UEM STUDENT RESEARCH SUMMARY

A.T.M. Nurul Amin Nowarat Coowanitwong

Tonni Kurniawan Pornpun Pinweha

Urban Environmental Management Field of Study School of Environment, Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani, Thailand 2004

Edited by: A.T.M. Nurul Amin, Nowarat Coowanitwong, Tonni Kurniawan, Pornpun Pinweha Pathumthani: Asian Institute of Technology, 2004, 171 pp. ISBN: 974-229-627-8 Urban Environmental Management Field of Study School of Environment, Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology P.O.Box 4, Klong Luang Pathumthani, 12120 Thailand Phone: +66-(0)2-5245777 Fax: +66-(0)2-5162126,5161418 Email: uemapplications@ait.ac.th Internet: www.serd.ait.ac.th/uem/sea-uema.html

UEM STUDENT RESEARCH SUMMARY 1998-2003

Urban Environmental Management Field of Study

UEM REFERENCE MATERIAL No.1

A.T.M. Nurul Amin Nowarat Coowanitwong

Tonni Kurniawan Pornpun Pinweha

Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani, Thailand

2004

ii

Preface As an institution of higher learning and research, master and doctoral students routinely do research and are required to produce thesis for fulfilling graduation requirement after completion of course work. Students of science and engineering fields mostly do laboratory-based research, some do collect field level data too. Nearly 100 percent of students in the environment and development fields go to their respective country/city for conducting field work. This unique opportunity has enabled the production of a large number of theses at AIT which contain potentially valuable data/information and imaginative recommendations for public policy and actions to promote sustainable development in the developing countries of Asia. This potential however remains largely untapped because of inadequate dissemination of this wealth of information, findings and policy recommendations stocked in the library shelves. It is well-known in the academia that every piece of research output cannot be published in journal article and book forms for wider dissemination. With the above in view, we have from time to time attempted to produce and publish compendium of students research abstracts (e.g. HSD Students Research Summary 1975-1992 and Summary of Doctoral Research 1989-1998 of Rural and Urban Fields of Study) so that there will be greater whetting for making use of theses completed at AIT in our respective fields of study. Always this has not been possible because of time and financial constraints. Fortunately, the present CIDA-AIT partnership for implementation of South East Asia Urban Environmental Management Applications (SEA-UEMA) Project 2003-2008 has created an opportunity, among others, to produce publications through one of its project components: The Application of Research Results and Lessons Learned (ARL). The present compendium of UEM Students Research Abstracts (1998- 2003) is the first UEM reference material that we are bringing out for contributing as an aide to the other SEA-UEMA Project components: Alumni Demonstration Project, Joint Action Research, UEM Sub-sector Networks and Professional Supports Program. We are very much aware of our limitations. Yet we thought these limitations in terms of English proficiency and scholarly requirements should not be allowed to deprive our fellow researchers, next generation of UEM students and potential public policy makers to benefit from the basic intellect and ideas of our students as stored in their respective thesis. The realistic approach in making use of this compendium should be not to take any its content as a model for any purpose but for conveniently accessing a referred thesis that would appear to contain needed information and analysis. To facilitate the selection of a thesis according to a particular need, we have prepared indexes of authors, subjects, key words/phrases, and countries/cities. Our experience shows that such reference materials become very handy source for locating research on a particular topic and country when researchers, professionals and students contact us for getting reference on the research that have been done at AIT. Other than the above time-honored role of such reference material, we expect this as a good source for SEA-UEMA project partners to get information and draw lessons for undertaking ADP and JAR projects and for producing materials for professional training programs and policy dialogues that have been planned for the project period.

iii

This compendium includes 124 abstracts (122 master and two doctoral students’ research completed during 1998 to 2003) under the supervision of nine SERD faculty (of whom eight are of UEM FoS). The nine UEM FoS faculty have also served as members or co-chair in many committees other than the ones they chaired. A good number of faculty from other fields of study of SERD as well as other three schools also made valuable contribution to these 124 pieces of successfully completed research. We gratefully acknowledge their selfless contributions based on their respective invaluable individual expertise. In many of these 124 theses, two common recurring themes have been ways and means to promote gender equality and poverty reduction. Topics covered in these theses include solid waste management, water and sanitation, air pollution, urban built environment, environmental management plan, environmental management measures (EMM), environmental management systems (EMS), urban governance, community-based environmental management, tourism destination management, economic instruments, financing and cost recovery of urban infrastructure and services, absorption of rural migrants in urban economy and environment, involving the informal sector in local environmental management, conflict resolution, green banking, public-private partnership, cleaner production, environmental assessment (EA), environmental impact assessment (EIA), measuring affordability and willingness to pay, urban transportation, urban renewal and conservation, land use, traffic management, foreign direct investment (FDI) for urban environmental infrastructure and services. In doing this work we have incurred debt to many. Particular mentions must be made to our partners in the CIDA head office in Ottawa and field office in Bangkok, especially to Mr. Bob Odeh who in his usual mind of thoughtful support advised to adopt an inclusive than an exclusive approach for topic or country coverage in this particular material so that the compendium is a comprehensive one to include all UEM graduates. The strong support of Professor Chongrak Polprasert, Dean, SERD, for any publication endeavor has been a source of inspiration to undertake this venture. We also thankfully acknowledge the enthusiastic support of UEM FoS faculty, SEA-UEMA Project Management Team (PMT), intelligent assistance of Project Associates (Mrs. Sabitha Popuri, Mr. Bimalendu Mohanty, Mrs. Farhat Jahan Chowdhury and Ms. Rutmanee Ongsakul) and UEM PhD student, Ms. Lalita Rammont. We also thankfully acknowledge the assistance of Mrs. Rachel Conejos. Finally, special mention must be made of UEM staff Mrs. Vantana Pattanakul and Mr. Lachan Khamta for their careful recording, storing and providing us with all UEM students’ completed thesis information without which such work could not have been even initiated.

A.T.M. Nurul Amin

iv

Table of Contents Page Preface ii Table of Contents iv Master Student Research Abstracts by the Year of Completion 1998 Developing a Community Infrastructure System for a Low Income Settlement: A Case of Sastrynagar, Chennai, India 3 Formal and Informal Sector Linkages in Waste Recycling: A Case Study at Prawate District in Bangkok, Thailand 4 Framework for Developing an Urban Environmental Management Plan for Tiruppur Town, India 5 Industrial Wastewater Pollution Management at Local level: A Case Study of a Tannery Site in Bangladesh 6 Land Use Consideration in Urban Environ-mental Management in Pokhara, Nepal: A Study to Manage the Environment of Phewa Lakeside-Baidam Area 7

Models for Private Sector Participation: A Study of Water Supply and Sewerage in Kolhapur City, India 8 Role and Contribution of the Community, Informal Sector and Municipal Government in Solid Waste Management: A Case Study of a Low-Income Settlement in Colombo, Sri Lanka 9 Scope of Improving Environmental Infra-structure Services through Greater Reliance on User Charge: A Case Study of Jamal Khan Ward, Chittagong, Bangladesh 10 Solid Waste Management in Yangon, Myanmar: A Focus on Hospital Waste 11 Study to Explore Applications of Regulatory and Economic Instruments in Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City 12 Travel Demand Management Techniques Applicable to Urban Transport Problems in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area 13 Urban Solid Waste Disposal: A Case Study of the City of Phnom Penh, Cambodia 14

v

1999 Air Pollution Monitoring System: Evaluation and Improvement for Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate, Rayong Province, Thailand 16 Analysis of Road-Users' Perceptions on Traffic Management Measures in Colombo City 17 Application of Economic and Regulatory Instruments for Emission Management: A Case Study of Diesel and Electric Tempos in Kathmandu City 18 Application of Regulatory and Economic Instruments to Control Air Pollution in Dhaka City: A Focus on Major Pollution Emitting Transportation Mode 19 Banks and Environmentally-Friendly Practice in Bangkok Metropolitan Region: The Need for Change 20 Challenges and Constraints Faced by Women NGOs in Urban Solid Waste Management in Kathmandu Valley: An Analysis from a Gender Perspective 21 Determination of Cost Efficiency for Pricing of Water Supply Systems: A Case Study of Four Cities in Lao PDR 22 Developing a Strategy to Increase Participation of Hotels in Environmental Management Programs in Panjim, Goa, India 23 Development of a Strategy for Municipal Solid Waste Disposal: A Case Study of Hanoi City, Vietnam 24 Environmental Awareness and Regulations in Banking Practices: A Case Study in Ho Chi Minh City 25 Environmental Awareness Regarding Domestic Disposal Behaviour in Yangon, Myanmar 26 Environmental Impact Assessment in Metropolitan Cebu, Philippines: Issues and Challenges 27 Environmental Planning and Management for Urban Industry; Case Study of Public Health Effects of Industrial Air Pollution in Map Ta Phut Community, Rayong Province, Thailand 28 Environmentally-Friendly Food Packaging: Comparative Patterns and Trends in India and Thailand 29 Framework for Developing an Urban Environ-mental Infrastructure Management Plan for Phnom Penh City, Cambodia 30 Integrative BOD Model for Municipal Wastewater Control to Maintain Water Quality in the West Lake of Hanoi City 31

vi

Market Potential for Compost Industry in Hyderabad, India: Necessary Strategies for Public and Private Cooperation 32 Mitigating NIMBY (not in my backyard) Syndrome as Barriers to Landfill Siting: A Case Study of Economic and Regulatory Measures for Gokarna Landfill Site, Kathmandu, Nepal 33 Public Awareness on Environmental Issues in Urban Management in Pakse City, Lao PDR: A Case Study of Solid Waste Management of the "Secondary Towns Integrated Urban Development Project 34 Revitalization of Kankeswar Heritage Site through Local Urban Environmental Management Action Plan for Bishnumati Corridor of Kathmandu, Nepal 35 Strengthening Recycling by Promoting Waste Separation at Source: A Case Study of Phnom Penh Households and the Informal Sector 36 Study on Cost-Recovery Options and Needs Assessment of Household Water Supply: A Case Study of Paksane Town, Borikhamsai Province, Lao PDR 37 Study to Explore Application of Regulatory and Economic Instruments in Solid Waste Management in Hanoi City 38 System Dynamics Approach for Municipal Solid Waste Management: A Case Study of Nam Dinh City, Vietnam 39 System Dynamics Approach to Environ-mental Planning and Management of Solid Waste: A Case Study of Yangon, Myanmar 40 Urban Transport and the Environment: Integrating the Financial Sector into Urban Environmental Management through Lending Practice 41 2000 Assessment of Regulatory and Economic Measures in the Management of Hanoi’s Sewerage System 43 Emergence of the Informal Sector in Waste Recycling in Chinese Cities: A Case Study of Wuhan City 44 Formal and Informal Sector Linkages in Waste Recycling: A Case Study of Household Solid Waste Management of Dong Da District in Hanoi, Vietnam 45 Identification of Strategies for Organic Waste Separation to Achieve Better Compost: The Case of Da Nang City, Vietnam 46 Improving Public Bus Service for a Better Urban Environment: A Case Study in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 47 Local Environmental Management for Improving Quality of Life: A Comparative Analysis of Service Delivery to Two Urban Poor Communities in Chittagong City, Bangladesh 48

vii

Management of Transportation and Environmental Issues for Sustainable Tourism Development in Yogyakarta, Indonesia 49 Proposed Strategic Planning Approach for Sustainable Tourism Development in Yala Municipality, Thailand 50 Proposed Strategies and Action Plans for Sustainable Tourism Development along the Mekong River Bank in the Vientiane Prefecture, Lao PDR 51 Residential Water Demand-Side Management in Nakorn Rayong Municipality, Rayong Province, Thailand 52 Solid Waste Management System with a Focus on Waste Disposal by Land Fill: A Case Study of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 53 Towards Developing Strategies for Improving Urban Environmental Management: The Case of Street Food Vending Activities in Yala Municipality, Thailand 54

Transformation of an Industrial Zone into Eco-Industrial Park in Hanoi, Vietnam: The Case of Sai Dong-B Industrial Zone 55 2001 Assessment of Impacts of Implementing ISO 14001- Environmental Management System for Certified Industries in Thailand 57 Community Participation in Urban Solid Waste Disposal Management: A Case Study of the City of Phnom Penh, Cambodia 58 Community Wastewater Management: A Case Study of Sue-Trong Garden Real Estate in Saima Sub-District, Nonthaburi, Thailand 59 Comparative Study on Environmental Management and Awareness in ISO 14001 School and Non-ISO 14001 School: A Case Study of Pakkred Secondary School (Nonthaburi) and Chainat Pittayakom Secondary School (Chainat), Thailand 60 Degree of Knowledge and Skills for Sustainable Urban Management in Financial Institutions in Colombo City, Sri Lanka 61 Developing Policy Guidelines for Open Space in Vientiane, Lao PDR 62 Earthquake Risk Management in Urban Planning and Development in Kathmandu, Nepal 63 Flood Risk Management in Low-Income Settlements: Exploring Planning Options for Phnom Penh, Cambodia 64 Improving the Urban Living Environment through Open Space Management: A Case Study of the “36 Old Streets” Quarter of Hanoi, Vietnam 65

viii

Industrial Wastewater Management at Local Level: A Case Study of two Industrial Estates in Yangon, Myanmar 66 Integrated Public Bus Systems: Transport Policy and Possibilities in Chiang Mai Municipality, Thailand 67 Land Use Control for Urban Environmental Management: A Study of the Conflicts in Land Use for Tourism along Nam Song Riverbank, Vang Vieng, Lao PDR 68 Minimizing the Impact of Tourism on the Aquatic Environment of Halong Bay, Quang Ninh Province, Vietnam 69 Problems of Inter-Organizational Coordination in Managing Air Quality in Dhaka City, Bangladesh 70 Strategies for Improving the Wastewater Management in Thuong Dinh Industrial Area in Hanoi, Vietnam 71 Strategies to Promote Composting in Namdinh, Vietnam 72 Study for Improving the Cost Recovery of Water Supply in Dhaka City, Bangladesh 73 Sustainable Urban Tourism in an Asian Mega-City: A Case Study of Kawasan Jalan Jaksa (Jaksa Street Area) Jakarta, Indonesia 74 Towards the Rehabilitation of the Open Space and Footpaths in a Residential Estate: The Case of Khlong Chan Residential Estate, Bangkok, Thailand 75 Transportation Management System in Yangon: A Focus on Easing the Traffic Congestion 76 Urban Environmental Management Issues: Water Transportation on Om Canal, Nonthaburi Province 77 Urban River Water Quality Protection: A Focus on Management Measures and Institutional Requirements for Buriganga River, Dhaka, Bangladesh 78 2002 Administrative Decentralization to Improve Urban Environmental Infrastructure: A Case Study of a Secondary Town in Lao PDR 80 Application of Tourism Carrying Capacity to an Urban Heritage Destination: Vigan (Philippines) 81 Delivery of Environmental Services in Slums and the Decentralization Reform in Local Administrative System in Aurangabad, India 82 Disaster Risk Management in Urban Areas of Vientiane: A Study with Special Reference to Management of Fire Disaster in Residential and Commercial Areas 83

ix

Effects of Redevelopment Project: A Case Study of a Relocated Urban Community in Hanoi, Vietnam 84 Environmental Awareness and Information System in Improving Industrial Wastewater Management of Small Scale Industries in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 85 Environmental Conflict Situation and Participation Problems in Urban Anti-Flood Program in Hat Yai Municipality, Songkhla Province, Thailand 86 Environmental Impacts of Tourism-Based Urban Development on the Protection Zone of Angkor Area, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia 87 Environmental Reform in Puerto Princesa (Philippines): A Best Practice Case of Local Agenda 21 88 Impact of Subway Construction on the Local Economy and Environment of Luohu, Shenzhen, China 89 Improving Cost Recovery for Better Water Supply System in Yangon City, the Union of Myanmar 90 Improving Urban Services Delivery for Environmental Management: A Study of Poor Settlements in Rajshahi City, Bangladesh 91 Interventions for Improving Urban Poor’s Living Environment: Focus on Women Participation in Projects in Khulna City Slum Area, Bangladesh 92 Local Environmental Management for Improving Environmental Infrastructure Services of Low-Income Settlements in a Myanmar Town 93

Preparing the Ground for Tourism Development on a Local Level: A Case Study of Kampot, Cambodia 94 Promoting Public Awareness on Urban Environmental Management: A Case Study on Wastewater Management in Nampasak Canal, Vientiane, Lao PDR 95 Proposed Strategies and Action Plans for Sustainable Tourism Development of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh 96 Prospects for Community Participation in Delivery of Water Supply for Km 52 Village in Vientiane Province, Lao PDR 97 Public-Private Partnership for Controlling Air Pollution: The Case of Dhaka Urban Transport Project 98 Recent Changes in Context and Basic Policy Affecting Urban Slum Dwellers Communities in Phnom Penh, Cambodia and Implications on Participatory Approach in Ongoing and Future Relocation Programs 99 Role of Environmental Education in Improving Urban Environment: A Case Study of Environmental Education in Secondary Schools in Hanoi, Vietnam 100

x

Selected Issues in Tripartite Partnerships for Basic Services Delivery to Urban Un-/Under-serviced Areas 101 Service Performance Evaluation of Metropolitan Waterworks Authority (MWA) of Bangkok Metropolitan: Integrating Customer Perspective into the Evaluation Protocol 102 Study of Industrial Participation in Cleaner Production for Industrial Efficiency in Samut Prakarn Province, Thailand 103 Study of Trends and Major Determinants of the Level of Official Development Assistance (ODA) for Urban Environmental Management (UEM) Local Projects in Thailand 104 Sustainable Design and Management of Community Green Space: A Case Study of Wangjing A5 Community, Beijing, China 105 Towards a Sustainable Preservation Strategy for Safeguarding the Character of Luang Prabang, Lao PDR 106 Towards Sustainable Development of Urban Renewal in Seoul: Evaluation and Effects of Government Housing Renewal Program 107 Urban Agriculture as a Municipal Waste Reduction Strategy: A Study of Commercial Farms in Suan Luang District, Bangkok Metropolis 108 Urban Environmental Governance for Religious Tourism in Selective Pilgrim Towns in India 109 Urban Environmental Management Policies to Improve the Living Condition in Slum Settlements: A Case Study of Tau Hu Canal Settlement, District 8, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 110 Urbanization Impact at Local Level: A Study of a Migrant Community in Beijing 111 2003 Analysis of Household Affordability and Willingness to Pay for Improved Water Supply in Two Towns of Lao PDR 113 Capacity Building for Sustainable Tourism Development in the Golden Triangle (Bhubaneswar-Puri-Konark), Orissa, India 114 Constraints in Implementing Urban Development Policy in India from the Perspective of International Development Professionals: Study of Sustainable Cities Program in Chennai 115 Development of Regulatory and Economic Measures in the Management of Yangon’s Sewerage System: A Case Study of Downtown Area in Yangon, Myanmar 116

xi

Formalization of Land Tenure and Living Environment in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Since the Economic Renovation 117 Impact of Urbanization and Industrialization on the Agricultural Activities in Pathum Thani Province, Thailand: A Study with Reference to Land Use and Water Use Conflicts Land 118 Improvement of Water Supply for the Poor: A Case Study of the Dangkao District of Phnom Penh, Cambodia 119 Integration of Environmental Assessment into Slum Improvement Programs: A Case Study of Infrastructure Projects in Two Slums of Dhaka 120 Issues and Possibilities in State, Voluntary Organizations and Business Sectors’ Synergy in Environmental Protection: A Case Study of Hudiara Drain Pollution Problem in Lahore, Pakistan 121 Land Conversion in BMR Peri-Urban Area: Impact on Water Resource and Implications on Public Management 122 Needs Assessment for Basic Infrastructure in a Post Conflict City: A Comparative Study of Unplanned and Planned Areas in Kabul, Afghanistan 123 Potential of Reducing Poverty through Urban Environmental Management Practices: A Case Study of a Poor Community in Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India 124 Revitalization of a Water Based Community: Koh Kred Island, Nonthaburi, Thailand 125 Strategic Intervention for Achieving National Goals of Sustainable Development: A Study with Special Reference to the Green Building Program of PWD Malaysia 126 Uncertainties Associated with the Planning Stage of Railway Projects in Ho Chi Minh City and Their Impacts on the Living Environment of an Affected Community 127 Urban Environmental Management for Heritages Conservation and Cultural Tourism: A Case Study in Bat Trang-Hometown of Traditional Ceramic in Hanoi, Vietnam 128 Why Informal Sector Counts in Urban Mass Transport System: A Study of Phnom Penh City’s Bus Experiment 129 Doctoral Student Research Abstracts Developing Alternative Solid Waste Management Practices in Local Governments: A Case Study of Yala Municipality, Thailand 130 Foreign Direct Investment-Led Development for Better Urban Environmental Management: The Case of Hanoi, Vietnam 133

xii

APPENDICES Index of Subjects 137 . Index of Keywords/Phrases 139 Index of Cities/Provinces/Countries 142 Index of Research Scholars 144 Index of Research Supervisors 147 List of Abstracts by the Year of Completion 148

1

STUDENT RESEARCH ABSTRACTS BY

YEAR OF COMPLETION

2

1998

3

Developing a Community Infrastructure System for a Low-Income Settlement: A Case of Sastrynagar, Chennai, India

Ravindra Sanagavarapu & Bernard G. Lefebvre

Abstract Over the past few decades, the accelerated growth in urban areas widened the gap in the delivery of urban services, such as water supply, sanitation, and solid waste disposal, to low-income settlements. Various new approaches have emerged in recent years to attain the sustainability of the infrastructure in urban areas with increasing beneficiary community involvement in planning and management. The present study aims at identifying appropriate methods of planning, financing, and implementation of community infrastructure systems, particularly water supply and sewerage system for a low-income settlement, Sastrynagar of Chennai. The lessons drawn from the successful implementation of the slum networking project in the city of Ahmedabad are incorporated in the proposed management system for Chennai. The micro level analysis conducted addresses the design issues in water supply and sewerage as well as their integration with the citywide systems. The financial analysis in the form of a simple water tariff model is proposed to be used by the community for fixing the water tariff. Mechanisms to address legal and institutional issues are provided to make the community play a major role in the decision-making process through the formation of a registered society with a legal status. The study deals with the complex issues of ownership of land, assets and the institutional roles in the proposed system. A framework is proposed which adopts community initiatives with citywide plans when multiple agencies are involved in service delivery. Keywords/phrases: Urban Services, Water Supply and Sanitation, Low-Income Settlement

4

Formal and Informal Sector Linkages in Waste Recycling: A Case Study at Prawate District in Bangkok, Thailand

Paveena Thepkunhanimitta & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract

The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) has a policy of an “integrated approach for recycling” that intends to minimize waste production and maximize waste recycling. This bears the potential of reducing the volume of garbage that eventually has to be dumped in increasingly scarce landfills or burned in costly incinerators. In Prawate district, the area of this study, there are two systems in waste recycling: one is formal and the other is informal. Waste collection is a duty of the municipal waste collectors (formal) who separate wastes and sell them to the junk shops. The other is done by the informal sector (such as street ragpickers and dumpsite ragpickers) who play major roles in waste separation. Waste recycling and reprocessing is almost entirely in the hands of junk shops (buyers of waste), street ragpickers, dumpsite ragpickers, and collection crews who together make up a complex network involved in collecting, sorting, reprocessing and distributing waste materials to the manufacturers who use them as raw material. Households are central in this process as waste generators/sources of domestic waste. This study identifies the need for public awareness towards recyclables in households and the link of the collector (formal as well as informal) to pass the recycled wastes to the recycling shops (both formal and informal) and to the intermediaries, such as wholesalers (mostly formal). The latter then deals with the manufacturing (formal sector) units located in the outskirts of Bangkok which use the recycled items as raw materials to cut production costs. Materials reprocessed include glass, plastics, papers, aluminum, metals, and household appliances. The extent and strength of this whole process depends on the demand for these processed products.

This study proposes effective linkages between formal and informal sectors for better recycling of waste in Prawate. The recommendations are made to improve the future policy formulations linking both the sectors and to develop feasibility in an organized recovery materials system in the future to support each other in the waste chain. Keywords/phrases: Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, Waste Minimization, Informal Sector

5

Framework for Developing an Urban Environmental Management Plan for Tiruppur Town, India

Aruna Gopalakrishnan & Bernard G. Lefebvre

Abstract

Urbanization and industrialization has accelerated worldwide and various environmental problems have emerged. The Brown Agenda lists the most critical environmental problems, such as lack of water supply, inadequate waste management, insufficient pollution control, land use problems and the interrelationships among them. The old forms of urban management and industrial regulations are inadequate to mitigate local environmental problems; thus, revealing that the majority of actions required to achieve a sustainable development needs to be taken at the local level. For such a purpose, one of its major recommendations is that each local authority should develop program and action plans complying with the Local Agenda 21. To respond to such initiatives, an Urban Environmental Management Plan (UEMP) at the municipal level is required to attain sustainable development. Tiruppur, a special grade Municipality in Tamilnadu State, India is a rapidly growing town with a strong economic base due to the concentration of textile and knit wear industries. The study reveals that Tiruppur, like any other town, is facing rapid urbanization and that industrialization is the host to a number of environmental problems from both domestic and industrial sectors. No cohesive integrated approach to solve the environmental problems had been attempted by the municipal authority and other related institutions. However, the initiatives have started to facilitate a formulation of sound urban environmental management plans at the local level with recent amendments to the constitution. The 74th Amendment to the constitution assigns environmental protection at the local level to the local authorities with active citizen participation. In addition, the Environmental Action Program of India focuses on environmental policies pertaining to environmental management by the local bodies. The feasibility of an UEMP for Tiruppur is explored as the theme of this study. As a part of the study, the existing environmental situation due to infrastructure deficiencies is analyzed based on the norms adopted by the state government. New projects are proposed to meet the gaps. This study also discusses the existing initiatives with respect to private sector participation for the Water Supply and Sewerage Project. In addition, it explores and identifies key potential components, which may contribute to the framing of an UEMP and action plan. The two critical components of the UEMP that have been analyzed are the environmental policy that envisages protection of the environment and the legal framework, which facilitates the same. It describes the systematic steps in formulating an UEMP and attempts to detail the responsibilities of the various institutions and agencies involved. Keywords/phrases: Brown Agenda, Urbanization, Agenda 21

6

Industrial Wastewater Pollution Management at Local level: A Case Study of a Tannery Site in Bangladesh

Khawja Abdul Latif & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Rapid industrialization has been taken by the Government of Bangladesh as a part of its strategy to develop economy, increase employment growth for alleviating widespread poverty and reducing reliance on limited land for sustainable farming. The economy of the country is thus changing from an agricultural base to a service and industrial one. So far, the country has little industrial base. Industry is primarily raw materials based. Most of those are highly polluting to the environment. In an effort to industrialize the country, the government is now considering pollution control management through a two-pronged approach: one is for the new industries that are coming up now and the other is for the existing industries. One such old industry is leather, which produced from rawhides widely available in the country. The biggest cluster of tannery factories is located at Hazaribagh - a suburban area of the capital city-Dhaka. This cluster produces 75% of the total production of the country. The significance of this identity lies in the fact that it accounts for about five percent of the total export earnings of the country. However, the industry’s very survival is at stake because of severe pollution from tanneries and spatial constraints, due to its location in a densely populated suburban area. Dhaka City Corporation clears off only 20% of the solid waste from the area. It is estimated that 32,000 tons of solid waste per year from tanneries putrefies around the area. The total polluted water of about 10,000 m3 per day flows through the drains and accumulates in depressions before emptying to the Buriganga River that has been the lifeline of the city dwellers for ages. Recently, the government has formulated rules and regulations and established organizations to manage pollution from industries in general. Yet, organizational strength is meager and it is difficult to monitor and enforce at a local level. The recently enacted pollution control regulations are so rigid as to penalize the factories and ultimately, close their operation in Hazaribagh area. Although such actions will prevent pollution, the country can hardly afford it. Effective application of the rigid legal provisions in combination with economic incentive based approaches can help to solve the problem of pollution, accommodating technical and managerial support required by the tanners for reduction and prevention of pollution over time. The research for investigating the problem and seeking its solution included a sample survey conducted among four groups of people identified as of central importance for the study. Field observations, a questionnaire survey, secondary information collection and informal discussions with technical persons and sources and government officials related with the industry are the methods for collecting required information and data. The study reveals that the problem has three dimensions viz., technical, behavioral and managerial. The technical problem arises from the lack of expertise for better collection, storage and processing of the rawhides. The behavioral problem originates from the lack of incentive for the adoption of better process and lack of demand for quality environment. Based on the existing situation and present extent of the application of regulatory instruments to manage pollution from tanneries in Hazaribagh, recommendations are made for constituting a self-sustaining organization, encompassing the standard economic and regulatory instruments in different stages of collection of hides and process at tanneries as identified. Suggestions are also made to solve the technical problems related to the pollution. Above all, participation of government, local bodies and residents in the area are also suggested with due consideration to reach a comprehensive solution to the problem. Keywords/phrases: Industrialization, Water Pollution Control, Regulatory Instrument

7

Land Use Consideration in Urban Environmental Management in Pokhara, Nepal: A Study to Manage the Environment of Phewa Lakeside-Baidam Area

K. C. Shambhu & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract

Urbanization is an inevitable process in developing countries, such as Nepal. The urban population of Nepal reached 2.3 million by the end of 1997, which is about 11 percent of the total population. The urban population of Nepal is increasing at a rate which is more than three times that of the national average growth rate of 2.6 percent. The present population of Pokhara town is about 150,000 and increasing at the rate of 7.5 percent annually. The study area is particularly focused on the Phewa Lakeside-Baidam Area of Pokhara town in which attempts are being made to analyze the relationship between Baidam Area settlements and its impact on Phewa Lakeside nearby. A qualitative research approach is being adopted to analyze the problems. The study is also based on semi-structured interviews. The semi-structured questionnaires are distributed among local inhabitants, elected municipal authorities, officials, planners and experts as well as foreign tourists visiting Pokhara. Secondary data and information are also taken into consideration. The study focuses on two issues: the present environmental situation of Phewa Lakeside of Baidam Area including Baidam settlement itself and the urban land use practices with zoning and building regulations in Phewa Lakeside-Baidam Area. The results of this study reveal that the pollution level has tremendously increased in Phewa Lake and in Phewa Lakeside-Baidam Area. It was also found that ineffective implementation of building regulations and poor network infrastructure, such as storm water drainage, sewerage and poor sanitation facilities, results in the degradation of the environment of Phewa Lake and Baidam Area and that there is a positive correlation between present land use practices in Phewa Lakeside-Baidam Area and Phewa Lake water quality, resulting in increased lake water pollution. To minimize the level of water pollution in Phewa Lake and improve the urban environmental situation of Phewa Lakeside-Biadam Area, management options in the form of action plans are also presented in this study. Planning interventions have been proposed to manage the situation for sustainable tourism and urban environmental problems. The land use planning can be helpful for improving the urban environment by directing urban growth in planned ways. Since the landowners, developers, and tourism entrepreneurs are found to gain more benefits from the tourism sectors, they should contribute more for necessary network infrastructure and controlling the level of pollution. Keywords/phrases: Urbanization, Developing Countries, Urban Environment

8

Models for Private Sector Participation: A Study of Water Supply and Sewerage in Kolhapur City, India

Pawar Dhanshree Bhagwat & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract

Increasing population pressure, depletion of resources such as fresh water, and inadequate management of the infrastructure systems are some of the major constraints causing progressing deterioration related to urban water supply and sanitation. Provision of infrastructure has traditionally been considered as a social responsibility of public agencies. The municipal bodies in Kolhapur City, a fast growing city in India, who are already plagued with problems of finance, lack of technical expertise, and inefficient management, find it increasingly difficult to cope with an ever-increasing need to provide the services to the urban population, whereas, private companies have indicated a keen interest in provision of these services. The inability and lack of willingness on the part of the municipal bodies on one hand, and the willingness on the part of the private companies to develop urban sanitation services on the other hand is leading to the growing trend of the privatization of urban environmental infrastructure. This study aims to look into the key issues like appropriate pricing, unbundling of services, the role of private and public agencies related to Private Sector Participation (PSP) in the provision of water supply, sewerage and sewage in the city. The key focus of the study is to assess the financial and institutional feasibility of PSP, with special emphasis on the economic viability, political and administrative will, technical and institutional feasibility and social acceptability. A financing and operating plan for water a supply with sensitivity analysis model has been developed as an institutional framework for selection of appropriate private sector participation option. These models are applicable to Kolhapur City, but may also be applied to other similar urban areas in India. Keywords/phrases: Private Sector Participation, Water Supply and Sanitation

9

Role and Contribution of the Community, Informal Sector and Municipal Government in Solid Waste Management:

A Case Study of a Low-Income Settlement in Colombo, Sri Lanka

Delgollage Senevirathne & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract

The increasing quantity of solid waste is a serious environmental problem in the city of Colombo in general and in its low-income settlements in particular. The attitude of viewing waste collection, disposal and recycling as a largely technical issue has been counter-productive for waste management in the city of Colombo. Today, considerations, such as recognition of the role of community and the informal sector and their incorporation in the decision-making process by using participatory mechanisms as development tools are influencing solid waste management. This is the paradigm shift in views and policies related to innovative waste management options for the future. As a backdrop, this study focuses on some persisting dilemmas that arise with the changing approaches to waste management. This is illustrated by investigating solid waste management in a Colombo low-income community, where they have managed to overcome the problem of collection and disposal of waste with the involvement of one of the NGOs in Sri Lanka. The methodology of the study involves collection of data and information through field surveys, interviews and round table discussions with the key stakeholders. The results of the findings are used to make the case that community based solid waste management system at local levels have to be strengthened by formulating new policies. These policies should lead to increasing acceptance of the role of the community and the informal sector in management of solid wastes on their own with close cooperation with Colombo Municipal Council (CMC) The CMC's role at the local community level (low-income settlement) on waste management has to be changed from provider to facilitator and from promoter to supporter. A step towards this is to provide basic urban services by involving the community as a key deciding factor of waste management. In addition, the involvement of the informal sector, the private sector and NGOs are important for mobilizing various existing resources and services. With these ideas and the backup of the study's findings, a waste management system at the community level is proposed involving all stakeholders. Keywords/phrases: Solid Waste Management, Low-Income Community, Informal Sector

10

Scope of Improving Environmental Infrastructure Services through Greater Reliance on User Charge: A Case Study of Jamal Khan Ward,

Chittagong, Bangladesh

Tapan Kumar Nath & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract

The provision of urban basic services is essential to continue urban productivity, alleviate urban poverty, and protect the urban environment. Agenda 21 has emphasized the promotion of integrated environmental infrastructure services of water supply, sanitation, drainage, and solid waste management. This research focuses on the scope of improving such services through a greater reliance on user charge for cost recovery of those services at a community level in the Jamal Khan Healthy Ward of Chittagong City Corporation (CCC). The data of household surveys and interviews suggest that there is willingness to pay for the improved services. However, the public utility departments and local governments have not fully exploited this opportunity. Furthermore, the findings of this research reveal that inadequate pricing level, inappropriate pricing system, corruption and mismanagement in the local government and in the public utility departments have widened the gap between the service need and service offered. In addition to not making use of user charge, the prevailing service delivery system has also failed to make use of the opportunity of gaining from large scale economies in the provision of these environmental services.

CWASA supplies water through household connection to the consumer and charges monthly bills as per rate fixed for per unit consumption. It can expand its service delivery by utilizing natural monopoly characteristic to meet the increasing demand of water even to the poor by providing it within a marginal cost. CCC is the main local government authority that provides sanitary, drainage and solid waste management services to the citizens for which it charges a total of 7% holding tax, 3% lighting charge and 7% conservancy charge (total 17%) based on the valuation of the building assets. However, the result of this study shows that this valuation is not properly done and the collection of taxes and charges can be improved significantly. Self-assessing valuation is suggested to be able to improve the collection process. The study findings also suggest that CCC can introduce conservancy services to its other non-conservancy wards by introducing rickshaw vans. The community and the citizens are willing to pay extra money (they are already paying for rickshaw van service for garbage collection) and even to volunteer their services to the local government organizations, CBOs and NGOs. The only incentive they need is the recognition of their contributions, which may be an enormous input for easy service delivery and timely revenue collection from the area. Volunteer services can compliment the user charge in a few selected services like cleaning of neighborhoods. Women’s voluntary participation in group discussions for the healthy wards’ environmental practices and a motivational campaign to keep the ward clean are real examples of the community’s willingness to protect and improve the urban environment in the study area, which should be replicable in the other wards of the city.

