A p p E N D

Useful Information

x / J

Just as you need to know your name and address and telephone number and e-mail address to locate yourself in the world, so must you know some basic information to locate yourselfin physics. Like competent professionals in any field, a practicing physicist carries a large amount of factual baggage. Starting out in physics you will need only the small backpack of facts presented in Tables A.l and A.3.

Then there is information that you need occasionally. Some of that is collected he re for your convenience. If you don't find what you want here or in the text, try the library. Ask a reference librarian to help you find what you want to know, or look in the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. You can also use the World Wide Web to find constants:

http://physics.nist. gov/PhysRefDatai codata86/ codata86.html

will supply you the very latest, most precise values from NIST (National Institute ofTechnology and Standards).

A.l 51 PREFIXE5

You need to know the SI prefixes. They tell you the order of magnitude of the units of whatever physical quantity they are attached to. It is absolutely essential that you know them. They are widely used, and when you are wrong about them, you make mistakes of factors of thousands! Maybe you can absorb them by osmosis as you use them; maybe you need to get them by heart by the purest of rote leaming; maybe you can come up with a clever mnemonic; maybe (and this would be best) you can leam them attached to particular physical situations and quantities, as suggested in Chapter 2. However you do it, leam them! They are listed in Table A.l.

497

498 APPENDIX A. USEFUL INFORMATION

TABlE A.l SI Prefixes

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

10 exa E 10 deci d

1015 peta P 10-2 centi c

1012 tera T 10-3 milli m

109 giga G 10-6 rrucro f-t

106 mega M 10-9 nano n

103 kilo k 10-12 pico P 102 hecto h 10-15 femto f

101 deka da 10-18 atto a

A.2 BASIC PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

You need to know some basic physical constants. These set the scale of the phenomena of the physical world. Which ones are most important depends on the physical situation under consideration. In this book, with its emphasis on atoms and their parts, the elementary charge; the masses of the electron, the proton, and the neutron; and the values of the Planck and Boltzmann constants are very important. When you deal with macroscopic quantities of atoms in the laboratory, Avogadro's number and Earth's gravity are im­portant. For convenient reference Table A.2 lists the official values of these constants in SI units. Table A.3 lists the ones you need to know in the units in which you need to know them.

These constants are not just special, precise numbers given in SI units. One goal of this book is to show how these constants interrelate and how they specify the scale of observed effects and phenomena. Theyare essential elements out of which we build a consistent and informative picture of the microphysical world and its connection to the macrophysical world where we live and do physics.

A.3 CONSTANTS THAT YOU MUST KNOW

You need to be able to calculate quickly and easily with these constants. F or this purpose, you need the constants expressed as much as possible in terms of units chosen to match the natural scale of atoms. Electron volts (eV) and nanometers (nm) are convenient for atoms, while megaelectron volts (MeV)

A.3. CONSTANTS THAT YOU MUST KNOW 499

TABLE A.2 Basic Physical Constants

Name of constant Symbol Value

Atomic mass unit 'lnu or u 1.661 x 10 27 kg

Avogadro constant NA 6.022 x 1023 mol- I

Bohr radius ao 5.292 x 10- 11 m

Boltzmann constant kB 1.381 x 10- 23 J-K-1

8.617 X 10- 5 eV-K- I

Charge-to-mass ratio of electron e/m -1.759 x 1011 Ckg- 1

Coulomb constant kc or 8.988 x 109 N·m2·C- 2

1 4JTfo

Electron mass me 9.109 x 10- 31 kg

Elementary charge e 1.602 x 10-19 C

Faraday constant F 96485 Cmol- 1

Intensity of Earth's

gravitational field g 9.82 N.kg- 1 (m.s-2)

Molar gas constant R 8.315 J-mol- 1-K-1

Neutron mass mn 1.675 x 10-27 kg

Planck constant h 6.626 x 10-34 J-s

4.136 X 10- 15 eV-s

IJ = 1; l.055 x 1O-34;.s

6.582 x 10- 16 eV-s

Proton mass mp 1.673 x 10- 27 kg

Rydberg constant R,JO 1.09737 x 107 rn-I

Speed of light c 2.99792458 x 108 m·s- 1

and femtometers (fm) are a good choice for nuclei. It is also often simpler to work with masses in units of eV/c2•

Table AJ gives constants, combinations of constants, and masses in terms of these more convenient units. The combinations simplify calculations of energies, wavelengths, and frequencies that are frequently made in this course. The Remark column teIls you when the constant is one that you absolutely need to know. No kidding!

500 APPENDIX A. USEFUL INFORMATION

TABLE A.3 Constants in Convenient Energy Units

Name Symbol Value Remark

Planck constant h 4.14 x 10 15 eV.s

he 1240eV-nm know this one!

