A p p E N D
Useful Information
x / J
Just as you need to know your name and address and telephone number and e-mail address to locate yourself in the world, so must you know some basic information to locate yourselfin physics. Like competent professionals in any field, a practicing physicist carries a large amount of factual baggage. Starting out in physics you will need only the small backpack of facts presented in Tables A.l and A.3.
Then there is information that you need occasionally. Some of that is collected he re for your convenience. If you don't find what you want here or in the text, try the library. Ask a reference librarian to help you find what you want to know, or look in the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. You can also use the World Wide Web to find constants:
http://physics.nist. gov/PhysRefDatai codata86/ codata86.html
will supply you the very latest, most precise values from NIST (National Institute ofTechnology and Standards).
A.l 51 PREFIXE5
You need to know the SI prefixes. They tell you the order of magnitude of the units of whatever physical quantity they are attached to. It is absolutely essential that you know them. They are widely used, and when you are wrong about them, you make mistakes of factors of thousands! Maybe you can absorb them by osmosis as you use them; maybe you need to get them by heart by the purest of rote leaming; maybe you can come up with a clever mnemonic; maybe (and this would be best) you can leam them attached to particular physical situations and quantities, as suggested in Chapter 2. However you do it, leam them! They are listed in Table A.l.
497
498 APPENDIX A. USEFUL INFORMATION
TABlE A.l SI Prefixes
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
10 exa E 10 deci d
1015 peta P 10-2 centi c
1012 tera T 10-3 milli m
109 giga G 10-6 rrucro f-t
106 mega M 10-9 nano n
103 kilo k 10-12 pico P 102 hecto h 10-15 femto f
101 deka da 10-18 atto a
A.2 BASIC PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
You need to know some basic physical constants. These set the scale of the phenomena of the physical world. Which ones are most important depends on the physical situation under consideration. In this book, with its emphasis on atoms and their parts, the elementary charge; the masses of the electron, the proton, and the neutron; and the values of the Planck and Boltzmann constants are very important. When you deal with macroscopic quantities of atoms in the laboratory, Avogadro's number and Earth's gravity are important. For convenient reference Table A.2 lists the official values of these constants in SI units. Table A.3 lists the ones you need to know in the units in which you need to know them.
These constants are not just special, precise numbers given in SI units. One goal of this book is to show how these constants interrelate and how they specify the scale of observed effects and phenomena. Theyare essential elements out of which we build a consistent and informative picture of the microphysical world and its connection to the macrophysical world where we live and do physics.
A.3 CONSTANTS THAT YOU MUST KNOW
You need to be able to calculate quickly and easily with these constants. F or this purpose, you need the constants expressed as much as possible in terms of units chosen to match the natural scale of atoms. Electron volts (eV) and nanometers (nm) are convenient for atoms, while megaelectron volts (MeV)
A.3. CONSTANTS THAT YOU MUST KNOW 499
TABLE A.2 Basic Physical Constants
Name of constant Symbol Value
Atomic mass unit 'lnu or u 1.661 x 10 27 kg
Avogadro constant NA 6.022 x 1023 mol- I
Bohr radius ao 5.292 x 10- 11 m
Boltzmann constant kB 1.381 x 10- 23 J-K-1
8.617 X 10- 5 eV-K- I
Charge-to-mass ratio of electron e/m -1.759 x 1011 Ckg- 1
Coulomb constant kc or 8.988 x 109 N·m2·C- 2
1 4JTfo
Electron mass me 9.109 x 10- 31 kg
Elementary charge e 1.602 x 10-19 C
Faraday constant F 96485 Cmol- 1
Intensity of Earth's
gravitational field g 9.82 N.kg- 1 (m.s-2)
Molar gas constant R 8.315 J-mol- 1-K-1
Neutron mass mn 1.675 x 10-27 kg
Planck constant h 6.626 x 10-34 J-s
4.136 X 10- 15 eV-s
IJ = 1; l.055 x 1O-34;.s
6.582 x 10- 16 eV-s
Proton mass mp 1.673 x 10- 27 kg
Rydberg constant R,JO 1.09737 x 107 rn-I
Speed of light c 2.99792458 x 108 m·s- 1
and femtometers (fm) are a good choice for nuclei. It is also often simpler to work with masses in units of eV/c2•
Table AJ gives constants, combinations of constants, and masses in terms of these more convenient units. The combinations simplify calculations of energies, wavelengths, and frequencies that are frequently made in this course. The Remark column teIls you when the constant is one that you absolutely need to know. No kidding!
500 APPENDIX A. USEFUL INFORMATION
TABLE A.3 Constants in Convenient Energy Units
Name Symbol Value Remark
Planck constant h 4.14 x 10 15 eV.s
he 1240eV-nm know this one!