Interviews and group discussions in this study also unveil the fact that the record keeping and accounting system, information dissemination, accountability and transparency of the service-delivering authorities are questionable. The system losses can be reduced in an acceptable limit if regular maintenance and monitoring are done properly. The officials usually face financial, administrative, legal and political problems, while discharging their duties to deliver services. The people are not at all satisfied with the present situation of basic service delivery and hence, they, even the poorest section of the community, are willing to pay for the improved services. Objective reality at the ground level will allow for a greater reliance on user charge for extending basic services. The study makes a set of recommendations for levying user charge appropriately. Keywords/phrases: Urban Poverty, Urban Services, Urban Environment

11

Solid Waste Management in Yangon, Myanmar: A Focus on Hospital Waste

Yu Lay Sein & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract The environmental issues on the hospital waste management system in Yangon City are manifold. The Yangon City Development Committee is responsible for solid waste management in the city. The hospital waste is not separated and is disposed together with the other hazardous and domestic waste in Yangon City. Most of the wastewater generated by the hospitals is also discharged to the sewage systems without proper treatment, affecting human health and the environment. The inadequacies in the current hospital waste management practices in Yangon are mainly defined in the aspects of ineffective segregation at source, inappropriate collection methods, and unsafe storage of waste. In addition, the inappropriate practices of disposing hospital waste together with general waste in municipal landfill sites compound the problem. The other issues that need to be considered are a lack of appropriate protective equipment and lack of training and clear lines of responsibilities between the departments involved in hospital waste management. As a start, an adhoc or temporary emergency management system could be used to eliminate the inadequacies in the present hospital waste management (HWM) system. This system is simple, easy and not costly to manage. The inadequacies in the present system are in the form of lack of specific policies, guidelines and standards with respect to hospital waste management. To fill these gaps, recommendations are made to formulate a hospital waste management system, delineating responsibilities for the various actors. It is prudent to formulate the policies and strategies based on the guidelines proposed by WHO for developing countries for an efficient HWM system. To formulate national and local level policies on HWM, specific committees at different levels - national, state and local, are recommended to facilitate policy formulations and implementations. In addition, an action plan is proposed to initiate the process until the recommendations and implementation mechanisms of the committees are adopted. An action plan detailing the specific objectives, key indicators and responsible actors has been formulated, which can be adopted as a model for other urban areas in the country. This can also constitute an important component of the policy on HWM for Myanmar. Keywords/phrases: Hospital Waste Management, Sewage System, Developing Countries

12

Study to Explore Applications of Regulatory and Economic Instruments in Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City

Nurul Quadir & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract The population of Dhaka has swelled phenomenally from 3.4 million in 1981 to about 6.4 million in 1991. Unplanned growth of urban population causes reckless generation of solid wastes and exerts tremendous pressure on the existing services. The traditional concept of providing solid waste service virtually free of charge by the city corporation and poor management of solid waste aggravates the waste management problem, causing more than half of the generated solid wastes to remain uncollected and disposed making the environmental scenario of the metropolis quite gloomy and dismal for the future. Effective application of regulatory and economic instruments has emerged as one of the approaches to address the growing problem of solid waste management. This study reviews the current solid waste management system in Dhaka and explores the application of regulatory and economic instruments in the said service for better waste management performance. The research of this study includes a household survey conducted in four selected areas of Dhaka city. The results of this study reveal that Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) has failed to provide adequate solid waste management service. Only about 50 percent of the generated solid wastes are collected and disposed by the DCC. The reasons are identified as lack of proper policy planning, financial inadequacy, lack of coordination among the actors involved in solid waste management (SWM), the absence of incentives for reducing wastes, virtual absence of polluters pay principle, and lack of regulations and their enforcement. This study shows that the present application of regulatory and economic instruments is very limited for SWM in Dhaka. There are no specific charges or fees for solid waste collection and disposal except an indirect tax called ‘rates’. There is no comprehensive and specific legislation for SWM in Dhaka as well. Although the DCC Act 1983 and the Municipal Corporation (Taxation) Rules 1986 deal with responsibilities of DCC regarding solid waste collection and disposal, SWM ‘rates’ and penalties concerning SWM, they are not clearly defined and enforced as yet. Those acts do not contain reference to standards, deposit refund system, incentives, solid waste plans, subsidies, charges, and fees - the common tools used in developed countries. Based on the existing situation and the extent of application of the instruments, recommendations were made to apply collection and disposal charges/fees, strengthen the deposit refund system, provide incentives, apply standards in different stages of SWM, prepare a solid waste plan, and impose restrictions and bans for improving solid waste management of Dhaka. Keywords/phrases: Regulatory Instruments, Economic Instruments, Solid Waste Management

13

Travel Demand Management Techniques Applicable to Urban Transport Problems in Bangkok Metropolitan Area

Manoj Kumar Sharma & Bernard G. Lefebvre

Abstract The numbers of private automobiles are fast escalating in Bangkok. Meanwhile, the spiraling cost of construction and maintenance makes it difficult to satisfy the increasing travel demand through new infrastructures. Thus, the need to implement Travel Demand Management (TDM) cannot be ignored. So far, attempts to alleviate the traffic problems in Bangkok have failed to provide efficient solutions. Not only do the traffic problems cause long travel delays and environment pollution, but they also aggravate social costs. In spite of various TDM measures that have been recommended, Bangkok is still struggling in attempting to implement TDM measures for such a purpose. This study highlights the findings on how Bangkok compares itself internationally to a large sample of other Asian cities in terms of transport related problems and recommends the possible TDM techniques applicable in Bangkok Metropolitan Area. Research on comparisons of Bangkok to other Asian cities is conducted in terms of transport infrastructure, transport use patterns, energy consumption in transport, transport economics, and transport externalities. Studies on the status of planned and on-going mega-projects for urban transportation in Bangkok are conducted to establish their interrelations with the existing transport infrastructure. In terms of transport economics, the comparative study reveals that per capita road expenditure in Bangkok is much higher than that for all developing Asian cities. However, driving in Bangkok is relatively cheap, which is most likely a contributing factor to the high level of private vehicle use. Private transport energy use per capita in Bangkok is the highest among the Asian cities. The rate of transport-related deaths in Bangkok is also among the highest of all Asian cities. Moreover, the rate of per capita emissions from transport in Bangkok is very high, with the highest levels of SPM, HC, and SO2. Among the various TDM measures, 32 potential measures are short-listed to evaluate for Bangkok. Each measure is evaluated in terms of 11 different criteria with four different aspects, such as environmental, social, economical, and technical. It is found that public transportation improvement techniques secure the highest score. Provision of Mass Rapid Transit stands in the first rank, where formalization of motorcycle taxi, contra-flow bus lanes, with-flow bus lanes, transit priority at traffic signals attains the second, to fifth rank. The ride sharing strategy is assessed on the seventh to 12th rank. The peak period dispersion measures are appraised on the sixth and 11th rank. The proposed traffic constraint measures are the most unpopular among the people in Bangkok. Introduction of parking fees in government offices is the most unacceptable measure, whereas an incremental tax on cars/pick-ups is the second most disliked measure. The attitude of people towards physical measures demonstrates that they do not want to pay for improvements of transportation facilities, although the majority of them condemn the bad traffic conditions in Bangkok. Keywords/phrases: Urban Transport, Travel Demand Management, Public Transportation

14

Urban Solid Waste Disposal: A Case Study of the City of Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Chea Sarin & Bernard G. Lefebvre

Abstract

The rapid urbanizing process, fueled by rural to urban migration and population growth, has given rise to a host of urban environmental problems. These include problems related to limited access to basic environmental infrastructure and services, pollution from urban wastes and emissions, and loss or destruction of natural and cultural resources. The quality of the environment is thus a matter of growing concern. In this context, Solid Waste Management (SWM) becomes one of the top priorities. The purpose of this study is to review the existing laws and regulations related to environmental protection with special attention on the SWM in Cambodia, while assessing the efficiency and effectiveness of these laws and regulations. Studying the present situation of the SWM system and identifying the problems related to this system with particular focus on the disposal part are also two main objectives of this study. This results of this study show that there is only limited law and regulations concerning environmental protection; especially there is a significant lack of rules and regulation regarding solid waste management. As a result, the present performance of solid waste management is a laissez faire approach. In the present context, SWM has become one of the most serious problems in Phnom Penh City, as the population increases from time to time. An integrated approach has become important for solving solid waste problems in the city and especially options for solid waste disposal. Little attention is paid by the municipality and the PSBK. At present, the PSBK pays more attention to solid waste collection and transport so that the city becomes cleaner. However, this approach transfers the problems from one area to another. If an integrated approach is not initiated immediately, the city may suffer from sanitation and health hazards. Based on these findings, this study recommends an action plan for SWM of Phnom Penh City. It also recommends a management plan for improving the conditions of the present landfill which is seriously environmentally polluted. It was recommended that the present landfill needed to be closed in 2000; however, this study recommends closing it in early 2004 due to the low progression of selecting and lack of capability to design and plan the new landfill. This study suggests a guideline for new landfill selection, design and operation and post-closure care. Since there is a limited option for the solid waste disposal method, the study also recommends promoting a composting system for waste minimization prior to final disposal. Keywords/phrases: Solid Waste Management, Urban Environment, Urban Services

15

1999

16

Air Pollution Monitoring System: Evaluation and Improvement for Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate, Rayong Province, Thailand

Pawinee Sunalai & Nguyen L. Bach

Abstract Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate has been established since 1981, aiming to promote industrial development and decentralize the economy. As the government is more inclined toward economic development and industrial investment than environmental protection, the severity of environmental problems has been increasing over the past few years. Given this government inclination, air pollution in Map Ta Phut has become a serious environmental concern. To address this concern, this study focuses on investigating the ambient air quality monitoring system for Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate and determining who, what, when, where and how often to monitor the pollutants and their impacts on the environment. It is found that air monitoring for the industrial estate is ineffective for producing accurate and consistent monitoring data. Furthermore, data availability and dissemination to the public there is not satisfactory in terms of data content, presentation, reliability, and quality. To improve the existing monitoring system for Map Ta Phut, a comprehensive quality assurance/quality control program needs to be developed for enhancing instrument performance accuracy and ensuring reliable and high quality monitoring data. The programs for emission inventory development and meteorological condition measurements (especially mixing height data) are required for identifying air pollution problems accurately and increasing the accuracy level of modeling for assessment purposes. Such activities can support and strengthen the air quality monitoring and improve the capability of the authorities to control air pollution in Map Ta Phut area. Keywords/phrases: Air Pollution Monitoring, Air Quality Monitoring, Emission Inventory

17

Analysis of Road-Users' Perceptions on Traffic Management Measures in Colombo City

W.M.M.G.D. Wijekoon & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Traffic congestion has been increasing rapidly in the fast growing city of Colombo. It causes a huge loss of money, property, time, energy, and human health. Congestion originates from various sources, however, the increasing number of vehicles of the city is the primarily cause. Geographical location and surroundings of the city and centralization of administrative services are also causes for pulling more and more vehicles into Colombo. Uncontrolled land use and the poor management of infrastructure services are also seen as contributors to congestion. The Government of Sri Lanka has formulated several management measures to overcome this problem. The success of any kind of management measures primarily depends on the willingness of people to cooperate. Thus, their involvement is important to implement any management measure. With the above in view, this study focuses on analyzing the road-users’ perceptions towards the road environment in general and traffic management measures in particular in Colombo. The research issues covered include the willingness to pay congestion charges, the responsibility of traffic management of the city, and the present conditions of the road network of the city. A questionnaire survey is conducted to determine road-users’ perceptions and views from the three types of road-users (pedestrians, drivers, and street vendors). Through the questionnaire, they are given the opportunity to express their views, attitudes and make suggestions to ease the traffic congestion in Colombo. Checklist interviews are also conducted to obtain expert opinions and views of the management officials including the traffic police. Basic information in relation to the traffic volume, number of vehicles, and pollution level is collected by reviewing documents and reports. The results of the study specify several findings. The perceptions of the road-users towards the effects of traffic congestion and the road environment vary according to the time of the day. The busy hours clearly fare worst in characterization of traffic congestion (always congestion, very noisy and not safe). Most of the road-users have more positive attitudes to regulatory instruments (RIs) than to economic instruments (EIs). One of the implications is that the road-users are not agreeable to the economic instruments and their potential role in reducing traffic congestion and better traffic management. It may be due to the fact that the use of economic measures may require the road users to pay congestion charges. This is indeed the case, as reflected in the findings: a majority of respondents do not like to pay for congestion charges. They view the responsibility of traffic management as the Colombo Municipal Council’s and they would rather use regulatory measures for reducing congestion. The road-users’ perceptions and views have, thus, provided valuable insights for developing guidelines to make decisions, policies and management measures (by combining RIs and EIs) to ease the prevailing traffic congestion in Colombo. Keywords/phrases: Traffic Management Measures, Regulatory Instruments, Economic Instruments

18

Application of Economic and Regulatory Instruments for Emission Management: A Case Study of Diesel and Electric Tempos in Kathmandu City

Babu Ram Rai & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Metro Kathmandu is facing the menacing problem of vehicular emissions, which poses a serious environmental problem. Vehicular emissions particularly originate from diesel Tempos (three wheeler vehicles). It is one of the major causes of air pollution in the Metro area. Absence of land use planning, poor vehicles maintenance, weak enforcement of regulatory measures, low fuel quality, and import of old vehicles are known to be the other major sources of vehicular emissions. This study focuses on the scope of greater use of regulatory and economic instruments to abate the emissions for improving the air quality of Kathmandu thus, contributing to the urban environmental management of the city. The increasing urban population is a major cause of massive increase of vehicles in the city. The urban population of the Metro was 150,402 in 1971 and it rose to 235,160 in 1981. By 1991, the population soared to 421,258. As a result, the demand for transportation services has increased rapidly. To respond this situation, demand of Tempos in the city has been increased as the source of cheap transportation services. However, that this cheap service takes place at environmental cost is not commonly understood by all involved. Most of these vehicles also use diesel as their fuel and most diesel Tempo drivers have old vehicles. These are creating more pollution in the Metro. Yet, almost no diesel Tempo owners and drivers are willing to pay environmental or pollution charges. In the absence of economic and regulatory instrument applications, this situation remains unchanged. Conversion of diesel Tempos into electric vehicles is highly desirable to manage the problem of emission in Kathmandu. One barrier for such a purpose is the high cost of conversion from DVs to Evs. The regulatory and economic instruments are studied in this research with respect to the above issues. Most people would like to see the reduction of emissions even by banning the use of Tempos. However, once they apply the regulatory and economic measures, these instruments appreciate their role to contain pollution. It is suggested that the government might provide a subsidy, tax incentives and soft loans for the environmentally friendly electric vehicles’ operations and promotions. The number of these highly preferred vehicles, however, is not sufficient due to high initial investment and operating costs. The government plans to provide soft loans to the battery charging operators. However, it did not act properly until January 1999. Making emission standards compulsory and strict enforcement are required for non-complying vehicles with the provision of higher emission charges and registration fees for high polluting vehicles. The government could provide incentives and subsidies for EV operations and promotions, specifically the government providing soft-loans for conversion of DVs into EVs. Keywords/phrases: Economic Instruments, Regulatory Instruments, Emission

19

Application of Regulatory and Economic Instruments to Control Air Pollution in Dhaka City: A Focus on Major Pollution Emitting Transportation Mode

Md. Nasir Uddin & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract The urban air quality in Bangladesh is fast deteriorating and has reached an alarming level. In Dhaka, the levels of Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) range 2 to 4 times the national standards, but up to 12 times worse than the WHO guidelines in the most heavily polluted traffic corridor. Ambient sulfur dioxide levels (SO2) are nearly five times higher than the national standards in commercial areas and nearly ten times higher than the WHO guidelines. Lead levels in Dhaka are also high by the WHO standard. Lead pollution reaches its highest level in the air of Dhaka during the dry season. The density of lead in Dhaka’s air in November-December-January comes to 463 nanograms per cubic meter, which is higher than even cities like Bombay and Mexico City. Air pollution in Dhaka is worsening rapidly due to the rapid increase in vehicle imports and use, particularly two-stroke engine vehicles. Motor vehicles, especially the two-stroke engine vehicles (Baby Taxis and Tempos are the two common ones) are responsible for the increase in emissions of both local pollutants and green house gases. The rapid growth in their numbers, poor maintenance, excessive commercial use, fuel adulteration, and lubricant oil quality and quantity are additional reasons that have made these vehicles most polluting. The shares of the Two-Stroke Engine Vehicles (TSEV) in total vehicular emission of PM10, HC, CO, and CO2 are 40, 77, 44, and 13%, respectively. The program of air quality management in Bangladesh is at the early stage of its development in all areas ranging from the scientific understanding of the magnitude to institutional structure. The Department of Environment (DOE), Dhaka division, with its limited man power started air quality monitoring in 1995 at few places in the City. Regarding emission inventories, mobile source emissions have been prepared. An inventory of industrial and area emissions does not exist. To pursue an effective program of air quality management, DOE needs to be strengthened in terms of trained staff, facilities, and equipment, as it also faces legal and inter-organizational coordination barriers to conduct an effective vehicles inspection program as well as to take action against the polluters. In the absence of these, the vehicles inspection program tends to be more sporadic than systematic. Analysis of existing laws and regulations exhibits weakness in the legal system that seeks to control vehicular pollution in the country. It needs specific regulations to cover all aspects of vehicular emissions: vehicles, traffic management, fuels, and inspection and maintenance. Although some positive steps have been adopted by the Government of Bangladesh by promulgating the Environment Conservation Act 1995 and the Environment Conservation Rules 1997, these acts and rules are not specific enough to combat the air pollution situation in the City. Presently, no economic instruments are being applied as the mechanism of providing incentive or levying pollution charges for controlling vehicular pollution. This study attempts to make a case of applying the regulatory and economic instruments as management measures for improving the air quality in Dhaka. Air pollution emission process and control mechanisms are identified by analyzing secondary data/information, questionnaire surveys and discussions with the concerned officials/experts. The questionnaire survey respondents are households, serviceholders, roadside small traders, and Baby Taxi/Tempo owners and drivers. The results of the study reveal that the existing vehicular pollution management system is very weak with respect to policy instruments, emission standards of vehicles, standards of fuel and lubricants, traffic rules, inspection and maintenance, public awareness as well as the organizational capacity of DOE. Recommendations are made for vehicular air pollution control in general and Baby Taxis/Tempos emission control in particular by proposing economic and regulatory measures targeting DOE, vehicles, fuels, lubricant, alternate fuel, traffic management and inspection and maintenance and implementation. Keywords/phrases: Regulatory Instruments, Economic Instruments, Air Pollution

20

Banks and Environmentally-Friendly Practice in Bangkok Metropolitan Region: The Need for Change

Beatriz Mayer & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract Today the world experiences an acceleration of environmental degradation accompanied by an increased involvement in environmental issues. Banks and financial institutions, who lend the capital for investment in commercial and industrial development, become more aware of their customers’ involvement in environmental issues. This new involvement is not attributed to a sudden increase in environmental awareness or consciousness “for preservation of the environmental and/or conservation of natural resources”, but it is rather due to the financial exposure of the banks to the environmental liabilities of their customers. Thus, the banks have a new financial risk associated with the accountability and exposure of their industrial customers, whose production processes or products bring negative impact on the environment through the use or production of toxic, infectious, or hazardous materials. Hence, the banks are indirectly responsible and financially accountable for environmental degradation. This paper studies the level of awareness and the current responses of both local and international banks in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region to environmental issues and environmental risks. What responses are the banks giving to the increased significance of environmental issue? The study includes a survey of over 30 banks in Bangkok. Results indicate that banks are being slow to follow this international trend. The study also analyzes the growing need that banks in Bangkok will be facing, as new scenario changes may take place. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Risks, Environmental Degradation, Environmental Awareness

21

Challenges and Constraints Faced by Women NGOs in Urban Solid Waste Management in Kathmandu Valley:

An Analysis from a Gender Perspective

Muna Basnyat & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract Most often local governments are held responsible for providing daily services like solid waste management and are blamed for any kind of failures and inadequacies that prevail. Due to lack of resources and commitment from their part solid waste most often emanates as a major environmental problem in urban areas. Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC) and Lalitpur Sub Metropolitan (LSM) have been the victims of solid waste management problem in recent years, with a trend of generating more volume and complicated waste stream in the coming years. Acknowledging the inadequacies of the local government, informal sector, private sector and NGOs have emerged to supplement their activities. This study focuses on analyzing the relevance of NGOs in urban solid waste management in the present scenario, with an objective to envisage their roles and functions in providing supplementary service to the metropolitan/sub metropolitan areas. This study further focuses on assessing on how women’s NGOs operate and how they are perceived by the community and the local government. Out of the three roles of women, productive, reproductive and community management, the latter role is not adequately acknowledged and most often thought as an extension of the reproductive role. Thus, this study aims to find out the scope of this role in filling up the voids that the local government has in providing its services. Assessing one women’s NGOs externally and internally explores the possibilities of its replication in other areas. Based on this result, strategies are formulated on how their roles should be highlighted and what functions are they expected to play in addressing the issue of solid waste management in the future. Moreover, based on the critique of gender analysis, this study analyzes the additional role that women’s NGOs are expected to play in attaining gender equity in relation to cultural and social structures within the periphery of ‘waste management’. Keywords/phrases: Solid Waste Management, Gender Equality, NGO

22

Determination of Cost Efficiency for Pricing of Water Supply Systems: A Case Study of Four Cities in Lao PDR

Sisangouane Sirithasack & Nguyen L. Bach

Abstract Water supply is one of the basic urban services desirable to reach every household in the urban areas. In spite of the economic hardship, Lao government has managed to arrange for a significant amount of investment in the urban sector. However, even an investment of US$ 96 million in 1994, could bring about a potable-piped water supply to only 54% of the urban population. The study is conducted in four main cities of Lao PDR, namely: Vientiane, Luang Prabang, Pakse, and Saravane. In the present context, the cost for operation and maintenance exceeds the revenue, due to the low income generated by tariff. As a result, cost-efficient service is not being provided to the whole of the urban population. In this study, estimation is made to determine the cost efficiency for the water pricing of water supply systems in Lao PDR. This study focuses on proposing a solution to reduce the gap between revenue and expenditure of the three cities, namely: Luang Prabang, Pakse, and Saravane. Similarly, affordability and willingness of the people to pay for these services are also taken into consideration. Based on the finding of this study, recommendations are made for total capital investment, along with various ways through tariff to provide service to different income groups. Keywords/phrases: Cost Efficiency, Water Supply, Basic Urban Services

23

Developing a Strategy to Increase Participation of Hotels in Environmental Management Programs in Panjim, Goa, India

Pallavi R. Mandke & Walter Jamieson

Abstract The increasing number of tourists received at many destinations has encouraged a number of accommodation facilities to be built in and around the destinations. This activity has drawn attention the world over with a special reference to environmental sustainability. Environmental management programs for hotels are immerging as a response to political and social pressure for sustainability. Some examples are Green Globe, Green Leaf Program, the Blue Flag and individual efforts by hotel chains like ECOTAJ. The prime environmental issues in hotels are solid waste, water and energy management, which are also pivotal urban issues. Thus, developing environmental management programs and ensuring participation of hotels in these programs becomes important from the point of view of urban environmental sustainability. This research examines successful experiments in environmental management of hotels and draws valuable lessons for their replication in Panjim, Goa. It further assesses the awareness, willingness, and perception of hoteliers to adopt environmental management programs. A stakeholder analysis is necessary to study the existing and expects the roles of stakeholders in the program. The strategy addresses a range of issues at two levels, at the hotel level, training and awareness, floating staff issues, target audience, and hardware solutions for making physical changes in hotels. At the stakeholder level, expected roles and coordination is discussed. The solutions to encourage hotels to participate in the program are sought through a regulatory, incentive or disincentive approach. Keywords/phrases: Stakeholder, Environmental Management, Urban Environment

24

Development of a Strategy for Municipal Solid Waste Disposal: A Case Study of Hanoi City, Vietnam

Pham Duc Thai & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract It is observed that more growth of economic activities and population growth in urban areas lead to more urban environmental problems. The environmental problem with respect to the volume and complexity of wastes has increased in general. Particularly, inappropriate disposing of municipal solid wastes has become a serious threat to the environment and public health in Hanoi. The increase in waste generation and lack of planning for disposal sites compounds the problem. While the Hanoi Urban Environmental Company (URENCO) is primarily responsible for planning the disposal sites along with overall solid waste management for the city, planners look for various alternatives for efficient solid waste management in Hanoi, due to the problem-rising magnitude and, most urgently, the existing dumpsite has alarmingly reached its capacity. With respect to the views above, this study focuses on various aspects that are important for developing a strategy for municipal solid waste disposal in Hanoi. This requires thorough investigation on the current situation of municipal solid waste management and disposal practice. The data collection method of the study involves field survey, interview, as well as the obtained data results from analyzing waste samples in the study area. Recent literature on solid waste disposal in Hanoi is also reviewed. Data analyzed include compositional variations of total wastes in Hanoi over the last five years. The results of this study show a rapid increase in the total amount of municipal waste and significant composition changes. These are related to the increase of population and living standards in Hanoi in the last few years. In Hanoi, the total daily amount of municipal waste has increased from 700 tons in 1995 to about 1,400 tons in 1998. It is estimated to reach 3,500 tons per day by 2020. Until now, the large proportion (65%) of municipal solid waste in Hanoi has been transported to the one existing open dumpsite. Only a small portion (5%) is used as the input waste of a Cau Dien pilot composting plant, although the component of organic matter is 62.5% of the total waste generated. The amount of the discharged hazardous waste without treatment is still high. This causes considerable pollution in Hanoi. The lack of budget and inefficiency in operation and management of the responsible organizations also contributes to the problem of municipal solid waste management in Hanoi. To overcome the existing problems, an integrated approach comprising a new sanitary landfill and a composting plant is suggested for such a purpose. It also includes policy and planning measures for the improvement of the present dumpsite and the composting plant. To deal with the requirements of operation and management in the future, and for strengthening the capacity of the responsible organizations, a restructuring of URENCO is also recommended. In addition, reduce, reuse, recycling programs, the application of regulatory and economic instruments, and programs for raising people’s awareness are suggested as measures to reduce the volume of municipal solid waste generated and help reach reasonable efficiency in municipal solid waste treatment and disposal. Keywords/phrases: Solid Waste Disposal, Regulatory Instruments, Economic Instruments

25

Environmental Awareness and Regulations in Banking Practices: A Case Study in Ho Chi Minh City

Dao Hao Yen & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract Industrialization and urbanization though vital for the development of a country, carries heavy environmental impacts, which are not often acknowledged until they reach the level of severity. Vietnam at this stage seems much concerned with the development process, but cares little for the environment. Careful consideration for the environment would have positive repercussions for the future. Banks have been identified as one of the components that can play an intermediary role in keeping the balance between the economic activities and conserving the environment. This study aims at finding the banks’ interests in supporting environmentally friendly projects and their policy. It also investigates the awareness amongst the clients and their desire to implement such projects. The overall analysis has looked into the constraints faced by the government and then, comes up with proposals for reforms in banking systems to support environmentally friendly projects. Similarly, an assessment has been made of how banks can get such projects implemented and how awareness amongst the people can be raised to attract them towards such projects. Thus, this study is expected to help in creating a linkage between the policy makers, banks and the clients so that economic development can be achieved along with environmental protection. From this study, a new concept of environmental concern has also been introduced in the banking system to contribute to environmental protection activities. Moreover, policy makers can use the obtained information to establish environmental policy for a banking system. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Protection, Economic Development, Environmental Awareness

26

Environmental Awareness regarding Domestic Disposal Behavior in Yangon, Myanmar

Hlaing Myint & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract Inadequate waste collection and improper disposal coverage of the population to be served is one of the most important problem areas in domestic waste management in developing countries, especially in Yangon, the capital city of Myanmar, with a population of 3.57 million. Although the municipal authorities in Yangon acknowledge the importance of household waste collection and disposal, it is mostly beyond their financial, material, technical and labor resources to collect and dispose of the growing amount of refuse generated by the city. The increase in waste quantities and scarcity of disposal sites forces the authorities to look into alternative means to solve the problem of solid waste disposal in the urban area of Yangon. This social and behavioral aspect of the study on solid waste disposal behavior in Yangon is considered a viable option in managing solid waste properly. There is a negative attitude and behavior of the citizens regarding solid waste disposal. Wastes are frequently dumped on roadsides and into open drains. The problem is most acute in low-income, sub-urban areas of new satellite towns where access to collection trucks is difficult or absent and where bell ringing collection systems are not practiced. This study is done by examining the level of environmental awareness of (1) high-income households, (2) middle-income households, and (3) low-income households in Yangon. The relationships between environmental awareness and waste disposal behavior and socio-economic factors, such as education, income and education, and the institutional factors such as dissemination of environmental information, training and seminars related to environmental issues, environmental programs and activities among schoolchildren, and the efficiency of municipal waste collection are analyzed. The results of the study show that generally, people’s perception of the environment is high. Waste disposal practices have a significant correlation with environmental awareness especially considering level of income and occupation. There is also a significant relationship between waste disposal practices and the efficiency of municipal waste collection. This study examines the relationship of how people perceive solid waste disposal, and what is done with the disposal of solid waste in Yangon City. The strong relationships are institutional factors and their waste disposal behavior. It is evident that respondents from high collection of waste areas have better waste disposal practices than from low collection areas. After analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of environmental awareness and waste disposal behavior, it is recommended to strengthen environmental awareness through environmental education, dissemination of environmental information, training programs, and activities. The study also recommends strengthening the capacity of the municipal government with models for efficient urban environmental management, effective environmental awareness projects, as well as for effective household waste management in Yangon city. Keywords/phrases: Solid Waste Management, Environmental Awareness, Low-Income Household

27

Environmental Impact Assessment in Metropolitan Cebu, Philippines: Issues and Challenges

Andres Evangelista Muego & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract

This study identifies various key issues in the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA, otherwise known as Philippine Environmental Impact Statement) system in Metro Cebu, in determining major challenges and strategies towards its’ effective implementation. The key issues are identified through the ‘Delphi exercise’. The case studies of two Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) and one Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) projects are undertaken in gaining insights into the system’s implementation, and in determining the strengths and weaknesses of the Dept. Administrative Order No. 96-37. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis determines the strategies in addressing the EIA issues. Several issues are identified, such as the project proponents’ lack of EIA appreciation, a pro-development political culture, the project proponents’ treatment of EIA as bureaucratic requirement, non-implementation of Environmental Compliance Certificate conditions. To address such issues, a number of strategies are suggested, like the need “to continuously conduct education, training programs, and courses to government authorities, EIA practitioners, EIA review committee, policy-decision makers, Non-Government Organizations (NGOs), public/community, and project proponents.” The desired ultimate effect of EIA is to influence Metro Cebu’s sustainability. Towards this end, the major challenge is the “internalization of EIA procedures in planning and decision-making.” However, procedural improvements are not enough to contribute toward the internalization of EIA procedures, unless the ‘preconditions, such as environmental awareness and political culture for effective EIA are addressed. The study recommends a model for a multi-dimensional system approach to enhance the effectiveness of EIA system implementation in Metro Cebu. Keywords/phrases: Delphi Exercise, Environmental Impact Assessment, Environmental Awareness

28

Environmental Planning and Management for Urban Industry: A Case Study of Public Health Effects of Industrial Air Pollution

in Map Ta Phut Community, Rayong Province, Thailand

Choen Krainara & Nguyen L. Bach

Abstract Recently, Thailand has been enjoying flourishing economic growth due to the decentralization policy to promote rapid industrialization. To respond this policy, Map Ta Phut community is chosen as the host of highly industrialized complex, namely Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate, where 48 gases and petrochemicals-related industrial plants are located. After years of operation, recurring industrial air pollution leakage as Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) in the form of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are immensely exposed, posing acute health effects to the nearby communities. These major frequent detections are benzene, toluene, styrene, and xylene. This study aims at assessing the community health effects related to such exposures in severity, the extent of health effects, including the persistence of diseases. This study also encompasses 17 communities dividing into 4 zones; three zones are in the study area as near (1-3 kms from the estate), intermediate (3.5-8 kms) and farther (more than 7.5 kms); and “control area” lies 20 km away. A comparison is made of the prevalent diseases in the areas, in terms of sex, age group, and the persistence of contracting diseases. The results of this study show that schoolchildren are the most susceptible group in particular in zone 1 due to the fact that they are exposed both at schools and at home. It is also found that such persistent diseases for acute health symptoms have appeared in only zone 1 for more than 10 years. For the last 5-10 years, it has been shown that health status is steadily changed in a wide domain in zones 1 and 2. Presumably accumulative health effects are begun in this period, as most of acute health symptoms are shown to be continued to develop in zone 1, while acute to chronic health symptoms are being developed in zones 2 and 3, except in the control area. In addition, the prevalence of respiratory diseases, nervous system diseases and skin diseases is felt steeply, depending on the distance from the estate. This comprehensive assessment of health effects finally concludes that the prevalence of the above-mentioned diseases might be possibly related to hazardous air pollutant exposure from the estate. Lack of inter-agency coordination is found to be one of the major obstacles to attain the ultimate goal, as more than four ministries are involved and each ministry handles its own separate law; thus, creating overlapping of jobs, weak institutional capacity, and lack of strong monitoring and mitigation measures. Although the local government is administered for a highly industrialized community, it is conventionally structured like other municipalities, which faces similar problems in terms of lack of qualified personnel, equipment, and expertise. In relation to the role of the public, the study reveals that residents are aware of nearby environmental quality, but they face inadequate information and knowledge to understand how to protect themselves from such exposures. Based on these findings, it is concluded that residents with proximity to the estate are exposed to higher health risks than those residing farther away. Such recommendations have been made in response to continue smart growth in association with promoting a healthy community. Different measures are proposed ranging from presenting industrial air pollution exposure, mitigating industrial air pollution, and finally protecting residents from health threats for the long run. Keywords/phrases: Decentralization, Industrialization, Air Pollution

29

Environmentally Friendly Food Packaging: Comparative Patterns and Trends in India and Thailand

Anagha Patil & Sudip K. Rakshit

Abstract

The role of packaging plays a crucial role in the food processing industry. The packaging technology had evolved from its humble role of mere food protection to the now more sophisticated and versatile ones, which can give the product extended shelf life, thus, making it available when not in season and even when produced thousands of miles away from the consumer. Food items, which are basic goods in nature with a limited amount of demand, have changed into highly competitive and most sought after consumer goods. The growth of urbanization, increased standards of living, and changes of working styles/ lifestyles has contributed to its progress. The developed as well as developing countries are now observing more and more varieties and concepts in food packaging, making their way into urban homes predominantly. The negative outcome of this progress in food processing and packaging is not left behind though and is looming in front of society in the form of pollution problems, due to the complexity of municipal solid waste. Though the role of food packaging changes from a mere food protector, to marketer, self-seller to a symbol of fashion, its life is over the moment its contents are consumed (unless the package is a stable form of glass or metal, which can be reused by the consumer before discarding). Food packaging substantially contributes to solid waste in both developed and developing countries. However, the situation developing in Asia is more complex, as the consumers do not segregate waste before disposal. Valuable resources that could have been retrieved from packaging and reused after recycling are lost in the huge dumping sites, landfills and incinerators. The provision of municipal waste collection and disposal, which is offered as a free service in the developing countries, makes resource segregation and recycling become unlucrative and unfeasible. This present study explores the current packaging trends in Thailand and India along with the nature of packaging, such as whether the packages are environmentally friendly or not, in the wake of waste pollution problems worldwide. The study also seeks to understand the barriers/promoters in the path of an environmentally friendly food package in the form of the main actors influencing food processing and packaging viz. the producers, the financiers, the consumers, the level of research and development, the voluntary organizations or the non-governmental organizations, and institutional control. It is also endeavored to suggest environmentally friendly options/alternatives in the food packaging industry through recommendations based on the findings and analysis of the said scenario in India and Thailand, as well as taking cognizance of the methods of food packaging evolved by the western countries to attain a sustainable environment simultaneously with economic efficiency.