Reduced Planck

constant: .f; /j 6.58 X 10-16 eV-s

/je 197eV·nm knowas "" 200eVnm

/je 197 MeV-fm know as "" 200MeVfm

Coulomb force kce2 1.44eV-nm know this numerator

Thermal energy

at T = 300K kBT 0.025geV remember as "" 1140 eV

Bohr radius E1 ao = k,lme 0.0529 nm

Fine structure k,2 CI. = 7k 11137.036 no units

constant

Rydberg energy heRoo 13.61 eV know this one

Electron mass mee2 511 keV knowthis

Proton mass m pc2 938.3 MeV know"" 938MeV

Neutron mass mne2 939.6MeV know mn is 1.29 MeV> mp

Atomic mass unit u 93 1.50 MeV/e2 remember 1 u "" mp

Speed of light e 3 x 108 m·s-1 know this

Elementary charge e 1.6 x 10- 19 C knowthis

A.4 SOME UNITS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS

There are seven units that form the basis of the SI. In this book we use six of them. Table A.4, which gives their names, symbols, and definitions, is provided here just for your general information. You will find it more useful and informative to remember the looser definitions that are given in the chapters where they are introduced.

For quick reference Table A.5 lists units and abbreviations. The entries in the table are in alphabetical order according to their abbrevia­tions.

A5. ATOMIC MASSES 501

TABlE AA SI Base Units

Name

meter

mass

second

Symbol Definition

m The meter is the length of path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.

kg The kilogram is the unit of mass. It is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. (The international prototype is a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the BIPM in Sevres (Paris) France.)

The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state ofthe cesium-133 atom.

ampere A The ampere is that constant current that if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10- 7 newton per meter oflength.

kelvin K

mole mol

candela cd

The kelvin is the unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the tripie point of water. (The Celsius temperature scale is defined by the equation t = T - To, where T is the thermodynamic temperature in kelvins and To = 273.15 K.)

The mole is the amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12 .

The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.

A.5 ATOMIC MASSES

Table A.6lists some useful chemical atomic masses and densities of elements that are solids at room temperature. If you need to know the density of any gaseous element, you can calculate it.

A.6 MASSES OF NUCLIDES

F or determining how nuclei will behave, the difference between masses of atoms may be important. When this is the case, you need to know the individ­ual atomic masses quite precisely. Table A. 7 lists some of the more important elements and their nuclides and their masses.

502 APPENDIX A. USEFUL INFORMATION

TABLE A.5 Commonly Used Units and Abbreviations

Quantity Name Abbrev. SI units

current ampere A A

length angstrom A 10-10 m

pressure atmosphere atm 101.3 kPa

area barn b 1O-24 m2

pressure bar bar 100kPa

energy calorie cal 4.1858J

electric charge coulomb C As

viscosity centipoise cp 10-3 Pa·s

energy electron volt eV 1.602 x 10-19 J

magnetic field gauss G 1O-4 T

frequency hertz Hz S-I

energy joule J kg.m2.s-2 =N·m

temperature kelvin K K

mass kilogram kg kg

volume liter L 10-3 m3

length meter m m

pressure millimeters of mercury mmHg 133.32 Pa

volume cubic meter m3 m3

amount mole mol mol

force newton N kg.m·s-2

electric field newton per coulomb N·C-I N·C-I

pressure pascal Pa N·m-2

viscosity pascal seconds Pa·s

angle radian rad rad

time second s s

magnetic field tesla T kg.S-I.C-I

pressure torr torr 133.32 Pa

mass atomic mass unit u 1.6605 x 10-27 kg

electric potential volt V j-C-I

electric field volts per meter V·m-I N·C-I

power watt W j-S-I

angle degree 1.7453 x 10-2 rad

A.7. MISCELLANEOUS 503

TAßlE A.6 Some Chemical Atomic Masses

Element Symbol Z Mass Phase Density

(u) (g cm- J)

hydrogen H 1.00797 gasH2

helium He 2 4.0026 gas He

lithium Li 3 6.939 solid 0.534

beryllium Be 4 9.0122 solid Be 1.848

boron B 5 10.811 crystalline B 2.34

carbon C 6 12.01115 amorphous C ~ 2.0

nitrogen N 7 14.0067 gasN2

oxygen 0 8 15.9994 gas O2

fluorine F 9 18.9984 gas F2

aluminum Al 13 26.981538 solid 2.6989

silicon Si 14 28.0855 solid 2.33

iron Fe 26 55.844 solid 7.874

cobalt Co 27 58.93320 solid 8.9

nickel Ni 28 58.69 solid 8.902

copper Cu 29 63.546 solid 8.96

zmc Zn 30 65.40 solid 7.133

tantalum Ta 73 180.9479 solid 16.6

silver Ag 47 107.8681 solid 10.5

gold Au 79 196.96654 solid 19.32

lead Pb 82 207.2 solid 11.35

uranium U 92 232.0289 solid 18.95

A.7 MISCElLANEOUS

Table A.8 contains some constants used occasionally in this course, includ­ing constants having to do with Earth, Moon, and Sun. Table A. 9 contains conversion factors between some especially common English units and their metric equivalents.

