a t u r a l w.111 o v e r

pas:;ion~;.

They arc3 th,c!r'ef:or-e imperfec t t o secure ade:cluate

realizatiol-I of jji~stice !in t h e c(mc:r:ete s i t u a t i o n c~i'

b j l~stice i n tlw beisic: corninunity at: t h e irnpelrfect: sl.:a&

- of the hist;s .r i .~a' l dtwelopment of c : i v i l sucitzty.

Hence ~11stC)ln~ arc?

p.rl.mit:iv~:: societ-irss are s ta te le : ;~ , but: n,wk wi t i ~ o u t a u t h o r i t a t i v e means of rcdxessing v.rrongs. 38

He reqrsrds :;u& authoritat ive moans as p u b l i c opinion

c?!w next csnsl(:leratl,un of t h e pv::sitive l a w m i i r k s the

sf:r:Lct, r e , a l i z a t i o n c . r e v o l u t i o n o f n a t u r a l law,

s k r i c t l y speakinsj, as the p r i n c i p l e of social and

n c c o r u m y t o AcluS.nas and t h e ~:.Lass i c a l

t U s i tive 1 at! is the ord . i n i ~ r ~ e 011. reason p r ~ ~ ~ i ~ u l c ] a t : e d by the 1eqi:;l a t v r charged w i t i ~ t h e ccir e of' t h e co:nrrlcm good of a - +. prcf'ect-. :;c::: e ty. 3"

precise c o n c r e t e a1::)pl i c a t i o n of the basic, p r incipl c ?

of' natura.1 law, In this way, nc1t:ural law confe r s

authority and j u : ; t i € i c a t i o n t o the p o s i t i v e 1 . a ~

pr'omulgatad i:by h ~ r n ~ m reasonincy : tn a number of: waysl.,

F o r i n s t a n c e , whfbn t . h e l a w is ~:LI-ectly or ind i rec t ~y

de!r:Lved f'rorn t tla n a t u r a l l a w as ,L norm of J ~ : j t i ~ e ,

i t : requires thc v i r t u e s of nntur-igl l a w esse!nt. ial Z O Y "

good, it ac:quir'e:; t h e 1egl. t innac-i of n a t : u r a l P a w .

promulgateci to t h e E:nowledje of 613.1 c i t i zen : ; b y a

eompet:ent a u t h o r i t y ,, and it c o n € c r r m s t o t t ~ aver a c p

c o n s c i e n c e or v i r t u e of c:f t i a e n s wii:.hin t h e prev'a:!,,.L-

i n g cl.rcumsta~.rce:; o f t h e epoch.

I n a l l . these r e s p e c t s , nat.,r:c.al law cc:fns:ist.;

e ; 3 s e n t i a l l y i n t h e f a c t t h a t huimara a u t h o r i t y is ,the

means imposed by tht:. n a t u r e of m;m and o f s o c i e t y

f o r e n s u r i n g the good o r d e r of s o c i e t y and thereby,

to ( g u a r a n t e e t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t : h commor'l good.

Hfence t h i s bindinc] .li orce i s a q u e l i tcy of every po:;itXve?

law that meets the: lbasic demands o k n a t u r a l . law,

moral order i n mind or no t . On a11 t h e s e c:ountu, the

n a t u r a l l a w is t h e l ~ a s i c safeguard of 'tht:: iiurid.icIsA

o r d e r of c i v i l soc ic t :y . Hence, ,Aijrlinas stlnn:; up tl-ll s

aspect of' his t e a c h i n g w i t h an assertion that

c:very humm p o s i t i v e law, :;o f a r ,I:; i t confo rms tu !:he norm of rei:tson, ~ d m r ives fmrn t h e rln t u r a l . l a w . 4'1

presscr.iben. To conf .in@ i t s stop o n ) y ,to w h a t i s

- r i g h t or j u s t b y n a t u r e does not, i n f a c t g u a r a n t e e

:Lts conc:rctla ac t l i u v e ~ w n t , even t.brouqh i t s : L : i r n i t s ace

:set. A g a i n , because n a t u r a l law i s a n ideal corrmarrd

kn,own t o nnen i n i t : ; u n i v e r s a l pr inc: i .ples , it is not.:

sufficiently determined in many o t h e r t h i n g ' s which.

are neces:sary for t h ~ e S C I C J . ~ comon good. F o r

ins tanc t : ! , ii.. 1ack.s p s i t i v c simc: t ions.