Keywords/phrases: Food Processing Industry, Food Packaging, Developing Countries

30

Framework for Developing an Urban Environmental Infrastructure Management Plan for Phnom Penh City, Cambodia

Ea Sophy & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract

Urbanization, industrialization, and population growth in Phnom Penh bring both promises of high levels of prosperity and new problems in managing human settlements. Among the most important concerns is the urban environmental infrastructure, such as water supply, drainage and sewerage, the demand for which has increased recently. It is widely known that sustainable development could be achieved at the local level with its own programs or projects and plans of action. Therefore, unless innovative approaches for urban environmental infrastructure management plans are put in place, the problems will continue to occur and eventually, sustainable urban development cannot be achieved. Planning is the keystone of urban environmental management and it determines how to achieve the future goals and the success of the programs. However, there is no urban environmental management plan for the capital at the present. What are the required integrated key elements to formulate the management plan? The present study identifies the most important integrated elements to establish a model for developing the urban environmental infrastructure management plan, particularly water supply, drainage and sewerage, and defines the actors involved in the planning and implementation process. The model reveals the strategies to deal with the bottom up planning approach and the examples of a systematic strategic planning process including the outset step, problem identification, through the implementation of the project. With the lack of urban environmental management, this study aims at establishing the prototype or framework, which allows participation of local community people and other stakeholders for formulating the urban environmental infrastructure management plan, which is actor-oriented. Keywords/phrases: Urbanization, Industrialization, Urban Environmental Infrastructure

31

Integrative BOD Model for Municipal Wastewater Control to Maintain Water Quality in the West Lake of Hanoi City

Nguyen Duc Toan & Nguyen L. Bach

Abstract West Lake is located within Hanoi City, the capital of Vietnam. However, water quality in the lake has been polluted by β-mezosaprobe. The major cause for this problem is identified as the direct discharge of wastewater into the lake. The construction of a BOD model is required to serve as a tool for water environmental management. The model should incorporate both exogenous and endogenous factors to reflect the effects of climate, waste load, and biological processes in the lake’s water body over time, especially for a long-term perspective. A relevant BOD model has been developed based on a mass balance equation of BOD, phytoplankton and phosphorus, and calibrated based on the available data. The model’s emphasis is placed on the relationships between water quality in the lake and BOD content in the wastewater to assess the water quality change in terms of seasons and time scales. The model’s simulation indicates that water quality of the lake, with the city’s master plan, will be rapidly degraded in the years to come and reach a level much lower than the water quality standard. Extensive experiments with the model reveal different effects on the water quality of different levels of BOD input reduction. If an acceptable long-term water quality is to be achieved, substantial wastewater pre-treatment at sources (to reduce up to 40% BOD input) is required along with a central treatment plant afterward. The required technical and administrative aspects of a wastewater pollution control framework have been discussed for possible implementation by taking into account economic efficiency, suitability criteria, as well as socio-economic conditions. Thus, the study aims at identifying the close relationship between the water quality management and wastewater control by subsuming the cause and effect factors that have been widely recognized, so that water quality can be maintained by controlling discharged wastewater. Keywords/phrases: Water Pollution Control, BOD Model, Water Quality Management

32

Market Potential for Compost Industry in Hyderabad, India: Necessary Strategies for Public and Private Cooperation

Raakhee S. Kulkarni & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract The solid waste generated in urban areas has been increasing at alarming rates in the last few years. The major portion of such waste is organic waste. Resources are present in these wastes and if tapped properly, they can be utilized properly, such as converting organic manure into fertilizer. However, the practice of the local bodies is to lift the waste and dump it into the dumping grounds. The present study aims at finding out the market potential for compost made from urban organic waste in the city of Hyderabad, India. It also looks into the efforts that could be undertaken by the local body, private sector, and NGOs to produce compost and market it. For this reason, Bangalore is selected for such a purpose. The lessons drawn from the successful implementation of the composting initiatives in Bangalore are incorporated in the proposed strategy and recommendations for the initiatives that need to be taken in Hyderabad. The recommendation for this study is a strategy with the help of various stakeholders and their insertion into specific steps of the composting processes. For this reason, stakeholder analysis is done initially to understand the role of stakeholders and their contributions in the composting activity. An action line is proposed to help find a niche for the urban organic waste derived compost in Hyderabad. Keywords/phrases: Solid Waste, Fertilizer, Compost

33

Mitigating NIMBY (not in my backyard) Syndrome as Barriers to Landfill Siting: A Case Study of Economic and Regulatory Measures for

Gokarna Landfill Site, Kathmandu, Nepal

Neera Shrestha Pradhan & Walter Jamieson

Abstract

The most serious problem in acquiring a landfill site is gaining the acceptance and support of the affected residents. People are aware of the fact that at the end of a production and use-cycle of solid waste, a certain amount of material will remain, which must be disposed of. However, no one wants a landfill site within his or her locality. Therefore, NIMBY can be described as an on-going process that is related to the opposition of the affected people against the location of a landfill site within their vicinity. To mitigate the problem of NIMBY opposition, this study analyzes the effectiveness of economic and regulatory measures adopted by SWMRMC/KMC at Gokarna landfill site. It also examines the effectiveness of public involvement in planning and decision making for waste disposal. From the experience gained by the Gokarna landfill site, effective economic and regulatory measures are recommended to locate a landfill site in the future with minimum opposition from local residents. The research is conducted in various steps. The primary data collected during the field visit is on measures taken to mitigate NIMBY opposition. The secondary data are also collected and analyzed on the broader perspective of landfill site and the state of solid waste disposal in Greater Kathmandu. The study on the Gokarna landfill site finds that the opposition started when the local people realized that they are not involved when their locality is selected for such a purpose. It is also found that involving the local people in the planning and decision-making process for a landfill site may not always minimize the problem - rather it would help to find out the particular problems that the local people are facing at site. Frequent opposition from the local people occurs because SWMRMC/KMC is unable to provide the total amount of money as per the agreement made for village development works. Moreover, the money provided to Mulpani VDC is spent more on other villages than those that are directly affected by the landfill site. The lack of proper rules and regulations and lack of adequate funds from KMC are the other reasons for the opposition. It is recommended that the local people should be involved during the site selection of the landfill site. To minimize the problem of the affected people (in terms of land and the environment), KMC might consider different alternative measures like purchasing the land, resettlement of the affected residents, acquisition of the land or providing compensation by analyzing the situation and the requirements of the local people. Providing buffer zones is one of the effective measures for mitigating the opposition. Policies are recommended to implement the rules and regulations for the buffer zone in an efficient way in Nepal. Moreover, to compensate the affected people for utilizing their land/vicinity for the purpose of the landfill site as well as to recover some portion of the project cost, collection of a waste disposal charge as a measure of financial cost recovery system is recommended. Keywords/phrases: Landfill, Solid Waste, Public Participation

34

Public Awareness on Environmental Issues in Urban Management in Pakse City, Lao PDR: A Case Study of Solid Waste Management of

the "Secondary Towns Integrated Urban Development Project"

Bounnao Fongkhamdeng & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract Lao PDR on its advent to urbanization is focusing on developing infrastructure with little heed to environmental protection. This is evident and visible by various environmental problems that prevail today. In recent times, among all the environmental problems, solid waste has claimed the most concern, as it is seen to magnify with population growth, urbanization, modernization, and changing consumption pattern with introduction of non-biodegradable packaging. If adequate service can be provided to take care of the disposed waste, the problem can be expected to lessen with participation from the public. Basically, building public awareness on environmental issues is essential in the long run, as lack of environmental awareness in society will lead to irresponsibility amongst the people that cause environmental damages. The aim of this study is to assess the level of public awareness on solid waste management in Pakse City. It is designed to learn to what extent the residents are aware of solid waste management as their problem as well as the government’s problem, the present practice of disposing waste, and the prospects of waste recovery and reuse. This study recommends some issues that if integrated in the solid waste management policy would enhance its service delivery with public participation. To make people change their habits regarding waste disposal habits, it is suggested to educate people via information sharing, community meetings, and adhering to developed guidelines. Keywords/phrases: Urban Development, Solid Waste Management, Public Awareness

35

Revitalization of Kankeswar Heritage Site through Local Urban Environmental Management Action Plan for Bishnumati Corridor of Kathmandu, Nepal

Sheetu Shakya & Walter Jamieson

Abstract Temples and ghats situated along the Bishnumati corridor hold cultural and religious heritage significance for residents in Kathmandu City. The visual and aesthetic quality of heritage sites is constantly deteriorating, depriving the future generations their right to be a part of their traditional function. Various micro-level urban environmental problems, such as solid waste disposal, slaughter operations, open toilets and problems created by squatter residents, threatens the traditional values of the corridor. To find out the degree of urban environmental problems faced by the heritage sites, reconnaissance surveys, socio-economic surveys, and environmental assessment tours and group discussions are conducted. The implication of legislation and the role of various agencies and institutions are also analyzed. Expert opinion surveys are carried out with respect to revitalizing the heritage sites through Local Urban Environmental Management Action Planning (LUEMAP). Community meetings are organized to analyze the interest of the community to be involved in such an action planning. A SWOT analysis is also conducted to propose a LUEMAP for revitalizing heritage sites along the eastern Bishnumati Corridor. Altogether the four significant heritage sites, such as Teku Dhovan, Kankeswar, Indrayani, and Ram Ghat, are located along the study area. Not all of these heritage sites face all four urban environmental problems at the same degree. The correlation of the number of lower caste Newars residing in the periphery of the heritage sites and the greater number of urban environmental problems is an interesting one identified during this study. Among the various urban environmental management efforts of Municipal Infrastructure Improvement Project (MIIP), those that require technical labor and hired labor are successful in achieving the targeted goals. However, UEM actions of MIIP requiring local participation at planning, implementing and monitoring stages are not able to reach the goals. To revitalize cultural heritage sites along the eastern Bishnumati corridor and save them from further deterioration, this study proposes a LUEMAP for Kankeswar and similar heritage complexes. The LUEMAP is based on the community building spirit of the local people whose active participation in planning and implementation of the various projects is envisaged to solve the urban environmental problems. The speedy implementation of the LUEMAP is highly recommended. Once the project attains success, the plan will be replicated in the different heritage sites along both sides of the Bishnumati corridor and other similar sites. This action plan seeks to revitalize both the cultural and religious value of the heritage sites and maintain their visual and aesthetic quality. This may ensure that the future generations are not deprived of their rights to the traditional functions connected with the heritage sites. Keywords/phrases: Urban Environmental Management, Heritage Sites, Public Participation

36

Strengthening Recycling by Promoting Waste Separation at Source: A Case Study of Phnom Penh Households and the Informal Sector

Lay Chanthy & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract

In Phnom Penh, the rapid urbanizing process and flow of migration from rural areas have caused rapid population growth, which in turn, has been contributing to the increase of a host of urban environmental problems. The quality of environment is a matter of growing concern due to solid wastes. The present state of waste collection, transportation, and disposal is not at all satisfactory. It may even turn from bad to worse unless steps are undertaken to reduce waste generation. From this point of view, this study investigates the role of households (HH) and the informal sector (IS) to reduce waste. While solid waste management is benefited from the informal inputs from waste pickers, Hetchai buyers, junk dealers or refuse collectors, as their key contribution lies in reducing wastes and their separation at source. Their presence is a direct incentive to the household to separate recyclable wastes before dumping them to the primary collection point. Indeed, these informal sector groups make up a complex network of collecting, sorting, trading and distributing the recyclable items to the recyclers and manufacturers for further processing as recyclable products. Materials recovered from waste include paper, cardboard, plastic, tin can, metal items, etc. These become raw materials for producing new products through the intermediary role of the buyers (junk depots and wholesalers). Domestic waste generated by households, about 85% of total wastes, is the main source of solid wastes in Phnom Penh. With respect to this problem, this study focuses on the HH and the IS groups engaged in waste recovery and recycling. Specifically, this study aims at exploring the scope of strengthening the role of HH and the IS for improving solid waste management through promoting waste separation and recycling to alleviate the burden of solid management problem and help mitigate the environmental degradation in Phnom Penh. The prevailing waste management process and disposal practices call for improvement, as the study detects several weaknesses in this system. The household respondents have made various suggestions for improving present waste collection and transportation system. Before disposal, households separate recyclable materials to sell, for reuse and feeding animals. The large proportion of households will appreciate waste separation and recycling program if it becomes a subject of concern to the government and municipality. The program requires promoting awareness and education of households and raising their incomes, if possible. With this in view, this study makes policy-planning recommendations for long-term effectiveness of waste separation and recycling. These recommendations are outlined for actions and interventions by various levels of the government (from national to the local) and community (households and the informal sector). National government can take a leading role as a facilitator to improve the overall atmosphere of waste separation and recycling. Local government, NGOs and private sector can play other roles to organize the separation and recycling activities at the grassroots level. For example, local government should provide separate containers for waste disposal by HH at the primary collection points, while NGOs can raise awareness of the people by launching campaigns, and the private sector can start composting plant to make good use of the organic wastes, which currently account for 87% of waste in Phnom Penh. Keywords/phrases: Waste Separation, Informal Sector, Urbanization

37

Study on Cost-Recovery Options and Needs Assessment of Household Water Supply: A Case Study of Paksane Town, Borikhamsai Province, Lao PDR

Sisamone Kongmany & A.Sathasivan

Abstract

As a rural country, Lao PDR needs a lot of infrastructure developments. Given the low socio-economic status of the people and their per capita income levels (US$ 400), the government initiates several infrastructure projects with loans from international agencies, such as Asian Development Bank (ADB). One of the projects supported by ADB is the construction of an urban water supply in Paksane, a tertiary town, the capital of Borikhamsai. At the present, only 58 percent of the 10,000 population is covered by a current supply of 600 cum/day (18 percent of the constructed capacity). The expectation of the government, however, is to recover the cost, while providing essential services. It is now almost half a year from the time the water supply started functioning. The debt keeps on increasing since then. An inflation rate of 100 percent and remarkable currency (Kip) depreciation have further complicated the issue of cost recovery. Hence, the research focuses on how the cost can be recovered, while meeting the needs of people. Questionnaires are distributed to 80 families (50 families have tap connections and relevant information is gathered from Borikhamsai provincial water authority and hospital.

To assess the needs, the following aspects considered in this research are the quality of the operation and maintenance, (such as breakdown, low pressure, and delay in repair), the coverage, availability of alternative resources, quantity of water, and water related diseases. The results of survey suggest that most people (80 percent of the tap connected) have alternative resources (well (most popular) and river (due to the settlement along the river)) and only few are solely relying on tap water. Generally, all of them are very happy with operation and maintenance. Water authority agrees that there are people who have water supply network reaching their home, but do not get the service. The quality of the tap water is perceived to be good, except taste. However, no one drinks the tap water directly and all boil before consuming. The analytical results of the tap water quality (collected from a household in Paksane) indicates most of the parameters conform to the WHO standard, except the total colony of 600 cfu/ml and zinc of 1.9 ppm. Incidents of diseases caused by drinking tap water are reported to be low. It may be attributed to the habit of boiling water, given higher total colony level than standard of 100 cfu/ml.

The results of the household survey and interview suggest that there is willingness to pay more for water and participate in improving the water supply system. The income levels of people are also reported to be increased due to inflation and currency depreciation. With the current domestic water tariff structure (less than 5cum-600 Kips/m/wml, 6-20m3-200Kips/m3, 21-50m3-250Kips/m3 and more than 50m3-300Kips /m3), except 30% of the population who have only tap the only source, while 40-54% of the people who have access to well and river, respectively, use more than the nominal requirement of 120 l/c/d. According to the nominal requirement of 120l/cd, the requirement for household having 10 family members would be only 36m3/month. Hence, bringing down the cut-off limit of 50m3 to 35m3 would be advisable with the current tariff structure block pricing (cut-off limits of 0, 5, 20, and 50). Most of the customers are found using the water more than the nominal requirement of 120 l/c/d. Keywords/phrases: Needs Assessment, Water Supply, Water Tariff

38

A Study to Explore Application of Regulatory and Economic Instruments in Solid Waste Management in Hanoi City

Tran Thi Kim Dung & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Solid waste has become a serious management problem in Hanoi due to growing population and increasing economic activities. Shortage of and limited access to basic waste management infrastructure and services are major barriers to effective management of solid wastes in the city. The existing system of providing solid waste services by the municipality at a very low charge and poor management has aggravated the problem. More than 40 percent of the generated solid waste remains uncollected and is disposed haphazardly. As a result, solid waste is a major contributor in accelerating the deterioration of the environment, thus degrading the quality of life of the city residents.

This study reviews the solid waste management (SWM) in Hanoi for exploring the scope of greater application of regulatory and economic instruments – the basic tools for environmental protection – for improving solid waste management.

The study findings show that Hanoi People’s Committee (HPC) and Hanoi Urban Environmental Company (URENCO) are inadequate to provide comprehensive SWM services. Residents often discharge waste on the sides of roads and streets. HPC and URENCO are not able to deal with the solid waste problems due to poor organizational structure, shortage of technical and trained labor, lack of people’s awareness, inadequate community participation, and limitation of resources and facilities. The legal and regulatory framework is incomplete. Simultaneously, it reflects overlapping responsibilities and inconsistencies.

This study shows that the application of regulatory and economic instruments is currently very limited to the SWM sector in Hanoi. The results of the household survey and interviews suggest that there is willingness to pay for an improved service but the government and local authorities have not fully exploited this opportunity. The findings of this study reveal that inadequate service charge, inappropriate pricing system, and overall mismanagement have widened the gap between the service required and the service offered. Thus, there is no comprehensive and specific legislation that covers solid waste management from its collection to disposal. The existing acts do not contain even reference to standards, solid waste plans, subsidies or incentives for promoting environmentally sound waste related behavior and practices.

The study recommends guidelines for the application of the regulatory and economic instruments in SWM to provide incentives, applying standards in different stages of SWM, as well as collection and disposal charges to raise revenue, strengthening a deposit refund system, and preparing a SWM plan. Keywords/phrases: Solid Waste Management, Regulatory Instruments, Environmental Protection

39

System Dynamics Approach for Municipal Solid Waste Management: A Case Study of Nam Dinh City, Vietnam

Duong Hieu Minh & Nguyen L.Bach

Abstract

Municipal solid waste management becomes an important concern in Vietnam, especially in the primary cities where the volume of waste generation always overloads the capacity of solid waste management systems. Nevertheless, it is not considered adequately in the secondary cities where the problems of solid waste are not on the waste volume, but on collection and illegal dumping. Nam Dinh is a secondary city of Vietnam. The problem of municipal solid waste management in the city arises from budget shortage, uncollected waste, and illegal dumping of waste. In this study, the budget allocation for municipal solid waste management is investigated through a system dynamics model in a case study of Nam Dinh. Extensive simulation experiments related to fund allocation mechanisms are conducted to identify effective policy measures to deal with the uncollected waste and illegal dumping practices. Financial aid from the municipality, collection fees, public participation, composting and recycling are budget related. Processing policies are explored to reduce uncollected waste and illegal dumping waste in the city within the budget allocation for municipal solid waste management. A good policy package is a combination of a moderate increase in financial aid for the municipality and collection fees charged for solid waste generation. With this Nam Dinh Urban Environmental Company (URENCO[ND]) could have adequate funds to extend the waste collection coverage to 80% of total waste generation that is expected to reduce the uncollected waste accumulative in the environment. These recommendations, if adopted by the municipality, will be more efficient and effective for the municipal solid waste management system. In addition, Nam Dinh municipality should encourage public participation in reducing waste generation. Similarly, a better allocation of funds for the application of composting and recycling policy can reduce uncollected waste accumulation resulting in lesser waste volume to be collected and disposed in the landfill.

Policy recommendations which will enable the authorities to manage a municipal solid waste system are also proposed. Further research is recommended to modify and improve the model for both deeper and wider application. Keywords/phrases: Solid Waste Management, Public Participation, Waste Generation

40

System Dynamics Approach to Environmental Planning and Management of

Solid Waste: A Case Study of Yangon, Myanmar

May Thin Zar Han & Nguyen L. Bach

Abstract The rapid growth in population and intensive land-use for residential, commercial and industrial activities has led to many urban environmental problems. These problems are related to the provision of basic infrastructure and services, pollution from wastes and emissions, and loss or destruction of natural and cultural resources. Solid waste, in particular, becomes one of the most serious problems in Yangon, the capital of Myanmar. Insufficient solid waste management is increasingly emerging as a significant cause of urban environmental degradation, such as water, land and air pollution, which leads to negative effects on human health and the quality of life. In Yangon, the main disposal practice is an open dumping system, which is not environmentally sound. In the long term, all these factors will affect sustainable urban development. The immediate challenge for the decision-makers and planners is to improve the solid waste management system.

This study focuses on the system dynamics approach, which is employed to study the solid waste problems of the city. The research also emphasizes the long-term planning of solid waste management facilities with an analysis of solid waste capacity and management systems over 20 years time scale until 2020. System dynamics modeling offers an attractive tool for policy evaluation. Various policies have been experimented with the model to assess their impacts on the overall system performance. According to simulation experiments, different policies have different impacts to implement at different stages. Generally, the promotion of recycling, composting, public participation, and raising funds, is the most appropriate policy for the long term environ-mental planning and management of solid waste in Yangon. The implementing sequence of each of these policies from the short to the long term can be specified based on financial feasibility criteria. Sanitary landfill development will be environmentally sound policy, especially for the longer run, but it can be materialized only when the financial criteria are allowed. Future research with the model within and beyond its current limits may facilitate the development of new knowledge of system dynamics and its better application for integrated solid waste management. Keywords/phrases: Solid Waste Management, Sanitary Landfill

41

Urban Transport and the Environment: Integrating the Financial Sector into Urban Environmental Management through Lending Practice

Al-Azad Md. Iqbal & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract In the absence of an effective transport service for the public, the urban transport system of Dhaka is dependent on private enterprises. Financial constraints and lack of investment in urban transport makes the city a dumpsite for the obsolete vehicles, the main contributor of air pollution of Dhaka. In this context, there is a need to provide financial services to the transport sector. Commercial banks are the main actors in mobilizing financial resources. Their decisions and involvement will have great impact on the development of any economic activity, such as the transport business. The possibility of incorporating environ-mental considerations in the decision-making of financial actors, gives the opportunity to use the financial resources as a tool to change the behavior and decision-making of the polluting enterprises. In this study, questionnaire surveys are conducted among the bankers and transport providers to find out the present state of environmental considerations for their decision-making process to achieve better environmental performance in transport sector. To gather primary information and opinion of key informants, interviews and discussions are conducted. The statistical analysis is based on primary quantitative as well as qualitative data. For quantitative analysis, cross tabulation, co-relations, directional measurement (lambda, gamma), and indexing are done, while for the qualitative analysis, stakeholder analysis, trend analysis and situation analysis are carried out based on the interviews. The results of the study reveal that both financial actors and transport providers are aware of their potentiality to improve the environmental performance of urban transport. However, the capacity to deal with the weakness of transport sector, such as high risk, possible defaulters of repayment, and unfavorable reputation has restricted the involvement of the financial sector. Although there is willingness in both sectors, capacity to meet each other’s requirements is the main obstacle to reach the goal. Thus, indicating the need of capacity building to deal with the environmental consideration in both sectors. It is also found that there is a need for regulatory interventions to direct and support the financials sector for promoting environmental awareness. On the other hand, in the transport sector, economic incentives have greater potentiality to improve their environmental performance. However, it requires policy changes from present “end of the pipe regulation” to use of “economic incentives”. Keywords/phrases: Transport System, Regulatory Interventions, Transport Providers

42

2000

43

Assessment of Regulatory and Economic Measures in the Management of Hanoi’s Sewerage System

Tran Thi Hien Hanh & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract

The rapid growth of population and urban industrial activities in Hanoi has been generating serious management problems in the city’s sewerage and drainage system (for brevity henceforth referred as sewerage system). Regulatory and economic measures are the basic tools for managing the sewerage system, similar to any other environmental management task. The environmental education (moral suasion) is also important for supporting the key management measures. With the above in view, this study investigates the scope of greater and effective application of these three sets of management measures; such as regulatory, economic, and suasive to improve Hanoi’s sewerage system. The results of this investigation are summarized below.

Due to economic constraints and poor environmental management, most industrial and domestic wastewater in Hanoi has long been directly discharged into the sewerage system without treatment. The amount of wastewater currently discharged into this system is about 300,000 m3/day. In this study, the review of the management measures of sewerage system in Hanoi is conducted by collecting information from primary and secondary sources. Although the elements of all three major sets of management measures are found to exist, their application by the managing authorities is still insufficient. The regulatory measures are based on the Command and Control (CAC) principle. The National Law on Environmental Protection (Articles 15 and 26) and the Law on Water Resource are the two key sources of such regulatory measures. The regulations for management and protection of Hanoi’s sewerage and drainage system, including the provision of penalties for violation of sewerage system regulations, are pursuant to the decision 6032/QD-UB. The latter is the basic source of major regulatory measures to manage the sewerage system of this city. In addition, the Vietnam Water Standards, passed by MOSTE (1995), plays major roles in the sewerage system management.

Economic measures, based on the principle of Market Based Incentives (MBIs), need to accompany the regulatory measures. Such measures considered in this study are subsidies, user charges and financial enforcement incentives. The study uses eight evaluating criteria (clarity, practicability and efficiency, incentives for improvement, fairness, cost-effectiveness, enforceability, concordance with institutional framework, and moral consideration) to assess the management measures that are now being applied in the sewerage system management in Hanoi. This assessment shows that the currently prevailing legal and regulatory framework is incomplete with overlapping institutional responsibilities and that they bear signs of inconsistencies with related regulations and laws. For example, floodwater and wastewater from the Hanoi area (management task of HSDC) is discharged into the Red River and Nhue River (the latter is managed by MOARD). The data obtained from questionnaire survey also confirm that the regulations on the sewerage system and environmental laws are too general, and are difficult to implement.

The findings of the study show that fragmentations of responsibilities among agencies lead to inefficient regulations. The sewerage system includes 210 km sewers, whereas, HSDC manages 140 km. More than 60 km is thus left for maintenance by local authorities. Violations of regulations occur due to the lack of enforceable policy.

The revenue from water supply charge and the surcharge on sewerage system do not adequately reflect supply and operation costs. The system is not cost-effective, as the punishment levels are set too low to be effective to potential polluters. The other set of measures that need to accompany the regulatory and economic measures are suasive measures. The findings on the state of applying these measures are as follows: some environmental education and awareness raising (EEAR) programs are in place. However, these programs are fragmented and lack continuity. Weak

The recommendations for improvement of sewerage management measures include: clarifying the standards system and regulations; specifying each agency’s (such as MOARD, and HSDC) responsibilities; strengthening the enforcement of regulations on sewerage systems; monitoring programs to reduce overlapping tasks in the sewerage system management; and increasing practicability of the management measures and efficiency in their implementation. The economic measures should be reviewed for setting charges and fines at appropriate levels, and for reducing subsidies to achieve cost-effectiveness. The EEAR programs should be promoted through integrated coordinations among MOSTE, DOSTE, HSDC to ensure continuation of training programs and environmental awareness campaign. HSDC should strive to increase the level of funding in their annual operating budget for human resource development to improve skills of professionals, managers and equipment operators. Keywords/phrases: Sewerage System, Cost-Effectiveness, Economic Measures

44

Emergence of the Informal Sector in Waste Recycling in Chinese Cities: A Case Study of Wuhan City

Zhao Tao & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract

China is the only Asian country that did not have informal recycling activities before the 1980s. However, due to social and economic transitions in China since the 1980s, a substantial informal sector in waste recycling has emerged in Chinese cities. The informal sector labor groups, such as itinerant buyers and waste pickers, play vital roles in waste recovery. Although the concept of “informal sector” and its role in waste recycling have spread throughout developing countries, research on the informal sector’s involvement in waste recycling in Chinese cities is very limited. Thus, this study aims at (1) analyzing the emergence of the informal sector involved in waste recycling in Chinese cities, and (2) investigating the scope of effective utilization of the informal sector labor for promoting waste recycling and thereby, contributing to solid waste management. Data of this study are collected through a field survey in Wuhan City – the largest city in central China.

The results of this study suggest that the emergence of informal activities can be traced to the following transitions of China’s economy and society since the 1980s: (1) transition of rural production management mode (from people’s communes to household responsibility production) and rural-urban migration control policy (from a strict control to a loose control), which granted freedom to farmers to migrate from poor rural areas to cities; (2) transition of economic policy (from ignoring profit to pursuing profit), which has gradually demolished the unique waste purchasing system since the 1950s and thereby, fueling the emergence of a substantial informal sector in waste recycling; and (3) changes in life style in urban areas (from basic needs meeting to modern consumption), which has resulted not only in the increase of the quantum of reclaimable materials, but also the decrease of household participation in waste recycling due to decreased economic incentives. The interactions among the above factors led to a quick expansion of the informal sector in waste recycling in Chinese cities since the 1980s. The field work and questionnaire survey are carried out to explore the working and living environment of the informal sector labor groups involved in waste recycling in Wuhan. The results of the study reveal that the realities are grim: low income, low social status, health risks, heavy work, and dilapidated housing. The informal sector labor groups considerably contribute to waste management by retrieving resources from the wastes; thereby, reducing the waste volume to be ultimately disposed of. However, people engaged in such recycling activities are nuisances in the eyes of the city managers and the public. The significance and potentials of the informal sector in waste recovery are neither fully recognized nor appreciated.

To improve this situation, this study proposes a two-pronged policy recommendation. In one the target is to effectively utilize the informal sector labor in waste recycling in Chinese cities; in the other, the goal is to improve the working and living environment of the people involved. To succeed, this strategy requires policy makers and executives to fully recognize the importance of the role of informal recycling activities and facilitate conducting these activities. They need to recognize that they would go seriously wrong in their plans for solid waste management if they ignore these informal recycling activities that have been taking place in Chinese cities. Keywords/phrases: Informal Sector, Waste Recycling, Solid Waste Management

45

Formal and Informal Sector Linkages in Waste Recycling: A Case Study of Household Solid Waste Management of

Dong Da District in Hanoi, Vietnam

Nguyen Tuan Long & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract For years, recycling has been evolving in Hanoi as a network of occupations and relationships within open and competitive markets. It has developed as a response to fluctuating demand for materials, to seasonal and periodically high needs for cash income, as well as to the pressures of urban re-development. Recently, environmental awareness campaign has also contributed to the growth of recycles. However, recycling primarily serves as a means for flexible income earning opportunities, by supplying producers with a low-cost source of materials and the city with an almost no-cost means of reducing the amount of refuse requiring disposal. In Dong Da district, there are two systems in waste recycling: formal and informal. The systems managed by URENCO involving waste collection and disposal can be called the formal system. The other – the informal – is made up of a host of labor and enterprise groups, who make a living by tuning waste as a resource. In all this process, the households play roles as both waste generator and source of waste, the focus of this study. This study investigates the level of awareness towards recyclables among households and explores the process of the collectors (formal: collection crew and informal: junk buyers, street ragpickers and dumping site ragpickers) for passing the recovered wastes to the recycling shops (both formal and informal) and to the intermediaries, such as wholesalers (formal). The latter then supply the recovered materials to the manufacturing units located in the suburban of Hanoi, which use the recycled items as raw materials to reduce operational costs. The materials processed include paper, plastics, glass, iron, and aluminum. The extent and strength of this whole process depend on the demand of these final products. It is found that: (1) the role of junk buyers provides a strong incentive to households to separate their waste and save it for selling and recycling, (2) the presence of the street ragpickers and dumping site ragpickers provides a further incentive for retrieving waste from the primary collection points as well as the final disposal sites, (3) the business of the recycling shops facilitates a convenient selling of scrap materials by the waste collectors, and (4) the business of wholesalers smoothes the supply of the recovered materials to be used as raw materials by the manufacturers for producing new products. Waste recycling will succeed if it has the cooperation of all involved, such as government, municipality, NGOs or private sector, and communities, in the society. Some recommendations are made for improving waste recycling by supporting the formal and informal linkage in the existing waste recycling of Dong Da district. A set of public action measures is also included for reducing the health hazard to the poor informal labor groups engaged in turning wastes into resource. Keywords/phrases: Solid Waste Management, Waste Recycling, Informal Sector

46

Identification of Strategies for Organic Waste Separation to Achieve Better Compost: The Case of Da Nang City, Vietnam

Nguyen Hoang Nam & Arumugam Sathasivan

Abstract As the daily amount of waste generated in developing countries increases, severe problems to human health and environment will be inevitable, if the waste is not collected, disposed, and treated in a suitable way. In developing countries, organic waste counts a higher percentage of total waste, ranging between 40-90%. Thus, the major portion that causes environmental problems is organic waste. However, organic waste can become a recoverable material if it is separated at source, collected, and processed into compost, a good fertilizer for farming. Demand for compost will be high if compost produced is of high quality and is of reasonable price. Thus, the key issue for compost lies on the organic waste separation at households, as the biggest source of organic waste is from households. However, waste separation is also a challenge in many municipalities due to the lack of financial and human resource capabilities, suggesting the need to study and identify an integrated strategy, including financial, management, organizational, and legal aspects. In Danang (Vietnam), the daily amount of municipal solid waste produced is 110 tons, where 40 percent is not collected by Urban Environmental Company (URENCO). Organic fraction is about 76 percent. Thus, Danang faces the same problems caused by organic waste like other cities in developing countries. A case study may give a representative solution for developing countries to overcome those problems. However, how to encourage households to separate waste at source? Who can be mobilized? How can the informal sector, which is abundant and mostly participate in waste management, participate and what is URENCO's responsibility? These are the questions leading to this study. Hai Chau, one of the districts in Danang city, which represents the socio-economic status of the city, is selected for survey. Data collection through standard questionnaire, open interview, and discussion, as well as data analysis is done. The findings show that a high percentage of organic waste in composition; low waste separation at source; people’s low knowledge on organic waste; women and children’s major role in waste handling; and financial incentives, can drive household separation. Waste separation at source for compost programs can be successful if there is good cooperation of the local government to establish an integrated approach. It includes various factors identified, such as financial measures for encouraging households separating waste, organization for convenience and capability in waste management, bins for facilitating waste storage at households, informal sector participation for high productivity and low- cost collection service, farmer's participation for increasing demand for compost, and campaign and education programs for raising public awareness. Keywords/phrases: Waste Separation, Compost, Organic Waste

47

Improving Public Bus Service for a Better Urban Environment: A Case Study in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Doa Dieu Trang & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract Recently, the number of motor vehicles, especially motorcycle and traffic volume in Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam) has been increasing dramatically. The growth of private transport models leads to daily traffic congestion, commuter frustration, increasing costs in time and money, and most importantly, deteriorating air quality that may affect public health. Public transport could contribute to a better environment and thereby, to better public health. An efficient public transport system plays major roles to contribute to sustainable development of a country. This study deals with analysis public transport policies, the actors that manage and operate the system, and it also deals with the service quality of buses to the public. In addition, the study also analyzes the City’s resident opinions about the public bus service quality (passengers and non-passengers). The public transport system is not very effective, as it does not have a priority list of many public actors. Many procedures, such as licensing and operating, are slow and complicated due to organizational complexity and overlaps. Some policies are not clear or have gaps in such urban construction and transports. Women office workers and civil servants use buses. Passengers are somewhat satisfied with the service of air-conditioned buses, while non air-conditioned buses need dramatic improvements. The fares of public transport are too high (compared to their salaries); low-income people cannot use it. Routes and the distribution of bus stops should be improved as well as the vehicle fleet. Routes and bus stops should be reviewed, as passengers have to walk quite a distance to the bus stop. Public transport clearly has socio-economic benefits that contribute to a better environment and thus, to better health. However, improvements in public transport are necessary to increase these benefits. Reforms in different policies are proposed, as the service quality is put forward. To introduce such changes, training in management approaches (performance orientation and how to introduce change in organizations) is necessary. The public should be informed of the changes only when they take place, so that they experience the change and remain or become passengers of public transport. With the better service provided, they are expected to shift from private transport modes, such as motorcycles and cars to public bus service. Keywords/phrases: Urban Environment, Public Transportation, Sustainable Development

48

Local Environmental Management for Improving Quality of Life: A Comparative Analysis of Service Delivery to Two Urban Poor Communities

in Chittagong City, Bangladesh

Lutfun Nahar Begum & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Chittagong, the second largest city of Bangladesh, has been facing an overwhelming problem of population growth and experiencing a tremendous surge in urbanization. Growing population, coupled with meager resources, increasingly stresses the urban utilities and services, making the urban environment worse. Many studies have concluded that the acute deprivations of urban poor in terms of access to basic needs and services, at least in part, is due to the long-prevailing centralized institutional approach to service delivery that hardly allows reaching the poor. Consequently, during the past decade, there has been a growing realization that local level actions and management are essential to improve the quality of life of the urban poor living in low-income settlements. Indeed, this realization has brought in existence programs and projects like that of the Urban Basic Service Delivery Project (UBSDP) in Bangladesh. As this project has also taken up some settlements in the Chittagong City and this intervention denotes an alternative institutional approach, this study allows undertaking a comparison in service delivery through these two alternative institutional arrangements. Against this backdrop, an underserved community (slum and squatter settlements where low-income people live) in the middle of the city (West Maderbari Railway Slum), which essentially rely on the city authority’s service supply mechanisms, and another settlement (i.e. Rafique'er bastee, Kanchan'er bastee, Member'er bastee, Rabeya bastee and Vandari bastee etc.) in which UBSDP approach has been under implementation since 1997, are selected as the objects of the study. This comparative approach enables a focus on the existing institutional set up for urban service delivery and identifying the constraints involved for improving the quality of life and the living environment of the poor. The study conducts structured questionnaire, informal discussion and observations for collecting data. The findings of the study indicate that an overwhelming majority of the dwellers in the West Maderbari slum live in a squalid environmental condition due to an acute shortage of basic services. It is suggested that the top down (supply-led) institutional approach is not suitable to expand the access of services to the poor. In contrast, a relatively better living and environmental condition is observed in the poor community living in the settlements under UBSDP (which has allowed establishing an Urban Development Centre (UDC) - that plays a major role in providing basic services and extending various social and economic supports). It appears that UDC's presence at a very neighborhood level has allowed the adoption of a bottom-up approach of service delivery that has facilitated access of the poor to the services. The basic advantage arises from a physical presence of municipal service institution right at the doorstep of the people in need. The study is concluded by drawing some recommendations for local level institutional development capable of working with other urban basic service delivering agencies, including the NGOs and CBOs of low-income communities. It also recommends a change in the existing organizational approach of the various services - rendering the authorities (such as water, sanitation, drainage and sewerage) and the city authority (Chittagong City Corporation). The lessons drawn from UBSDP/UDC should be incorporated in the work of these agencies and programs if there is a wide implementation of UBSDP mechanisms of service delivery and UDC in the city. It is expected that any development project/scheme aiming at serving within the financial reach of the poor will be acceptable to them, as a cost recovery will be possible. Such a change also bears the potential of expanding services to the poor and alters the culture of expecting public services without paying for them. Keywords/phrases: Service Delivery, Urban Poor, Basic Urban Service

49

Management of Transportation and Environmental Issues for Sustainable Tourism Development in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Henrika Retno Tyas Arum & Walter Jamieson

Abstract Tourism is a significant service industry. It covers many aspects of city life, including economic, social, cultural, and environment factors. There is the possibility of environ-mental degradation if the local environmental problems in tourism areas reach beyond their capacity. As tourism in Yogyakarta has become a symbol for this city, there is a need to maintain its environmental quality to help a sustainable tourism development. One dimension to consider is transportation. In Yogyakarta, transportation has still not been included as part of a comprehensive plan. This study aims at identifying the role of transportation in sustainable tourism in Yogyakarta and proposes recommendations to maintain the quality of life of the community. The air quality issues in transportation planning along with convenience and health issues are examined. Issues in traffic volume, public health, parking, and tourists' mobility are also discussed. Keywords/phrases: Transport Management, Tourism Development, Service Industry

50

A Proposed Strategic Planning Approach for Sustainable Tourism Development

in Yala Muncipality, Thailand

Leng Bunlong & Walter Jamieson

Abstract This study on the tourism potential in Yala Municipality develops a strategic action plan for sustainable tourism development in the area. The study commences with the examination of the current tourism development situation and assesses the vision of local officials and community residents regarding tourism development in the community. The study uses SWOT analysis to determine the potential and constraints to sustainable tourism development. Tourism development scenarios are generated based upon the outcome of the assessment of the current tourism situation and SWOT analysis. A cost-benefit evaluation approach based on social, cultural, economic and environmental aspects is applied to assess each development scenario. Senior officials and key development decision-makers in the community are consulted on the selection of the most suitable scenario. The selected scenario is then used to propose a strategic planning approach for sustainable tourism development for the area. This study recommends that after the establishment of a tourism development board, tourism-marketing research and detailed cost-benefit analysis of the development is required before proceeding with any tourism development. The recommended approach is an essential step to ensure sustainable tourism planning and development in the area. Keywords/phrases: Tourism Development, Cost-Benefit Analysis, SWOT Analysis

51

Proposed Strategies and Action Plans for Sustainable Tourism Development along the Mekong River Bank in the Vientiane Prefecture, Lao PDR

Souk-Nara Sithimolada & Walter Jamieson

Abstract This study is conducted in response to the current situation of tourism development in Vientiane Prefecture (Lao PDR), where tourism is recognized as one of the major income generators for local people. Many attractive activities related to tourism are conducted in Lao PDR at the local level. The study is designed to identify the impacts of current tourism and to provide recommendations for sustainable tourism development in the country. This study uses primary data, such as site observation, questionnaire survey, and informal discussion with key informants, as the source of information. The objective of this work is to describe the state of tourism in Lao PDR and the potential to develop the study area, to examine and identify the current government operation in tourism development issues, and to gather opinions and suggestions from the local level. The reviews of relevant documents and textbooks provide a clear understanding of the government framework and background knowledge on sustainable tourism. A SWOT analysis is also conducted to understand the actual situation of tourism in the Vientiane Prefecture.