504 APPENDIX A. USEFUL INFORMATION

TAßLE A.7 Masses of Some Nuclides

Name of Symbol Z Nuclide Mass Natural Half-life

Nuclide (u) Abundance

(%)

hydrogen IH 1.007825 99.985

deuterium 2HorD 2.01410 0.015

tritium 3HorT 3.016050 12.26y

helium-3 3He 2 3.016030 0.00013

helium-4 4He 2 4.002603 100.0

lithium-6 6Li 3 6.015125 7.42

lithium-7 7Li 3 7.016004 92.58

beryllium-9 9Be 4 9.012186 100.

boron-lO lOB 5 10.012939 19.78

boron-ll llB 5 11.009305 80.22

carbon-12 12e 6 12.000000 98.89

carbon-13 l3e 6 13.003354 1.11

carbon-14 14e 6 14.003242 5730y

nitrogen-14 14N 7 14.003074 99.63

nitrogen-15 15N 7 15.010599 0.37

oxygen-16 160 8 15.994915 99.759

oxygen-17 170 8 16.999133 0.037

oxygen-18 180 8 17.999160 0.204

fluorine-19 19F 9 18.998405 100.0

A.7. MISCELLANEOUS 505

TABLE A.8 Miscellaneous Occasionally Used Constants

Name Symbol Value Units Remarks

Earth's mass M (fJ 6 x 1024 kg 10 moles of lcilograms

Earth-Sun distance RES 1.5 x 1011 m 1A.U.

Earth radius R(fJ 6.366 x 106 m 2rrR(fJ = 40Mm

Earth-Moon distance REM 3.82 x 108 m 60R(fJ

Moon's mass M) 0.01234 M (fJ M (fJ /81

Sun's mass Mo 2 x 1030 kg 333,000M(fJ

Viscosity of air YJ 18.2 fLPa·s at lOü e Speed of sound in air Vs 343 ms-1 at 20ü e

TABLE A.9 Some Conversion Factors Between

English and Metric Units

English English Metric

In 2.54 cm

ft 12 in 30.48 cm

mile 5280 ft 1609.3 m

3.28 ft m

0.396 In cm

mph 1.467 ftls 0.447 mls

0.621 mph 0.911 ftls kmlhr

2.24 mph 3.28 ftls mls

lb 16 oz 453.5 g

oz 28.3 g

2.205 lb kg

Index

Absorption spectrum, 475 activity,427

and radioactive decay, 434 radioactivity, 427 standards of, 429 units

curie (Ci), 432 SI: becquerel (Bq), 433

age and death of nuclei, 437

see also radioactive decay of people, 438 of stars, 438

alpha particles, see also radioactive radiations

are helium ions, 429 scattering, 439

apparatus of Geiger and Marsden, 441

from atoms, 439 alpha rays, see alpha particles, radioactive

radiations AM radio frequencies, 240 American adults

heights,17 masses,17

amplitude of a wave, 267 angle, 21

degrees, 21, 22 arc seconds, 23

minutes,22 seconds,22 sexagesimal system, 23

radians, 21, 25 rays,21 small-angle approximation, 25, 26 subtend,21 vertex, 21

Angstrom, 112 angstrom, see length angular momentum, 469

quantization of, 463, 469 anions, 188 anode, 188 antiproton, 333 approximations

by binomial expansion, 282 mathematical tool for, 278 non-relativistic, see non-relativistic

approximations ofbinomial functions, 282 small-angle, 284 straight-line,278

atmospheric pressure, 71 Web site for, 88

atom of charge, see electron, elementary charge

atomic mass unit, 58, 173 in MeVlc2, 325

atomic masses, 501

507

508 INDEX

atomic (cont.) atomic nucleus, 447, 455

discovery from radioactivity, 447 see also nucleus

atomic number Z, 448, 453, 455 see also nucleus, electric charge of

atomic spectroscopy, 260 atomic spectrum, 261 atomic weights, 58

chemical scale, 58 of some elements, 59

isotopes, see isotopes atoms, 5

absorption of photons by, 475 diffraction of, 397 early history, 51 electrical nature, 187 emission of photons by, 468 energy levels in, 475 energy states of, 468, 471 energy transitions in, 473 evidence for, 52 hard-sphere, 6, 113 integers,52 internal structure deduced from

emitted light, 254, 464 made of + and - charges, 6 mass of, 62 not welliocalized, 6 nuclear model, 6 shell structure of, 482 sizes, 6,17,112 spectra of, 267

atoms of gases average force, 94 average kinetic energy, 113

at room temperature, 100 average square speed, 96 average velocity, 108 effective collisional cross section, 103 hard-sphere model, 94 mean free path, 103, 110 mean square velocity, 96, 97 number density, 96