Consequently, p o s i t i v e human . l a w i s nt l cessx? :

concrekt? r e a l iza';ior~. ~ c c o r d i n y l.y, A q ~ f nas teac hcl s

that c:er ta in acts are required qf t h e precepts of

natural law which p o s i t f v a law ~ r ~ u s t promulqiltct amcf

enforce and others by i ts p e r m i s s i o n t c ~ the

i t i s by v i r t u e of naturt311 law t t ~ a t law of n a t i o n s (cust:om) and positive law take on the force of law, and impose tharnse lve~ , upon t h o cortsciancta.. . . F'or i t i s natural ltrw 1t;s;el.f which requirc4s tha t whatctvur i t l eaves undr~t.errnl.nert shall subsequen t Ly te dtstarrr~ined, either as a r i c j h t or a d u t y for a l l men (custom), or- as a r i g h t or duty for a count:ry ( p o s i t i v e law) ,lL2

frr princ:iple, this means that n a t u r a l law al.l.ows the

human authority to legislate, but n o t on a l l aspects

(of' human life. H e can only impose under p r e c e p t s on ly

a port ion of t h e acts which lead a man to h i s n a t u r a l

lend and ate necessary f alr the c o m m o n good of socieky, i

'rhre rest is to be lelf t to t h e good w i l l and ~consc1t:nce

(of subjects.

I sl?o~:.Ycl ham! i n order to be i n accord wit:h the? just. ice

Law : ; ha l l i>c virtuous ( Ji . u. accortl:ln(~ t o rc:znson), j u s t , possible, accord ing to n t i t u r e , a c c o r d i n g t o cust:~orn of t h e c c n r n t r y , s u i t ab l e to the! p l a c e and 'L ime, n e c . : ? s s a r y , u s e f u l , c1earl .y expresst:id, lc!st i ts ol . ->scuri ty may lead t o mj~.su.r~ciers t . ; - ln( j inq; frametl f o r no private bcmc f it , bwt for t.kre corrlmm (jood. 4 '3

I'hua we see, by r r e ~ s u r i n g t h e f ree and deliberate a c t s

lof' man' E p r a c , t i c a l reason, n a t u ~ : * a l I.aw e x t e n d s i t s

a u t h o r i t y and h i n ~ d L n q force t o ill1 contingen?t: case13

of' t~urnan posi t ; ive: law ( of a u t h o r i t y ) corrst ktuted b8.r

hum(~n rea;3on w i t h i n t h e o b j e c t i v e soc i a 1. , ,moc'aQ sr

nat:ural order ol j~~stnt :bss i n f o p o s i t i v e j u r j.dic:al

formula (of c o n a t i t : u t i o n i l l order- of j u s t i c e ) rnark.:~

t:he i n ; i ~ q . ~ r . a t i o r . ~ of c iv i l . statc~:;..

Thu:?, for ~ q u i r r a s and his classical :forebear :;,

rrn l:ura:h rnolr'al 1 a w a.nd positive :Law of human katicmrl.:l

f"ormu1nt;:ion derive p r i m a r i l y from one and tl-ie saiiie

1.11 t imate s:owce of absolute ju:;t:l.cc ( au thc r r i . t y1 t.1:)

whom a l l human l:)eir.qs, c i v i l s x : i . e t i e s , and h n s t i t u ~ t i c m : ;

of au tho r i. i:y ar ci? bc.~ u nd ,111 c o n s t: i.e nce.