It is found that the absence of environmental concern in a tourism management plan may cause adverse impacts to the environment, tourism expansion, people’s quality of life, and the national economy. The study also emphasizes the importance of having an integrated plan for developing tourism by including local participation in the planning and decision- making process. In this study, an attempt is also made to integrate all relevant issues and their feasibility criteria to provide guidelines for further studies. Keywords/phrases: Tourism Development, SWOT Analysis, Tourism Management

52

Residential Water Demand-Side Management in Nakorn Rayong Municipality, Rayong Province, Thailand

Ornuma Thongniramol & Arumugam Sathasivan

Abstract The rapid growth of cities in developing countries has led an even more rapid growth in the demand for urban water supply. New future water sources are traditionally considered as the alternative way to deal with this growing demand. However, due to the far distances and expensive costs to develop these sources, water-demand side management has emerged as an alternative method to address this demand by focusing on water-saving practices of the customers. There are few studies on Asian cities regarding demand side management. Nakorn Rayong Municipality, one of the fastest growing cities in the eastern part of Thailand and located in Rayong province, is selected as the case. It is now experiencing rapid population growth due to a large number of internal migrations of temporary job seekers, as its location is close to Map Ta Phut industrial estate. This results in fast depletion and degradation of water resources. Moreover, the existing reservoirs are used not only for within the province, but also for the adjacent province. As the major group of customers in the municipality is in residential sector, the survey looks through it as the possible part, which can lead to successful demand side management. The main purpose of the study is to examine the current water consumption and water consciousness of the residential sector and recommend plans for implementing demand side management by looking at problems and lessons learned from a retrofit program implemented by the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority in 1995. Water consumption patterns regarding toilet use and shower are examined, as they contribute to major portion of consumption in residential areas. The results of the study show that age, household size and income characteristics significantly affect the level of water consumption. Moreover, the comparison between water use during weekdays and weekends also presents the crucial differences. Currently environmental awareness campaigns are applied in the municipality, but it is proven that they are not effective enough. Therefore, some more demand side management techniques are proposed including financial incentives, such as rebates for purchasing devices for higher income groups, subsided prices of devices for low-income group and tariff structure based on household size. The improvement will set up that amount of water for basic needs in comparison between with and without devices installed. Lower tariffs are offered to households that install devices, while very high tariffs are charged for households that consume water more than the set limit. This improvement also balances the interest of PWA and households in the sense that PWA can earn more revenue from the excess use, and households have an alternative to install devices with some incentives. Environmental education is strongly recommended to be practiced, as it is the best way of environmental information dissemination. The complete demand side management will result in the postponing of future deficit and less amount of wastewater and also less costs for operation and maintenance of wastewater treatment. Keywords/phrases: Developing Countries, Environmental Awareness, Urban Water Supply and Sanitation

53

Solid Waste Management System with a Focus on Waste Disposal by Landfill:

A Case Study of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Le Thi Hong Tran & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract Rapid urbanization, industrialization and population growth generate many problems related to environmental management in Vietnam, such as air, water, soil, and noise pollution, traffic jams, and solid waste. In particular, municipal solid waste management is facing many problems in Ho Chi Minh in the quantities of waste generation, storage, collection, transportation and transfer to landfill sites, as well as treatment and disposal. Moreover, inappropriate and inefficient disposal of municipal solid waste has become a serious threat to environmental and community health (due to either air pollution or contamination of water sources), bad odors and accident hazards, as well as the creation of insect vectors of disease. Disposal is still done by open dumping in all the landfill sites. The city lacks planning for disposal sites, while waste generation increases daily. Deficiencies in strategies, institutional strength, and disposal safety prevent long-term improvement in terms of environmental protection. This study reviews the present situation of solid waste, identifies, and assesses the problems related to this system by concentrating on landfill disposal and waste management of collection and transportation. The aim of this study is to investigate municipal solid waste management and solve the gap of problems related to collection, transportation, and disposal. It also evaluates current solid waste disposal practices at landfill sites in Ho Chi Minh. Data collection is done through interviews, observation, and survey/questionnaire. Until now, solid waste has been thrown into the holes and open dumping. The existing Dong Thanh and Go Cat landfills are still open dumping and may be fully occupied by the end of year 2001 (HOWADICO). In the present context, municipal solid waste has become one of the urgent problems in the city. This study concentrates on the field survey of residents and scavengers, observation, secondary data, and of discussions and interviewing of 20 staffs, directors of organizations related to municipal solid waste management in the city, such as DTPW, District Enterprises, CITENCO, HOWADICO, private sector, Cong Nong cooperation, Centema, EPC. It also evaluates current solid waste management related to collection, transportation and disposal in the city and recommends new sanitary landfill sites to satisfy the demand of disposal capacity of the city. Further, this study recommends for efficiency in municipal solid waste landfill disposal and treatment of waste by regulatory, economic instruments, raising public awareness, and environmental education of people in the city. Keywords/phrases: Public Awareness, Solid Waste Management, Landfill

54

Towards Developing Strategies for Improving Urban Environmental Management: The Case of Street Food Vending Activities in Yala Municipality, Thailand

Nguyen Thi Bac Thai & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract This research focuses on the food vendors as a typical case of the informal sector in Yala Municipality, Thailand. The food vendors are important, but they pose challenges to urban planning and environmental management. Often this leads to negative attitudes to such economic activities of the poor in the cities of developing countries. This study seeks to contribute to city administrators’ adoption of policies to enable and accommodate food vendors as a part of an urban economy and environment. To this end, a good understanding of food vendors’ personal and their activities’ locational characteristics is essential. This is particularly important, as urban environmental management requires local level actions involving the people and their economic activities. With respect to the above view, this study focuses on investigating the personal, locational and operational characteristics of food vendors and their activities. The study also seeks to contribute to the development of appropriate policies and strategies by the local authorities for environmental management at the local level. In this instance, it is the worksite of food vending. The locational and operational characteristics of the food vendors are investigated to know how the vendors operate their businesses from their vending locations and the accessibility implications of basic services in such locations. The socio-economic status is reviewed to understand who they are and what their attitudes are in improving their worksite. Customers’ characteristics are also studied to know who the typical customers are and what kind of locational policies will ensure avoidance of customer and business loss to the vendors. The central thrust of the study, however, is on the identification of local environmental problems caused by the food vending activities. The results of this study, conducted on food vending activity at Siroros in Yala Municipality, show that solid waste disposal, blockage of sewer flow, space occupation, slowing down traffic flow, and selling of unsanitary food are the key problems. On-pavement shops create more environmental problems than their in-house counterparts do. Based on the exploration of the root causes of these problems, this study proposes three sets of strategies (short term, long term and empowerment strategies) to solve the identified problems. The short-term strategy focuses on clearing blockage of sewer flow, improving solid waste disposal and unsanitary food problems. For long-term strategy, two alternatives are proposed. One alternative is to shift the existing on-pavement vendors into in-house shops and the other one is to relocate them to a new site. An empowerment strategy is also presented and can be applied individually or in parallel with other strategies. The strategy gives rights to the Muslim community to control and monitor the vendors and their environmental issues. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Management, Solid Waste Disposal, Food Vendor

55

Transformation of an Industrial Zone into Eco-Industrial Park in Hanoi, Vietnam: The Case of Sai Dong-B Industrial Zone

Hoang Hai & Arumugam Sathasivan

Abstract Vietnam as well as other developing countries in Asia are now entering a period of rapid industrialization. There are some natural locations for the new principles of sustainable production to take root and evolve. Industrial ecology is a new and innovative strategy for sustainable industry and represented by UNEPIE recently. At the most basic level, it involves designing industrial systems to minimize waste and maximize the cycling of materials and energy. With emphasis on pollution prevention principle, Vietnam environmental policy encourages defining and applying of new appropriate industrial organization that can compete with and ultimately displace old modes. The aim of the study, therefore, is to evaluate the applicability of transforming an existing industrial zone into an Eco-industrial Park (EIP) as a practical implementation of industrial ecology. It focuses on the flows of materials and utilities in industrial activities, the influences of regulatory, institutional and other factors on the flows, use, and transformation of resources. Through surveying in plants, interviewing governmental officials, reviewing literature and analyzing collected data, the study views to both advantage and disadvantage of those factors. It could help to assess new opportunities for the development of Sai Dong Industrial Zone (SDIZ) as well as other industrial zones in Hanoi City. There is also an illustration that using particulate copper as a test recyclable material to suggest enabling solutions in printed-circuit-board facilities. SDIZ offers great opportunities to transfer and use wastes/by-products between electronic and mechanical industries, such as heavy metals, solvents, acids, and metal-working fluids. However, as most of the industries are small and medium-scaled enterprises, not very high volume of valuable materials for transferring, and uncertainty by-products is supplied due to changeability of products. Although the current regulation is trending towards integrating and institutionalizing pollution prevention into the whole regulatory structure of permitting, inspection and enforcement, there are also obstacles to design and execute a program stimulating industrial environmental management, due to insufficient regulatory framework and inconsistent implementation. Hanoi Industrial Zone Management Board (HIZMB) has responsibility to coordinate all aspects of development of new industrial zones, but they do not have specific functions of environmental management. They also lack staff with appropriate skills and experience in environmental management. Compared to other industrial zones, SDIZ’s infrastructure developer, a governmental company, has an advantage for prioritizing industrial categories and organizing environmental activities. To promote industrial ecology through creation of EIPs, the government should support efforts to develop industrial ecology schemes by creating information systems, promoting innovative programs, and providing financial and technical support. Essentially, the industries should improve their in-plant practices by applying industrial ecology tools and priority of reliance on pollution prevention techniques. Keywords/phrases: Eco-Industrial Park, Small and Medium-Scaled Enterprises, Industrial Zone

56

2001

57

Assessment of Impacts of Implementing ISO14001- Environmental Management System for Certified Industries in Thailand

Sradhanjali Mohanty & Walter Jamieson

Abstract There is a continuous increase in the number of ISO14001 voluntary EMS certified industries all over the world. Although the cost of implementing the system is very high, it is increasingly becoming popular among the enterprises to have ISO14001. The government considers that implementation of this standard would improve environmental aspects inside the industries and prevent pollution. Thus, it should be adopted in the country together with the command and control approaches. Hence, it draws attention from urban environmental managers and the policy makers, with respect to its implementation process and the implications on the overall environmental performance of the industries.

This research focuses on the implications of implementing the standard in Thailand in terms of assessing and analyzing: (1) the trends, motives and constraints of industries behind implementing the ISO14001- based voluntary EMS, (2) the implementation practice and implications of implementing the system on environmental performance within the certified organization, (3) the effectiveness of ISO14001 as an urban environmental management tool and, (4) the role of government and other stakeholders in the process of implementing and maintaining the standard. By conducting a survey in line with the above-mentioned elements, the results of the study reveal the impact of the system by comparing the situation before and after implementation. The strategy addresses the concerns of the industries towards improving their environmental performance in terms of managerial and operational aspects, relationship with the government, government authority and the local community. Finally, the study proposes a policy framework towards effective promotion and facilitation of ISO14001 EMS implementation. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Management System, ISO 14001

58

Community Participation in Urban Solid Waste Disposal Management: A Case Study of the City of Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Ke Vongwattana & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract

In Phnom Penh, the rapid urbanizing process and flow of migration from rural areas has caused rapid population growth, which in turn, has been contributing to the increase of a host of urban environmental problems. The quality of environment is a matter of growing concern. One of these problems is associated with solid waste disposal. Recently, solid waste disposal has become the most serious problem in Phnom Penh. The purpose of this study is to review waste collection and disposal in Phnom Penh, and study the present disposal practices in various places, such as households, hotels and restaurants, as well as find out the factors that determine the participation of those actors in solid waste disposal management. It is found that various factors, such as the social and economic condition of the city, insufficiency of the solid waste collection system, insufficiency of information and environmental education programs, lack of coordination among concerned organizations, lack incentives to do waste separation and participate in environmental programs, determine the low participation of local communities. Therefore, to encourage active community participation in solid waste disposal, all constraints encountered need to be improved. Public and private partnership, privatization, and action plans have to be considered. It is recommended that a strategy and way to increase community participation is required by strengthening and improving the constraints founded. Keywords/phrases: Public and Private Partnership, Solid Waste Management, Urbanization

59

Community Wastewater Management: A Case Study of Sue-Trong Garden Real Estate

in Saima Sub-District, Nonthaburi, Thailand

Nattawut Usavagovitwong & Walter Jamieson

Abstract Wastewater from domestic sources is gradually increasing in Thailand, especially in the suburban areas. One of the major domestic wastewater sources is originated from real estate. Thailand has already enacted various environmental laws for preventing and minimizing wastewater pollution from real estate (community wastewater pollution) since 1992 (Environmental Act) and 2000 (Land Sub-Division Act). However, these two acts can only prevent rather than correct community wastewater pollution. Real estate established before the enactment of the acts is still discharging untreated wastewater to the environment. The objective of the present study is to find out appropriate alternatives for wastewater management in selected real estate under its conditions in terms of available and appropriate technology, financing and related organization arranging. This study is mainly based on primary data, such as field survey and questionnaires, and integrated with secondary data from various sources for analyzing and recommending. The results of the study reveal that there are two possible types of wastewater treatment technology, which are appropriate and applicable in the study area. Constructed wetland and aerated lagoon are considered to be appropriate technology based on the following criteria: (1) financial, (2) technical, (3) land use, (4) environment, and (5) public acceptance feasibility. For organizational arrangement to deal with wastewater, there are three relevant organizations for such a purpose, namely (1) Tambon executive council of Saima, (2) real estate management unit, and (3) developer. Among these organizations, the potential of each organization needs to be clarified to find out a feasible organizational arrangement. The study is separated into two parts. The first part is analyzed to identify the responsible organization for selected wastewater treatment system in the study area. For such a purpose, a set of criteria is considered for identifying alternatives. Those are (1) legal aspects, (2) community acceptance, and (3) organization demand and policy. Then, the last part is analyzed to evaluate the potential of each organization in terms of (1) staff and labor, (2) organization management, (3) resources, and (4) coordination and cooperation. From this analysis, there is a set of positives and negatives for each organization that is used to identify the appropriate alternatives at the final stage. In addition, it includes financial feasibility analysis for applying each wastewater treatment system to ensure that both technologies are feasible to apply in the study area. For recommendations, it comes with two alternatives for wastewater management system in the study area, that launched by either real estate management unit or developer. Each alternative provides a conceptual process and model that presents the relation, roles and tasks of each actor in wastewater management. Finally, both short term and long-term action plans and strategies and organizational arrangements are proposed for both actors, who are conducting wastewater management system in terms of implementing prioritization and steps for initiating community wastewater treatment program in the study area. Keywords/phrases: Water Management, Domestic Wastewater, Wastewater Treatment

60

Comparative Study on Environmental Management and Awareness in ISO 14001 School and Non-ISO 14001 School: A Case Study of Pakkred Secondary School (Nonthaburi) and Chainat Pittayakom Secondary School (Chainat), Thailand

Suthamma Maneepitak & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract At the beginning of the 21st century, environmental problems are still one of the pervasive challenges in Thailand. Although solutions could come up in many forms, the first and most sustainable way should be by raising awareness and building understanding on the importance of the environment among people in the country. In this context, school-children are the main target for awareness raising, as they are exposed to environmental impacts longer than other age-groups of the population. Furthermore, by building environmental understanding among young schoolchildren, young environmentalists would be created thus, preparing them for dealing with environmental problems in the future. Raising awareness and building a better understanding of the environment among school-children should be considered an urgent need for every school. To do so, joining the Environmental Management System (EMS) processes would offer students the chance to learn about the environment by action and adjusting the lessons through their daily life, which may the best way to face the environmental problems in the long-term. Implementing ISO 14001 in schools is a new topic in Thailand. Recently, the Ministry of Education has piloted an ISO 14001 implementation project in some schools aiming at learning lessons, understanding challenges, and what to do for adapting the ISO 14001 to typical Thai schools. Given this fact, it is necessary to study the implementation of ISO 14001 in ISO 14001 school and environmental projects in non-ISO 14001 schools to identify the differences and make comparisons. The study focuses on a comparative study in two schools, Pakkred School (ISO 14001 school) and Chinat Pittiyakom School (non-ISO 14001 school), on awareness and management by reviewing the ISO 14001 implementation, awareness raising activity, and students’ environmental awareness. To see the differences and similarity of environmental management and awareness in the two schools, the results of the study are analyzed. The results of the questionnaire survey show that the level of environmental awareness is little different among the students of the two schools. The students of ISO school are better in water and energy saving, while the students of non-ISO school acquired larger experience dealing with nature through their work in the Botanical Garden Project. In addition, this work made the comparison more correct, as well as offered some understanding and lessons on how to manage the project in schools. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Management System (EMS), ISO 14001, Environmental Awareness

61

Degree of Knowledge and Skills for Sustainable Urban Management in Financial Institutions in Colombo City, Sri Lanka

Periyathamby Kuruparan & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract

As environmental damage is increasing worldwide, it has an economic effect and is of growing importance for banks. Banks intensively use resources, such as paper and energy, but their major impacts on the environment arise indirectly through their lending and financing activities. However, increasingly, financial institutions try to assess environmental risks before granting loans or credit. Banks in general -although there have been exceptions- have been slow to face environmental liabilities, opportunities, and responsibilities. However, the banks in Colombo City considerably look forward toward the sustainable urban development and environment. The existing practices in the banks show some interesting results, including better in-house keeping, environmental risk assessment, environmental products, and services as well. The Pollution Control and Abatement Fund and E-friends loan schemes are notable. In addition, the comparison of practices, knowledge and skills of the National Development Bank of Sri Lanka (NDB) with the one of the leading environmental practitioner UBS, shows the local bank can be a better green banking model. This research studies the existing urban environmental policy and management practices of public institutions towards banks, the relations and links among them, and explores the existing level of practices, knowledge and skills of sustainable urban development of the banks. This study also analyzes the changes that are required in financial and public institutions and their relationships to contribute to sustainable development. Finally, the study draws some strategies for sustainable urban development for the banks in Colombo and formulates a set of recommendations, including the action plan for the financial institution and public institutions, to ensure the sustainable urban development in Colombo. Keywords/phrases: Urban Environmental Management, Financial Institutions, Urban Development

62

Developing Policy Guidelines for Open Space In Vientiane, Lao PDR

Xonglao Yongnou & Walter Jamieson

Abstract

Open space is very important for human health, both physical and mental. Open space in Vientiane urban area is being reduced and presently, there is a lack of proper open space for recreation. Lao PDR has no standards for open space, which means that open space has never been fully encouraged to develop. The purpose of this study is to recommend how to formulate policy guidelines for open space, which can be adopted by the Vientiane Prefecture in future for the provision and development of open space in Vientiane. Basically, this study is based on the observations of the existing situation of open space in Vientiane, using a checklist and interviewing the key informants. The perceptions of those who have worked close to open space users, policy makers, and politicians are obtained through interview. Secondary data are obtained from searching the library and internet. The literature pertaining to formulating policy guidelines for open space standards in Canada, America, Scotland, Thailand, and Malaysia are examined for purposes of recommending guidelines. Possible formulation of policy guidelines never previously used in Lao PDR are introduced and modified to fit within the existing context of Vientiane. The implementation policy guideline for open space standards for Vientiane comprises formulating policy guidelines for open space standards in the long-term and short-term action plans. To illustrate how the policy guidelines for open space standards can be applied in Vientiane, an example is given at the end of this study.

Keywords/phrases: Open Space, Policy Formulation

63

Earthquake Risk Management in Urban Planning and Development in Kathmandu, Nepal

Jurgen Odszuck & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract Although earthquakes are annually not the most damaging disasters, the impact, as it occurs in average every 81 years, would cause ten thousands of casualties. The question is not if, but when will come the next incident. Due to the high vulnerability of the built environment in Kathmandu, this study aims at analyzing the potential of urban planning of reducing the risk. Thus, the risk is assessed in two study areas, one in the old city core and one in the fast developing sprawl. It is proven that all three factors of the risk are in extreme critical conditions, but the hazard is impossible to influence and the study focuses on the features determining the capacities and vulnerability. As major improvements of both factors could be achieved through measures of urban planning, the root causes for such shortcomings are examined regarding regulatory, economic, organizational, and managerial aspects. This reveals that the present influence of urban planning on the real urban development is very limited. Thus, recommendations for restructuring the organization and revising the regulatory framework are directed towards the central government, while suggestions on the safety of the urban environment are given to the local planning agencies. Keywords/phrases: Risk Management, Urban Planning, Regulatory Framework

64

Flood Risk Management in Low-Income Settlements: Exploring Planning Options for Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Regina Kallmayer & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract Most low-income settlements of Phnom Penh are facing one of the three forms of urban flooding: urban runoff, overflow of the catchments, or riverine flooding. Until now, their consequences for the majority of the capital’s 150,000 urban poor are unclear. Thus, the study aims at investigating the impacts and causes of urban flooding and at discussing planning options for such areas. Data are collected through interviews and observations within a two-month internship at UNCHS in Phnom Penh. The results of the study reveal that a vicious cycle, linking poverty and urban flooding, exists. The impacts accumulate to a disaster, as almost one monthly family income is invested annually in restoring the former situation without improving the living conditions. Neither the hazard nor the incapacity to cope, but vulnerability is mainly governing the risk. The risk denial and lack of a line-of-retreat are the major shortcomings. Measures taken in terms of poverty reduction and disaster management are focused on improving the capacity and reducing the hazard, while neglecting the weakness as well as the vulnerability. The discussion on planning options reveals some solutions such as the design of a modern Khmer-house as one of the steps on the way to overcoming poverty. Keywords/phrases: Risk Management, Poverty Reduction

65

Improving the Urban Living Environment through Open Space Management: A Case Study of the “36 Old Streets” Quarter of Hanoi, Vietnam

Ngo Minh Hung & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract

Improving urban living environment is one important target for large cities in developing countries. Hanoi is such a city, with a rich cultural heritage, reflecting nearly 1000 years of history. Open space management is a key element of improving the living condition of Hanoi’s core, the ‘36 Old Street Quarter’. Implementation of the policy of economic reform (doi moi) leads to increased urbanization, causing the disappearance of open space and a serious deterioration of living conditions. Flawed institutions have also significantly influenced open space management. Thus, to manage those areas effectively, institutions need to be reformed. As this study is a descriptive research, data collection is carried out through sampling, interviews, and secondary data to analyze existing issues in terms of open space management. The main problems are over-complicated legal provisions, structure and implementation process for managing courtyards in tube houses and recreational grounds in old quarter. In order to address these issues, specific strategies for establishing guidelines are proposed. These are regulatory simplification and adjustment, decentralization of decision-making, and simplification of management process. Finally, an action plan is necessary to implement strategies towards effective and efficient management of open space as well as best community participation for future ‘36 old street quarter’. Keywords/phrases: Urban Environment, Open Space, Economic Reform

66

Industrial Wastewater Management at Local Level: A Case Study of two Industrial Estates in Yangon, Myanmar

Aung May Oo & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract The study aims at introducing pollution control measures for industrial wastewater into the industrial estates developed by the Department of Human Settlement and Housing Development (DHSHD), located within Yangon City boundary. These measures are based on theoretical knowledge as well as practical experience on the application of regulatory instruments, economic instruments, and suasive measures. The study focuses on the two industrial estates (Hlaingthayar & Shwepyitha) to assess the existing infrastructure conditions and seriousness of pollution to point out internal situations (within the study area) that need to be improved. This study also reviews the present legal and institutional frameworks for industrial wastewater pollution control in Myanmar and compares them to other countries' practices to highlight external actions that need to be modified. In this case, external actions mean the legal instruments and responsible institutions for pollution control at industrial estate level. The country studies are patterned on the format of legal framework, institutional framework, effluent standards, permitting systems, as well as monitoring and enforcement. According to these studies, it can be seen that the United States Environment Protection Agency ⎯ the example of an environmental agency of a developed country ⎯ carries out all the tasks that fulfill the requirements for implementing pollution control at all levels. In case of Thailand, the National Environment Board ⎯ the example of an environmental agency of a developing country ⎯ has to share the duties of pollution control to other ministries and agencies to implement pollution control measures at both national and local (industrial estate) levels. In Myanmar, in terms of legal provision, the city-level laws (basic requirement to promulgate standards, rules, and regulations for controlling pollution in the industrial estates) already exist, although specific standards and detail regulations that can cope with the pollution problem are not in place yet. The National Commission for Environmental Affairs cannot satisfactorily perform tasks on industrial pollution control. It needs to collaborate with other relevant agencies. Neither the Pollution Control & Cleansing Department, (PCCD) ⎯ which resembles with Publicly Owned Treatment Works in US ⎯ nor the Department of Human Settlement and Housing Development (DHSHD) ⎯ which resembles with Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand ⎯ provides services for industrial wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal in the industrial estates. The coordination between PCCD and DHSHD is essential for implementing pollution control measures at industrial estate level according to their current roles and responsibilities (i.e., PCCD as a service provider and DHSHD as a developer in the study area). They also need technical assistance that can be obtained from the Department of Regional Industrial Coordination & Inspection and the Myanmar Scientific & Technological Research Department. Finally, a local level program (Industrial Estate Pollution Control Program ⎯ IEPCP) for pollution control purposes in the industrial estates (the study area) is proposed. The program is mainly based on the regulatory measures, such as permitting and licensing, inspection, and enforcement, although economic measures, such as user charges, low interest loans, and tax incentives are also employed. The objectives, organizational structure, and components of the program are presented with the supporting framework required for developing the program and the preparatory measures to be undertaken for implementing the program. Keywords/phrases: Wastewater Management, Industrial Wastewater, Pollution Control

67

Integrated Public Bus Systems: Transport Policy and Possibilities in Chiang Mai Municipality, Thailand

Bandasak Yostrakul & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract Chiang Mai province, as the economic center for the northern region of Thailand, is facing an urban transport problem. Heavy traffic congestion occurs during the peak hours on most of the main roads of this city. One of the reasons is that the number of private vehicles continues to increase dramatically. To reduce the number of private vehicles, promoting the use of public transportation is one of the best available strategies. The main public transport mode for people to travel in the municipality is the red-colored minibus and its service has deteriorated over the years. This causes Chiang Mai inhabitants no longer use the service of public transport system and increasingly turn to private vehicles. From the study on the government public transport policy, the budget allocation for public transport and on how to use this budget, it is revealed that the government agencies are hardly committed to the public transport system of the city. Similar to the provincial and municipality level, most of the national budgets are given to road infrastructure construction compared to public transport development. It is clearly shown from the government policy that IPBS will never be realized, unless more importance and serious implementation is given to the public transport system. However, these agencies’ officers and the academia believed that a fixed route and fixed fare rate that IPBS offer could help improve the management of red-colored minibuses. Yet, most of them are concerned about how IPBS could be adopted rather than how IPBS could help increase the service quality of the red-colored minibuses. With respect to the red-colored minibus, bus drivers seem not to accept the IPBS implementation, as this could not bring them better benefits. Although IPBS criteria of fixed fare, fixed route and fixed bus stop, are what a good bus system should have, the minibus drivers dislike being controlled by regulations imposed by any new system. Then, it can be concluded that the IPBS implementation has a very low chance to be realized in the Chiang Mai Municipality. It is not enough to have a good concept of how the public bus system can make the current system improve. Yet, strong political commitment and citizen support are the keys for Chiang Mai to have a better bus system than any other public transport system. Therefore, the primary focus of the recommendation in this thesis is on citizen’s pressure through a citizen organization, to allow the citizen to have a powerful voice. Although it is difficult to have this idea come true, it is likely that this will be a sustainable solution to other public service for the Chiang Mai in the future. Keywords/phrases: Transport Policy, Public Transportation, Transport Management

68

Land Use Control for Urban Environmental Management: A Study of the Conflicts in Land Use for Tourism along Nam Song Riverbank, Vang Vieng, Lao PDR

Chanthala Phimmachack & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract Vang Vieng District is blessed with both natural beauty and indigenous culture. There are Nam Song River, Rock Mountains, Limestone Caves as well as local traditions, such as cultural festivals and Buddhist architecture, which are attractive to tourists. As a result, Vang Vieng attracts both local and foreign tourists every year. With growing popularity among tourists, Vang Vieng is experiencing a growth of tourist facilities. These tourist facilities have emerged in both designated areas as well as undesignated areas, causing conflicts between the planners of Vang Vieng Authority and the local entrepreneurs who wish to use their land for tourism related activities. Moreover, these conflicts result in not only illegal building constructions and encroachment of the riverbank, but also environmental problems, such as river pollution, visual pollution, land erosion, and uncontrolled garbage dumping. This study is conducted to find solutions for these conflicts and environmental problems. The aim is to respond to the emerging demand for land for tourism development, while safeguarding the fragile environment along Nam Song Riverbank in Vang Vieng central area. To achieve this goal, the study proposes some revisions to the existing land use plan and regulatory provisions for land use control for urban environmental management. It also emphasizes the importance of having an integrated plan for developing tourism and the inclusion of local participation in planning and decision-making processes. Keywords/phrases: Urban Environmental Management, Land Use Control, Tourism

69

Minimizing the Impact of Tourism on the Aquatic Environment of Halong Bay, Quang Ninh Province, Vietnam

Pham Thi Khanh Van & Walter Jamieson

Abstract The tourism industry in Vietnam is booming due to restructuring of economic policy. However, the basic tourism infrastructure on the national level as well as local level is not ready for that industry. Apart from the infrastructure, no sound policy exists in environ-mental policy at the present condition. The tourism development project in Halong Bay is in the first stage implementation for the national tourism plan, and expects to achieve the goals. Along with the progress of development in the project, water quality becomes a serious problem. To achieve the tourism destination, environmental quality needs to be improved. A proposed program for the water quality problem with respect to enviromental impact, in Halong bay, is feasible. It is necessary to restructure and draw sound tourism management plans in terms of both environmental and technical aspects by evaluating the weakness of the present tourism industry to achieve sound development of the tourism industry. Finally, it is essential to define some suggestions for management and technical aspects to achieve the expected results for upgrading the environmental quality in Halong Bay. Keywords/phrases: Aquatic Environment, Tourism, Water Quality

70

Problems of Inter-Organizational Coordination in Managing Air Quality in Dhaka City, Bangladesh

Md. Mahamud Ul. Hoque & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract This study mainly deals with the problems of inter-organizational coordination in managing air quality in Dhaka (Bangladesh). Coordination for such a purpose is very essential, as many organizations are involved in the air quality management programs. The importance of coordination also arises due to the complex nature of environmental problems and association of cross-sectoral environment policies. The Ministry of Environment and Forest and the Department of Environment are the agencies to coordinate the functions of all concerned organizations working to reduce air pollution in Dhaka. There are many problems found in coordinating the functions of line organizations, starting from the national level to the implementation level. Weak coordination in horizontal and vertical dimensions, inadequate adaptation of national and implementation level policies, problems of the attitude of officials working in different organizations and failure to realize the problems of air pollution in the highest political level are mainly responsible for aggravating the situation. In this study, the functions of different coordination committees are examined. The existing systems of coordination in every level are also reviewed and analyzed. Five major areas are identified, as they influence the coordination in the day-to-day activities. Among those are politics, policies, hierarchy, organization, and social factors. The results of the study reveal that horizontal coordination is seemed to be very weak, as many organizations are associated to the problem. On the other hand, vertical coordination is found sound, as there is a strong chain of command as well as administrative and financial controls within and outside the organizations. To overcome this problem, the Ministry of Environment and Forest and the Department of Environment are responsible for assessing the overall coordination mechanism in managing air quality in Dhaka City. Now, the policies and plans are not considered inadequate to gear up the system. However, there may be need of some improvement in the relevant sectors to make the coordination effective. A common forum is established through committees. However, the time required to activate the committees still does not yield a tangible result. Keywords/phrases: Air Quality, Urban Environment, Air Pollution

71

Strategies for Improving the Wastewater Management In Thuong Dinh Industrial Area in Hanoi, Vietnam

Nguyen Quoc Cong & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract

Hanoi is blessed with a huge amount of water available through the rivers, canals and groundwater. Unfortunately, improperly treated and untreated industrial wastewater discharged into water bodies are increasingly leading to water pollution and negative effects on human health in Hanoi. The wastewater of Thuong Dinh Industrial Area (TDIA), discharged into the water bodies, is about 25,000 to 30,000 cubic meters per day. This is one of the major reasons for the deterioration of the water quality of To Lich River in TDIA. Due to this reason, this research is carried out to find out the strategies for improving the wastewater management in TDIA. TDIA, the biggest and oldest industrial area in Hanoi, was established by the Government in 1958. There are several residential areas in and around TDIA. This situation creates several negative impacts on the living environment of the residents. It also creates difficulty for the management of wastewater in TDIA. To solve this problem, this study seeks various solutions by (1) conducting a sample survey among the three groups of people identified as the central importance to the study, (2) field observations, (3) collection of information, and (4) holding informal discussions with the technical personals and government officials related with the industrial wastewater management in TDIA. Analysis and discussion of the colleted data and information show that the surface water quality and living environment in TDIA is affected by TDIA’s wastewater. The results of the study further reveal that the problem has four dimensions: managerial, financial, technical, and behavioral aspects. The managerial problem is manifested in the failure of regulatory and institutional framework to perform efficiently for controlling wastewater pollution from the industry. The financial problem is reflected in a lack of the investment to build, operate, and maintain the infrastructure system for wastewater management. The technical problem arises from the lack of expertise for a better use of the resources in the manufacturing process. The backward and old technology also increases wastewater flow. There is no central wastewater treatment plant in TDIA. Many enterprises do not have their own individual wastewater treatment facility as well. The behavioral problem originates from the lack of an incentive for the adoption of a better process and lack of enforcement for wastewater management. Based on the review of the existing situation and by analyzing the scope of application of regulatory, institutional, financial and technical instruments, strategies for improving the wastewater management of TDIA are developed. These include (1) improving the regulations and institutional capacity to manage wastewater at local level, (2) improving the application of economic instruments, (3) relocating the heavy polluting enterprises away from TDIA, (4) promoting and enforcing wastewater treatment in Thuong Dinh Industrial Area, (5) promoting the application of cleaner production and waste minimization in TDIA, and (6) increasing environmental awareness and participation among the stakeholders. Keywords/phrases: Wastewater Management, Economic Instruments, Environmental Awareness

72

Strategies to Promote Composting in Namdinh, Vietnam

Tran Ngoc Quang & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Like other cities in developing countries, Namdinh is faced with solid waste management problems. Solid waste, containing high proportion of organic matter, is increasing rapidly. Due to various limitations, the Namdinh Urban Environmental Company (URENCO) can not manage the solid waste properly thus, leading to many environmental problems. Due to the high proportion of organic waste in solid waste, composting is considered a practical solution to deal with this problem, although the market of compost is still small. With respect to this view, this study aims at investigating various factors that affect the compost market and then, proposing strategies to promote composting to solve the solid waste problem in Namdinh. To carry out this research, primary data are collected by questionnaire survey, observation, and interview. The necessary secondary data are also collected. SPSS software is used as the main tool to analyze the data. The multiple regressions is used to determine the factors that affect the compost demand and estimate the potential demand of compost in the rural area of Namdinh. On the supply side (urban area), it is found that the quantity of organic waste is large (30,090 ton/year). As Namdinh people usually segregate food waste and recyclable waste, it is easier to separate organic waste at source and undertake a composting program. However, public awareness of organic waste management is rather low. Simultaneously, waste collection service, as offered by Namdinh URENCO, strongly determines waste separation. Hence, to make waste separation and composting programs successful, an educational campaign for all the Namdinh citizens is essential. Similarly, the local municipality can create more economic incentives to encourage the people to do the waste separation. More importantly, Namdinh URENCO has to provide basic facilities, such as separate waste bins, to facilitate the waste separation and collection. On the demand side (rural area), the potential use of compost for farming is great (50,054 ton/year). The local farmers presently use organic fertilizer. Their use of compost fertilizer is still limited due to high price, the inadequate information of compost quality and application, and lack of compost advertisement and compost use campaign. Therefore, to promote the compost market, appropriate quality and an affordable price for compost need to be set. Simultaneously, the propagation, campaign and application guideline for farmers are essentially necessary. Based on the findings of this research, some strategies to promote composting in Namdinh are proposed. These are: (1) waste separation strategy, (2) compost production strategy, (3) compost quality standard establishment strategy, (4) compost pricing strategy, and (5) compost marketing strategy. To implement these strategies, major requirements are cooperation of all stakeholders, such as national government, local government, concerned organizations, local residents, specially, Namdinh URENCO, as well as their sustained efforts. Keywords/phrases: Composting, URENCO, Solid Waste Management

73

Study for Improving the Cost Recovery of Water Supply in Dhaka City, Bangladesh

Md.Rabiul Islam & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) is responsible for water supply in Dhaka city. At present, it supplies only 65% of the current demand. Hence, a development program is required to meet the rest 35% of unmet demand. In this case, the most important requirement is a strong financial capability. Unfortunately, it is financially weak due to poor cost recovery. The main causes of poor cost recovery are: (1) faulty price policy, (2) high level of unaccounted for water (UFW), and (3) huge amount of dues of bills. To recommend measures for the improvement of cost recovery, this study analyzes the causes of the three problems mentioned above based on the information collected from secondary and primary sources. Primary sources are conducted through interview and questionnaire surveys among the DWASA officials, the slum dwellers, and the residential consumers. The results of the study reveal that the price cannot cover the full cost and that the structure of price creates obstacles to smooth recovery of revenue. To correct these faults of price policy, progressive price structure based on cost consideration is required. To fulfill this requirement, autonomy and commercial orientation are necessary. Analysis of UFW shows that a part of water supply is lost before reaching to the consumer point due to the poor maintenance of leakages of the pipelines. Another part is sold without measure due to non-metered connections. Some water is lost due to illegal connection. Incorrect registration of meter and meter fraud nullify the sale contract to some extent. In some cases, officials destroy the norms of sale contract by making collusive relations with the customers. Inefficiency in the systems of billing, payment and dispute resolution are the causes of the problem of dues of bills. All these faults are actually the faults in the activity of sales. Therefore, facilities of sale and effective sale of water are required. To fulfill this requirement, various actions, such as department of sale, zonal sell center, protection and measurability of water and consumer as customer, are needed. Existing conventional legal and administrative measures cannot fulfill the above requirements. Apart from the conventional measures, recently, DWASA has used a market-based instrument, namely leasing out the ‘revenue collection’. This measure has established the measurability of water and norms of sale contract to some extent. As a result, it achieves remarkable success in the cost recovery. This success can be extended if DWASA is leasing ‘sale of water’ in addition to existing lease of ‘revenue collection’. Based on this analysis, a two-pronged change is suggested for improving the cost recovery of DWASA. The first one is the policy level change, so that DWASA can attain progressive price structure and implement that price. The second one is the management level change to ensure an effective sale of water. (1) Policy level change: transform DWASA as an independent business unit and make sale as the centerpiece of its business. To implement the change, the following measures have to be taken: (a) give autonomy, (b) set progressive pricing on cost based, (c) create department of sale, and (d) create zonal WASA. (2) Management level change: ensure sale of water. Necessary measures for implementing this change are: (a) lease out water, (b) introduce 100% individual metering, (c) introduce district metering, and (d) create consumers parliament. Keywords/phrases: Water Supply, Financial Capability, Cost Recovery

74

Sustainable Urban Tourism in an Asian Mega-City: A Case Study of Kawasan Jalan Jaksa (Jaksa Street Area) Jakarta, Indonesia

Hendra Yusrun Siry & Walter Jamieson

Abstract Although the range of complex and interacting issues surrounding tourism in Asian mega- cities is vast, research on these issues is rare and limited. The challenge is to examine and explore the sustainability of tourism activities in Asian mega cities. This study focuses on tourism activities in Jakarta, by using Jalan Jaksa, a central backpackers’ and youth inde-pendent tourist district, as the study area. The study examines how Jalan Jaksa exists within the context of increasing demand for quality tourism and barriers to sustainable tourism. A SWOT analysis and SWOT matrix as well as some other considerations are used to develop recommendations. Based on the fact-finding and local community needs, the study recommends that (1) improvement of the urban design, (2) sustainable marketing, and (3) sustainable event are the determining factors to pursue sustainable tourism in Jalan Jaksa, Jakarta. A simple cost benefit table shows that all the proposed recommendations point to economic, social and environmental. It is also found that the achievement of all recommendations depends on the policy of local government to support tourism activities in Jalan Jaksa and strong community support. Keywords/phrases: Tourism

75

Towards the Rehabilitation of the Open Space and Footpaths in a Residential Estate: The Case of Khlong Chan Residential Estate, Bangkok, Thailand

Sukumaporn Jongpukdee & Walter Jamieson

Abstract

The basic unit of a city is a neighborhood. A neighborhood environment is an important domain of the quality of life. Good neighborhood environments enhance life’s satisfaction, and the individual’s overall sense of well being. It also supports effective and efficient improvement of physical and moral health of neighborhood inhabitants; therefore, it needs to be well designed and maintained. The most significant neighborhood environment is open space that includes street. The study aims at exploring the present mechanisms and rehabilitation processes and recommends suitable mechanisms and processes in a neighborhood rehabilitation program in which the neighborhood’s citizens play a role of professional about life in the community, while professionals play a crucial role of technical support and feasibility of such rehabilitation programs.