at STp, 97 pressure, 94 root mean square velocity, 98 viscosity, 110

atoms nuclear model, 448 nuclei of, 447 transmutation of, 431

average computation of, 114 of a distribution, 117, 118

average force, 32 average velocity, 108 Avogadro's constant, 61, 208

atomic masses, 62 sizes of atoms, 63

Avogardo's number see Avogadro's constant

Avogadro's principle, 57 Avogadro,Amadeo,56

diatomic molecules, 56

Backscatter peak, 375, 377, see also scintillation counter

Bainbridge apparatus, see charge-to-mass ratio, electron

Bainbridge, K. T., 172, 194 Balmer series, see hydrogen atom Balmer,].].,465 barometer equation, 72 Becquerel, Henri, 425

discovers radioactivity, 353 Becquerel, Henri

discovers radioactivity, 425 experiments on radioactivity, 426 measures e/m of radioactive

radiations, 427 Bertsch, G. F., 460 Berzelius, Jons, 57 beta rays, 455, see also radioactive

radiations binomial expansion, 282 binomial function, 281 bins, see distribution bins of a distribution, 116

velocity, 120 Bohr atom, see Bohr model Bohr model, 463

and hydrogen-like ions, 480 and Moseley's law, 485 and x-ray lines, 481 energy states, 470

first Bohr-orbit radius, 471 K and L x-rays, 483 limitations of, 488 three assumptions, 487

Bohr radius, see Bohr model Bohr, Niels, 463 Boltzmann's constant, 99 Boyle's law, 76 Boyle, Sir Robert, 74

experiment on gases, 75 Brackett series, see hydrogen atom,

spectrum Bragg law of crystal diffraction, see

Bragg law of x-ray reflection Bragg law of x-ray reflection, 357 Bragg spectrometer, 363 Bragg, WH., 340, 356 Bragg, WL., 356 buoyancy force, 90

Cathode, 188 cathode rays, 192

electrons, 193 cations, 188 Chadwick, ].

discovered the neutron, 453 characteristic x-rays, 481, 482, 488, see

also x -rays, line spectra charge, see electric charge charge-to-mass ratio

of electron Bainbridge method, 197 significance of, 198 Thomson's method, 194 value, 198

of hydrogen atom, 192 of proton, 192

chart ofthe nuclides, 455, 457 circumference of a circle, 15 color, see light, wavelength common, see electrical ground Compton edge, 375, 376 see also

scintillation detector Compton effect, 335, 367, 369, 378

data, 370 frequency shift in, 373 wavelength shift in, 374

Compton scattering, 367, 369,407

equation for, 373 Compton, A. H., 367

INDEX 509

conductor, see electrical conductor conservation of energy, 36, 38

conversion of gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy, 40

conservation of momentum, 30 constants of physics, 498

from NIST on the Web, 497 most important, 498

Coolidge tube, 354, see also x-rays, production of

Coulomb's law, 136 force constant, 136

Coulomb, Charles Augustin, 13 5 crystal spectrometer, see x-rays,

spectrometer crystals

lattice spacings of common, 363, 389 Miller indices, 390 ordered arrays of atoms, 356, 378 rock salt lattice spacing, 361 spacing between atom planes in, 389 spacing of atoms in, 360

curie see activity, units Curie, Marie, 425, 427

and radioactivity of thorium, 428 discovers polonium, 428 discovers radium, 428

Curie, Pierre, 425, 428 current, see electric current cutoff of x-ray spectrum, see x-rays,

continuous spectrum

Dalton,John,53 model of atom, 54

Davisson and Germer apparatus, 394 verify wave nature of electrons, 393

Davisson, c.]., 393 Davy, Sir Humphrey, 53 de Broglie wavelength, 385

equation for, 399 implies large energies to probe small

objects, 400 implies particles are not sharply

localized, 401 de Broglie, Louis, 385

510 INDEX

Debye-Scherrer diffraction rings, 359, see also x-rays, powder diffraction, 377

decay constant see radioactive decay density,13

Earth's crust, 19 iron, 19 mercury,19 of agas, 62 of gases at STp, 87 of some gases, 59 water, 13, 19

deuterium, 454, 504 deuterium: mass-2 isotope of hydrogen,

171 deuteron, 459

mass of, 459 diffraction

of atoms, 397 of electrons, 387 of neutrons, 397

diffraction grating, 254, 267 multi-slit interference, 259 principal maximum

order number, 267 resolution, 259 spectrometer, 260

discharge tube, 262 disintegration constant, see radioactive

decay displacement, 45 displacement in a wave, 267 distance of dosest approach, see