This conclusion now permits u s t o evaluhte ..lohn

!Stuar t M . i l l 1 s t h e s j ~ s which neg13t;t:s t h e r e a l i t y of

l :r~lingc~i~d~mf: r~al:r,lral. l a w in accwrdiince wit;h h i s

tampir'ical tr iad i tiorr of 1 L b e r a l l..nd i.viclua1 ism and

upiho1.d~ exper llen ti;] 1 p r i v a t e act: 0.1. i n d i v idua .1

r ~ i e n t of the s'uprerne iriorrn and is , :Itsjzl f ' , thii: .Lmmt?d Pate

r r t once t h e f undarnental weakness i r a Mill i s t . t r ~ s i ~

( f . r o m a n ant: .~~ropo.Lcg :i.cal perspect:Lv.e) . Tha t . .Ls to s a y ,

2:h12 basic defect w h i c h is rnos t eviirlen t in t:l-~e trisd.i.tion

of 1iberali:;tn :in (general and i n Mill's plai'll.osophy .i.n

p a r t i c u l a r i;; inadequate u n c l e r s t a n t l i n q of t :h i5 nai:ul:e

z~n,..l .and of nl,:irr or the absence of rnetaphysic.i~.J.

a n t h.copo1ogy . As we f ' i r v i i n c t~ap t t r r t w o , Iv l JL1 . l i s adopt ion of

h i s t r a d i t i o n a l e n p i r i c a l methodal.oq-y , w h i c h reject:; s

i i ~ d : L met:aphys.lcal cea.Lj.ty and v a l w a s unreaJ, enab .1 .e~

152. 7

trini t o deny t h a t the essence of th ings and i.ts

k n o w l e d g e coinc ide w i t h experience, which :is l i r n i Led

t o phenonwna. I n this way, h e dlerries t h e u:t.tirn+tc::

cause of t h e u n i v e r s e of wh ich m n is A park as w s l l

of hurnan composite nature, which transcends the

1 cosn~os. t i i s adopt 1.1m of the c o n c x p t: 0 1 - rn,.ur ( t h < i t

-+- * i s p u r e l y n15iteri.al ,3nd arr end ' t h a t i s pherroramal)

d e s t r o y s mil^?'^ abso:tute v a l u e and h i s socia.1 nature.

ccmscierrct? w h i c h as:, ulnes cespons- ib i 1. i t y t o order hlitfii~r~

conduct: ko 1 1 I . s f i n 1'1 end in obeciience to natural . l c i w

( as dickal~e of r eason) ;

w h i c h r : ~ person i s bo~ lnd t o p e r s o n a l and soc i a l

, g ~ d . , in t t ~ e r n s e l v e s , It ca.n o n l y 1tnc:lw m ; r t e r f i i l and

12ff i c i e n t cr~u: ;c s for a c h i e v i n g 6, g i v e n end,, ~ h u s ,

:For ~ 1 1 1 , rl.:asorr i s i n c a p a b l e of: any knowledqe of

a t l so lu te t nor In:; anti p r i n c i p l e s ot morality; 170r can 3 t:

er :c l .us ion of reason from the I"oI.E! 01' determi i-lation of

i s 3 e t h i c s hi t-hout. thc judgement of cmscience or

soc.Lo-pol Ltrj.c:;il. o r d e r - without tht! ot, jcc t ivc-h norms (31'

m o r a l and l e g a l . j u s t . i c e ( o r d i n a 1 7 c e of reason 'J? T h e

t~7agi.c: ef f e:ct of t u rn ing n o r m a t i v e e t h i c s i n t o

empirical sc i enc i? when he a d o p t s t:he pr'irrc: i p ' l e of

a n d o b l i c j a t i o n t h a t a r e whol. ly ex tern ,(la

St,, Thomas A.quinas and t h e class.ir::al p h i . l o s o p h e r s il.3

w:L1 as various c u l t u r e s o u t s i d e W r o p e . This v l . t ; ~ l

p0:Ln.t in t h e s o c i o - p c > l i t i c a l o r d e r i s bet te r u n d e r s t o o d

i.n a h l s t o r i c i s l su rvey . This point : i s made: crbviou:; by

our a n a l y s i s and r e f l e c t i o n on tl-1t: n a t u r a l rr~c)r,lral 1,.:1w

cia t h e u l t i m a t e t r a n s e n d e n t norm of ju~,tic::r: innate!.?