Khlong Chan Residential Estate is a government-built neighborhood that has been housed low and middle-income people of Bangkok since 1953. The physical environments, especially open space and footpaths, have been deteriorating and dilapidating. The daily need of inhabitants for having recreational space near their accommodation is not met. Additionally, the encroachment of the footpaths by some neighborhood’s residents for operating their businesses causes difficulties for walking pedestrians, especially children, elderly, and disabled people.

Responsible government agencies have been cooperating with community organizations to relocate street vendors and rehabilitate the open space and footpaths. However, the process is very slow. Furthermore, the rehabilitation program does not effectively involve all of the inhabitants-especially tenants, which is now half of the neighborhood’s residents, in the process resulting the dissatisfied-product and absence of commitment from the inhabitants to maintain the rehabilitation’s outcome. The low management skills of the community organizations’ members and ineffective corporation among government agencies are among the reasons. It is also found that the different types of inhabitants have different needs and preferences towards the open space and footpaths development, especially children. Hence, the provision of training in management skills for community organization’s members is recommended. The establishment of tenants’ representative at community organization level is introduced to involve all of the inhabitants in the rehabilitation process. In addition, the establishment of the “Advisory for Neighborhood Rehabilitation” is initiated to assist community’s people in planning and designing aspect. The rehabilitation programs should be arranged in series of workshops to gather requirements and desires of each peer group of the inhabitants. Eventually, it needs integrated programs such as environmental campaigns, good physical design, and good rehabilitation process, to enhance good open space and footpaths of this community. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Campaigns, Open Space

76

Transportation Management System in Yangon: A Focus on Easing the Traffic Congestion

Zaw Zaw Aye & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Yangon, the capital of Myanmar with a population over 4 million, is located at the strategic spot of communication networks. The city has grown rapidly in recent years. Government has been developing new town settlements to decentralize the congested city center. However, the provisions of necessary infrastructure are generally inadequate, as most of the urban function and workplaces are still concentrated within the central area. Within the Central Business District (CBD) area, the main urban issues are related to the anticipated growth in traffic volume, resulting from steep rise in travel demands, as most of the human activities are concentrated within the central area. At the current growth rate of population and travel demands, traffic delays at key junctions may be more than doubled in the next five years, unless measures are taken to ease the traffic congestion. The focus of this study is to analyze the transportation management system of Yangon in general and recommend some traffic management measures to ease the traffic congestion in particular. Questionnaire surveys are conducted on the three types of road-users (passengers, drivers and owners) to allow them an opportunity to express their views, attitudes, as well as provide suggestion for easing the traffic congestion. Checklist interviews on the three concerned people (officials, police officers and experts), who have either direct or indirect involvement in the traffic management system of Yangon, are also conducted to get their opinions and views on the management measures for easing the traffic congestion. Basic information in relation to the vehicle population, traffic volumes and growth, travel demands, transportation modes, delays time, the condition of traffic congestion, road networks, and existing transportation infrastructures are also collected by analyzing numerous statistical and official documents, reports, and field observations. Several outcomes and findings are resulted from analyzing the collected primary and secondary data. The findings on the root cause of traffic congestion can be categorized into four parts: (1) improper land use patterns, most of the urban functions (traffic generators) are concentrated and mixed within the central area, attracting half of the total passenger trips in Yangon; (2) inadequate and unreliable transport infrastructure, such as lack of bus terminals and off-street parking, inadequate footpaths, improper traffic control and signals, unattractive suburban railway services; (3) limited resources availability for maintaining and improving public transport services, as the revenues from public transport services are not profitable and operators do not want to use their resources to expand the acquisition of additional large vehicles; and (4) weakness of policy measures, as some EIs and RIs cannot be enforced in the current condition (such as fines, parking fees, licensing). The proposed mitigation and management measures for easing traffic congestion contain two parts. The first part contains the proposed pragmatic measures, which are demanded immediately to mitigate as a short-term strategy: (1) traffic circulation and signals; (2) public transport priority plan; (3) providing of off-street parking; and (4) proposed bus terminals. The second part contains proposed policy measures to be applied as medium and long-term planning: (1) land uses policy; (2) parking policy; (3) public transport policy; (4) suburban railway policy; (5) traffic management policy; and (6) human resources development policy. Related agencies (government or non-government) need to concertedly and cooperatively plan, implement, manage, and monitor those mitigation measures to ease the traffic congestion in Yangon. Keywords/phrases: Transport Management, Traffic Volumes, Congestion

77

Urban Environmental Management Issues: Water Transportation on Om Canal, Nonthaburi Province

Pornpun Pinweha & Walter Jamieson

Abstract Water transportation is an important alternative to relieve the traffic congestion on roads due to a crisis point reached in terms of road transportation. This study aims at exploring the existing situation of public water transportation on the Om Canal, Nonthaburi, and investigating the awareness of the impact of water transportation on the local residents, the boat operators, the local NGO (Grum Rak Naam), and the Harbor Department. The results of the study reveal that the local residents, who live along the Om Canal area, still utilize water transportation as a public transportation in the form of long-tailed boats and two-stepped boats. It is also found that there are three main problems associated with the Om Canal. Firstly, the negative impacts of water transportation are not obvious; therefore, they are of less concern for the government agencies and also for the local residents and the boat operators. All the negative impacts and the problems of water transportation are not major problems for them. Secondly, there is the inefficient implementation of laws and regulations by the Harbor Department. To solve this problem, it is recommended to create a win-win situation among the residents, the boat operators, and the Harbor Department by proper maintenance of the public water transportation system to serve the local needs and local jobs. Furthermore, it is suggested to conserve the utilization of the long-tailed boat due to its specific characteristics. Keywords/phrases: Urban Environmental Management, Water Transportation, NGO

78

Urban River Water Quality Protection: A Focus on Management Measures And Institutional Requirements

For Buriganga River, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Saif Uddin Ahmed & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract

Most of the cities in the world have grown up on the banks of rivers. Recently, water pollution of urban rivers has become a growing concern of Urban Environmental Management (UEM) all over the world. The situation is more severe in the cities in developing countries due to rapid urbanization and industrialization, unplanned city development, inadequate and inefficient urban civic services, ineffective regulations, and institutional incompatibilities. The pollution of urban rivers poses various threats to urban water supply, communication, recreation, aquatic life, and human health. To keep the water quality of urban rivers at the pristine stage is not economically viable, even impossible. However, there must be a certain limit of degradation of water quality to ensure different use of river water and sustainable development of the cities. Management of urban river water quality is a multidimensional task. Therefore, different countries adopt various strategies based on technological, infrastructural, institutional, and regulatory measures in their practices to protect water quality of urban rivers. Unlike rivers of other third world cities, water of the Buriganga River of Dhaka City is severely polluted, as revealed from water quality monitoring data. The water of the river is beyond human use and not congenial for survival of any aquatic life. The main causes are continuous dumping of untreated domestic and industrial wastes and indiscriminate encroachment of the river. The water of the Buriganga is getting degraded day-by-day, in spite of the existence of various policies and programs adopted by different institutions and presence of numerous laws. This study concentrates only on the institutional and regulatory aspects of Water Quality Management (WQM) of Buriganga River. It also mainly uses secondary data to analyze the issues related to the WQM of the river. Primary data are also collected through questionnaire survey of stakeholders (owners of industries, fishermen, boatmen, and slum people). Data from these sources are used as supportive information with the secondary data. The situations of different issues (urbanization and economy, urban development affairs and UEM and urban services delivery in Dhaka city, sources and causes of water pollution, policies, programs, regulations and institutions) related to WQM of Buriganga river are analyzed by considering implications, influences, efficiency, gap and trends of the factors involved in each issue. Issue-wise situation analysis reveals the following loopholes in WQM of the Buriganga: (1) Dhaka city is developing without any plan; (2) urban civic services (sewage, drainage, treatment facility, solid waste management) are inadequate and inefficient; (3) there are no effective UEM practices in the city; (4) institutions involved in the different issues of WQM have failed to perform their mandates; (5) there is no concrete program for WQM of the river and coordination among the institutions involved in the existing programs is minimal, if at all; and (6) laws related to WQM of the river are rarely enforced. All these reflect that there is no specific institution, no policy and no program, to address the pollution problems of the river, which have turned the Buriganga into an orphan river. The situation demands a number of actions that need to be taken to address the WQM problem of the river. In order to achieve better water quality of the Buriganga River, a two-pronged strategic approach is recommended. In one, the target is to enact a new law (styled as the Buriganga Act) for ensuring better regulatory measures; the other one is to create a single authority called the Buriganga River Management Authority (BRMA) to adopt Buriganga as its sole custodian to ensure better water quality management by addressing problems related to WQM. All the present laws related to pollution control of the Buriganga need to be revised and consolidated under the new act. This act will have some other provisions important for pollution control of the river. The newly created BRMA will be responsible for some specific mandates like wastewater management of Hazaribagh tannery area and protection of encroachment in the river and coordination of overall activities related to protection of river water quality. WQM of the Buriganga needs early adoption and successful implementation of these recommendations that depend on strong political commitment and realization of the real situation at policy level. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Protection, Urban Environmental Management, Water Quality

79

2002

80

Administrative Decentralization to Improve Urban Environmental Infrastructure: A Case Study of a Secondary Town in Lao PDR

Ekvinay Sayyalath & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract Decentralization provides appropriate performance of development in terms of adminis-trative decentralization, which is a basic of the other types of decentralization. It is applied to deliver urban services. In the study area of Thakhaek, at initiative stage, decentralization is composed by both advantage and disadvantage results. However, its advantage is found to be more than disadvantage. Most people believe that it will bring a better environment and sustainable management in Thakhaek. However, the TUDAA, which is responsible for the Thakhaek urban services, especially for urban drainage systems and urban roads, do not yet receive whole budgets to deal with its projects. Some projects in urban areas, which should be managed by TUDAA, are found to be managed by DCTPC for budget allocation, due to the TUDAA’s low capability. This study reveals that its average is only 45%, instead of 60%. For example, the capability to set the goal and objectives of development, and leadership and human resource management are very low. Nevertheless, decentralization must be sustainable. TUDAA should act as an independent local government. People should participate and be involved in the TUDAA or MAA tasks. This is one kind of favor in our constitution. Keywords/phrases: Decentralization, Urban Services

81

Application of Tourism Carrying Capacity to an Urban Heritage Destination: Vigan (Philippines)

Jaime Enciso Cachafeiro & Edsel Sajor

Abstract

This study aims at presenting an application of tourism carrying capacity being context specific to an urban destination with rich heritage content: Vigan (Philippines). Tourism development at the destination is special-event driven, highly seasonal and its main characteristics are the short stay of visitors and a lack of diversity of attractions. Current tourism carrying capacity of the destination is low, basically due to a limited supply of tourism services in terms of accommodation and leisure facilities. Four carrying capacity issues are identified and discussed, namely: short length of stay of visitors, inadequate accommodation facilities both in quantity and quality of services provided, isolation of the destination both geographically and market wise, and a closed entrepreneurship environment. Given monitoring framework of current carrying capacity is based on five management objectives and twenty indicators. Assessment of tourism carrying capacity as a management tool has been proven useful when linked to ongoing tourism planning, but requirements in terms of data availability and a participatory decision-making environment have to be met. Further research has to be oriented to include seasonality into the discussion and come up with a working geographical scale when applying the concept to a given destination. Keywords/phrases: Tourism, Urban Heritage

82

Delivery of Environmental Services in Slums and the Decentralization Reform in Local Administrative System in Aurangabad, India

Suneeram Brenda Rose & Edsel Sajor

Abstract This study, carried out in Aurangabad Municipal Corporation, Maharashtra State in India, analyzes the Urban Local Body (ULB) functioning after the decentralization initiation took place. The study explores if the reformed administrative system is able to deliver better environmental services for the poor living in the slums. The results of the study reveal that there is no substantial improvement in the services provided and that the people express high dissatisfaction with the performance of the ULB. It is also found that the decentralized system of ULB still follows the “top-down” approach and that the reformed system does not provide the grounds for change in the planning mode. An evaluation of the decentralized system based on the various attributes of good governance shows that the level of accountability, efficiency, effectiveness, corruption, transparency, and information dissemination does not improve in the system and that they have negatively influenced the environmental service delivery for the poor. The slum dwellers take a collective action at the failure of the state to provide the environmental. Though their collective action is economically viable and brings in self-esteem, it is not environmentally sustainable to the full extent. This calls for the government agencies and NGOs to play the role of an “enabler”. If the government takes an effort to tap the potential of the collective action of the slum residents, there are opportunities for a better delivery of environmental services in the decentralized system. This would also bring in “bottom-up” planning into the system and facilitate the practice of the attributes of good governance in the system. Further study can be carried out to work out on how the community, government, and the civil society can collaborate and work together to improve the environmental service delivery in the slums. Keywords/phrases: Decentralization, NGOs, Environmental Services Delivery

83

Disaster Risk Management in Urban Areas of Vientiane: A Study with Special Reference to Management of Fire Disaster

in Residential and Commercial Areas

Phouthala Souksakhone & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract This study is conducted to respond to the current situation of Disaster Risk in the residential and commercial areas of Vientiane (Lao PDR). It attempts to assess the existing disaster risks in these areas to propose short-term mitigatory measures and long-term urban planning measures. The study is mainly based on the interviews with residents/shop keepers, village committee, market committee, concerned organizations, and government/ local government officials. The disaster risk is assessed by individual assessment on its constituents that is hazard, vulnerability and capacity. Using a risk model, the risk values as well as the risk factors for both study areas (Dongpalane Tha Village and That Luang Market) are calculated. The analysis shows that hazard, vulnerability and capacity are in critical condition in both study areas and that the residential areas are more at risk than commercial areas due to the illegal connections of electricity and use of flammable building materials. The root causes for these appalling conditions are identified as a poor enforcement of urban planning regulations and inefficient urban management. Based on the findings, the study recommends participatory urban environmental management and the revision of the regulatory framework for such a purpose. Keywords/phrases: Risk Management, Urban Environmental Management, Regulatory Framework

84

Effects of Redevelopment Project: A Case Study of a Relocated Urban Community in Hanoi, Vietnam

Do Thuy Nga & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Prior to renovation, Tran Khat Chan road was an adjacent sub-urban area of Hanoi where no official planning was applied. Since the renovation in 1986, urbanization in Hanoi has dramatically changed its urban structure, more people come to the city to find jobs and a better standard of living, thus, burdening the infrastructure of the city’s fringe where the land and housing prices are rather suitable for them. Hence, the deterioration of urban environment in Tran Khat Chan area is an inevitable consequence. To solve this problem and improve the city’s traffic system, one of the approaches adopted is redevelopment of residential areas, including relocation, land clearance, and reconstruction of Tran Khat Chan road with a complete physical infrastructure and public facilities. However, due to financial problems, the redevelopment project is divided into two stages. The first stage involves relocation of around 780 households and reconstruction of two thirds of the Tran Khat Chan road. At the second stage, the rest of the road construction is to be completed along with the relocation of the remaining households. This study aims at evaluating the first stage of the project by analyzing the current conditions and opinions of the households who have been affected by the project, as well as by recording the changes observed in the redevelopment site due to the project. It also compares the living conditions of the relocated community with their previous situation before implementation of the project. Interviews with the officials of the agencies responsible in the project are also conducted. The field survey was conducted in 2002, four years after the resettlement was completed. It was found that people’s physical living conditions have improved considerably after relocation in new areas. The serious environmental problems in Tran Khat Chan area are well addressed. However, the main source of dissatisfaction to the households is the inadequate preparation of physical and social infrastructure before relocating the households to the new sites. In spite of the overall benefit to the urban environment, the project exposes some shortcomings that are caused by both internal and external factors. These limitations influence the effectiveness and efficiency of project implementation. Recommendations are proposed for supplementary compensation policies. To overcome the inefficient management, developing human resources and offering technical assistance are recom-mended. Efficient fund mobilization, good preparation of land/housing resource, and speeding up the schedule of granting housing ownership and land use right certificate are proposed as the measures to deal with financial limitations and implementation difficulties to improve the next generation of redevelopment projects. Keywords/phrases: Urban Community, Urban Environment

85

Environmental Awareness and Information System in Improving Industrial Wastewater Management of Small Scale Industries in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Nguyen Thi Xuan Huong & Edsel Sajor

Abstract Currently, more than 27,000 Small-Scale Industries (SSIs) of Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) provide employment and opportunity for the large number of individuals. They are, therefore, important contributors to the economy, development and society of HCMC. However, they also contribute to serious pollution problems and cause nuisance and hindrance in the residential areas where they operate, due to the fact that SSIs owners lack environmental information and knowledge on how to minimize the waste from their operation. This study is conducted to examine the reasons and conditions determining the lack of environmental knowledge and awareness of SSIs and explore possible forms and institutional mechanism, whereby environmental information and knowledge could flow between government agencies and SSIs, between SSIs and experts, and among SSI owners. Field observation, informal discussion with SSIs, depth interview with technical people and sources of government officers, questionnaire survey to SSIs, and secondary information collection are used for collecting the required information in three industrial sectors: title dyeing, tannery, and pulp and paper within the two districts: 11 and Tan Binh. The main findings, identified as constraints, are lack of utilization of different stakeholders involved in the dissemination of environmental information, inadequate communication between SSIs and stakeholders, and inappropriate information to SSIs. In order to address these issues, an institutional mechanism for better dissemination of information to SSIs is proposed. These are some cooperation programs between different stakeholders, and guidance for implementing the dissemination of environmental information. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Awareness, Water Management

86

Environmental Conflict Situation and Participation Problems in Urban Anti-Flood Program in Hat Yai Municipality,

Songkhla Province, Thailand

Manit Kham-uan & Edsel Sajor

Abstract

Hat Yai Municipality is one of the most rapid growing regional urban centers in Thailand. Coming along with this are a number of environmental problems, of which flooding is the most critical one. To solve this problem, the municipality’s efforts are concentrated on economic and technical feasibility, while social dimension seems to be of less concern.

The bypass channel is a major anti-flood project designed for conveying runoff from the urban area to decrease the potential hazard of flood. Unfortunately, in the phase of land acquisition, the project meets an impasse and conflict opposed by the rural affected people since its implementation. Lengthy impasse has been recognized to lead to rising vulnerability. Thus, an urgent solution for the impasse is determined to be a necessity.

It is found that the critical causes of the impasse and conflict of implementation of the bypass channel project are mainly due to the three issues, namely: a culture of non-participatory government bureaucracy; a fragmentation of government bodies, and an inter-relatedness of implementation and different world-views. For these key problems, three feasible resolutions are recommended, namely: integrating operational bodies; sensitizing government officials on different world-views of rural people, and participatory approach. Keywords/phrases: Participatory Approach

87

Environmental Impacts of Tourism-Based Urban Development on the Protection Zone of Angkor Area, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia

Saphoeun Tous & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract The Angkor site was registered on The World Heritage List of sites in December 1992. Since that time, the Director-General of UNESCO, launched a vibrant appeal to the international community to conjoin its efforts to save the site. Angkor is now facing new problems, including growing vegetation, weathering stone, looting of the temples, and especially, deterioration of the physical environment from the pressures of tourism and urban development. Various micro-level urban environmental problems, such as air pollution, traffic and noise pollution, water pollution, drainage and sewerage, solid waste, ground pollution, slums and shanty housing, and land use conflicts, threaten the traditional values and heritage site of Angkor. To find out the degree of urban environmental problems faced by the heritage sites, data collection through reconnaissance survey, socio-economic survey, environmental assessment tours, and group discussions, are conducted. The implications of legislation and the role of various agencies and institutions are also analyzed. Key stakeholders’ opinion surveys are conducted with respect to the revitalization of heritage sites through Urban Environmental Management Planning (UEMP). A SWOT analysis is also carried out to propose a UEMP for the revitalization of heritage sites. To revitalize the cultural heritage sites of Angkor and other archaeological sites and save them from further deterioration, the study proposes a short-term EMP for the local institutional arrangement. The short-term EMP is based on the spirit of the government officer and local people whose active participation and corporation in planning and implementation of the various projects is envisaged to solve the urban environmental problems. Keywords/phrases: Urban Planning, SWOT Analysis

88

Environmental Reform in Puerto Princesa (Philippines): A Best Practice Case of Local Agenda 21

Monica Altimira Bosch & Edsel Sajor

Abstract The Local Agenda 21 (LA21) initiatives are not very numerous in the Philippines or in other developing countries. Likewise, they do not receive much attention in the literature either. This case study contributes to filling up the dearth in research on this topic and to illumine the possible replicability of the experience in other cities of roughly similar characteristics. Between the mid seventies and mid nineties, the city of Puerto Princesa was transformed from being a victim of careless resource and environmental exploitation to a model of local sustainable development program. After the mid twentieth century, uncontrolled immigration to Palawan province and its capital Puerto Princesa, attracted by the rich natural resources and the use of illegal extractive activities, led to a severe degradation of the environment. The critical degradation of the local environment created stirrings of protest among the domestic environmental groups and, further became a national and local public issue that solicited an urgent national government policy response. This development is attributed to the rise of strong global environmentalism and some environmental groups, as well as the Philippine government’s commitment to the Agenda 21 in the mid-1990s. A parallel and simultaneous decentralization program in the Philippines during the period also provides the favorable legal framework for boosting an environmental initiative by the local government in Puerto Princesa. The study describes the program of environmental reform, that the local government developed during the last decade, in partnership with the local NGOs and civil society, to reverse the effects of environmental degradation in the city. Although this program of the city is not conceived as a LA21, later it was recognized as a LA21 initiative both in substance and in claim. The study discusses the key factors that led to the success, which consist of a confluence of events and actors, namely the hegemonic status of the local policy based on environmental protection; the government structure with the support of the central government committed to Agenda 21; the availability of resources; a great array of robust and active NGOs and civil society; and a charismatic and populist mayor who made environmental protection the centerpiece of his administration and who promoted partnerships with NGOs and civil society. It is concluded that certain conditions, such as existing ongoing local processes towards environmental protection; close partnerships between government and civil society; tradition of civil society activism; a charismatic and democratic leader who fosters public participation; significant local NGO activity; a decentralized, transparent and accountable local government and a supportive central government, are required to determine the progress or success of LA21 in a developing country city context. Keywords/phrases: NGO, Agenda 21, Environmental Reform

89

Impact of Subway Construction on the Local Economy and Environment of Luohu, Shenzhen, China

Xu Danling & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Transportation development becomes more important along with the rapid growth of economic development and urbanization. Strategic transportation development is necessary for sustainable urban development. Subway is the ideal way to meet transportation needs, due to large-scale economics and less pollution associated with it. Shenzhen, one of the China’s five leading Special Economic Zones (SEZ), is a vibrant commercial and international trading center neighboring Hong Kong. Luohu District, located at the heart of Shenzhen SEZ, is a financial, information and shopping center. Through rapid, stable, and sustainable development of more than ten years, Luohu is now transformed into a modern cosmopolitan downtown hub. With the development of economy and rapid growth of population, Luoho meets more and more serious traffic problems. At this backdrop, the subway construction is the most promising project in Luohu. However, no development project is an unmixed blessing. Social, economic and environmental impacts are common. Based on the above background, this study analyzes the impacts of subway construction on Luohu district, by focusing on the impacts of subway construction on the traffic, social, economy, environment and people’s life. The impacts on environment, such as air pollution, noise, and water, are emphasized. The results of the study show that subway construction can reduce the heavy burden of public transportation, facilitate the social and economic development, improve the life quality of people, and reduce the environment pollution. Its positive effects to the urban development are enormous. During the construction, residents have been experiencing some environmental problems, such as noise, air, and dust pollution. The subway construction has also created traffic congestion due to the occupation of traffic lane by the construction site. This study investigates such negative effects and ways of minimizing them. The results of the study show that the subway is one important means for the city’s development. Its eco-friendly characteristics bring benefits. Shenzhen subway construction provides valuable lessons for other big Chinese cities. Keywords/phrases: Congestion, Urbanization, Urban Environment

90

Improving Cost Recovery for Better Water Supply System In Yangon City, the Union of Myanmar

Moe Moe Hlaing Myint & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract The study aims at finding out the root causes of poor cost recovery of water supply systems in Yangon (Myanmar) and the ways to remedy these problems by proposing some management policies. The Yangon City Development Committee (YCDC) is the only one authority to distribute water throughout the city area. However, it works with a very poor infrastructure. The old piped network cannot supply adequate water for all citizens. Aged and corroded pipelines lead to a profuse leakage of water. Every dry season, people meet water shortage problem and they have to buy water from water vendors at a very high price. Some residents want to have access to the YCDC water supply system, but they cannot get connections to the distribution lines. Because of poor cost recovery, the water supply network cannot be extended for an increasing population. The pricing mechanism is poorly organized. Tariff rates do not reflect the true market costs. The problem of accumulated arrears is perennial. Based on this problem, this study analyzes the existing water supply system and evaluates the root causes of poor cost recovery by analyzing the factors that influence cost recovery, such as unaccounted for water (UfW), customer, department relations management, water tariff, related policy, and financial status. The study uses primary and secondary data for such a purpose. Secondary data are reviewed for understanding the current management system of water supply and financial condition of the Water Supply and Sanitation Department (WSSD). The primary data sources are obtained from discussion with the officials, questionnaire survey of the water customers, and checklist interviews with the key informants. Both data are used to provide an understanding of people’s willingness to access and willingness to pay for an improved water supply system. Their opinion on the current situation and constraints and strengths of the department of WSS are presented. Finally, the study proposes policy and management provisions to improve a cost recovery for a better water supply system in Yangon. These include an UfW controlling program, a staff training program, customer education or awareness, and setting of appropriate water tariffs policy. Keywords/phrases: Water Supply, Cost Recovery, Water Tariff

91

Improving Urban Services Delivery for Environmental Management: A Study of Poor Settlements in Rajshahi City, Bangladesh

Mallik Akram Hossain & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract

The recent trend of rapid urbanization has been a major concern in developing countries, as it has brought many problems due to diseconomies of scale. Due to the huge influx of rural migrants to urban areas, Bangladeshi cites have been facing problems in providing urban services to the city dwellers. This study aims at studying the urban services delivery situation and its consequence on urban health. The study also explores the socio-economic conditions of the slum people by looking at the physical as well urban environmental conditions of the slum. It is found that there is an inadequacy of urban services in the poor settlements and that the urban environment has gotten polluted which in turn has imposed consequences on the health of slum dwellers. The pattern and differentials of household heads and under-five morbidity focusing on child mortality are studied. It implies that urban health in poor settlements is at risk due to the deteriorating environment in the study area. Dwellers’ willingness to pay for urban services and participation to service improvement projects is also examined in this study. The study identifies that the poor specific programs rendered by the urban institutions are very limited. The majority of the programs are aimed at the population, regardless of income group. Various factors, such as shortage of skilled manpower, resource constraints, the dependency on central government, top-down policy, lack of coordination and cooperation among the institutions, and lack of participation of community people and NGOs in urban service delivery programs are the main bottleneck to providing urban services to the poor settlements. Finally, for the improvement of urban services delivery in the poor settlement, some policy guidelines are recommended. Keywords/phrases: Urban Services, NGO, Urbanization

92

Interventions for Improving Urban Poor’s Living Environment: Focus on Women Participation in Projects

in Khulna City Slum Area, Bangladesh

Bushra Shamsad & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract The rapid population growth in urban areas of Bangladesh, such as Khulna, the third largest city, caused by the heavy influx of migrants from vast rural areas, led to a mushrooming of slums and squatters in lands of urban areas without any basic service facilities. Due to cultural and religious restriction in Bangladesh, especially in slum areas, women are mostly housewives, and stay most of the time at home. Eventually, the women in slum areas are the main victims of acute shortages of infrastructure facilities, which characterizes slum living, whereas the men of slum areas can share public facilities around their working places. Public policy interventions, focusing on women, are initiated to provide basic infrastructure facilities to mitigate the miserable living conditions of the slum dwellers. However, these interventions are made with a preconception or expectation that slum communities will be responsible for the improvement of the infrastructure and services. Against this backdrop, one research question for this thesis has been who is responsible in the slum area for the maintenance and improvement of the service provisions arranged through a particular intervention. To answer this question, this research takes up a study of a poor community in the southwest part of Khulna city, Bangladesh. An exploratory is done on the public interventions in place, the condition of the living environment, the existing condition of basic infrastructure and services, the impact of the infrastructure and services in the community, focusing on the role of the slum community women in the intervention process for such a purpose. The overall assessment of women’s quality regarding their educational background, capacity to receive infrastructure services, capability to express their opinions about their needs, capacity to communicate with others, and their willingness to join for improvement of their own living environment are also explored. The results indicate that poor environmental conditions prevail in the settlement even after getting the provision of basic infrastructure and services, as within a short time after providing basic infrastructure services, most of the services are either fully destroyed or in a very bad condition. It is also found that service provision has a significant impact on the community especially on women. Women of the slum community are highly enthusiastic to take part in the maintenance and improvement of provided services if they are properly organized. To change this situation for the better, this study proposes some policy recommendations. They are given for the project staff at the community level and for women’s groups at the slum community to increase women’s participation in the projects for improving the living environment in the slum areas. Keywords/phrases: Urban Poor, Women Participation, Slum Community

93

Local Environmental Management for Improving Environmental Infrastructure Services of Low-Income Settlements in a Myanmar Town

Khin Htwe Maw & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Nyaungshwe, one of the growing towns in Myanmar, is facing environmental problems. Accelerated growth in urban areas widens the gap in the delivery of key urban services such as water supply, sanitation, and solid waste disposal. This gap in services is making the urban environment worse. Much of the urban literature concludes that the urban low-income people suffer from the acute deprivation of access to environmental services, arising from a long prevailing (supply-led) institutional approach to provide service delivery. However, recently, new approaches have emerged with the realization that local level actions and management are essential to attain the sustainability of the environmental services in urban areas and improve the living environment of low-income settlements. Local environmental management (LEM) requires a spatial scale or unit, which is much smaller than commonly understood as the city. Creation of institutions at such a level is an urgent need for Urban Environmental Management (UEM) to be operational, functional, and effective. With respect to the above view, this study looks into the UNDP’s Community Water Supply and Sanitation Project’s (CWSSP) Water and Sanitation Committee (WSC), which appear to be a move in building institution at a neighborhood level and taking services to the doorsteps of poor urban settlements. Adopting a comparative research methodology, the study selects (1) one low-income settlement in Kanthar Ward, which essentially relies upon the traditionally supply-led approach under the Town Development Committee, and other urban services delivery agencies and (2) another settlement in Tha lay which is under the operation of the Water and Sanitation Committee (WSC) established by UNDP in 1994. Both settlements try to achieve the national goal of “Universal Access to Sanitation for All” by year 2000. The comparison of the situations in two settlements suggests that the settlements under WSC have achieved a satisfactory coverage of environmental infra-structure services. Thus it is suggested that the presence of WSC has facilitated the access of low-income people to various environmental infrastructure services, such as water supply and sanitation (toilets) in Tha Lay. The study also explores institutional arrangements and the constraints of concerned agencies in the service delivery to determine the reason why the existing institutional mechanism (supply led approach) does not serve them well to meet the national goal and strategies on how to achieve the national goal in coming years. Finally, based on the results of the study, an institutional change at the local level is proposed by involving a mechanism that allows government agencies, NGOs, and private sectors collaborate to meet the demands of low-income settlements and achieve the national goal by 2005. The lessons learned from CWSSP/WSC are incorporated in the proposed institutional mechanism. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Management, Urban Service, NGOs

94

Preparing the Ground for Tourism Development on a Local Level: A Case Study of Kampot, Cambodia

Michaela Winter & Walter Jamieson

Abstract A cursory assessment of the national tourism environment in Cambodia reveals the fact that tourism development is still in its infancy, impeded by various constraints. The national government is committed to poverty reduction as their primary development goal and identifies the development of the tourism industry as a key instrument in meeting this goal.

A diversification of the tourism product is expected to distribute income generated by tourism. Diversification can take place if local authorities are capable of planning, managing, and promoting tourism, which up to now has not been the case. As the national government is not in a position to provide local administrations with sufficient planning, guidance, and resources, self-initiative needs to be demonstrated and undertaken to prepare the ground for tourism planning and development.

Kampot City and its surroundings located on Cambodia’s southern coast are identified by the national government as one of the potential priority areas for tourism development. Vested with a varied blend of cultural, natural, economic resources, it appears to have a potential to develop tourism. However, without enough information on the tourism market, it is difficult to make predictions about the future development and determine the feasibility of development projects.

This research outlines the study area’s possible future paths based on the analysis of the current physical, socio-economic, legislative conditions, and an assessment of the existing development potential and constraints. The severe institutional, financial, and infrastructural deficiencies at the local level create a difficult environment to make any change happen. Therefore, the focus of the recommendations is placed on creating a flexible and local-specific planning solution, and capability of adapting to the changing conditions and responding to any unforeseen occurrences.