Rutherford scattering distribution, 116, 413

bins, 116, 413 histogram, 117 of velocities, 118, 119 standard deviation of, 414

Doppler effect, 303 blue shift, 305 red shift, 305

Doppler shift, see Doppler effect double-slit interference, 254, 267

effect of single-slit diffraction on, 257 maxima, 255, 267 of electrons, 396

down conversion, 420

down converter, 420 Düker, H., 396 dynodes, see photomultiplier tube

Earth average density, 19 circumference, 15, 17 magnetic field, 165 mass,17

Einstein, Albert, 277, 289 electric charge, 130

forces between, 132 negative, 132 neutral, 132 positive, 132 units

SI: coulomb (C), 137 electric current, 154

direction, 153 source of magnetic field, 170 units

SI: ampere (A), 152 electric deflection

()( llkinetic energy, 196 control of charged partides, 196 inkjet printer, 210 quark hunting, 213

electric field, 13 8 constant in space, 138 direction, 141 magnitude, 155 of a point charge, 139 strength, 138 units

SI: newtons per coulomb (Ne-I), 138

electric potential, 141, 144 and electric potential energy, 146 and potential energy, 141 between charged plates, 145 different from electric potential

energy, 145 equipotential surfaces, 147, 148 maps of, 149 outside a charged sphere, 146 units

SI: volts (V), 145 visualization of, 147

electric potential energy, 146 of a charge in a constant electric field,

143 of a charge in the field of a point

charge, 143 electrical conductor, 134 electrical ground, 159 electrode, 188 electrolysis, 188

Faraday's law of, 188 electrolyte, 188 electromagnetic radiation

probing atoms with, 237 wavelengths

and structure of atoms, 254 x-rays,354

electromagnetic spectrum, 260 electromagnetic waves, 266

frequencies of, 240 electron

charge, 208 component of every atom, 187,378 elementary charge, 187 energy of interaction with atom, 208 mass,208

in keVlc2, 314, 329 in MeV/c2, 325

rest energy, 314 electron diffraction, 387, 393

Debye-Scherrer rings, 388 electron interference, 396 electron volt, 100, 150 electrons

diffraction of, 393 discovery, 193

electroscope, 131 elementarycharge, 150, 191,200,208

value,205 elements, 51, 52

atomic weights, 58 number of, 63

Elster and GeiteI, 336 energy,33

and mass equivalence, 311, 314 gravitational potential energy, 37 kinetic energy, 36 units

electron volt, 100

INDEX 511

electron volt (eV), 150 kilowatt-hour (kW-h), 40 SI: joule 0), 34

energy costs, 40 energy levels, 475 energy states, 468 energy-Ievel diagrams, 471, see also

atoms, energy states of Estermann, 1.,397 ether, 289

Faraday, 188, see also mole of charges Faraday's law of electrolysis, see

electrolysis Faraday, M., 187 federal budget, 16

deficit, 17 Feynman, Richard P., 9, 34

energy analogy, 34 field, see electric field, magnetic field fission, 333 fluorescence, 426 FM radio frequencies, 240 force, 28, 44

F =ma,29 average force, 48 rate of change of momentum, 28, 29 spatial variation of potential

energy,42 units

SI: newton (N), 29 fractional change, 79 fractional difference, 326 fractional error, see precision fractional precision, see precision frame of reference, 285

description of motion depends on, 286

laboratory, 321 no special, 287 rest, 321 transform from one to another, 288

Franck,J.,477 Franck-Hertz experiment, 477

apparatus,478 data,479 significance of, 479

Fraunhofer, J. v., 465

512 INDEX

frequency, 267 units

SI: hertz (Hz), 240 frequency of a wave, 240 Friedrich, w., 355 fringes, 291, 292 Frisch, 0., 397 fusion, 333

Galileo, 1,3,41 Discourses on Two New Sciences, 1

gamma in relativity, 299 gamma rays, see radioactive radiations gauge pressure, 74 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 55

law of thermal expansion of gases, 79 Geiger, Hans, 439, 445 Germer, L. H., 393 gram atomic weight, 61 gram molecular weight, 61 gravitation, 1 gravitational potential energy, 37,141

depends onlyon vertical distance, 39 ground, see electrical ground

Half-life, 433, see also radioactive decay Hallwachs, W, 336

photoelectric effect, 336 harmonie waves, see waves, sinusoidal Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 408,

412,422 estimating average kinetic energy

with,415 estimating force with, 416 estimating size with, 416

Heisenberg, Werner, 412 helium

discovered in Sun, 261 discovered on Earth, 261

Hertz, G., 477 Hertz, Heinrich, 335

discovers photoelectric effect, 336 generates radio waves, 335

histogram, 117 hydrogen atom

Bohr model of, 463 energy states of, 470 mass

in MeV/c2 , 325 spectrum

Balmer series, 465, 466, 473 Brackett series, 474 Lyman series, 473 Paschen series, 474 Pfund series, 474

hydrogen-like ions, 480

Ideal gas, 83 volume of a mole at STP, 87

ideal gas law, 84 Kelvin temperature scale, 85

impact parameter, 443 indistinguishability, 418, 420 inkjet printer, 210 insulator, see electrical insulator interference, 246,267