to every hurnan p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n , and t h e sarne n a t u r a l

j u s t i c e i s embodied e x t e r n a l l y i n c o n t i r q e n t socia I ,

-moral and l e g a l -order. It. h a s been c l e a r l y :shown

( f r o m a moral perspec t : ive) t h a t an 4 . n t i m a t e m d

dynamic bond of s p . l r i t u a . 1 r e l a t i o n s t r i p e x i s t s be tween

t h e i n n a t e p e r s o n a l conscience -- a s d i c t a t e of

r e a s o n - 4ancl conf,inclerit e x t e r n a l social , moral anc.

153,

legal pre,scr ' l .pt . ionf; - as the o r d i n a n c e of r e a s o n -,

b o t h of whic :h arc: a ~ p 1 3 c t : ~ of t h e same supreme norm

of' n a t u r a : l moral law, gu id ing i n d i v . i d u a 1 p e r s o n s a:s

wc!l:L as social. i r r s t l . t u t f o n : ; to :;08cial comrrvorl and

p e r s o n a l c m c l s .

The empirical c o n c e p t of man and s 0 c i e t . y

inf luenceis MI 11 9 si mi. scorrcep t i o n <sf t h e end ol ec:onomic:*;.

. From a. s e c u l a r view of man as a s o l i t a r y un i t : f n t.lw -- 1 sand-heap o'f human it.^, man's purpose of life was seen

8:; the i n ket'rninilble p u r s u i t df a c c u m u l a t i o n and ccj1.1-b

. s u m p t i o n of material, qocds. J o h n L o c k e i d e n t:if ke:;

k m a n n s e:;senc:e w i t h econornf c a n d comr~~ercf al v a l u e ,

Evecy man, i n h i s v i . r % w , has a p r c l p e r t y i n h i a person.

I * , J s h n ~t1ks1.t ~ l i l l i,lcr-~tif'itts hurn.flq powers of ~.nit:i , : ,+:iv~!

w i t h k h e sources of weal. t h of an in : lus tr ia l , sclerl tif 'i(:.

and t c chnoXor~ ica l . aqe, Hence

W!I. t h ecc>nomic w e a l t t ~ , a:; we have t o d a y when technc,logi.-

cal kno\dleclqc. i s tlert+ m a s t e x p e n s i v e commercial

contel-lllion w i t h zon\,nunisrn. Karl i"larx has seen .in

t c : , get msxj.lnurn shart? of t h e p r o f i f :s on t h i s a s s u r n ~ ~ t i o r ?

i : 3 thc cause of s t r i k e s ,, demons t r a t ions:, a n d v l o l c t r ~ k

p r o tests. tilwce, :;t:ruqqle a n d or:)nf'l ict i s t h e mock

For 'tl'ict ''l'homist.~ and classical t h i n k e r s , the

rnent of h i s f i n a l ctnd b e y o n d time. H e n c e , iicluinas

inff irms t h a t

t h e perf ect.i(c>n of the per::wn i s t h e g re ,a te : : ; , t p e r f e c t i o n e ; r r c o u n t e r e d i n the w h o l e n a t u r e ( un:Laver se) , for which a11 other exis,;tIents are dosigme!d to serve as a means of: raal.l.aation q.:)P the fullnt:?:;:3 of i t s I:e.tnq, 4 "7