To meet these requirements, a three phased tourism planning and development framework is elaborated to prepare the locality for a future tourism development and its subsequent consequences. To respond the current conditions, the proposed planning process is initially focused on the actual development opportunities rather than a long-term vision. Hence, pilot projects are identified and prioritized to initiate development, improve local planning capacities, and encourage self-initiative. Keywords/phrases: Tourism, Poverty Reduction

95

Promoting Public Awareness on Urban Environmental Management: A Case Study on Wastewater Management in Nampasak Canal, Vientiane, Lao PDR

Arounna Vongsakhamphouy & Edsel Sajor

Abstract

Faced with urbanization, Lao PDR’s focus on development infrastructure takes no heed to environmental protection and becomes the current issue. The problems on environment appear from growth population, urbanization, modernization, consumption pattern, and others. The main problem of the environmental condition is disposal waste that damages the natural environment, especially in the urban areas. To maintain the environment, the Lao government held several programs jointly with some international NGOs. The study is conducted to understand the particularity of people’s environmental awareness in the local community, to access various ongoing government environmental awareness and information dissemination programs, as well as to identify the important areas of reform in the current government programs and activities. Sixty respondents were interviewed to gain information on environmental awareness in Sihom area from people who live in that area. The results of the study show that Sihom area appears to have bad environmental conditions, such as stagnant water and waste problems. From observations, it is suggested that gender plays a major roles in maintaining the environment. The survey shows that females are more active in maintaining the environment than males. It is also found that the main constraints in Sihom area on environmental awareness are lack of human resources, responsibility, dissemination of information, and budget. To improve environmental awareness, it is recommended to integrate the wastewater management and policy in Sihom area. Keywords/phrases: Water Management, Urbanization, Public Awareness

96

Proposed Strategies and Action Plans for Sustainable Tourism Development of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

Aminur Rahman Md. Tariq & Walter Jamieson

Abstract This study is conducted to respond to the present situation of tourism development in the Cox’s Bazar district (Bangladesh) where tourism is not yet recognized as the major generator of economic activity. Almost all the activities related to tourism are conducting in Cox’s Bazar at the district level. This study identifies the impacts of the current tourism development situation and provides recommendations for sustainable development of the city. Primary data are collected through observation, questionnaire survey, and informal discussion with key informants. The objectives of this study are to examine and identify the issues that are obstacles to sustainable tourism in the Cox’s Bazar city. Reviewing relevant documents will provide a better understanding of the government activities as well as background knowledge on sustainable tourism development. A SWOT analysis is conducted to understand the actual situation of tourism in Cox’s Bazar. Finally, the results of the study are used as the basis for proposing policy guidelines, strategies and action plans for developing a sustainable tourism in Cox’s Bazar. Recommendations are proposed after considering the present political and administrative condition in Bangladesh. Keywords/phrases: Institutional Coordination, Tourism

97

Prospects for Community Participation in Delivery of Water Supply For Km 52 Village in Vientiane Province, Lao PDR

Xeng Xiong Nengxay & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract Over the past few decades, the rapid growth of population and urbanization has resulted in a widened gap between the demand and supply of urban services in developing countries. In the absence of sufficient capacities in urban authorities to meet this demand, participatory service delivery system has been developed in many countries as an alternative approach. This study explores the prospects of participatory approach for delivering water supply to an urban village in the Vientiane Province of Lao PDR. Using the technique of stakeholder group consultation, the community’s willingness to participate in planning, implementation, and maintenance phases of a proposed water supply project, as well as their willingness to pay for the water supply service, are explored by involving 180 respondents. The results of the study indicate that water supply indeed is the first priority need of the community and that beneficiaries are ready to make contributions by finance and labor for the distribution system, if the authorities construct the headworks. The findings also reveal that a significant proportion of the households need to collaborate with the provincial government and the state water supply enterprise to implement the project. However, the capacity of the village administration and community organizations needs to be strengthened to mobilize resources for a community-driven project. Based on these findings, the study recommends that bottom-up project planning and implementation should be encouraged in urban areas of Lao PDR for the delivery of basic infrastructure services. Keywords/phrases: Community Participation, Basic Infrastructure Services, Water Supply

98

Public-Private Partnership for Controlling Air Pollution: The Case of Dhaka Urban Transport Project

Md. Ashraf Ali & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Air pollution in Dhaka (Bangladesh) has grown to a level that is now threatening health, economy and nature. Financial constraints and lack of investment in urban transport make the city the dumpsite for obsolete vehicles, which are the main contributors of air pollution in the city. To respond the challenging task of managing the vehicular emission, the Government of Bangladesh (GOB), with the help of World Bank (IDA), launched the Dhaka Urban Transport Project (DUTP). In this project, Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is incorporated for realizing the DUTP goals. This study identifies the present status of PPP in managing air quality in Dhaka, reviews the current strategies of DUTP, and explores the areas of further interventions required for implementing PPP as envisaged in DUTP. To identify a possible synergy between the perspectives of project actors and the outsiders, a field survey is conducted to interview people responsible for implementing the project. Social workers and vehicle drivers are also interviewed to get their insights on the problems experienced. The existing systems of participation and partnership in several levels and their coordination are examined to explore the barriers encountered for implementing the project in general and PPP in particular. Five major issues including politics, policies, hierarchy, organization, and social factors are identified. The results of the study suggest that even a very specific task of checking and ensuring the fitness of vehicles is mired in those larger issues. In order to overcome these problems, it is the responsibility of the Department of Environment for assessing the overall coordination mechanisms in managing air quality in Dhaka. However, the policies are not considered adequate to gear up the process of implementation. Thus, some improvements in specific areas are important to make the coordination efficient. For example, a common forum is not effective, unless it is activated to yield a tangible result, which is influenced by the political rivalry among the interested groups. It is also found that both public and private actors are aware about their potential role to improve the environmental performance. There is also a willingness and opportunity to cooperate, but capacity to meet each other’s requirements appears to be the main obstacle to reach the goal. This suggests the need of capacity building and empowerment of private sector groups to issue a fitness certificate for vehicles. Regulatory measures to direct and support the private sector to promote environmental considerations are necessary. Policy changes from present ‘end of the pipe’ regulation to use of ‘economic incentives’ need to be incorporated in DUTP implementation mechanisms. From the situation analysis, it is evident that PPP is featured prominently in achieving the objectives of DUTP and that favorable condition is prevailing to integrate PPP at the institutional as well as project implementation level. Keywords/phrases: Public-Private Partnership, Air Pollution, Capacity Building

99

Recent Changes in Context and Basic Policy Affecting Urban Slum Dwellers Communities in Phnom Penh, Cambodia and Implications on Participatory Approach

in Ongoing and Future Relocation Programs

Din Somethearith & Edsel Sajor

Abstract The period between 1998 and 2000 was marked by a policy and practice of government in Phnom Penh, which upheld a step-by-step relocation in clearing the city of slums. In this period, relocatees and pro-poor civil society groups were given utmost participation in decision-making, planning, designing, implementing, and financing. This resulted in a better quality of living conditions in relocation sites and a high degree of satisfaction of relocatees. Since 2001, the Government of Cambodia and Phnom Penh Municipality put high on its agenda the attraction of potential inward investments for the upgrading and beautification policy of the nation’s capital. Many urban development infrastructure projects, whose aim is to attract business investments in the city and in the immediate future, were launched. This phenomenon led to the spiraling effect of real estate prices in the city and the landowners’ rising interest in securing their urban lands. This change ushered in a corresponding radical shift in the previous step-by-step relocation and tolerance of government in a participatory approach. Since 2001, the new policy has been marked by quick and haphazard relocation and non-participation by the affected squatters and pro-poor civil society groups. This policy results in a poor quality of living conditions in relocation areas and a very low satisfaction among the relocatees. This also minimizes the positive contributions to good relocation projects, planning, and policy formulation of various pro-poor advocacy groups hitherto most active in these concerns. This study highlights the level and substance of participation in squatter’s relocation issues as a function of Phnom Penh government’s basic land development and investment policy regime at the present. It is argued that the change in the context and policy regime has basically changed the official tolerance for participation and encouragement of step-by-step relocation, resulting in the lowering of quality and satisfaction of relocatees. It further discusses a set of recommendations for future relocation that should involve both relocatees and pro-poor civil society groups, and the projects should not be quick in process. Keywords/phrases: Urban Slum, Dwellers Community, Participatory Approach

100

Role of Environmental Education in Improving Urban Environment: A Case Study of Environmental Education in Secondary Schools

in Hanoi, Vietnam

Nguyen Phuong Thao & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Similar to other developing countries, urbanization and development in Vietnam is leading to a rapid environmental degradation, especially in urban areas. Environmental awareness of the people is also limited. Due to this situation, the need to change people’s environmental behavior and attitudes by improving their environmental awareness can be hardly overstressed. Hence, the role of environmental education is seen as crucial.

Today’s students will be the next generation of decision makers. They will decide the main role on how to achieve the goal of sustainable development and environmental protection. Once the basic knowledge of environment and environmental protection is provided for them, they will be prepared to take responsible actions in the future. Due to this problem, improving the performance of environmental education in Vietnam is the main objective of this study. The study also proposes suitable environmental education programs for serving the process of environmental awareness improvement for students. The study involves conducting a field survey taken from January to March 2001 in two secondary schools in Hanoi. Lack of suitable policies, poor teaching materials, and limitation of experienced teachers are the major weaknesses of the current environmental education program. Policy recommendations are proposed to develop environmental education in secondary schools of Vietnam by providing suitable policies for environmental education, promoting environmental education materials including curricula, and improving training for teachers. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Education, Environmental Awareness

101

Selected Issues in Tripartite Partnerships for Basic Services Delivery to Urban Un-/Underserviced Areas

Yvonne Van Remmen & Walter Jamieson

Abstract

In an attempt to “get government right”, partnerships between local government and the private and/or the civil sector are widely advocated as a way to achieve better urban management, especially vis-à-vis the urban un-/underserviced. Conceptually, the notion of partnership is clear; it challenges local governments, civil society groups and/or private partners to work together towards a common goal on an equitable basis. However, the practical implications of working in a partnership are little understood, especially by local government officials. Moreover, local governments need to provide the legal, policy and administrative framework for partnerships to function in. Further, partnerships are often implemented on a pilot project basis, which invokes questions to the successful replication and extension of these partnerships to other parts of the city and/or to other cities. In this study, the three questions are addressed by reviewing literatures and a case study of a slum upgradation project in Ahmedabad, India.

Conventional methods, such as providing a 10-year guarantee of non-eviction and popular solutions for un-/underserviced areas, like hand-pumps and public toilets, are refuted in the programme taken up in Ahmedabad. The programme is based on an innovative concept, called a slum networking at the heart of which is the belief that slum areas are not the locations of crime, disease and disorder. Instead, slums are conceived as an integral part of the city for which popular solutions are rejected, as they are said to spring forth from a “poverty mind-set” whose installation will mark slum areas permanently as different from the rest of the city.

The Ahmedabad project is initially delivered through a tripartite partnership between local government, a private partner and NGOs/CBOs/the residents. The tripartite partnership is successful, as it delivers the works on time and within the budget. However, it breaks down due to insurmountable differences between the partners in terms of working cultures, methods, and expectations. Hence, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation proceeds with the slum upgradation without having a private partner.

The lesson learned from this study is working in a partnership. The vital components are the acceptance of each partner’s working methods and cultures, flexibility, and clear agreements and rules. The assessment of the framework in which the slum upgradation project functions indicates the need for an integrated policy addressing tenure, micro-credit, and governance issues as well as the advantages of a central administrative body with a sufficient political cloud and power to give the project status. The slum-networking concept has been successfully replicated in India within and between cities and the conditions for replication include political commitment, sufficient availability of resources, and availability of willing and able partners.

The success of the Ahmedabad upgradation program rests on its innovative approach. It is also shown that working through tripartite partnerships has tangible benefits if each partner enables to leverage it strength (to achieve synergy) and the objectives are realized in a situation where a single partner would not succeed. Moreover, the Ahmedabad case illustrates that the benefits enjoyed by the residents of un/underserviced areas are much larger if a guarantee of non-eviction is supplemented by the provision of adequate basic services (preferably on an individual basis). Keywords/phrases: Services Delivery, Partnership, NGOs

102

Service Performance Evaluation of Metropolitan Waterworks Authority (MWA) of Bangkok Metropolitan: Integrating Customer Perspective

into The Evaluation Protocol

On-usah Thongthai & Walter Jamieson

Abstract Water is critical for human survival, economic development, and environment. The Agenda 21 specifically stressed the importance of a potable water supply, safe drinking water, and environmentally acceptable wastewater treatment. The urban water system is one of the significant subsystems of any urban area, as it is necessary for economic development, population growth, and human health. Bangkok, one of the mega-cities in the South East Asia region, has around 12 million inhabitants. The increasing number of people in Bangkok is directly proportional to increasing water-consuming households. Enjoying the monopoly of water distribution in Metropolitan Bangkok, Metropolitan Waterworks Authority (MWA) should conduct its own internal and external measurement system, as they are indirectly controlled by the central government. The assessment system of water supply services, especially the quality of the produced water, is promoted in the public with the help of the ‘drinkable water supply’ campaign in 2000. Following the ISO 9002 certification in the manufacturing water supply of the two of the four treatment plants, customers should be aware and know the efforts of MWA. However, the majority of the users, such as households, do not drink water directly from the taps. There seems to be a lack of confidence and poor communication between MWA and its customers. With such premises, this study investigates the causes of customer dissatisfaction by conducting a perception/expectation/attitude and behavior survey using a structured questionnaire as well as an in-depth interview with the key informants, and observation. Secondary data, such as existing statistical and related data from MWA, are also used. The results of the study reveal that the three previous customer satisfaction reports and results are too technical and redundant. The important elements of customer survey, such as the utilization of evaluation results, are missing. The current results are practically useless for the decision-makers. Moreover, the roles of MWA for its customers at this point are not very clear. The study also designs an evaluation system that is recommended for institutionalization at MWA level to bring out real needs of the users. This could bring more effective and efficient MWA service from the customer perspective. Eventually, new approaches of policy and strategic plans are suggested to improve and upgrade customer satisfaction index. Responsive and complementary roles of both MWA and customers/users could bring out straightforward and environmentally sound solutions to would-be problems. On the practical management side, MWA would be seen as a government agency that cares for the people. Keywords/phrases: Economic Development, Agenda 21, Water Supply

103

Study of Industrial Participation in Cleaner Production for Industrial Efficiency in Samut Prakarn Province, Thailand

Benchawan Chokchaitrakulpho & Walter Jamieson

Abstract

For over a decade, the Thai government has been promoting Cleaner Production (CP) implementation and practice. Many NGOs and stakeholders have been involved to promote the application of CP in Thai industries. International donors support the majority of these initiatives, as well as Thai universities, research institutes, NGOs, and government agencies. Some of the CP implementing activities on a voluntary basis and bottom-up approach are successful in various projects. Until recently, Samut Prakarn is the industrialized province to which existing pollution problems, financial constraints, and industrial waste management have become an important issue. Furthermore, this area has to face the continual serious environmental and social problems for many years. Due to this problem, the aims of this paper are to provide an overall understanding of CP implementation in Samut Prakarn province and identify the problems and constraints of CP implementation. The methodology for this project has integrated the strategy of Thai CP development and the World Business Council for sustainable development, and United Nations Environmental Programme’s CP strategy and policy. In fact, the recommendations from International Declaration on Cleaner Production and Australian Environmental Protection Agency are identified for further application in CP Thailand. The recommended approach toward sustainable development includes four aspects, such as institutional, legal, policy and planning, and implementation. This project identifies problems and constraints for each aspect, as well as proposes measures and recommendation for solving these problems. In addition, the suggestions on the feasibility and priority of measures to address these problems for success in CP implementation in Thailand are also provided. For the institutional aspect, Tambon Administrative Organization is selected as the best institutional means to encourage CP implementation in the community, since the resources, authority, and knowledge are readily available. Public media is also the best means to provide a legally investigative tools as well as economic incentives for CP implementing industries. Finally, the knowledge transfer from the high potential capacity at the national level to the local level is encouraged for a sustainable implementation. It is concluded that all prioritized aspects should be implemented in a pilot project to sharpen this integrated approach and that further studies should focus on the evaluation of the feasibility to promote financial service and investment to support CP implementation to achieve a sustainable industry.

Keywords/phrases: Urbanization, Stakeholders, Industrial Participation

104

Study of Trends and Major Determinants of the Level of Official Development Assistance (ODA) for Urban Environmental Management (UEM)

Local Projects in Thailand

Chonchinee Amawatana & Edsel Sajor

Abstract The study aims at finding out the trend of the level and ranking of Official Development Assistance (ODA) in Urban Environmental Management (UEM) vis-à-vis in other development sectors, such as finance, insurance and economic development, energy and power supply, and transportation and communication in two decades period. It also explores the major determinants that influence this level of UEM-ODA ranking. During the year 1980-2000, UEM sector received the value of ODA in the fourth ranking. While financial, insurance and economic development sector, energy and power supply sector, transportation and communication received ODA as the first, second and third ranking respectively. The trends of UEM in ODA are stable-low during the year 1980-1992. Fortunately, it started increasing in 1993. Due to the creation of the Agenda 21 in 1992 and the newcomers of international agencies that stimulate the movement of environmental awareness and perception, the natural resources and environmental management in Thailand had just seriously been concern in the sixth, seventh and eighth NESDP. The new ‘Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act’ in 1992 also influences this matter. The major determinants exploring the trend of UEM-ODA are the prioritization mismatch of UEM-ODA projects between international agencies and local government units, the lack of the resources and capacities of the recipient governments, the limited resources of the providing agencies, the lack of inter-agency cooperation, and the framework of the conditionality. To improve and promote greater and/or more appropriate ODA project assistance for UEM local projects in Thailand, there should be an establishment of the central institutions to deal directly to the ODA statistical record keeping and to improve the database in terms of clarification and data updating. Partnerships among the main actors in UEM-ODA projects should be encouraged and established. People’s participation with private sectors and NGOs is urgently required. Through training process and with an adequate expertise and consultants or trained labor, Thailand could exist to plan and execute projects effectively. Thus, there should be proper education and training programs for developing the indigenous skilled labor at the national and local level. Keywords/phrases: Urban Environmental Management, Participatory Approach

105

Sustainable Design and Management of Community Green Space: A Case Study of Wangjing A5 Community, Beijing, China

Zhang Ge & Walter Jamieson

Abstract Due to the housing privatization in China, community green space (CGS) becomes more important to people. Although many new CGS shows up in Beijing, the developers still treat CGS as a selling package. Green space is designed for showing houses. The sustainability of CGS is ignored. The present CGS designs appear as strong unsustainable characters: environmental impacts are neglected; people’s needs are not paid enough attention; sense of place is lost, and green space becomes unaffordable. From a management point of view, at city level, there are no effective incentives and controls for developers to build a more sustainable CGS. At the community level, unsound management systems make the situation worse. The collective owners of CGS-residents are excluded in the decision-making process. It results in fierce community conflicts. Therefore, design and management of CGS in Beijing are unsustainable. CGS is significantly important for the community environment. Not only do CGSs provide clean air and visual pleasure, but are also a place where people exercise and meet each other. Thus, CGS contributes to a community’s environmental, social, and economic sustainability. Based on this background, Wangjing A5 Community is selected as a study case. Its green space design is evaluated based on interviews and observations. Management issues are explored through interviewing the main stakeholders. The key problems and their root causes are found, a sustainable strategy for A5 is formulated. Through analyzing the issues at community level, recommendations for Beijing CGS sustainable design and management are brought forward. Policy incentives and a standard control from city level as well as a sound community management mechanism through setting up contract relationships among the stakeholders are emphasized. Keywords/phrases: Stakeholder, Community Participation, Privatization

106

Towards a Sustainable Preservation Strategy for Safeguarding the Character of Luang Prabang, Lao PDR

Christine Dvorak & Walter Jamieson

Abstract Pleasantly integrated into the surrounding environment, Luang Prabang is a distinctive cultural heritage asset, which is an excellent example for a harmonious coexistence of Asian vernacular and colonial architecture. The listing of the city as a World Heritage Site in 1995 confirms that Luang Prabang holds a cultural heritage significance of outstanding universal value. Hence, it needs to be preserved in order to transmit its particular cultural value to future generations. While Luang Prabang kept its integrity throughout the centuries, after the country’s opening to the outside world in 1989, this unique heritage place started attracting increasing numbers of international tourists. As a result, the city faces the challenge of dealing with considerable pressures on the town’s urban fabric. Many of them are the consequence of the recent tourism boom. Whereas conservation and heritage management efforts have been undertaken, especially after the site’s inscription onto the World Heritage List, this living ancient city is still threatened to lose its very authenticity and original heritage value. By taking into consideration the current heritage management system, this study attempts to reveal a possible future oath and solutions to tackle the selected aspects of the problem. Through a comprehensive analysis of the physical environment and its typical characteristics and by reviewing the present heritage management organism, major threats and risks affecting Luang Prabang’s heritage fabric are determined. While some of them originated from the natural processes, most of them are identified to have their roots in specific human behavior and related activities, due to the present tourism development. Hence, the most significant loophole is realized within the city’s conservation scheme. Previous research studies focused on the Luang Prabang’s religious heritage as well as specific cases on particular individual heritage houses. However, it is also found that the sense of place and a definite local feeling are identified as the main characteristics turning Luang Prabang into a unique place. Simultaneously, whereas temples are typical monuments that can be found almost everywhere in Asia, it is the distinctive atmosphere of Luang Prabang that attracts tourists to come. Not only from the point of view of an urban environmental manager, but also from the interest of Luang Prabang’s inhabitants, making the preservation of the city’s overall character of foremost importance. Indeed, once the Luang Prabang’s particular sense of place is lost, the city may lose simultaneously the main sector of its urban economy. Therefore, a framework of strategies is developed to safeguard this specific quality of Luang Prabang. With respect to the current tourism boom and the necessity for adaptation to the needs of a modern society, an attempt to provide solutions that incorporate both preservation goals and a certain degree of freedom regarding alterations is made. Thus, the main focus is laid on safeguarding the Luang Prabang’s overall character, while emphasizing the strategies on the maintenance of the diverse atmospheres within the city’s boundaries and the preservation of the town’s continuity. Keywords/phrases: Urban Economy, Tourism, World Heritage

107

Towards Sustainable Development of Urban Renewal in Seoul: Evaluation and Effects of Government Housing Renewal Program

Myeongso Eo & Walter Jamieson

Abstract In developing countries, the issues of urban renewal have become increasingly more critical. Policy-makers have cast about for new policies and strategies and allocated more of their country’s housing resources for renewal activities. Government programs have become too sophisticated to respond to the failure of past initiatives, due to the growing complexities of the problems, and in light of economic restraints. This objective of the study is to analyze the policies and institutional aspects of urban housing renewal program in Seoul, and evaluate the policy effectiveness and impacts caused by the program. The study rests on qualitative information gathered through interviews, observation, and discussions, along with reliance on secondary information. In Seoul, where the speed of change is so fast and dynamic, redevelopment and reconstruction by demolition is the most effective way of overcoming housing problems and raising housing standards. Government has launched an active housing renewal program to support housing supply and improve living conditions. The main policy measures are the deregulation of land use standards and cooperative methods by private initiative development. Through this program, renewal projects took place in Seoul over the last decade. The results of the study reveal that the current renewal program in Seoul has conflicting consequences. The renewal program achieves many positive changes. It is important to note that the program certainly has contributed to the improvement of living conditions in slum areas. However, the negative impacts, such as waste of housing resources and lack of infrastructure, have emerged in the adjacent area. In spite of the achievements of the renewal program, the negative impacts caused by the program are undermined by the effectiveness of the program. In the meantime, considering the situation in Seoul, it is indicated that the deregulation of government is not the only way to solve the urban problems. On the contrary, the Seoul renewal case implies that social regulations, such as land use standards, should be kept. To ensure better quality of life and sustainable urban development, the following recommendations are suggested: (1) establish appropriate renewal standards (2) prevent housing resource waste (3) facilitate rehabilitation methods (4) increase government financial support in the renewal program (5) combine complex acts, and (6) introduce comprehensive approaches. Keywords/phrases: Sustainable Development, Quality of Life

108

Urban Agriculture as a Municipal Waste Reduction Strategy: A Study of Commercial Farms in Suan Luang District, Bangkok Metropolis

Witchuda Srang-iam & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract The aim of this study is to assess the potential of Urban Agriculture (UA) as a waste reduction strategy in Municipal Waste Management (MWM). It investigates UA as a constituting demand and supply for Waste Reuse in Urban Agriculture (WRUA). Data collection and analysis are conducted at farm level, targeting Bangkok Metropolis as the study area.

The documentary evidence suggests that the emergence of an adaptive form of UA in Bangkok Metropolis is concurrent with the decline of traditional agriculture. The emerging UA, shifting towards an intensive and short-term use of land, is generally found on marginal land near community in the fringe. These urban farmers usually exploit opportunities from urban setting in marketing as well as utilize municipal waste. Since the centralized composting undergoes a crisis, this decentralized small-scale composting offered by UA may be considered as an alternative to the recycle municipal organic waste.

A survey is conducted on the commercial vegetable farms in Suan Luang District to represent an adaptive pattern of Bangkok UA without being preserved by zoning, as well as explore the demand and supply of waste reuse. The result indicates that in spite of not much demand at the present, the prospect of substantial demands for waste-derived product would be induced by the benefit from hygienic food products. The present demand leads to utilizing urban waste for certain types and sources. The farmers in Suan Luang area utilize a large portion of both municipal waste and farm waste for composting, as it is easily accessible. The investigation of waste reuse supply also displays the individual practice of waste reuse by urban farmers, without cooperation throughout the process: collecting, treating, and composting.

The cost-benefit analysis of WRUA reveals a considerable benefit accrued to the society. In spite of little contribution to MWM, the amount of benefit accrued to farmers, who reuse the waste, becomes a promising strategy in waste reduction. However, this potential cannot be fully utilized if large portion of benefit remains untapped by the urban farmers.

A two-level intervention strategy is suggested to accommodate the linkage between UA and MWM. At the farm level, waste reuse practice can be facilitated through an agricultural extension, direct marketing, and farmer’s cooperation. At the city level, promoting UA practice, providing reuse incentives, and institutional building for waste-based products should be performed for the persistence of UA, the enlargement of WRUA extent, as well as for the reflection of beneficial values of WRUA in farmers’ monetary benefit. Keywords/phrases: Waste Reduction, Urban Agriculture, Municipal Waste Management

109

Urban Environmental Governance for Religious Tourism in Selective Pilgrim Towns in India

Kiran Ajit Shinde & Walter Jamieson

Abstract Pilgrim towns are the religious centers where people travel to seek spiritual help and perform pilgrimage (religious tourism). However, in India, most of these pilgrim towns are facing environmental degradation due to the pressures exerted by an increased and regular distribution of visitors (in effect the floating population). This is coupled with the urban growth of the towns driven by the demand for supporting infrastructure, such as accommodation facilities and amenities. In the pilgrim towns, environmental concerns primarily relate to carrying capacity, such as stressed infrastructure, increased residuals like solid waste and cumulative pollution problems, as well as visitor management. This study examines two popular pilgrim towns in India, Tirumala- Tirupati with a strong authoritative religious institution of TTD and Vrindavan without a single strong religious institution (but hundreds of small institutions). The environmental issues are analyzed within a ‘Pressure- State- Response’ framework with a focus on ‘response’ mechanism by institutions, such as local government, religious institutions, NGOs, and civil society. This analysis is used to develop strategies for better environmental management based on an understanding of their interactions. It is seen that the resources generated within the towns (by pilgrims) are not appropriate for environmental improvements. On one hand, local authorities are found to be incapable of handling the additional burden of the floating population due to a lack of resources and responsibilities beyond its scope. On the other hand, there are religious institutions (like temples and ashrams) in pilgrim towns that benefit directly from the offerings made by pilgrims (in reverence to deity or religious leaders). It is important to note that the religious institutions have moral responsibilities of propagating religious faith by incorporating environmental concerns. The lack of institutional capacity (policy and responsibility) to manage regular visit and inaction on the part of different actors in the town are found to be the major reasons for the existing environmental problems in the pilgrim towns. It is argued that pilgrimage needs to be accepted as an economic activity, as it provides income opportunities for the local residents and produces output that adds to the environmental pollution. A ‘Strategic Management’ approach in the study suggests two-pronged strategies to deal with the environmental issues in pilgrim towns. The general long-term recommendations consist of the policies for managing the impacts (effects) and minimizing the impact by limiting the pressures (causes), such as the influx of visitors. The latter is a ‘Command and Control’ measure, which is recommended if the management approach fails to improve the situation. Measures for managing impacts consist of developing a comprehensive policy for pilgrimage, a strategy for stakeholder participation in environmental management based on their strengths, and accepting pilgrimage as tourism related economic activity, as well as the need to bring religious institutions as enterprises under some regulatory frameworks for environmental improvement. Strategic EIA that deals with the ambient quality of the environment is suggested to consider the cumulative effect of influx of pilgrims on the entire town. Short-term immediate measures are also put forward for the selected towns within an Urban Environmental Management approach. Socio-economic, cultural, and political dimensions are the potential areas of research to develop a better understanding and strategies for environment improvements, as these influence the implementations of the recommendations. Keywords/phrases: Urban Governance, Tourism, Urban Environment

110

Urban Environmental Management Policies to Improve the Living Condition in Slum Settlements: A Case Study of Tau Hu Canal Settlement,

District 8, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Pham Quang Dong & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract This study analyzes the urban environmental management policy recommendation for authority institutions and community participation mechanisms for low-income households. Its purpose is towards living condition improvement with the focus on low-income people in slum settlements along canals in District 8, Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam) through sewerage and sanitation improvement. With respect to this view, this study focuses on investigating the current policies, plans, and institutional characteristics related to sewerage and sanitation management. The study seeks to find out both gaps and weaknesses between them and recommends suitable policies and institutional reforms toward the local authorities through urban environmental management at the local level. The socio-economic status and current sewerage and sanitation conditions also are briefly reviewed to understand the current situations of living conditions of local people in slum settlements along Tau Hu canal. After exploring the root causes of these problems and constraints, this study provides some recommendations. At first, an “Urban Environmental Management Plan” and a clear vision of slum upgrading need to be created at the macro-level for long-term. Secondly, a “Steering Committee” needs to be established as a special cell to combine and integrate all of the plans, programs and activities dealing with infrastructure improvement to avoid the overlaps, loopholes, and gaps. Finally, suggestions for community participation at the micro level are very important to contribute to the improvement of living conditions at the local level. Keywords/phrases: Slum Settlements, Low-income Households

111

Urbanization Impact at Local Level: A Study of a Migrant Community in Beijing

Gu Qi & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Since the 1980s, along with the rural economic reform and the booming urban market economy, increasing rural-urban migration has become a social phenomenon in China. The rural migrants and their settlements could be observed in the Chinese metropolises, such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. They have contributed to the development and prosperity of the cities. However, due to their non-urban household registration (Hukou in Chinese) status and the associated institutional settings, they are treated as a “floating population” (or “floaters”) institutionally and considered as “villagers” socially. In addition, regulations and restrictions have been enforced by the municipal governments to confine the entry of the migrants to the large cities and limit their access to the urban labor market. Nevertheless, through the action of leaving the land and coming to the city, the peasant migrants have improved their income by their economic activities. Thus, they will continue to come to the cities and stay there if the circumstances allow. However, the current policies and institutional settings do not provide them the possibilities to settle down in the city fairly and permanently. The future prospective for most rural migrants remains unclear and uncertain. Due to this reason, the objective of this study is to analyze the biggest migrant community in Beijing – Zhejiang village from the perspective of urbanization by using a case study method. Zhejiang village is a typical example of Chinese migrant communities in huge cities. The basic characteristic of the community is that the living and working environment and condition is very bad, but there are existing opportunities to improve the situation, as their capacity to earn is good thus, enabling them to afford a better living standard. It is argued that the prevailing situation is a consequence of individual migrant’s priority on income and defects in the administrative regulations. It is stressed that there is a necessity for institutional innovation in the administration of rural migrants to promote their integration and absorption in the urban areas. The study proposes the reform of the old urban management system and development of the migrant community by encouraging informal sector absorption of the rural migrants. Such an accommodating policy agenda is essential for mutual gains of the migrants and the city residents. Keywords/phrases: Urbanization, Migrant Community, Rural-Urban Migration

112

2003

113

Analysis of Household Affordability and Willingness to Pay for Improved Water Supply in Two Towns of Lao PDR

Douangcharch Lopaying & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract

Urban water supply provisions are still rare, due to the traditional state-owned utility model, which tends to be ineffective and an unsustainable model particularly in developing countries, as it is in Lao PDR. Most of these provisions are not constructed on the basis of consultation with the community concerned, by assessing their affordability and willingness to pay. This is evident, in the water supply system of the selected areas (Champhone and Laongam towns) for this study, which are over-designed in 2001. This results in a high connection fee, excluding the poor. Utility is unable to set a water tariff rate that is consistent with people’s willingness to pay. Due to this reason, this study investigates and analyzes the affordability and willingness of the people to pay for an improved quality of water supply in those towns. The results of the study reveal that the affordability to pay for a connection fee, which is measured by the sum of money spent for water containers and installation cost for making their own water source(s), is about 51.7% in Champhone and 70.2% in Laongam of the household monthly income, respectively. The affordability to pay for a monthly water charge, measured by the average money value of working time for the collection water and market price of water at the built source(s) and indoor water operation cost, is 2.3% in Champhone and 4.8 % in Laongam of that income.

The willingness to pay, measured by the amount of money that people are prepared to pay for improving the water supply, varies from household to household and from town to town by household characteristics, such as income, savings, gender, location of house and the respondents’ characteristics (age, educational background, and attitude toward government policy on water supply). It is also determined by contingent valuation method, which shows that it is 38.0% in Champhone and 75.7% in Laongam (for connection fee) and 1.5% in Champhone and 2.4% in Laongam (for water monthly charge) of the household monthly income, respectively. Overall, the willingness to pay for monthly water charge is less than affordability to pay and it is also less than the amount generally assumed (3 - 5% of the income). It is suggested that an awareness campaign program is necessary to raise the willingness to pay to meet the affordability level, which can be denoted as the maximum level of water demand. Water supply should be provided when there is clear demonstrable evidence that the users desire the service and they are willing to pay for the cost of the system. Water tariff should start at the willingness to pay levels and not exceed the affordability levels. Keywords/phrases: Water Supply, Household, Environmental Awareness

114

Capacity Building for Sustainable Tourism Development in the Golden Triangle (Bhubaneswar-Puri-Konark), Orissa, India

Bimalendu Mohanty & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Tourism has emerged as the largest global industry and reflects a rising trend. At the initial growth stage, tourism activities have more beneficial impacts than detrimental effects. As tourism activities continue to accelerate, its impacts on economic, socio-cultural and environmental sectors become considerable. There emerges the need of adopting an approach of sustainable tourism development, which attempts to give more economic benefits to the local people, preserve the local culture as well as traditions, and protect the environment from being polluted by the growth of tourism activities. To achieve such goals, the capacities of related human resources and institutions carry a significant role. To verify the above theoretical concept and to analyze the human resource and institutional capacity building initiatives, the ‘Golden Triangle’ in India is selected as the study area. It is formed by the three vertex cities, namely Bhubaneswar, Puri and Konark, which has a special position in the tourist map of India, due to its unique natural beauty, long and attractive coastline, rich culture and heritage, ancient architecture and religious importance. In spite of such potentials, maximum quantum of economic, socio-cultural and environmental benefits could not be obtained from the Golden Triangle. The level of capabilities and capacities of present human resources and institutions, respectively, are not sufficient to meet the tourism sustainability demand. In this study, an attempt is made to analyze the present human resource capabilities and institutional capacities for promoting sustainable tourism in the study area, while looking into the environmental conditions of the tourist places and the shortfalls in government plans and policies. The study’s empirical content is primarily based on the questionnaire surveys of the tourists and the local people. In addition, interviews are conducted to get information from the government officials and other key stakeholders. Secondary data are also collected from the available literature and government publications. The collected data are analyzed through qualitative and quantitative methods using analytical tools, such as SPSS. The results of the study reveal that both human resource-wise and institution-wise, as well as the existing capacities of different stakeholders are not sufficient to promote sustainable tourism in the study area. It is found that the government officials lack motivation to formulate tourism focused on economic, socio-cultural and environmental policies. They lack ability to motivate and empower the local people to get involved in tourism- related activities and the field level tourist officials do not have power to plan for the benefit of local people. The local people’s participation in tourism activities is found to be low. Not all the local residents have a positive attitude towards the tourists and the tourists are not aware of the local culture and traditions before reaching there. The local people, tourists, and other stakeholders do not have environmental awareness. Moreover, the institutions of different government departments do not have good coordination among them. The local governments lack efficiency in maintaining cleanliness of the tourist places. The government lacks capacity to provide better infra-structure and services, promote indigenous art as well as culture, and provide safety to the tourists. To overcome these shortfalls, several human resource and institutional capacity building related recommendations are proposed for sustainable tourism development in the study area. Keywords/phrases: Capacity Building, Tourism Development, Stakeholder

115

Constraints in Implementing Urban Development Policy in India from The Perspective of International Development Professionals:

A Study of Sustainable Cities Program in Chennai

Shagun V. Mehrotra & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract The increasingly large cities experiencing high population growth rates are predominantly in South Asia. Mega-urbanization exerts tremendous stress on the deteriorating urban environments. This study attempts to study the perspective of International Development Professionals (IDPs) on the constraints in implementing contemporary Urban Environmental Management (UEM) policy agendas, while working with partner organizations in India, home to many of the largest cities in South Asia. The study derives lessons while referring to the Sustainable Cities Program in Chennai, south India. The constraints identified in the study are classified based on the project stages and are analyzed based on a framework (3Cs) comprised of coordination (authoritarian approach), competition (market approached) and cooperation (partnership approach). Contributing to the development of the framework, the residual constraints are incorporated into a fourth category of communications. Finally, for the national government and multilateral/donor organizations pragmatic recommendations are provided, predominantly taken from the perspective of IDPs, to address the UEM policies in India. Keywords/phrases: Sustainable Cities

116

Development of Regulatory and Economic Measures in the Management of Yangon’s Sewerage System: A Case Study of Downtown Area

in Yangon, Myanmar

Khin Myat New & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract

The present study aims at developing sewerage system management and investigating how to control the domestic wastewater pollution at the downtown area in Yangon. The study also reviews all the literature on sewerage system management, wastewater pollution control in environmental management and theory-based regulatory and economic instruments, which can be attuned for reducing pollution. The concept of the study is to assess the existing situation of sewerage infrastructure conditions, legal and institutional framework in sewerage system management, and to compare as a pattern on the format by looking into other countries’ legal and institutional frameworks effluent standards, permit systems, and monitoring and enforcement in environmental management of wastewater pollution control. This study also finds out the domestic wastewater pollution control legal and institutional requirements of sewerage management and proposes the development of RIs, EIs in the sewerage system management for controlling wastewater pollution. The results of the study show that the sewerage system in downtown area suffers from a very poor infrastructure and old sewer collection pipe network that needs to be improved in the downtown area of Yangon. The finding of sewerage system management, in terms of legal provision at the city level (law, rules, and regulations for controlling pollution) is quite enough, although some regulatory instruments (specific standards and detail regulations) and economic instruments (charge levies, financial incentive) are not in place yet. By finding the institutions in wastewater pollution control, Nation Commission Environ-mental Affairs could not carry out satisfactorily their responsibilities on wastewater pollution control. It needs to collaborate with other relevant agencies, such as the Sewer Division (SD) under the Water Supply and Sewer Department of Yangon City Development Committee (YCDC), which is responsible for sewerage system management in the downtown area, as well as the Department of Human Settlement and Housing Development under the Ministry of Construction (MOC) and City Planning and the Land Administration Department (CPLAD) under YCDC, which is responsible for issuing a building permit within the city area. They need to coordinate with SD for implementing pollution control measures in Yangon’s downtown area. Strengthening SD legally and institutionally (rule and regulation, specific standards, levies charges, incentives) as well as technical assistants are essential for the development of sewerage system management. The proposed organization structure, objectives, and management action plan are presented with the necessity for the development of sewerage system management. Based on the existing situation, the present applications of regulatory and economic instruments and various learning practices from ASEAN countries to manage wastewater pollution, some recommendations are proposed for the development of sewerage system management, with a strategic approach of the RIs and EIs application in wastewater pollution control. Public awareness, participation, and training are used as persuasive measures that need to be undertaken for implementing the development of a sewerage system management in the downtown area of Yangon. Keywords/phrases: Public Awareness, Domestic Wastewater, Water Pollution Control

117

Formalization of Land Tenure and Living Environment in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam since the Economic Renovation

Pham Tran Hai & Edsel Sajor

Abstract The significance of informality in land occupancy as well as use and ownership, which is observable in the Third World, has drawn theoretical debate on how land tenure shapes the living environment in an informal settlement. This has been called for global campaign on the formalization of land tenure during last several decades, which has experienced success as well as failures in economic, socio-political, and environmental aspects. In Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam) after the Economic Renovation in 1986, informal land - including illegal and unofficial - is a large proportion, approximately two thirds, in the urban land stock. It is considered as a hindrance in the improvement of the living environment. In this study, surveys in the three informal settlements in Ho Chi Minh City show that motivation of occupants for an investment in infrastructure services and houses depends on their perceived tenurial security or optimism for a future of land legality, which is perceived from the signals of the state response. When de facto tenure in the settlement exceeds certain levels, called the "optimism level", its perceived tenurial security is as high as that of de jure tenure. It is supported with informal occupants' advantages in negotiation with the state on land formality, taking place in the context of (1) the fluidity of land management institutions during transition in favors of formalization and (2) the porousness of the state and its infiltration by particularistic social interests. Keywords/phrases: Land Occupancy, Informal Settlement, Third World

118

Impact of Urbanization and Industrialization on the Agricultural Activities in Pathum Thani Province, Thailand:

A Study with Reference to Land Use and Water Use Conflicts

Pravakar Pradhan & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract

This study attempts to analyze and describe the trend and pattern of urbanization and industrialization as well as the impact on agricultural land use in Pathum Thani province, which is an adjacent province of Bangkok Metropolis that has been promoted for industrial development since 1977. How the agricultural land use changed from 1980 is analyzed at 10 years time intervals using GIS. Socio-economic data of the same years are also analyzed. The results of the study reveal that urban and industrial growth in the province have been unsystematic thus, resulting in the conversion of a large portion of prime agricultural land into non-agricultural uses. The study also reveals that the conversion happened not only in agricultural lands, but also in fallow lands. However, the industrial development has increased the GPP and the living standard of people in the province. The findings highlight the conflict in land use and water use, arising out of the process of urbanization and industrialization and their effect on urban planning practice. Several policy options and recommendations are offered to minimize the conflict in the future and make a balance between agricultural and non-agricultural development in the province. Keywords/phrases: Urbanization, Industrialization, Urban Planning

119

Improvement of Water Supply for the Poor: A Case Study of the Dangkao District of Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Seak Pengkeang & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Rapid urbanization in Phnom Penh (Cambodia) has brought big pressure on the water supply authority to expand their service to cope with the need of water for the whole city. The shortage of water primarily falls on the poor and those who live in peril-urban areas of Phnom Penh, such as Dangkao. The Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA) is responsible for the water supply in Phnom Penh. The water supply situation has significantly improved in the core urban areas of Phnom Penh, but about half of the poor still face problems in having an access to the water supply, although PPWSA has undertaken a credit program for facilitating the payment of water connection charges by the poor. As yet only 10% of the total population in Dangkao is covered by the water supply services from PPWSA. The rest rely on informal private providers and traditional sources, such as well, pond, and lake, for meeting their water needs. To formulate recommendations for the improvement of water supply for the poor, this study examines the current constraints and limitations of PPWSA in the provision of water supply to Dangkao for the poor. Data are collected on the current condition of the water supply in Dangkao, on the problems of the poor in having an access to the water supply, and the role of informal private providers (IPP) in the provision water supply. The field visits and survey are also used to collect data through interviewing the PPWSA officials, informal private providers, and questionnaire surveys of the residents of Dangkao. The results of the study reveal that the major constraints of the PPWSA for expanding its water service to Dangkao are: (1) network constraints arising from physical factors (such as the distance of the peril-urban area from the main city network) (2) problems of cost recovery, (3) inadequate efforts by PPWSA to involve people in the service provision, and (4) limited capital investment to build a new network system. It is also found that IPP plays a very important role in the provision of the water supply in Dangkao. The connection fee required by IPP is affordable to the poor. Unfortunately, the water supply provided by IPP does not meet the drinking water quality standard. To overcome this problem, PPWSA may play a supportive role to IPP. PPWSA can introduce an incentive system and provide technical assistance to IPP to improve the quality of water supply.