constructive, 249 defining property of waves, 246 destructive, 249 from many slits, see multi-slit

interference from one slit, see single-slit diffraction from two slits, see double-slit

interference in 2-D, 252 of a particle with itself, 409, 422 oflight

fringes, 253 of two 1-D waves, 249

intensity,251 patterns

sizes and structures determined from, 267

U. ofRochester apparatus for, 418 interference patterns, 252

revealstructure, 263 interferometer, 290

fringes, 291, 292 ions, 188 isotopes, 171,454,455

notation for, 455 of carbon, 171 of chlorine, 171 of hydrogen, 171 oflead,176 of oxygen, 171

relative abundances of, 177

Jaffe, Bernard,484 jumps, see atoms, energy transitions in

Kx-rays, 483, see also x-rays, line spectra, 488

and the Bohr Model, 483 Kashy, E., 460 Kaufmann, W, 315

measures e/m of beta rays, 427 Kelvin (Lord), 85 kinetic energy, 44

relativistically correct, 319 Kirchhoff, G. R., 465 Knipping, P., 35 5

L x-rays, 483, see also x-rays, line spectra, 488

measured by Moseley, 492 lattice constant, 389 Laue diffraction, 377 Laue pattern, 356 Laue spots, 356 Lavoisier, 51 law of combining volumes, 55 law of constant proportions, 53 law of multiple proportions, 53 Lenard, Philipp, 336

measures charge-to-mass ratio of charges emitted in photoelectric effect,336

length,14 units

Angstrom (A), 112, 361 SI: meter (m), l4

light "atomicity" of, 345 intensity of, 312 pressure from, 311 speed of, 329

constancy of, 289 limiting velocity, 6

wavelength and color, 253 light dock, 297 light waves, 23 8

electromagnetic waves, 240 sinusoidal

INDEX 513

pure color, 238 velocity in a vacuum, 240

same for moving and stationary observers, 268

line spectra, 260 linear approximation, see

approximations, straight-line localization, 410

connected to measurement, 410 longitudinal wave, 244, 267 Lorentz contraction, 301, 302 Lorentz force, see magnetic force Lorentz, W A., 199 Loschmidt, J. J., 111 Lyman series, 466, see also hydrogen

atom, spectrum Lyman, T., 466

Magnetic deflection cxllmomentum, 196 control of moving charges, 177, 180,

196 discovery of isotopes, 171

magnetic field, 163 constant, 170

momentum of charged partide in, 168

moving charge in, 167 uniform circular motion of acharge

in, 167 direction, 164, 165, 180

outside a long straight current, 170 exerts forces only on moving charges,

178 magnitude, 164 ofEarth,165 outside a long, straight current, 170 produced by electric currents, 169 source of, 164, 180 strength

outside a long straight wire, 170 units

gauss, 165 SI: tesla (T), 165

used to measure momentum of a charged partide, 167

magnetic force, 178 direction, 163, 180

514 INDEX

magnetic (cont.) right-hand rule, 165

on a moving charge, 163 direction, 165 Lorentz force, 166

magnetic mass spectrometer, 172 Bainbridge design, 172 mass doublets, 174

Mandel, L., 418 Marsden, E., 441, 445 mass,ll

and energy equivalence, 311, 312, 314 dependence on velocity, 315 familiar objects, 12 liter, 12 units

eV/c2 , 322 SI: kilogram (kg), 11

mass doublets magnetic mass spectrometer, 174

mass number A, 453, 455 mass spectrometer

magnetic mass spectrometer, 172 Maxwell,James Clerk, 110 mean free path, 103, 110

ofN2 at STP, 104 medium, 238 Michelson, A. A., 263, 289

interferometer, 290, 295 microwave oven frequencies, 241 Miller indices, 390 Millikan, RobertA., 187, 199

oil-drop experiment, 199 photoelectric effect experiment, 341

model,93 mole, 61

of charges, 188, 190 molecules, 53, 56 Möllenstedt, G., 396 momentum, 26,44, 45

relativistically correct, 318 units

eVlc, 322 SI: newton-seconds (N s), 30

Moon 3.8 x 108 m from Earth, 18 60 Earth radii distant from Earth, 23

Modey, E. w., 289

Moseley's Iaw, 485 and Bohr model, 485 data for, 484 measurements of K and L x-rays

establish, 484 significance of, 488

Moseley, H. J. G., 448, 484 multi-slit interference

diffraction grating, 259 principal maxima, 258, 267 secondary maxima, 258

Neutron, 397,453 diffraction of, 397 mass

in MeV/c2 , 325 neutron number N, 453, 455 neutron

and isotopes, 454 half-life, 453 properties of, 453

Newton, 1, 7, 9 Newtonian physics

low speed limiting case of relativistic physics, 278

non-relativistic approximations how good?, 326 rules of thumb, 327, 329

nuclear force, 452, 456 nuclear model of the atom, 448

hydrogen, 463 nucleons in nucleus, 455 nucleus, 443

atomic number of, 453 electric charge of, 448 electrostatic potential energy of an