PrrLstotle, who ha:; t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s absolute value

could be a t t - a i n e d in temporal. lif ct, m a i n t a i n s t h - ? t

soc i a l culture are necessary mean:; in t h e slervice cf

t h e person i n m m s basic: c>hliqal:ory f u n c t ion t o f or-m

h a b i t s of - ~ i r t : u e ,

re:rponsiI:)i : l i ky, For t h e m ,

pr.iv.nl;e prope:r'ty is a r i r j k r t of hurnan ~ ~ a . t u ~ r c w h i c h i s nioral 1 y ,just: ,. 49

?'his power t.c:, acqtairc! and rnanaqe c2u;nrantees or:den- , liberty a w l peace; i t . places a moral obligation on

b

belong:; ,to t h e who le c o m m u n i t y acr:ordi.ncl t : ~ ) j clst Lee!

t h e :Eounc:la.ki.on of t h e f ur~darnenta,l s p i r i t u a l e q u a l i t : y i

of all hum.m. bein(.]s as r a t i o n a l m t l :5ocial as well , i s

thc! i r cornmim.i.ty of' nc~ture as a s p e c i c ? ~ . M i t h t:hji.s ac t ,

t h e ,ilncji\ritll.~,:ll 105~:; any claim t 1 . j , .~b:;olt~tc: i i i . ~ ~ . r ~ i t : , . ~ l ~ , ! : j .

value antl (fignity of the person, as well as f.reedom

a l o s t r a = t freedom olf i n d i v i d u a l i t y (or e t h i c [:PI'

c l o n ~ p e t i t i o n ) , as a g e n e r a l r u l e o f ' socia:l pc~.l:I . t : lcal

re1,at:ionshiLp Is m o r a l l y u n j u s t , a:; w e f i n d i n c h a p t e r

t h r e e . 7:h.i~ i s b e c a u s e i t i s based on clear a w a r e n e s s

o f human i n e q u a l i t y . I t amounts t o i n s t i t u t i . o n a l . i z , a -

t i o n of i n j u s t i c e and o f f i c i a l e x a l t a t i u n of ecjoism,

Its :just:Lflc;ition as an e q u i t a b l e p r i n c i p l e of'

un4;enab.)lrz. Apart from i n e q u a l i t y . , there are

' 4 c! ie : l iberate clesiqn:; to erect a r t i f ' i - c - i 31 mechan:lsrn:c; 1 : h i l t

render equal. cornpct i.1: i on i m p o s s i b l e . It a1 so CJ kve:;

c l i : r ec t ly contrary t o t h e n a t u r a l pr i , n c i p l e oi: t:h!::

i- c::o:nmon goo'd which forb id . s t h e 1i.miLkatior-1 of the r i , : j h t

of c i t : i zen . sh ip o n l y ta a s e c t i o n of the s o c i e t y , i n

khat soc ia .1 l i f e is 13 r i g h t of nature which no person

s h o u l d l a c k . T h i s p o i n t .is c l e a r l y v i o l a t e d when ;v:tl.ll

: L i m i t s t h e c r i t e r i o n of c i t i z e n s t - l i p t o o n l y the

I isduc.ated w h i c h , i n h i s e s t . i r n a t i o n , concern:; o n l y the

r i g h t l y notti.:.; t h t Z j t:

t h e ab:; tract p r . ~ t ~ c i p l e o j: 1 it)r:r Ly of s e 1 f : i s h i n t e r e s t which i s procla:i.rned by M i l l .Is u top i i i .

he says,

t h e i n d i v i d u a l or m i n o r i t y is at: a_ disadvantage k x x a u s e , i n t h e case of d i s p u t e , h e h a s nowhere tr: , appea l . 5 2

~ d d t t d t o t h i s :is t h e f a c t t h a t l a c k of tlef:init;i.on

suiks the stronger p a r t y . Again, c o r r u p t i o n I.~tr~cl

man:'Lpul a t i o n by t h e a d v a n t a g e d are, o tiler f orrn:; of

. g r $ f ~ d which a c e rep-uqnant t o personalistic ethics.