It is important to note that the two major problems of the poor in having access to the water supply from PPWSA are: (1) the connection fee required is expensive to the poor, and (2) the settlement characteristics they are living in. The poor, living in illegal and temporary settlements are not allowed to have access to the water supply from PPWSA. For the connection fee problem, it is recommended that PPWSA should reform connection fee payment to make it affordable to the poor. The PPWSA should subsidize the water connection fee and not subsidize the water tariff. For overcoming the problem of illegal settlements, the city authority needs to introduce a flexible approach to tenure and legal requirement. Keywords/phrases: Water Supply, Urban Poor, Urbanization

120

Integration of Environmental Assessment into Slum Improvement Programs: A Case Study of Infrastructure Projects in two Slums of Dhaka

Farhat J. Chowdhury & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract Slum dwellers live in an extremely unhygienic environment, characterized by a limited access to latrines, overflowing latrines, closed or no drainage systems, solid waste dumps, and high population density in poorly built houses. The government, donor organizations, and NGOs have taken many infrastructure improvement projects, including drains, footpaths, latrines, refuse disposal bins, water supply, and flood protection, to directly upgrade the unhygienic and unsanitary environment of the slums. Undertaking environmental assessment in the planning and implementation phase of slum improvement programs could facilitate attaining the overall goal of an infrastructure program. This is particularly important, as the slums are over congested and the environment is fragile. Due to this reason, the overall objective of this study is to formulate mechanisms for integration of environmental assessment systems into the slum improvement program, which will help to maximize the benefits and ensure the sustainability of the intervention and provide a healthy living environment to the poor communities. For generating necessary data, a field survey is carried out in the two slums of Dhaka city – Bank-Maath and City-Polly – both of which experienced infrastructural development projects: the former under the SHAHAR and the later under the SIP. The SHAHAR project considers the environmental assessment process in designing and locating interventions while the SIP does not consider it. Slum dwellers of both communities have identified seven drainage and sanitation related physical environmental problems, such as drainage congestion, water stagnation, overflow of waste odor, unsanitary conditions, and bad odor, associated with the newly installed infrastructures, such as drainage system, pathways, community toilets, and refuse bins. Before the implementation of the infrastructures, those problems existed in both slums severely. After the construction of the infrastructures, the situation has improved considerably in the Bank-Maath slum. However, in the City-Polly slum, the problems still persist and slum residents are not fully benefited from these infrastructures. The reasons identified by the slum dwellers are: (1) implementers do not address all the problems existing in the slum, (2) the authority does not ask slum residents regarding the location and extent of the problem, and (3) implementing authority does not come to see the performance of the infrastructures after the completion of work. The newly implemented infrastructures have also created some new problems in the environment. For example, waterlogging is a new problem in the City-Polly slum that has been created, as the project does not ensure outlet drainage during the construction work. Experts and professionals during the Delphi survey emphasize that for maximizing the benefit of the infrastructures, environmental assessment (EA) is a very useful instrument that needs to be integrated with the slum improvement program. The reasons for failure of the slum improvement program, indicated by the Delphi respondents, are a lack of partici-pation and non-consideration of environment and monitoring. Considering the poor performance of the infrastructures in the City-Polly slum and Delphi respondent’s opinion in favor of EA, this study proposes a mechanism for the integration of EA into the slum improvement program. These mechanisms are based on Delphi respondents’ opinions, researcher’s observations, and literature. The three forms of mechanisms are proposed for integration of EA, including (1) institutionalization of EA into slum improvement implementing agencies, (2) enshrining of the EA requirement in slum improvement program by legislations, and (3) positioning EA in the project cycle. A two-tier environmental assessment system is developed for a slum improvement program denoted as Programmatic Rapid Environmental Assessment for finalizing the design and location of the infrastructures. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Assessment, Slum Improvement Program

121

Issues and Possibilities in State, Voluntary Organizations and Business Sectors’ Synergy in Environmental Protection:

A Case Study of Hudiara Drain Pollution Problem in Lahore, Pakistan

Asghar Naeem Malik & Edsel Sajor

Abstract Hudiara Drain becomes a sink of untreated industrial waste and municipal sewage in Lahore city. It is degrading the environmental conditions with every passing moment. Pakistan has very exhaustive environmental policies as well as rules and regulations, along with corresponding departments for the enforcement of those policies. However, the long-standing pollution problem in Hudiara Drain does not get proper attention from the concerned quarters. In fact, the pollution problem in Hudiara Drain is of a complex nature that calls for interaction, coordination, and synergy between the three key agents; the state, the civil society, and the industries. This study attempts to look into the socio-political dimensions that determine the inaction of government authorities, the civil society, and the private polluters. The results of the study reveal that there is a lack of interaction and synergy between the three key agents. The regulatory authorities never consider that it is necessary to engage the civil society for environmental protection. The affected and vulnerable communities have never been informed about the pollution situation, caused by the industries and its possible impacts on the environment and human health. Similarly, there is an absence of interaction between the communities and the nearby industries, except the formal relation of being employers and employees. The industrialists are alienated to the environmental protection issues and to the communities who are being affected by the pollution generated by them. It is happening partly due to the unawareness of the industrialists about the environmental issues and partly because of the undue profit oriented mentality of the industrialists, as they want to reduce the cost of production by not installing the treatment plants or keeping them, if they have them, inoperative. The state departments also did not make any serious effort to engage the business sector in decision-making and the implementation process. Similarly, the civil society lacks in social capital, that is a prerequisite for getting the problems solved faced by the community. Due to the work of Ikhwane Islam, an NGO, there is a society named “Veer” for community welfare activities for the inhabitants of the village. The Ikhwane Islam NGO also helps create awareness among the people and local political elites in the Hudiara village. However, the people of Halloke Village are not conscious about the water pollution of the drain and its impacts on the environment and on human health. To solve this problem, it is required that the three key agents play their role. The major responsibility lies on the shoulders of the local and international environmental NGOs. On one hand, these NGOs have to launch environmental awareness campaigns in the affected communities, so that they themselves are able to protect their environment, while on the other hand, they also have to increase the pressure on the government to make it active in environmental protection issues. Similarly, the private business sector needs to be taken into considerations and included in decision-making and implementation process. Keywords/phrases: Civil Society, Industrialist, NGOs

122

Land Conversion in BMR Peri-Urban Area: Impact on Water Resource and Implications on Public Management

Rutmanee Ongsakul & Edsel Sajor

Abstract This thesis studies the phenomenon of land conversion in a BMR peri-urban area, Rangsit Field, during the past 15 years (1989-2002), its environmental impact in the area, and the associated conflict arising from changes in the water canal use and the differences in the sets of stakeholders. It also studies their implications to traditionally existing public administration mode in the area.

The findings of the study identify that the allocation of land in the study area has been based mainly on individualistic actions and the preferences of landowners and real estate developers. Government planning framework and programmatic tools have had very limited effect in guiding and mitigating the adverse effects of the haphazard and rapid development of land use, that is characterized by a mixed-land use, where factories, commercial establishments, and housing estates are encroached into previously homogenous agricultural areas. In the context of highly mixed use of land along irrigation canals in Rangsit, the farmers, who have traditionally used this water resource for agricultural purposes, have generally suffered from the adverse effects of worsening pollution perpetrated by factories and housing and commercial firms, who are now using the same canals as discharging points for their wastewater. The conflicting use of water canal by the two different sets of users at present exacerbates the consequences of administrative separatism to deal effectively with the integrated problem of the deteriorating water quality and conflicting. Irrelevance of a public administration system afflicted by functional fragmentation is also coupled by territorial fragmentation of local governments confronted with a trans-boundary environmental problem. Such a situation creates gaps in the implementation of policies and remedial measures.

It is concluded that the challenges confronting environmental management of the BMR peri-urban development are the need to understand the characteristics of distinctively new problems in the mixed land-use area, to recognize the complexities of competing resource use and associated conflicts, and the need to address the reality that these environment-related problems cut across traditional administrative and organizational boundaries, requiring new types of managerial measures and administration. Based on these conclusions, the thrust of recommendations is therefore two-pronged: one set are interventions to address the existing environmental conflicts in the areas, which emphasize coordination and cooperation among the different relevant local authorities and their national agency partners; another set is the interventions to mitigate further haphazard development arising from the inappropriate land conversion through a comprehensive and effective environmental and land use plan, covering neighboring local authorities to ensure the development of well-structured peri-urban areas. Keywords/phrases: Water Resources, Land Conversion, Environmental Management

123

Needs Assessment for Basic Infrastructure in a Post Conflict City: A Comparative Study of Unplanned and Planned Areas in Kabul, Afghanistan

Sabita Popuri & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract Afghanistan has emerged over the last two decades of conflict and internal strife that had destructive effects throughout the country and in all aspects of life. The war has devastated infrastructure. As a result, most Afghans, particularly those living in urban areas, have little or no access to decent basic services. This present study focuses on assessing basic infrastructure needs viz., housing, water and sanitation, as they have significant effects on human lives and their improvement creates a habitable urban environment and improves the quality of life of people. Two methods, a participatory community action planning approach coupled with questionnaire surveys, are used to assess the prevailing situation, the threshold of infrastructure needs, and the most preferred solutions to meet such needs. Field research is designed to make a comparison between planned and unplanned areas regarding existing infrastructure and to come up with viable options to meet their immediate needs. The results of the study reveal that the conflict had a major effect on infrastructure services and has deprived the country on the new investments that would have raised services above pre-war levels. Conclusions and recommendations are drawn for the study areas, but these can be applicable to other areas in Kabul as well as other cities in post-conflict countries. Keywords/phrases: Needs Assessment, Basic Infrastructure Service

124

Potential of Reducing Poverty through Urban Environmental Management Practices: A Case Study of a Poor Community in Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India.

Ashutosh Mohanty & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract During the last two decades, rapid growth of cities in the developing countries has been taking place. It is also observed that the magnitude of urban poverty has also increased. In South Asia, the problem of urban growth and poverty is very acute. This sub-continent has five hundred million poor people, of whom 2.3 million live in urban areas. The city governments find it extremely difficult to provide even the basic urban services, such as water supply, collection and disposal of waste and sanitation to this huge number of urban poor. A close look at the state of affairs on the delivery of such services and their management by the city government makes it clear that the old way of providing these services is inadequate. This is the reason for which sound Urban Environmental Management (UEM) practices are gaining importance for the cities in the developing countries. There is also potential to involve the poor in the UEM practices, so that there will be income-earning opportunities for them to reduce poverty. Based on the above view, this study explores the prospect of adopting appropriate UEM practices in a poor community Saliashai of Orissa in Bhubaneswar, India. It is the largest slum in Orissa state. Located within the Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation (BMC), it is spread over 35 acres of an unauthorized government land. Over the years, the geographical boundary of the slum has increased due to a migration of rural poor to the slum to find jobs in the city. Cheap rent and an easy access to informal jobs attract these people to the slums. Most of the people are of below poverty lines and lead a very wretched life. The inhabitants of the slum are deprived of all basic urban services and amenities that are supposed to be provided by the municipal body. Data were collected by using a structured questionnaire, informal discussions and field observations. The results of the study show that: (1) a majority of the dwellers in this urban slum live in abject poverty in an extremely unhealthy environment all around, (2) due to non-availability of basic urban services of water supply, sanitation and waste disposal, these dwellers suffer from chronic health ailments for which they have to spend money from their scanty income. This leads to a perpetuation of poverty in this slum. Developing some UEM practices that involves the poor in generating economic activities can contribute to mitigation of this condition. Based on the lessons drawn from other cities, this study proposes a set of recommendations, which include: (1) involving the poor in water supply provisions (such as in water vending); (2) involving the poor in waste collection & recycling; (3) involving the poor for sanitation services (such as in building and maintaining community toilets). For implementing these recommendations, BMC needs to take a leading role to involve the community, NGOs, CBOs, and donor community. Keywords/phrases: Poverty Reduction, Urban Poor

125

Revitalization of a Water Based Community: Koh Kred Island, Nonthaburi, Thailand

Witiya Pittungnapoo & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract

Water-based settlement is a unique form of traditional settlements in Thailand. It depicts the water-based lifestyle of people and their culture. However, this uniqueness is severely affected by haphazard urban expansions, road developments, and other encroachments. This study focuses on revitalizing Koh Kred, which is a water-based settlement affected by such external forces. Koh Kred is a famous destination for cultural tourism. It has been influenced by the deleterious impacts from unregulated urbanization and tourism. The impacts are in the form of local economic decline, cultural decline, and environmental degradation. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to find out the appropriate solutions to revitalize the water-based community at Koh Kred to reach sustainability. This is in line with the National Environment Board’s (NEB) aim to promote the “years of rivers and canal conservation (2001-2003)” for conserving the natural and cultural environment of water-based communities. Through analyzing the prioritized issues, the study makes some recommendations for revitalizing Koh Kred. Cooperation between community and local government is suggested as the mechanism to revitalize Koh Kred. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Degradation, Water-Based Settlement

126

Strategic Intervention for Achieving National Goals of Sustainable Development: A Study with Special Reference to the Green Building Program of PWD Malaysia

Lee Bee Chew & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract

Malaysia has a well-defined National Development Plan based on sustainable development principles and the Agenda 21. However, the building sector falls short of its environmental goals and objectives, due to a fragmented implementation of sustainable development policies, the absence of a legal framework, and sustainable building design policy. Hence, it leads to a gap between the policies and development projects; thus reducing the environmental performance of the building sector. The building sector needs to carry out a transformation to achieve long-term goals of a sustainable development. The results of the study show that PWD can play a central task to bridge the gap through a two-pronged approach. Firstly, it strengthens its existing environmental assessment and environmental management systems for implementing development projects through Strategic Environmental Assessment. Secondly, it needs to provide a national framework for a sustainable building design of the projects through Green Building Programs. The key actors are required to make an integrated decision at planning and design stage to address priority environmental issues. It is concluded that PWD can strategically link policies with projects under a National Policy for sustainable building. In addition, effective and efficient environmental assessment and management systems will enhance its environmental performance thus, contributing towards achieving the national goals of sustainable development. Keywords/phrases: Sustainable Development, Green Building Program

127

Uncertainties Associated with the Planning Stage of Railway Projects in Ho Chi Minh City and their Impacts on

the Living Environment of an Affected Community

Nguyen Nam Son & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract Vietnam, experiencing a transitional economy in the 1980s, proposes the development of an urban rail system in Ho Chi Minh City to address urban transport problems. The project area includes the existing Hoa-Hung railway station. As the station is small, it is recommended that from the existing walls, a thirty-meter offset be reserved for expansion. Consequently, all households in the reserved zone are ineligible for building permits and certificates of land-use rights and house ownership. Although over a lapse of two decades, the project remains in the planning stage, with no indications of implementation and precise demarcation of the project area. This uncertainty in time and scope of the projects, coupled with the policies to control development inside the project area, has significantly affected the living environment of the affected households. This study compares the housing conditions, accessibility to infrastructure and property value both inside and outside the project area. The results of the study reveal that uncertainties have adversely affected the households within the proposed project area. Based on the findings, it is recommended that a relocation plan should be initiated during the planning stage in order to minimize impacts due to uncertainties. Keywords/phrases: Transport Development, Urban Environment

128

Urban Environmental Management for Heritages Conservation and Cultural Tourism: A Case Study in Bat Trang-Hometown of Traditional

Ceramic in Hanoi, Vietnam

Quach Huy Thong & L.A.S. Ranjith Perera

Abstract Bat Trang, a pottery village in Hanoi, has nearly 1000 years of history and tradition, and it is a popular tourism destination. As a result, Bat Trang is facing an increasing pressure to manage its cultural treasures (pottery and historical buildings) by balancing the demands of visitors as well as the daily needs of Bat Trang residents and the ecosystem. This study uses a multidisciplinary approach to the environmental management of Bat Trang by focusing on the assessment of the current environmental situation, land use, revenue, economic opportunities, and tourism demand. The results of surveys, carried out in Bat Trang, show increasing income of the village during the past years. However, the production of pottery puts severe pressure on the environment. The emission from pottery kilns results in high levels of toxic gases and particulate matter concentrations, which exceed the national air quality standards of Vietnam; thus, bringing serious effects to human health. To mitigate these impacts, a cleaner new gas combustion technology for kilns is proposed to reduce air pollution levels and increase product quality. Social economic measures, such as environment tax, good governance, and rising awareness, also should be considered for the sustainable development of the Bat Trang community as a tourist destination as well as for Vietnamese heritage. Keywords/phrases: Tourism, Environmental Management, Heritages Conservation

129

Why Informal Sector Counts in Urban Mass Transport System: A Study of Phnom Penh City’s Bus Experiment

Tep Makathy & Edsel Sajor

Abstract Phnom Penh City Shuttle Experiment is known as the first bus operation effort, a component of the study on the Transport Master Plan of the Phnom Penh Metropolitan Area in the Kingdom of Cambodia, during the long absence of appropriate urban transport service in Phnom Penh. This thesis argues that the experiment was a failure in the sense that policy designers and implementing agencies missed out to count the informal sector, both as the commuters of transport service and informal transport providers, into the picture. However, its failure will bring the requirements of success in the future. In spite of comfort and safety, the informal sector group finds it difficult to patronize the bus service operation. This is attributed to the disintegration between them and bus service provided in such a way that bus schedules and bus routes totally miss-fit the trip patterns of the urban informal sector group. From the other side, the informal transport service proves to be a very resilient competitor to the bus service through its operational advantage, thus attracting the majority of urban commuters, both poor and middle class people, most importantly indicating a trend of rapid growth as well as generating thousands of jobs for urban poor and rural migrants. Therefore, it is important to count the informal sector as a major consideration in transport planning policy not only in Phnom Penh, but also in developing country cities; participation of this sector will be guiding planners to capture the real demands of the ground and planning the right things. Keywords/phrases: Urban Poor, Urban Transport, Transport Management

130

Developing Alternative Solid Waste Management Practices in Local Governments: A Case Study of Yala Municipality, Thailand

Jitti Mongkolnchaiarunya & Willi Zimmermann

Abstract The dissertation titled “Developing Alternative Solid Waste Management Practices in Local Governments: A Case Study of Yala Municipality, Thailand” is generated from the urban environmental management initiatives jointly implemented by the Canadian Universities Consortium- Urban Environmental Management project (CUC-UEM) at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) and Yala Municipal Administration (YMA). CUC-UEM provided technical advice, consultation and other capacity building supports to YMA. The researcher, who served CUC-UEM as project coordinator, conducted parallel action research. It follows Willard’s ‘engagement model’ by which both parties – the researcher and the YMA staff (as well as residents) – jointly learned together how to solve some solid waste problems. The data was gathered mainly in the period December 1999 – June 2001, through field survey, observation of direct participation, interviews and meetings. Other relevant documents were also utilized. Yala city is located in the southern part of Thailand. It has been recognised nation-wide as a beautiful, clean and green city. However, this success was based on high economic and financial costs since it employed mainly the end-of-pipe approach to solid waste management, e.g. hiring more than 200 labourers to clean public spaces and picking up household waste twice a day. Community participation was passive and based on incentives offered by the municipality. This cooperation project emphasised concepts of participation and empowerment. Alternative solid waste management projects (ASWM) were used as a means to strengthen the competence of the community, private sector and civic network. It aimed ambitiously at introducing a new strategy for urban environmental management as well as good governance for the city. While implementing the projects, the researcher conducted his action research in parallel, by documenting processes and results derived from various actions implemented by the city administration and local communities. Processes for human resources development (HRD), organisational development (OD) and institutional development (ID) were launched. Municipal administrators, staff and community leaders were the main target groups for HRD, which included three training courses, three study trips, two city multi-stakeholder forums and more than twenty consultative meetings among concerned staff. The content of these capacity-building activities covered concepts and practices of alternative solid waste management, community development, good governance, strategic planning, and urban environmental management. OD included actions to help improving communication and working procedures, while ID aimed at policy and regulatory changes. At the beginning, YMA and CUC-UEM intended to implement four ASWM projects: the community-based Garbage for Eggs (GFE : recyclables exchanged for eggs) ; the agency-based Bio Extract project (BEP : organic waste fermentation, to produce a liquid for odour removing and fertiliser substitution) ; the school-based Solid Waste Bank (SWB : recyclables business run by students) ; and the multi-stakeholder-owned Material Recovery Facility (MRF : a reuse and repairs business, as well as fermenting and composting organic waste). Due to internal political pressure the fourth project was not implemented. The municipal environment agency chose the four projects after learning about nine ASWM cases in Thailand and a few others in Asia. The researcher made an inventory of those cases and explained them to the staff and community leaders in Yala.

131

The level of achievement varied. GFE was more successful than the other projects and was replicated in other communities. The amounts of waste in various communities declined and residents were happy with the economic gain (eggs) from transactions of recyclables. Most importantly, it created cohesiveness among community residents and leaders, and self-confidence that they could do something to solve their problems. As a result, they gained recognition and respect from the municipal administration, and from other audiences who learnt about this practice through direct visits and mass media. The municipal administrators had peace of mind, and gained regional and national reputation for its GFE initiative. But the sustainability of GFE was not yet assured. The educational dimension was not intensive enough, and there was no effort to involve more multi-stakeholders into GFE business, as officers rather than as customers. The BEP was not so successful. The staff produced only small quantities of BE, so the amounts of organic waste taken out from the waste stream or the waste dumpsite were not remarkable. No community followed the implementation of BEP. This might be caused by the physical constraint of the BE production process, which required a big space. Also, molasses, the major ingredient for this process, was not easily accessible in the city. In addition, users of BE always asked for it to be provided free instead of buying it as planned. SWB collapsed after a few operations. There was an externality: many itinerant buyers from other towns and communities came to the community where the school was located (due to an economic crisis). Purchases were made at the home door. The teachers did not make an effort to explain to parents that SWB was not only for an economic purpose but also for social, environmental and educational development of students as well. The staff who implemented BEP and SWB did not understand empowerment and self-reliance concepts and ultimate goals. They also lacked supervision and support from their supervisors and the researcher. The GFE was different since the key actors were community leaders. There was no proof that ASWM influenced the attitude of the Yala residents, but waste collection efficiency increased from 37.7 % in 1999 to 54.1 % and 58.6 % in 2000 and 2001 respectively. Replicability of GFE and BEP were observed in Pattani municipality, to which the former director of YMA environment agency was transferred. The BEP project was well receptive by residents and administrators as it could remove odour in the seafood central market and piers. Pattani municipality produced many times more BE than Yala. However, GFE was less successful and impressive in Pattani as municipal staff operated it, rather than community leaders. ASWM can supplement mainstream solid waste management projects. It could also be a useful entry for introducing urban environmental management concepts and practice. Good ASWM projects should be fun and provide multi-dimensional benefits. This implies that one must address ASWM from multiple but holistic viewpoints: social, educational, economic, environmental and political. ASWM allows new stakeholders to play roles in a city’s problem-solving process. The roles of the service provider, like the municipality, should be changed from leading and controlling to facilitating and supporting. Meanwhile the community and private sectors should take more active roles in planning, decision-making, implementing city development projects and/or operating self-help and mutual help activities. Last but not least, the community and the private sector should share in the costs as well as benefits of such projects. In this study, except in the GFE case, the community and private sector roles were not so active. The study also indicates the factors influencing the adoption and sustainability of ASWM. They were (1) commitment of leaders, (2) existence of a network implementation structure, (3) inertia of bureaucratic system, (4) capacity of human resources, (5) degree of social and political pressure, (6) strong traditions and social roles behaviour, and (7) the evolving political and administrative contexts of the country. To introduce urban environmental management successfully, one must identify a strategic entry point that arouses awareness and interest among stakeholders. Communication, equally important to empowerment and management principles, must be emphasised. Planning must be done in a strategic and participative manner. New alternatives for urban environmental financing, mostly derived from various stakeholders, must be pursued. As educational reform is in place, there is an opportunity to insert environmental issues and practices into local curricula. People from all walks of life will have new and interrelated roles to play in this ‘game’. Media should be invited to take part in planning and implementing ASWM and other public issues, not only as a means for information dissemination. HRD is very important and cannot be overlooked. Professional training must be accommodated

132

into the municipal structure. An external party can play a crucial role to create linkages and strengthen local partners : the municipal administration, and the private and community sectors. Moreover, the municipal working procedure and managerial styles, and the policy and regulatory framework, must be reviewed and changed in such a way as to promote community, business and civic empowerment and participation. Without this set of changed paradigms, it is difficult to achieve success. Keywords/phrases: Urban Environmental Management, Solid Waste Management

133

Foreign Direct Investment-Led Development for Better Urban Environmental Management: The Case of Hanoi, Vietnam

Nguyen Thi Binh Minh & A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Abstract In recent years, flows of foreign direct investment (FDI) to developing countries have rapidly been increasing. FDI is now an important contributor to national economy as well as to urban growth in Asian developing countries. Rapid urbanization and economic growth in these countries are causing many problems in cities, simultaneous of course to many benefits. Waste discharges from fast-growing industrial, commercial and service sectors and increasing consumerism are leading to environmental degradation. Deterioration of environmental problems are compounded by a severe shortage of basic urban environmental infrastructure and services (UEI&S) such as water supply and sanitation; drainage and sewerage; and waste collection, treatment and disposal. The pace of UEI&S growth is unable to cope with the needs of the growing population in urban areas. The growing professional practice of urban environmental management (UEM) focuses on improving the urban environment by reducing the environmental impact of economic activities, better management of human and financial resources and the provision of environmental infrastructure and services. But deficiencies in institutional, human capabilities and limited financial resources are serious constraints in these respects.

Although FDI has been well-researched from various angles, that is not yet the case for UEM; more so in terms of the nature of the link between the two. In the cities of developing countries with fast growing economies and rapid inflow of FDI, understanding of this link is of paramount importance. In this regard some key questions are: How is FDI linked with the urban environment? What are impacts of FDI on the urban environment? And in what direction FDI should be guided to enhance the urban environmental management? This dissertation attempts at answering these questions through a case study on the current level of utilization of FDI and its further potential for improving UEM in Hanoi, Vietnam.

It provides an integrated and holistic conceptual framework for research linking FDI with the urban environment. This framework involves identification of the issues of research and appropriate methods of analysis. The two main themes of investigation have been: (1) FDI’s impacts on the urban environment (both positive and negative) and (2) FDI’s current and potential role in the UEI&S provisions. The study utilized the secondary data for (a) evaluating and analyzing FDI and UEM situation and (b) reviewing regulatory and institutional framework for FDI and UEM in the study area and experiences of other countries that used FDI for the UEI&S provisions. The primary data for this study was collected through a field survey, conducted during May 1999 to January 2000 in Hanoi City. The survey method involved an initial listing of 237 operating FDI enterprises from the government annual reports. This served as the ‘sample frame’ for this study. The sample size of 36 FDI enterprises emerged from application of a standard sampling formula. Five groups were identified as key stakeholders for studying FDI’s link with the urban environment. These groups are: (i) foreign managers who work for FDI enterprises, (ii) FDI employees, (iii) the self-employed dealing with FDI industrial products, (iv) the households in the neighborhoods of FDI industrial enterprise locations, and (v) government officials and experts at the national and local levels involved with FDI and UEM. The selection of individual respondent was made by using a random sampling technique. The detailed sampling procedure led to a total of 355 respondents for filling the questionnaire or the interview form. The aim of the questionnaire survey was to collect first hand information on the environmental impacts of FDI as well on possibility of utilizing FDI for the UEI&S provisions. This information was collected from five groups of people who are closely related with or affected by FDI. Different sets of questions were used for different groups in the survey. The survey results and analyses of the compiled data include the following.

134

Mapping of location of FDI enterprises in Hanoi shows that they are not concentrated in the high-density urban-residential or mixed-land use areas. A combination of the Pollution Quotient (PQ), which indicates the relative pollution abatement cost of a particular industrial type, and the Industrial Quotient (IQ), which indicates the degree of relative concentration of a particular industry, calculated to evaluate environmental impacts of FDI in the city, show that FDI is not concentrated in polluting industries.

In the survey the issues of technology transfer and environmental protection, the quality of imported equipment and the treatment practices were discussed with the respondents. In the view of respondents, technology transfer through FDI is a major source of environmental management expertise and for finding technological solution for environmental pollution control for industries in Hanoi. Though in Hanoi the use of second-hand equipment is not widespread among FDI, it is still a source of concern for the environment. While most FDI enterprises seem to treat their wastes, some still discharge them without any treatment.