alpha particle in, 452 mass number of, 453 neutrons in, 453 nuclides, 454 protons and neutrons in, 455 radius of, 448, 455

by proton scattering, 459 random decay of, 437

nuclides, 454 masses of, 501, 504 chart of, 455 notation for, 455

number of stable, 454 radioactive, 454

number density, 62, 96

Optical spectroscopy, 260

Paschen series, 466, see also hydrogen atom, spectrum

Paschen, E, 466 Pauli exclusion principle, 482, see also

atoms, shell structure of pendulum, 40

conversion of kinetic energy into gravitational potential energy, 41

Galileo,41 period of a wave, 240, 267 periodic table of the elements, 484

ordered by Moseley, 484 permittivity of free space: EO, 137 Pfund series, see hydrogen atom,

spectrum phase, 267 phase constant, 244 phosphor, 192 photocathode, see photomultiplier tube photocurrent, see photoelectric effect

effects oflight frequency on, 338 effects of light intensity on, 338

photoelectric effect, 335, 336,407 alkali metals, 336 Bragg on the strangeness of, 340 discovered, 336 Einstein equation for, 341 emitted charges are electrons, 336 Millikan's data on, 343 Millikan's experiment on, 341 photoecurrent, 336 photoelectrons, 336 some work functions for, 345 work function, 33 9, 341

photoelectrons, 336, see also photoelectric effect, 337

emitted with no time delay, 338 maximum kinetic energy of, 338

photomultiplier tube anode of, 346 dynodes of, 347 photocathode of, 347

INDEX 515

quantum efficiency of, 347 photon,341,345,349,407

x-rays, 365 photopeak, 373, see also scintillation

detector Physics and Astronomy Classification

Scheme (PACS), 2 URL,2

pion lifetime, 330 rest mass, 330, 333

Planck constant, 340, 349,467 /j (h bar), 463

plum-pudding model, 439 pole-in-the-barn puzzle, 305 positron, 331 see also radioactive decay potential, see electric potential potential energy, see gravitational

potential energy, see electric potential energy

powder diffraction patterns, 358 precision, 174 pressure, 69

force per unit area, 71 of enclosed gases, 74 of fluid, 70 units, 73

SI: pascal (Pa), 73 principal quantum number, 470 principle of relativity, 277, 287

examples, 286, 300 proton

mass,17 in MeVIc2 , 325, 329

Proust, J.-L., 52

Quantization, 345 quantum, 340, 349 quantum efficiency, see photomultiplier

tube quantum mechanics, 263, 408, 456, 488 quantum number, 470 quantum theory, 263 quark hunting, see electric deflection quarks,213

Radial quantum number, 470 radioactive decay, 315, 433

516 INDEX

radioactive (cont.) a purely random process, 437, 456 alpha partides, 455 and activity, 434 causeless randomness in, 438 decay chains, 431 decay constant, 435 disintegration constant, 435, 456 half-life, 433, 456 half-life data for UXl, 436 half-life of thorium-234 (UXl), 434 law of, 435, 456 positron emission, 455 radioactive series, 431 relation between decay constant and

half-life, 437 radioactive elements

emanation (radon), 431 polonium, 428 radium, 428 radon, 431 thorium, 428, 432 uranium, 427 uranium-x UXI 234Th, 431

radioactive radiations, 430 alpha rays, 429 beta rays, 429 energies of, 455 gamma rays, 430, 456 large energies of, 449, 451 their elm, 427

radioactivity, 315,425,426 activity of, 427 related to internal structure of atoms,

428 used to identify new elements, 428 widespread phenomenon, 428

rainbow, 260 reference frame, see frame of reference Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC),

178 relativity

and Newtonian physics, 278 constancy of c, 277 constancy of laws of physics, 277 correct transformation of velocities,

305 gamma,299

of simultaneity, 277, 306 physical events same for all observers,

302 principle of, 287

resolution, 259 rest energy, 314 rest mass, 314 right-hand rule

for direction of B outside a long, straight, current, 170

for magnetic force on a moving charge, 165

Roentgen,K discovers x-rays, 353

root mean square velocity, 98, 101 Rutherford scattering, 443

distance of dosest approach, 447 equation for, 443 experimental data, 444 Geiger's and Marsden's experiment,