The:!je v i c e s i s what ill and h i s l ibasiil u t i l i t a r i a n

school accept. and j u s t i f y as s c i e n t f f l c : laws of human

i n s tinct: that : are beyond huma,n cont.ro1 which :is a g a i n s t

bat13 moral arid l e g a l j u s t i c e .

In pol . i t : i cs , i n j u s t i c e is erect.& when M.I:L 1

p a r t i c i . p a t i o n and l e a d e r s h i p , on the assumpt:lsm t h a t

t h e a i m or' qovernrnent i,s the def e r - r c : ~ of i n d i v i ~ : : l ~ , ~ a l s

f ~ u m one a n o t h e r * s i n j u r y , I n e f f tact , p o l l t . i c a l .

gover,*nrnent turns out: tc he a p r o t e c t i v e s h i e l d of

t h e e d u c a t e d c api. tal. is1 class against t h e d i s a d v a n t a y d

worker: ; 1 class, L J e s i ( l c t s , t h e u s e of government t o m;ke

159,

rules t p a t c1e l ibera t :e ly favour a :jctct.ion of' !:he : ;oc ie ty

at the cxpe8nse of tire rest d i r e c t l y v i o l a t e s t:ha

p r ' i n c i p l c of t h e comnl::)n good as o r d e r e d by niit,ural

moral law. Such a government i n s t i t u t i o n i s ; ,

a c c o r d i n g t o the metaphys: lcs of ni11:ural law, a.n

o u t r a g e o u s and immorcx : i l a u t h o r i t y dhose a c t 0:' %

autho.cit:y does n o t bitld c i t i z e n s i n c o n s c i e n c e , A

p o l : l t . i c a l s t r .uc . l ;ure which f a v o w s m P y the i n t e r e s t : : ,

of ia section of t h e body p o l i t i c .is no more t h a n a *

st,ructure of' f n justice.: w h i c h is d:ircc:i:ly corrc~letrmetl i1 .3

t y r a n n y by t h , e pe r sona 1 ist ic p r .inc:.i.pl.e o f t h e common

good as a f 'bagrant v i o l a t i o n of t tw d i g n l - t y of t h e

human p e r s o n . It is a n ahroyat.Le>n of t h e basic:

we11 as cornrnol-i d e s t i n y of a l l m e m l . > e r s of c i v i l society,

d e s i g r ~ c d b y n a k u r e for the t e r n p o r ~ i l p e r f e c t i o n of

every human p e r s o n in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e p e r f e c t i o n

of t h e wt~crl(: body p o l i t i c . C;overlinlenf-1:; laws

and harmony., 'ilhey ' are also needecl t o -Lnaug w a i.e and

tirr:n governrnemt i n t o p r i v a t e p r o t e c t i v e means: of

i n d i v i d u a l interest which a m o u n t s to a r a d i c a l

p e t r v e r s i o n of t h e order of j u s t i c e * I t ano\.mt:.s also

to a n edif i c a t l o n of' t h e ( o r d e r of permant2n t conf 1 ic 4;

w h i c h i s i n h e r e n t t o L i b e r a l c a p i t a l i s t :;ocj.cd

p o l i t i c a l cwcder, p r e w i l e n t t oday as a l e g a c y ,

Hence s:i.rlce ~ i l . 1 r e j e c t s t h e p r i n c i p l e of

n f t u r a1 l a w embodied i n human p1-a.c t i c a l reason arvj

1111 c i v i l l c ! g i s l a t i o ~ ~ , h e l a c k s t h e oasic norm:; of +

m x a l and legal j\~sl:ice i n social anc p o l i t i c a l u n i t y

of ac: t ion. Even t h o u g h h e recoqrri.ze:l; t h e nt?t:d, for

law, h e f'eiire; t o f al 1 i n t o t h e :3,1mtr t - .mpir ic31 m i s t a k e

i n c l i v i d u a l s . ' r i g h t s c r e a t : u r ' e s of t:lw arb.lt:ra.rkr w i l l

dot:ermi.nt-! ]:>rc!cisel. y a n d defend e f f e c t i v e l y t h o s e

a c t i o n s of t.he individual he con:;:i.ders i n a l i e r r a b l e . ,

f r o m t h e market s o c i t : r y , o n t h e :me hand and he : s u l ~ j e c t s