In the survey, the respondents’ perception on environmental impacts of FDI was elicited. Majority of respondents do not think environment is seriously being affected by operating FDI enterprises located in their areas. However, some respondents do believe and complain that FDI joint venture enterprises are damaging the local environment by discharging the untreated or poorly treated wastewater into rice fields, canals or rivers. The issue of whether FDI enterprises decrease the aesthetic scene in Hanoi was intensely discussed by the respondents. Only four percent of respondents strongly felt that FDI projects are affecting the aesthetic scene of the city; most of these respondents were foreigners. It seems that the locals are longing for FDI, employment and modern buildings whereas the foreigners are interested in conservation. The analysis of the link between FDI and employment/income issues highlights the view that FDI strongly contributes to economic development and creation of jobs. Respondents working for FDI or dealing with FDI goods and services make significantly higher contributions to their household incomes and savings than non-FDI workers. Increased income is resulting increased consumption. The queries and information on current and potential use of FDI for UEI&S show that nearly all FDI flows in Hanoi has so far been going into commercial service, industrial or construction sector – the sectors from which investors get good profits. Not a single FDI project investment has yet been undertaken in UEI&S projects for Hanoi, which is seriously deficient in UEI&S. Both central and local governments look for financial sources to solve these problems. They have started to consider the private sector for financing UEI&S. However, at present, the private sector in Vietnam is still new and weak and does not have enough financial resources, technical capabilities and management expertise for improving and monitoring the complex UEI&S projects. Due to these realities, the Hanoi government is eager to obtain private foreign investment in UEI&S for them to cope with the emerging complexities of managing the urban environment. This research also addresses why it is difficult to attract FDI in the UEI&S sectors, especially in the water supply and sanitation sector (WSSS). At present, the UEI&S provisions are entirely owned and provided by the public sector. These are considered as public goods with complex economic and technical characteristics. Huge investment requirement beyond the capability of private businesses and externalities related to public health and environmental effects are key characteristics that have traditionally kept UEI&S in the hands of the government or public corporations. Difficulties associated with foreign private participation in these provisions include the ownership issue and the risks for both the private investors and the government. Other problems in attracting FDI into UEI&S in Vietnam are its underdeveloped capital markets, lack of adequate legislation, and unfavorable public opinion for private sector participation (PSP) in such key services as water supply. The findings from the two major themes of investigation of this research were used to reflect on the policy options appropriate of Hanoi/Vietnam in engaging FDI in improvement of the urban environment. The Vietnamese government has to guide, even force FDI industries to locate into the industrial zones and make them apply effective waste treatment technologies and practices. It is recommended that the government exercise more control over allowing the import of secondhand equipment, as it may be source of increase in pollution. Both the local and national governments could facilitate organizations of short courses, workshops and seminars on environmental protection for FDI and domestic firms. Such programs could provide the opportunity for domestic firms to learn environmental protection skills from FDI companies and make FDI enterprises more conscious of their environmental protection practices Overall, the findings of this research suggest that attracting FDI requires national government to create the macro economic conditions conducive to PSP in infrastructure development. The FDI provision of water supply and wastewater treatment facilities for the Hanoi City will be feasible only if an acceptable and clear BOT law,

135

supportive policies (e.g., providing guarantees and rewards for high risks), institutional frameworks and adequate incentives are in place. Based on the socio-political realities of Vietnam, this study proposes limited private participation or following the Chinese model where local governments create utility companies that function like the private sector. Imaginative forms of PPP, with city government’s role incorporated, will be of mutual benefit to the investors, the city residents and the local government. Keywords/phrases: Environmental Management, Foreign Direct Investment, Urban Environmental Infrastructure and Services

136

APPENDIX

Index of Subjects

137

A Air Pollution

Air Quality 16, 18, 19, 47, 49, 70, 98 Air Quality Monitoring 16 Brown Agenda 5 E Economics and Finance

Cost Recovery 10, 33, 37, 48, 73, 90, 119

Economic Instruments 12, 17, 18, 19, 24, 38, 53, 66, 71, 116

Economic Reform 65, 111 Environment

Eco-Industrial Park 55 Environmental Conflict 86, 122 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 27 Environmental Management System (EMS) 57, 60, 126 Food Processing 29 Green Banking 61

ISO 14001 57, 60 Risk Management 63, 64, 83 F Foreign Direct Investment 133, 135

G Gender Issue Gender Equality 21 Governance

Capacity Building 41, 98, 114, 130 Decentralization 28, 65, 80, 82, 88 Participatory Approach 86, 97, 99, 104

Policy Formulation 4, 11, 62, 99 Public and Private Partnership 58 Regulatory Instruments 6, 12, 17, 18, 19, 24, 38, 66, 116 Regulatory Intervention 41

Rural-Urban Migration 44, 111

I Industrialization Industrial Wastewater 6, 66, 71, 85 Industrial Zone 55, 134 L Land Use

Land Conversion 122 Local Environmental Management 48, 93 S Solid Waste Management

Composting 14, 24, 32, 36, 39, 40, 72 108, 130 Landfill 4, 11, 14, 24, 29, 33, 39, 40, 53

Municipal Waste Management 108 Waste Minimization Waste Recycling 4, 44, 45

Waste Separation 4, 36, 46, 58, 72

T Tourism

Tourism Development 49, 50, 51, 68, 69, 81, 94, 96, 106, 114

Tourism Management 51, 69 Urban Heritage 81 World Heritage 87, 106 Transportation Public Transportation 13, 47, 67, 77, 89

Transport System 41, 47, 67, 129 Travel Demand Management 13

Travel Management Measures 17 Urban Transport 13, 41, 67, 98, 127, 129 Water Transportation 77

U Urban Environmental Management

Service Delivery 3, 10, 34, 48, 82, 91, 93, 97

Urban Governance 109 Urban Planning 54, 63, 83, 87, 118 Urban Poor 48, 64, 92, 119, 124, 129 Urban Services 3, 9, 10, 14, 22, 48, 78, 80, 91, 93, 97, 124

Index of Subjects (cont’d)

138

W Water and Sanitation

Water Pollution Control 6, 31, 66, 116 Water Quality 7, 31, 37, 69, 71, 78, 119, 122 Water Supply 3, 5, 8, 10, 22, 30, 37, 43, 52, 73, 78, 90, 93, 97, 102, 113, 116, 119, 120, 124, 133, 134

Index of Keywords/Phrases

139

A Agenda 21 5, 88, 102 Air Pollution 16, 19, 70, 98 Air Pollution Monitoring 16 Air Quality 70 Air Quality Monitoring 16 Aquatic Environment 69 B Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) 4 Basic Infrastructure Services 97, 123 Basic Urban Services 22, 48 BOD Model 31 Brown Agenda 5 C Capacity Building 98, 114 Civil Society 121 Community Participation 97, 105 Compost 32, 46 Composting 72 Congestion 76, 89 Cost Benefit Analysis 50 Cost-Effectiveness 43 Cost Efficiency 22 Cost Recovery 73, 90 D Decentralization 28, 80, 82 Delphi Exercise 27 Developing Countries 6, 11, 28, 52 Domestic Wastewater 59, 116 Dweller Community 99 E Eco-Industrial Park 55 Economic Development 25, 102 Economic Measures 43 Economic Instruments 12, 17, 18, 19, 24, 71 Economic Reform 65 Emission 18 Emission Inventory 16 Environmental Assessment (EA) 120 Environmental Awareness 20, 25, 26, 27, 52, 60, 71, 85, 100, 113 Environmental Campaign 75

Environmental Degradation 20, 125 Environmental Education 100 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 27 Environmental Management 23, 54, 93, 122, 128, 135 Environmental Management System (EMS) 57, 60 Environmental Protection 25, 38, 78 Environmental Reform 88 Environmental Risk 20 Environmental Services Delivery 82

F Fertilizer 32 Financial Capability 73 Financial Institutions 61 Food Packaging 29 Food Processing Industries 29 Food Vendor 54 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) 133

G Gender Equality 21 Green Building Program 126

H Heritage Conservation 128 Heritage Sites 35 Hospital Waste Management 11 Household 113

I Industrialist 121 Industrialization 6, 28, 30, 118 Industrial Participation 103 Industrial Wastewater 66 Industrial Zone 55 Informal Sector 4, 9, 36, 44, 45 Informal Settlement 117 Institutional Coordination 96 ISO 14001 57, 60 L Land Conversion 122 Landfill 33, 53 Land Occupancy 117 Land Use Control 68 Low-Income Community 9

Index of Keywords/Phrases (cont’d)

140

Low-Income Household 26, 110 Low-Income Settlement 3 M Migrant Community 111 Municipal Waste Management 108 N Needs Assessment 37, 123 NGO (Non-governmental organization) 21, 77, 82, 88, 91, 93, 101, 121 O Open Space 62, 65, 75 Organic Waste 46 P Participatory Approach 86, 99, 104 Partnership 101 Policy Formulation 62 Pollution Control 66 Poverty Reduction 64, 94, 124 Private Sector Participation 8 Privatization 105 Public Awareness 34, 53, 95, 116 Public Participation 33, 35, 39 Public-Private Partnership 58, 98 Public Transportation 13, 47, 67 Q Quality of Life 107 R Regulatory Framework 63, 83 Regulatory Instruments 6, 12, 17, 18, 19, 24, 38 Regulatory Intervention 41 Risk Management 63, 64, 83 Rural-Urban Migration 111 S Sanitary Landfill 40 Service Delivery 48, 101 Service Industry 49 Sewage System 11, 43 Slum Community 92 Slum Improvement Program 120 Slum Settlement 110

Small and Medium-Scale Enterprises (SME) 55 Solid Waste 32, 33 Solid Waste Disposal 24, 54 Solid Waste Management 9, 12, 14, 21, 26, 34, 38, 39, 40, 44, 45, 53, 58, 72, 132

Stakeholder 23, 103, 105, 114 Sustainable Cities 115 Sustainable Development 47, 107, 126 SWOT Analysis 50, 51, 87 T Third World 117 Tourism 68, 69, 74, 81, 94, 96, 106, 109, 128 Tourism Development 49, 50, 51, 114 Tourism Management 51 Traffic Management Measures 17 Traffic Volumes 76 Transport Development 127 Transport Management 49, 67, 76, 129 Transport Policy 67 Transport Providers 41 Transport System 41 Travel Demand Management 13 U Urban Agriculture 108 Urban Community 84 Urban Development 34, 61 Urban Economy 106 Urban Environment 7, 10, 14, 23, 47, 65, 70, 84, 109, 127 Urban Environmental Infrastructure 30 Urban Environmental Infrastructure and Services 135 Urban Environmental Management 35, 61, 68, 77, 78, 83, 104, 132 Urban Governance 109 Urban Heritage 81 Urbanization 5, 7, 30, 36, 58, 89, 91, 95, 103, 111, 118, 119 Urban Planning 63, 87, 118 Urban Poor 48, 92, 119, 124, 129 Urban Poverty 10 Urban Services 3, 10, 14, 80, 91, 93 Urban Slum 99 Urban Transport 13, 129 Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 52

Index of Keywords/Phrases (cont’d)

141

URENCO 72 W Waste Generation 39 Waste Minimization 4 Waste Recycling 44, 45 Waste Reduction 108 Waste Separation 36, 46 Water-Based Settlement 125 Water Management 59, 85 Water Pollution Control 6, 31, 116 Water Quality 69, 78 Water Quality Management 31 Water Resources 122 Water Supply 22, 37, 73, 90, 97, 102, 113, 119 Water Supply and Sanitation 3, 8 Water Tariff 37, 90 Water Transportation 77 Wastewater Management 66, 71, 95 Wastewater Treatment 59 Women Participation 92 World Heritage 106

Index of Cities/Provinces/Countries

142

A Afghanistan Kabul 123 B Bangladesh Chittagong 10, 48 Cox’s Bazar 96 Dhaka 12, 19, 41, 70, 73, 78, 98, 120 Hazaribagh 6 Khulna 92 Rajshahi 91 C Cambodia Kampot 94

Phnom Penh 14, 30, 36, 58, 64, 99, 119, 129

Siem Reap 87 China (PRC) Beijing 105, 111 Shenzhen 89 Wuhan 44 I India Ahmedabad 101

Aurangabad 82 Chennai 3, 115 Hyderabad 32 Kolhapur 8 Orissa 114, 124 Panjim 23

Tirumala-Tirupati 109 Tiruppur 5 Indonesia Jakarta 74 Yogyakarta 49 K Korea (South) Seoul 107

L Lao PDR

Champone 113 Laongam 113

Luang Prabang 22, 106 Paksane 37 Pakse 22, 34 Saravane 22 Thakhaek 80 Vang Vieng 68

Vientiane 22, 51, 62, 83, 95, 97 M Malaysia

Kualalumpur 126 Myanmar Nyaungshwe 93

Yangon 11, 26, 40, 66, 75, 90, 116 N Nepal Kathmandu 18, 21, 33, 35, 63 Pokhara 7 P Pakistan Lahore 121 Philippines Cebu 29 Puerto Princesa 88 Vigan 81 S Sri Lanka Colombo 9, 17, 61 T Thailand 28, 57, 104

Bangkok 4, 20, 76, 102, 108 Chainat 60

Chiang Mai 67 Hat Yai 86 Koh Kred 125 Nonthaburi 59, 77 Pathum Thani 118

Index of Cities/Provinces/Countries (cont’d)

143

Rangsit 122 Rayong 16, 27, 52 Samut Prakarn 103 Yala 50, 54, 130 V Vietnam Da Nang 46

Hanoi 24, 31, 38, 43, 45, 55, 65, 71, 84, 100, 128, 133 Ho Chi Minh 25, 47, 53, 85, 110, 117, 127

Nam Dinh 39, 72 Quang Ninh 69

Index of Research Scholars

144

A Ahmed,

Saif Uddin 78 Ali,

Md. Ashraf 98 Amawatana,

Chonchinee 104 Arum,

Henrika Tyas 49 Aye,

Zaw Zaw 75 B Basnyat,

Muna 21 Begum,

Lutfun Nahar 48 Bhagwat,

Pawar Dhanshree 8 Bosch,

Monica Altimira 88 Bunlong,

Leng 50 C Cachafeiro,

Jaime Enciso 81 Chanthy,

Lay 36 Chew,

Lee Bee 126 Chokchaitrakulpho,

Benchawan 103 Chowdhury,

Farhat Jahan 120 Cong,

Nguyen Quoc 71 D Danling,

Xu 89 Dong,

Pham Quang 110 Dung,

Tran Thi Kim 38

Dvorak,

Christine 106 E Eo,

Myeongso 107 F Fongkhamdeng,

Bounnao 34 G Ge,

Zhang 105 Gopalakrishnan,

Aruna 5 H Hai,

Hoang 55 Hai,

Pham Tran 117 Han,

May Thin Zar 40 Hanh,

Tran Thi Hien 43 Hossain,

Mallik Akram 91 Hung,

Ngo Minh 65 Huong,

Nguyen Thi Xuan 95 I Iqbal,

Al-Azad Md. 41 Islam,

Md. Rabiul 73 J Jongpukdee,

Sukumaporn 76 K K.C.,

Shambhu 7

Kallmayer,

Regina 64 Kham-uan,

Manit 86 Kongmany,

Sisamone 37 Krainara,

Choen 27 Kulkarni,

Raakhee 32 Kuruparan,

Periyathamby 61 L Latif,

Khawja Abdul 6 Long,

Nguyen Tuan 45 Lopaying,

Douangcharh 113 M Mahamud-Ul-Houqe,

Md. 70

Makathy, Tep 129

Malik,

Asghar Naeem 121 Mandke,

Pallavi 23 Maneepitak,

Suthamma 60 Maw,

Khin Htwe93 Mayer,

Beatriz 20 Mehrotra,

Shagun Viren 115 Minh,

Duong Hieu 39 Nguyen Thi Binh

133 Mohanty,

Ashutosh 124 Mohanty,

Bimalendu 114 Mohanty,

Sradhanjali 57

Index of Research Scholars (cont’d)

145

Mongkolnchaiarunya Jitti 130 Muego,

Andres Evangelista 27 Myint,

Hlaing 26 Myint,

Moe Moe Hlaing 90 N Nam,

Nguyen Hoang 46 Nath,

Tapan Kumar 10 Nengxay,

Xeng Xiong 97 Nwe,

Khin Myat 116 Nga,

Do Thuy 84 O Odszuck,

Jurgen 63 Ongsakul,

Rutmanee 122 Oo,

Aung May 66 P Patil,

Anagha 28 Pengkeang,

Seak 119 Phimmachack,

Chanthala 68 Pinweha,

Pornpun 77 Pittungnapoo,

Witiya 125 Popuri,

Sabitha 123 Pradhan,

Neera Shrestha 33 Pradhan,

Pravakar 118

Q Qi,

Gu 111 Quadir,

Nurul 12 Quang,

Tran Ngoc 72 R Rai,

Babu Ram 18 Remmen,

Yvonne van 101 Rose,

Suneeram Brenda 82 S Sanagavarapu,

Ravindra 3 Sarin,

Chea 14 Sayalath,

Ekvinay 80 Sein,

Yu Lay 11 Senevirathne,

Delgollage 9 Shakya,

Sheetu 35 Shamsad,

Bushra 92 Sharma,

Manoj Kumar 13 Shinde,

Kiran Ajit 109 Sirithasack,

Sisiangouane 22 Siry,

Hendra Yusran 74 Sithimolada,

Souk-Nara 51 Somethearith,

Din 99 Son,

Nguyen Nam 127

Sophy,

Ea 30 Souksakhone,

Phouthala 83 Srang-iam,

Witchuda 108 Sunalai,

Pawinee 16 T Tariq,

Aminur Rahman Md. 96

Thai, Nguyen Thi Bac 54

Thai, Pham Duc 24

Thao, Nguyen Phuong

100 Thepkunhanimitta,

Paveena 4 Thong,

Quach Huy 128 Thongniramol,

Ornuma 52 Thongthai,

On-usah 102 Toan,

Nguyen Duc 31 Tous,

Saphoeun 87 Tran,

Le Thi Hong 53 Trang,

Dao Dieu 47 U Uddin,

Md. Nasir 19 Usavagovitwong,

Nattawut 59 V Van,

Pham Khanh 69

Index of Research Scholars (cont’d)

146

Vongsakhamphouy, Arounna 95

Vongwattana, Ke 58

W Wijekoon,

W.M.M.G.D. 17 Winter,

Michaela 94 Y Yen,

Dao Hai 26 Yongnou,

Xonglao 62 Yostrakul,

Bandasak 67 Z Zhao,

Tao 44

Index of Research Supervisors

147

A Amin, A.T.M.N. 4, 6, 9, 10, 12, 17, 18, 19, 24, 36, 38, 43, 44, 45, 48, 54, 66, 71, 72, 73, 75, 78, 84, 89, 90, 92, 93, 98, 100, 108, 111, 113, 114, 116, 119, 120, 124, 133 B Bach, N.L. 16, 22, 27, 31, 39, 40 J Jamieson, W. 23, 33, 35, 49, 50, 51, 57, 59, 62, 69, 74, 76, 77, 94, 96, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109 L Lefebvre, B.G. 3, 4, 13, 14 P Perera, L.A.S.R. 63, 64, 68, 80, 83, 87, 91, 97, 110, 115, 118, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128 R Rakshit, S.K. 28 S Sajor, E. 81, 82, 85, 86, 88, 95, 99, 104, 117, 121, 122, 129 Sathasivan, A. 37, 46, 52, 55 Z Zimmermann, W. 7, 8, 11, 20, 21, 25, 26, 29, 30, 32, 34, 41, 47, 53, 58, 60, 61, 65, 67, 70, 130

List of Thesis by the Year of Completion

148

Graduation Year 1998

Thesis No. Name of Scholar (Name of Supervisor)

Title of Thesis

UE-97-01 Aruna Gopalakrishnan (Bernard G. Lefebvre)

A Framework for Developing an Urban Environmental Management Plan for Tiruppur Town, India

UE-97-02 Khawja Abdul Latif (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Industrial Wastewater Pollution Management at Local level: A Case Study of a Tannery Site in Bangladesh

UE-97-03 Tapan Kumar Nath (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Scope of Improving Environmental Infra-structure Services through Greater Reliance on User Charge: A Case Study of Jamal Khan Ward, Chittagong, Bangladesh

UE-97-04 Pawar Dhanshree Bhagwat (Willi Zimmermann)

Models for Private Sector Participation: A Study of Water Supply and Sewerage in Kolhapur City, India

UE-97-05 Nurul Quadir (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

A Study to Explore Applications of Regulatory and Economic Instruments in Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City

UE-97-06 Shambhu K. C. (Willi Zimmermann)

Land Use Consideration in Urban Environmental Management in Pokhara, Nepal: A Study to Manage the Environment of Phewa Lakeside-Baidam Area

UE-97-07 Manoj Kumar Sharma (Bernard G. Lefebvre)

Travel Demand Management Techniques Applicable to Urban Transport Problems in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area

UE-97-08 Ravindra Sanagavarapu (Bernard G. Lefebvre)

Developing a Community Infrastructure System for a Low Income Settlement: A Case of Sastrynagar, Chennai, India

UE-97-09 Chea Sarin (Bernard G. Lefebvre)

Urban Solid Waste Disposal: A Case Study of the City of Phnom Penh, Cambodia

UE-97-10 Yu Lay Sein (Willi Zimmermann)

Solid Waste Management in Yangon, Myanmar: A Focus on Hospital Waste

UE-97-11 Delgollage Senevirathne (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

The Role and Contribution of the Community, Informal Sector and Municipal Government in Solid Waste Management: A Case Study of a Low-Income Settlement in Colombo, Sri Lanka

UE-97-12 Paveena Thepkunhanimitta (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Formal and Informal Sector Linkages in Waste Recycling: A Case Study at Prawate District in Bangkok, Thailand

List of Thesis by the Year of Completion (cont’d)

149

Graduation Year 1999

Thesis No. Name of Scholar (Name of Supervisor)

Title of Thesis

UE-98-01 Pallavi R Mandke (Walter Jamieson)

Developing a Strategy to Increase Participation of Hotels in Environmental Management Programs in Panjim, Goa, India

UE-98-02 Hlaing Myint (Willi Zimmermann)

Environmental Awareness regarding Domestic Disposal Behaviour in Yangon, Myanmar

UE-98-03 Nguyen Duc Toan (Nguyen L. Bach)

An Integrative BOD Model for Municipal Wastewater Control to Maintain Water Quality in the West Lake of Hanoi City

UE-98-04 Tran Thi Kim Dung (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

A Study to Explore Application of Regulatory and Economic Instruments in Solid Waste Management in Hanoi City

UE-98-05 W.M.M.G.D. Wijekoon (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

An Analysis of Road-Users' Perceptions on Traffic Management Measures in Colombo City

UE-98-06 Muna Basnyat (Willi Zimmermann)

Challenges and Constraints Faced by Women NGOs in Urban Solid Waste Management in Kathmandu Valley: An Analysis from a Gender Perspective

UE-98-07 Duong Hieu Minh (Nguyen L. Bach)

System Dynamics Approach for Municipal Solid Waste Management: A Case Study of Nam Dinh City, Vietnam

UE-98-08 Pawinee Sunalai (Nguyen L. Bach)

Air Pollution Monitoring System: Evaluation and Improvement for Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate, Rayong Province, Thailand

UE-98-09 Neera (Shrestha) Pradhan (Walter Jamieson)

Mitigating NIMBY (not in my backyard) Syndrome as Barriers to Landfill Siting: A Case Study of Economic and Regulatory Measures for Gokarna Landfill Site, Kathmandu, Nepal

UE-98-10 Raakhee S. Kulkarni (Willi Zimmermann)

Market Potential for Compost Industry in Hyderabad, India: Necessary Strategies for Public and Private Cooperation

UE-98-11 Sheetu Shakya (Walter Jamieson)

Revitalization of Kankeswar Heritage Site through Local Urban Environmental Management Action Plan for Bishnumati Corridor of Kathmandu, Nepal

UE-98-12 May Thin Zar Han (Nguyen L. Bach)

A System Dynamics Approach to Environmental Planning and Management of Solid Waste: A Case Study of Yangon, Myanmar

UE-98-13 Ea Sophy (Willi Zimmermann)

Framework for Developing an Urban Environmental Infrastructure Management Plan for Phnom Penh City, Cambodia

UE-98-14 Md. Nasir Uddin (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Application of Regulatory and Economic Instruments to Control Air Pollution in Dhaka City: A Focus on Major Pollution Emitting Transportation Mode

UE-98-15 Babu Ram Rai (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Application of Economic and Regulatory Instruments for Emission Management: A Case Study of Diesel and Electric Tempos in Kathmandu City

UE-98-16 Andres Evangelista Muego

(Willi Zimmermann) Environmental Impact Assessment in Metropolitan Cebu, Philippines: Issues and Challenges

List of Thesis by the Year of Completion (cont’d)

150

Thesis No. Name of Scholar (Name of Supervisor)

Title of Thesis

UE-98-18 Choen Krainara (Nguyen L. Bach)

Environmental Planning and Management for Urban Industry; Case Study of Public Health Effects of Industrial Air Pollution in Map Ta Phut Community, Rayong Province, Thailand

UE-98-19 Dao Hai Yen (Willi Zimmermann)

Environmental Awareness and Regulations in Banking Practices: A Case Study in Ho Chi Minh City

UE-98-20 Pham Duc Thai (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Development of a Strategy for Municipal Solid Waste Disposal: A Case Study of Hanoi City, Vietnam

UE-98-21 Anagha Patil (Sudip K. Rakshit)

Environmentally Friendly Food Packaging: Comparative Patterns and Trends in India and Thailand

UE-98-22 Lay Chanthy (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Strengthening Recycling by Promoting Waste Separation at Source: A Case Study of Phnom Penh Households and the Informal Sector

UE-98-23 Beatriz Mayer (Willi Zimmermann)

Banks and Environmentally-Friendly Practice in Bangkok Metropolitan Region: The Need for Change

UE-98-24 Sisangouane Sirithasack (Nguyen L. Bach)

Determination of Cost Efficiency for Pricing of Water Supply Systems: A Case Study of Four Cities in Lao PDR

UE-98-25 Sisamone Kongmany (Arumugam Sathasivan)

A Study on Cost-Recovery Options and Needs Assessment of Household Water Supply: A Case Study of Paksane Town, Borikhamsai Province, Lao PDR

UE-98-26 Bounnao Fongkhamdeng (Willi Zimmermann)

Public Awareness on Environmental Issues in Urban Management in Pakse City, Lao PDR: A Case Study of Solid Waste Management of the "Secondary Towns Integrated Urban Development Project"

UE-98-27 Al-Azad Md. Iqbal (Willi Zimmermann)

Urban Transport and the Environment: Integrating the Financial Sector into Urban Environmental Management through Lending Practice

List of Thesis by the Year of Completion (cont’d)

151

Graduation Year 2000

Thesis No. Name of Scholar (Name of Supervisor)

Title of Thesis

RSPR No. UE-99-01

Nguyen Tuan Long (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Formal and Informal Sector Linkages in Waste Recycling: A Case Study of Household Solid Waste Management of Dong Da District in Hanoi, Vietnam

UE-99-01

Lutfun Nahar Begum (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Local Environmental Management for Improving Quality of Life: A Comparative Analysis of Service Delivery to Two Urban Poor Communities in Chittagong City, Bangladesh

UE-99-02

Hoang Hai (Arumugam Sathasivan)

Transformation of an Industrial Zone into Eco-Industrial Park in Hanoi, Vietnam: The Case of Sai Dong-B Industrial Zone

UE-99-03

Zhao Tao (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Emergence of the Informal Sector in Waste Recycling in Chinese Cities: A Case Study of Wuhan City

UE-99-04

Nguyen Hoang Nam (Arumugam Sathasivan)

Identification of Strategies for Organic Waste Separation to Achieve Better Compost: The Case of Da Nang City, Vietnam

UE-99-05

Henrika Retno Tyas Arum (Walter Jamieson)

The Management of Transportation and Environmental Issues for Sustainable Tourism Development in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

UE-99-06

Tran Thi Hien Hanh (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

An Assessment of Regulatory and Economic Measures in The Management of Hanoi’s Sewerage System

UE-99-07

Nguyen Thi Bac Thai (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Towards Developing Strategies for Improving Urban Environmental Management: The Case of Street Food Vending Activities in Yala Municipality, Thailand

UE-99-08

Dao Dieu Trang (Willi Zimmermann)

Improving Public Bus Service for a Better Urban Environment: A Case Study in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

UE-99-09

Le Thi Hong Tran (Willi Zimmermann)

Solid Waste Management System with a Focus on Waste Disposal by Landfill: A Case Study of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

UE-99-10

Souk-Nara Sithimolada (Walter Jamieson)

Proposed Strategies and Action Plans for Sustainable Tourism Development along the Mekong River Bank in the Vientiane Prefecture, Lao PDR

UE-99-11

Ornuma Thongniramol (Arumugam Sathasivan)

Residential Water Demand-Side Management in Nakorn Rayong Municipality, Rayong Province, Thailand

UE-99-12

Leng Bunlong (Walter Jamieson)

A Proposed Strategic Planning Approach for Sustainable Tourism Development in Yala Municipality, Thailand

List of Thesis by the Year of Completion (cont’d)

152

Graduation Year 2001

Thesis No. Name of Scholar (Name of Supervisor)

Title of Thesis

RSPR No. UE-00-01

Chanthala Phimmachack (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Land Use Control for Urban Environmental Management: A Study of the Conflicts in Land Use for Tourism along Nam Song Riverbank, Vang Vieng, Lao PDR

RSPR No. UE-00-02

Suthamma Maneepitak (Willi Zimmermann)

Comparative Study on Environmental Management and Awareness in ISO 14001 School and Non-ISO 14001 School: A Case Study of Pakkred Secondary School (Nonthaburi) and Chainat Pittayakom Secondary School (Chainat), Thailand

RSPR No. UE-00-03

Ke Vongwattana (Willi Zimmermann)

Community Participation in Urban Solid Waste Disposal Management: A Case Study of the City of Phnom Penh, Cambodia

UE-00-01 Xonglao Yongnou (Walter Jamieson)

Developing Policy Guidelines for Open Space in Vientiane, Lao PDR

UE-00-02 Pham Thi Khanh Van (Walter Jamieson)

Minimizing the Impact of Tourism on the Aquatic Environment of Halong Bay, Quang Ninh Province, Vietnam

UE-00-03 Saif Uddin Ahmed (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Urban River Water Quality Protection: A Focus on Management Measures and Institutional Requirements for Buriganga River, Dhaka, Bangladesh

UE-00-04 Sukumaporn Jongpukdee (Walter Jamieson)

Towards the Rehabilitation of the Open Space and Footpaths in a Residential Estate: The Case of Khlong Chan Residential Estate, Bangkok, Thailand

UE-00-05 Ngo Minh Hung (Willi Zimmermann)

Improving the Urban Living Environment through Open Space Management: A Case Study of the “36 Old Streets” Quarter of Hanoi, Vietnam

UE-00-06 Periyathamby Kuruparan (Willi Zimmermann)

The Degree of Knowledge and Skills for Sustainable Urban Management in Financial Institutions in Colombo City, Sri Lanka

UE-00-07 Md. Rabiul Islam (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

A Study for Improving the Cost Recovery of Water Supply in Dhaka City, Bangladesh

UE-00-08 Nguyen Quoc Cong (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Strategies for Improving the Wastewater Management in Thuong Dinh Industrial Area in Hanoi, Vietnam

UE-00-09 Tran Ngoc Quang (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Strategies to Promote Composting in Namdinh, Vietnam

UE-00-10 Zaw Zaw Aye (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

The Transportation Management System in Yangon: A Focus on Easing the Traffic Congestion

UE-00-11 Aung May Oo (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Industrial Wastewater Management at Local Level: A Case Study of Two Industrial Estates in Yangon, Myanmar

UE-00-12 Md. Mahamud-Ul-Hoque (Willi Zimmermann)

Problems of Inter-Organizational Coordination in Managing Air Quality in Dhaka City, Bangladesh

UE-00-13 Nattawut Usavagovitwong (Walter Jamieson)

Community Wastewater Management: A Case Study of Sue-Trong Garden Real Estate in Saima Sub-District, Nonthaburi, Thailand

List of Thesis by the Year of Completion (cont’d)

153

Thesis No. Name of Scholar (Name of Supervisor)

Title of Thesis

UE-00-14 Pornpun Pinweha (Walter Jamieson)

Urban Environmental Management Issues: Water Transportation on Om Canal, Nonthaburi Province

UE-00-15 Sradhanjali Mohanty (Walter Jamieson)

Assessment of Impacts of Implementing ISO 14001- Environmental Management System for Certified Industries in Thailand

UE-00-16 Hendra Yusran Siry (Walter Jamieson)

Sustainable Urban Tourism in an Asian Mega-City: A Case Study of Kawasan Jalan Jaksa (Jaksa Street Area) Jakarta, Indonesia

UE-00-17 Bandasak Yostrakul (Willi Zimmermann)

Integrated Public Bus Systems: Transport Policy and Possibilities in Chiang Mai Municipality, Thailand

UE-00-18 Jürgen Odszuck (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Earthquake Risk Management in Urban Planning and Development in Kathmandu, Nepal

UE-00-19 Regina Kallmayer (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Flood Risk Management in Low-Income Settlements: Exploring Planning Options for Phnom Penh, Cambodia

List of Thesis by the Year of Completion (cont’d)

154

Graduation Year 2002

Thesis No. Name of Scholar (Name of Supervisor)

Title of Thesis

RSPR No. UE-01-01

Md. Ashraf Ali (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Public-Private Partnership for Controlling Air Pollution: The Case of Dhaka Urban Transport Project

RSPR No. UE-01-02

Arounna Vongsakhamphouy (Edsel Sajor)

Promoting Public Awareness on Urban Environmental Management: A Case Study on Wastewater Management in Nampasak Canal, Vientiane, Lao PDR

RSPR No. UE-01-03

Xeng Xiong Nengxay (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Prospects for Community Participation in Delivery of Water Supply for Km 52 Village in Vientiane Province, Lao PDR

RSPR No. UE-01-04

Xu Danling (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

The Impact of Subway Construction on the Local Economy and Environment of Luohu, Shenzhen, China

UE-01-01 Yvonne Van Remmen (Walter Jamieson)

Selected Issues in Tripartite Partnerships for Basic Services Delivery to Urban Un-/Under-serviced Areas

UE-01-02 Ekvinay Sayyalath (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Administrative Decentralization to Improve Urban Environmental Infrastructure: A Case Study of a Secondary Town in Lao PDR

UE-01-03 Phouthala Souksakhone (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Disaster Risk Management in Urban Areas of Vientiane: A Study with Special Reference to Management of Fire Disaster in Residential and Commercial Areas

UE-01-04 Moe Moe Hlaing Myint (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Improving Cost Recovery for Better Water Supply System in Yangon City, the Union of Myanmar

UE-01-05 Suneeram Brenda Rose (Edsel Sajor)

Delivery of Environmental Services in Slums and the Decentralization Reform in Local Administrative System in Aurangabad, India

UE-01-06 Kiran Ajit Shinde (Walter Jamieson)

Urban Environmental Governance for Religious Tourism in Selective Pilgrim Towns in India

UE-01-07 Khin Htwe Maw (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Local Environmental Management for Improving Environmental Infrastructure Services of Low-Income Settlements in a Myanmar Town

UE-01-08 Aminur Rahman Md. Tariq (Walter Jamieson)

Proposed Strategies and Action Plans for Sustainable Tourism Development of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

UE-01-09 Nguyen Phuong Thao (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

The Role of Environmental Education in Improving Urban Environment: A Case Study of Environmental Education in Secondary Schools in Hanoi, Vietnam

UE-01-10 Do Thuy Nga (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Effects of Redevelopment Project: A Case Study of a Relocated Urban Community in Hanoi, Vietnam

UE-01-11 Nguyen Thi Xuan Huong (Edsel Sajor)

Environmental Awareness and Information System in Improving Industrial Wastewater Management of Small Scale Industries in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

UE-01-12 Pham Quang Dong (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Urban Environmental Management Policies to Improve the Living Condition in Slum Settlements: A Case Study of Tau Hu Canal Settlement, District 8, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Thesis No. Name of Scholar Title of Thesis

List of Thesis by the Year of Completion (cont’d)

155

(Name of Supervisor) UE-01-13 Din Somethearith

(Edsel Sajor) A Recent Changes in Context and Basic Policy Affecting Urban Slum Dwellers Communities in Phnom Penh, Cambodia and Implications on Participatory Approach in Ongoing and Future Relocation Programs

UE-01-14 Saphoeun Tous (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Environmental Impacts of Tourism-Based Urban Development on the Protection Zone of Angkor Area, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia

UE-01-15 Myeongso Eo (Walter Jamieson)

Towards Sustainable Development of Urban Renewal in Seoul: Evaluation and Effects of Government Housing Renewal Program

UE-01-16 Mallik Akram Hossain (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Improving Urban Services Delivery for Environmental Management: A Study of Poor Settlements in Rajshahi City, Bangladesh

UE-01-17 Zhang Ge (Walter Jamieson)

Sustainable Design and Management of Community Green Space: A Case Study of Wangjing A5 Community, Beijing, China

UE-01-18 Gu Qi (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Urbanization Impact at Local Level: A Study of a Migrant Community in Beijing

UE-01-19 On-usah Thongthai (Walter Jamieson)

Service Performance Evaluation of Metropolitan Waterworks Authority (MWA) of Bangkok Metropolitan: Integrating Customer Perspective into the Evaluation Protocol

UE-01-20

Chonchinee Amawatana (Edsel Sajor) A Study of Trends and Major Determinants of the

Level of Official Development Assistance (ODA) for Urban Environmental Management (UEM) Local Projects in Thailand

UE-01-21 Witchuda Srang-iam (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Urban Agriculture as a Municipal Waste Reduction Strategy: A Study of Commercial Farms in Suan Luang District, Bangkok Metropolis

UE-01-22 Benchawan Chokchaitrakulpho (Walter Jamieson)

A Study of Industrial Participation in Cleaner Production for Industrial Efficiency (CPIE) in Samut Prakarn Province, Thailand

UE-01-23 Manit Kham-uan (Edsel Sajor)

Environmental Conflict Situation and Participation Problems in Urban Anti-Flood Program in Hat Yai Municipality, Songkhla Province, Thailand

UE-01-25 Christine Dvorak (Walter Jamieson)

Towards a Sustainable Preservation Strategy for Safeguarding the Character of Luang Prabang, Lao PDR

UE-01-26

Michaela Winter (Walter Jamieson)

Preparing the Ground for Tourism Development on a Local Level: A Case Study of Kampot, Cambodia

UE-01-27 Bushra Shamsad (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Interventions for Improving Urban Poor’s Living Environment: Focus on Women Participation in Projects in Khulna City Slum Area, Bangladesh

UE-01-28 Jaime Enciso Cachafeiro (Edsel Sajor)

Application of Tourism Carrying Capacity to an Urban Heritage Destination: Vigan (Philippines)

UE-01-29 Mònica Altimira Bosch (Edsel Sajor)

Environmental Reform in Puerto Princesa (Philippines): A Best Practice Case of Local Agenda 21

List of Thesis by the Year of Completion (cont’d)

156

Graduation Year 2003

Thesis No. Name of Scholar (Name of Supervisor)

Title of Thesis

UE-02-01 Shagun V. Mehrotra (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Constraints in Implementing Urban Development Policy in India from the Perspective of International Development Professionals: Study of Sustainable Cities Program in Chennai

UE-02-02 Rutmanee Ongsakul (Edsel Sajor)

Land Conversion in BMR Peri-Urban Area: Impact on Water Resource and Implications on Public Management

UE-02-03

Pravakar Pradhan (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Impact of Urbanization and Industrialization on the Agricultural Activities in Pathumthani Province, Thailand: A Study with Reference to Land Use and Water Use Conflicts

UE-02-04

Douangcharch Lopaying (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

An Analysis of Household Affordability and Willingness to Pay for Improved Water Supply in two Towns of Lao PDR

UE-02-05

Witiya Pittungnapoo (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Revitalization of a Water Based Community: Koh Kred Island, Nonthaburi, Thailand

UE-02-06 Sabita Popuri (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Needs Assessment for Basic Infrastructure in a Post Conflict City: A Comparative Study of Unplanned and Planned Areas in Kabul, Afghanistan

UE-02-07 Farhat J. Chowdhury (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Integration of Environmental Assessment into Slum Improvement Programs: A Case Study of Infrastructure Projects in two Slums of Dhaka

UE-02-08

Nguyen Nam Son (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Uncertainties Associated with the Planning Stage of Railway Projects in Ho Chi Minh City and Their Impacts on the Living Environment of an Affected Community

UE-02-09 Asghar Naeem Malik (Edsel Sajor)

Issues and Possibilities in State, Voluntary Organizations and Business Sectors’ Synergy in Environmental Protection: A Case Study of Hudiara Drain Pollution Problem in Lahore, Pakistan

UE-02-10 Khin Myat New (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Development of Regulatory and Economic Measures in the Management of Yangon’s Sewerage System: A Case Study of Downtown Area in Yangon, Myanmar

UE-02-11 Tep Makathy (Edsel Sajor)

Why Informal Sector Counts in Urban Mass Transport System: A Study of Phnom Penh City’s Bus Experiment

UE-02-12 Quach Huy Thong (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Urban Environmental Management for Heritages Conservation and Cultural Tourism: A Case Study in Bat Trang-Hometown of Traditional Ceramic in Hanoi, Vietnam

UE-02-13

Seak Pengkeang (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Improvement of Water Supply for the Poor: A Case Study of the Dangkao District of Phnom Penh, Cambodia

UE-02-14

Pham Tran Hai (Edsel Sajor)

Formalization of Land Tenure and Living Environment in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Since the Economic Renovation

List of Thesis by the Year of Completion (cont’d)

157

Thesis No. Name of Scholar (Name of Supervisor)

Title of Thesis

UE-02-15

Lee Bee Chew (L.A.S. Ranjith Perera)

Strategic Intervention for Achieving National Goals of Sustainable Development: A Study with Special Reference to the Green Building Program of PWD Malaysia

UE-02-16

Bimalendu Mohanty (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Capacity Building for Sustainable Tourism Development in the Golden Triangle (Bhubaneswar-Puri-Konark), Orissa, India

UE-02-17

Ashutosh Mohanty (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Potential of Reducing Poverty through Urban Environmental Management Practices: A Case Study of a Poor Community in Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India

UE-02-01 (Ph.D.) Nguyen Thi Binh Minh (A.T.M. Nurul Amin)

Foreign Direct Investment-Led Development for Better Urban Environmental Management: The Case of Hanoi, Vietnam

UE-02-05 (Ph.D.) Jitti Mongkolnchaiarunya (Willi Zimmermann)

Developing Alternative Solid Waste Management Practices in Local Governments: A Case Study of Yala Municipality, Thailand

ISBN 974-229-627-8