444,446 used to measure the charge of a

nudeus, 448 Rutherford, Ernest, 425, 428

discovers the nudeus, 448 distinguishes alpha, beta and gamma

rays, 429 observes scattering of alpha partides,

439 Rydberg atoms, 475, 476 Rydberg formula, 465 Rydberg states, 476 Rydberg, J. R., 465

Scattering, see alpha partides, see Rutherford scattering

scintillation, 348,441 scintillation detector, 348

sodium-iodide crystal, 375 zinc sulfide, 441

secondary emission, 346, 393 series limit, 465 shell structure, 488 SI prefixes, 44, 497 SI units, 11

metric system, 13 prefixes, 11

simultaneity, see relativity of simultaneity

sine waves, see waves, sinusoidal single-slit diffraction, 256, 267

minima, 257, 267 Sklodowska, Marie, see Curie, Marie small-angle approximation, 284 Soddy, Frederick, 425, 431 sound waves, 266

frequencies of, 240 sinusoidal

pure tone, 233 space and time interconnected, 277, 297 special theory of relativity, 277, see also

relativity spectrallines, 260, 261

produced by discharge tube, 262 spectrometers, 260 spectroscopists, 260 spectroscopy, 260,464

and astronomy, 263 and quantum theory, 263

spectrum, 261, 465, see also electromagnetic spectrum

standard deviation, see distribution standard temperature and pressure, 87 stationary states, 463, 468 Stern, 0., 397 Stevinus,43

conservation of energy, 44 perpetual motion machines are

impossible, 43 Stokes's law, see viscous force STP, 87 strong force, see nuclear force summation notation, 118 Sun

1.5 x 1011 m from Earth, 18 mass,18 volume, 18

Superconducting Supercollider (SSC), 177

superposition principle of, 247

Temperature and energy, 113 units

SI: kelvins (K), 85 temperature of gases

INDEX 517

energy of random motion of atoms, 99

kelvin scale, 102 kinetic energy of atoms, 99

thermal energy at room temperature, 101

thermal expansion, 79 volume coefficient of, 80

some values, 80 Thomson, G. P., 387, 388

verifies de Broglie wavelength, 388 Thomson,].]., 187, 193, 315

charge-to-mass ratio of charges from photoelectric effect, 336

discovers electron, 353 discovers the electron, 193 plum-pudding model of atom, 467

Thomson,JJ,439 time, 19

units SI: second (s), 20 year (y), 17

time dilation, 297, 299 Torricelli, E., 71

first vacuum, 71 Torricellian vacuum, 72 torsion balance, 13 5 trajectory, 2 transformation, 288 transitions, see atoms, energy

transitions in transrnutation, 431, 455

alpha decay, 454 beta decay, 454

transverse wave, 244, 267 traveling sine wave, 267

one-dimensional general form, 244 Tristan particle accelerator, 331 tritium, 454, 504

Ulrey, C. T., 363 ultrarelativistic approximations, 328

rules of thumb, 329 uncertainty principle, see Heisenberg

uncertainty principle uniform magnetic field, see magnetic

field, constant units, 500

518 INDEX

units (cant.) abbreviations, 500

universal gas constant R, 85

Vacuum,71 ultra-high, 110

valence,63 Van der Broek, A

identifies nuclear charge as atomic number,448

vectors,45 addition, 46 components, 46 magnitude, 46

velocity, 45 velocity filter, see Wien velocity filter viscosity, 105

coefficient of, 106 how to measure, 105 momentum transfer, 107 of gases

dependence on molecular weight, 113

independent of density, 113 temperature dependence, 113

units poise, 106 SI: pascal seconds (pa s), 106

viscosity of air, 208 viscous force, 201

Stokes's law, 201 visible light

frequencies of, 241 voltage, see electric potential volume

cylinder, 14 formulas, 16 sphere,15 three factors of length, 16

von Laue, M., 35 5 interference ofx-rays, 355

Wang,J. L., 418 wave-particle duality, 407

wavelength' 240, 267 size needed to determine structural

features, 266 waves, 238, 266

energy,267 energy carried by, 245 intensity,245 interference of, see interference sinusoidal, 238, 266

amplitude of, 242 displacement of, 242 frequency,24O intensity,267 parameters of, 238 period of, 240, 241 periodic in space, 240 periodic in time, 240 phase constant, 244 phase of, 243 wavelength,24O

superposition of, 247 velocity of, 267

Wien velocity filter, 172 work, 34 work function, 349, see also photoelectric

effect values for some metals, 345

X-ray crystal spectrometer, 377 x-ray lines, 488 x-rays, 266, 353, 354

as probe of structure, 378 atomic shells, 482 continuousspectrum,363

short wavelength cutoff, 363, 377 Ulrey's data, 363

detection of, 354 interference of, 355 line spectra, 481, 482

and Bohr model, 481 K x-rays, 483 L x-rays, 483

photons of, 365 powder diffraction, 358

production of, 354 properties of, 354 short-wavelength electromagnetic

radiation, 360 spectrometer, 360 used to identify chemical composition,

489

Year 3.15 x 1Q7 s, 17

Young, Thomas, 253 light is a wave, 253

Zou, X. Y., 418

INDEX 519