( iul thor i t y t u r n out t..) be a r b i t r a r y . Tttt: pc.91.1f;ical

oppre1s:;i'fel to a section o f soc:Le:ty, The inc!ffect..ive--

order of i r ldiviclual i s m is 0pen:L.t admi t t:ed crhen he

trurnbly c o n i ' e s s e s t h a t :

r r h ~ t iidmi.tte(i f u n c t i o n s of gover'nlrent:, w ' b r a c e a much w i d e r f i e l d t h a n c a n eas i1 .y be i n c l u d e d w i t h i n . the r i n g - f e n c e mi: any r . e , s t : r i c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n , and t h a t :L.t l.s hard1.y p o s s i b l e ta : f ind any ground of j u s t i f ic:il.tion common t o tiwm a l l . , , nor to 1irn.i.t t h e i n Q r f e r e n c e of govern- ment : t o any univek-sax r u l e , save the :sinrpl.e anl:l vague one '. ., , of e x p e d i e n c y . 5 3

I:n t h i s r e s p e c t , and from a rnet;aphysical p o i n t of v i e w ,

we may t h e n sum up o u r d e f i n i t i v e estimate of John

S t u a r t M : L l l * 2; whole p h i l o s o p h y end s a y t h c t t , i n both

% k t 2 3 t r a d : l t i o n a l and p r e s e n t - d a y form of e l i ke 1ikllc:rial

c:apitali::;t tlen~oc:rac:y, it is who1 ly negative, or at

be:; t ambiguous. .For from t h e v iewpoin t ; of norn'aat.:ive

p o 1 i t i e a : l e t h i c s , h i s '"philosophy b ~ i l i . 3 ~ no soc:.i;.~!:~I.

f o u n t l a t i o n ~ ; of t.hc.: l-ighk23'' and obl..i.c~at:lon:; of "tl-,~:

truman person, becaw se n o t h i n g c a n he f oundecl on t tre

i . lKus ion of a b : j t r x : t . p r i n c i p l e of kndivi;J:~al. fr'eedorn

i t 1 onei t ;

it promises innumerable ~ m c o n d l t i o n n l Elre!edorns but. lqran t s nonc: because l. t escapes every o b j e c t i v e rneauure, denies e v e r y 1 i n ~ i t a t i o n t h a t shcruld be posed by reason and law upon t h e claims of hummn egoi snr. 54

5 , Ibid. -u-

6 , Ar'ist'ot::let:; ~ 2 ; i c a .- in The'Ccup;lete: darks of .-..--.- mistot:Xe, ~rhe Rev. 0 x f ? E T 3 + ~ ' a r 1 ; ~ . ,I. Barn?..;, - voiZ-"To 0 6 , 2 E:; .

3 I., Ibid. , V o l , ? , '.i.':~34 b, 30-35,

14,, J. 13. Ivionclin, fil enrents of pli i1o:;o~hical . .-,--A

Ant t l ropoloqy, Ti;liilan: Edit i :"~ce ~ a s x i s , 1'377: , p.15J;"----

0 . St . Thomas A q u i n a s , Summa ' I ' ~ ~ ) l . ~ > ~ i . i ~ e , 1-11:, q! 94, a.2.

2 , St. Thomas A q u i n a s , Summa Tht?oloqi,~e, 1, qq, 75-89. ~ ( : ~ u L n a s ~ ~ ~ F ; f i i , . ~ ~ Z : . ; o ~ ) t t i c a ~ e x p o s i t i o n of hurr~an nature i s found herre to be quite d i s t i n c t from h i s e:cposit:l.on of'

-4, 3 . S t , Thomas A q u i n a s , ,I.-l?., q. 94, a.2.

l ~ i 1 ~ 1 s 'T , :::P;r- i Y; t ~.-m s 13 ad j.o ~e:; ;3 ~ q e , A A ~ ; ,, ;!4 ---. .,-.--.---

( 194 2 ) ,. c: ,i"& d 2 j y I1 . 17 . ~ ~ r ? K T - f i i d -.- i l r - i d I .-.-..- mS and Social FLt"~?~t:fdom, (iiome: P o n t : i f : i c a l l n r k r . . s ~ T ~ ...--..-. ..- ---..- P r e s s , Inc., 1518.131, p. 3 6 .

Ihid, -.I-

This obsc!rvation is f rom the dr-J.t i?r I s own personal expt?r:Lence, as h e h i ~ n s c l ~ is an I(j bc) .

S t, 'I'tumas A q u i~las, Sunin~a 'I l-,col oqizic 1.--1.1, ---- --.---- -- -.-, qe 90, ~1.4.

K. 'Wj t:yll.l, 'Phi? A c t i n q P e r s o n : : k tlusa.ti:r. l l a r ~

Ci.i?KfLUS ION

,..--.-. .,- -....-. .,..̂ -.-..-.-. -.....- -..-,---.-- -.- -..,- ..,..-

l ' \ ! ; : ' ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ? r,j PI? I.: :()()PC; ' ~ \ [ & J ! ) A [ lrf'l [()It t''['f'--* " - - -. l..*...Ll... .. , L .. ".* ." .,. ,+. . ,, ....,, - .,..,- ,. ",, .I, I ,

St. ,Tt~m;.:is A(, ;p: i .n I S an(] thi? c.i.,~:;,:;i(::; lcmcl provi~l&

a v i t , ~ l l : ~ ~ i , l i ! ~ ~ ? l in,.+ ,:I.: i a 9 e nu i. nt. h a :; j. :: f or t l-r c.:

person and robs him !-I£ a1 1 k h a t. is human all{ l

socf et.y i:; :I.; or k q i t ~ < , t c- lua l i ty t h a t i s j.nnc1t.l;: to

b e t deetn extrc?rue in;.lj.v i.clual i s m and e x t r e m e . .

tr.)talitarian'iz;rrl; ra.t.htii:r, it recogr1i;:es t h e riiz~t.ura.1

pe?rsolns th;it i.:; s p i r i L u a l and ont.o;Loc~ Leal, 'I 'hi~s, t:~'.::

p t : r s o n i s b s t n a rnma l and legal p r : i n c i p l e . ' I 'hc

m.ti.slzonception of the per s o n and cornrnuni t y by I. ibe1:a.L i s m

and comrnunisro lies i n t h e reducti .011 o f all t h i n g s ,

i r r c l u d i n g mlan, t o ;phenomena. Ana theref ore, they

hiwe no way of e s c a p e from e i t h e r . of the two e x t r e m , : ? ~

oil ind iv i t lua : lS !wr, whil::h sees man ~ 3 : : ; ;m isoliit:w;l f .tc l.: , and so~:iali.sr~~, w h S c h sees human be.inq:; a:$; ct:)~]:; i n t t i ~ l . ~

wheels of t h e s t a t e . Hut sol.:Ldar:it\g ener.ge2ll.c:al 13j(

dc:fends simu:ltaneou::;ly b o t h f r e e d o m and uni.t:y aga.Fn;:t

t he d a n q e r o f excess i sol aticzn and excess u n i t:y,

117 Inan is rro lon(]er i n voque. Lilut it has Led to t-ne

laws as t h > i . r . q i l l ~ l i ! ; which are t.eyonti hurrr;~n coni:r?l.

of a l l pos:;i.~>le wan I-.:; has i n v e r t:ed t h e order o f

r t m ; i . i n a per-sis tc:n t problem. .

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