Reduced Planck
constant: .f; /j 6.58 X 10-16 eV-s
/je 197eV·nm knowas "" 200eVnm
/je 197 MeV-fm know as "" 200MeVfm
Coulomb force kce2 1.44eV-nm know this numerator
Thermal energy
at T = 300K kBT 0.025geV remember as "" 1140 eV
Bohr radius E1 ao = k,lme 0.0529 nm
Fine structure k,2 CI. = 7k 11137.036 no units
constant
Rydberg energy heRoo 13.61 eV know this one
Electron mass mee2 511 keV knowthis
Proton mass m pc2 938.3 MeV know"" 938MeV
Neutron mass mne2 939.6MeV know mn is 1.29 MeV> mp
Atomic mass unit u 93 1.50 MeV/e2 remember 1 u "" mp
Speed of light e 3 x 108 m·s-1 know this
Elementary charge e 1.6 x 10- 19 C knowthis
A.4 SOME UNITS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS
There are seven units that form the basis of the SI. In this book we use six of them. Table A.4, which gives their names, symbols, and definitions, is provided here just for your general information. You will find it more useful and informative to remember the looser definitions that are given in the chapters where they are introduced.
For quick reference Table A.5 lists units and abbreviations. The entries in the table are in alphabetical order according to their abbreviations.
A5. ATOMIC MASSES 501
TABlE AA SI Base Units
Name
meter
mass
second
Symbol Definition
m The meter is the length of path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
kg The kilogram is the unit of mass. It is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. (The international prototype is a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the BIPM in Sevres (Paris) France.)
The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state ofthe cesium-133 atom.
ampere A The ampere is that constant current that if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10- 7 newton per meter oflength.
kelvin K
mole mol
candela cd
The kelvin is the unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the tripie point of water. (The Celsius temperature scale is defined by the equation t = T - To, where T is the thermodynamic temperature in kelvins and To = 273.15 K.)
The mole is the amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12 .
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
A.5 ATOMIC MASSES
Table A.6lists some useful chemical atomic masses and densities of elements that are solids at room temperature. If you need to know the density of any gaseous element, you can calculate it.
A.6 MASSES OF NUCLIDES
F or determining how nuclei will behave, the difference between masses of atoms may be important. When this is the case, you need to know the individual atomic masses quite precisely. Table A. 7 lists some of the more important elements and their nuclides and their masses.
502 APPENDIX A. USEFUL INFORMATION
TABLE A.5 Commonly Used Units and Abbreviations
Quantity Name Abbrev. SI units
current ampere A A
length angstrom A 10-10 m
pressure atmosphere atm 101.3 kPa
area barn b 1O-24 m2
pressure bar bar 100kPa
energy calorie cal 4.1858J
electric charge coulomb C As
viscosity centipoise cp 10-3 Pa·s
energy electron volt eV 1.602 x 10-19 J
magnetic field gauss G 1O-4 T
frequency hertz Hz S-I
energy joule J kg.m2.s-2 =N·m
temperature kelvin K K
mass kilogram kg kg
volume liter L 10-3 m3
length meter m m
pressure millimeters of mercury mmHg 133.32 Pa
volume cubic meter m3 m3
amount mole mol mol
force newton N kg.m·s-2
electric field newton per coulomb N·C-I N·C-I
pressure pascal Pa N·m-2
viscosity pascal seconds Pa·s
angle radian rad rad
time second s s
magnetic field tesla T kg.S-I.C-I
pressure torr torr 133.32 Pa
mass atomic mass unit u 1.6605 x 10-27 kg
electric potential volt V j-C-I
electric field volts per meter V·m-I N·C-I
power watt W j-S-I
angle degree 1.7453 x 10-2 rad
A.7. MISCELLANEOUS 503
TAßlE A.6 Some Chemical Atomic Masses
Element Symbol Z Mass Phase Density
(u) (g cm- J)
hydrogen H 1.00797 gasH2
helium He 2 4.0026 gas He
lithium Li 3 6.939 solid 0.534
beryllium Be 4 9.0122 solid Be 1.848
boron B 5 10.811 crystalline B 2.34
carbon C 6 12.01115 amorphous C ~ 2.0
nitrogen N 7 14.0067 gasN2
oxygen 0 8 15.9994 gas O2
fluorine F 9 18.9984 gas F2
aluminum Al 13 26.981538 solid 2.6989
silicon Si 14 28.0855 solid 2.33
iron Fe 26 55.844 solid 7.874
cobalt Co 27 58.93320 solid 8.9
nickel Ni 28 58.69 solid 8.902
copper Cu 29 63.546 solid 8.96
zmc Zn 30 65.40 solid 7.133
tantalum Ta 73 180.9479 solid 16.6
silver Ag 47 107.8681 solid 10.5
gold Au 79 196.96654 solid 19.32
lead Pb 82 207.2 solid 11.35
uranium U 92 232.0289 solid 18.95
A.7 MISCElLANEOUS
Table A.8 contains some constants used occasionally in this course, including constants having to do with Earth, Moon, and Sun. Table A. 9 contains conversion factors between some especially common English units and their metric equivalents.
504 APPENDIX A. USEFUL INFORMATION
TAßLE A.7 Masses of Some Nuclides
Name of Symbol Z Nuclide Mass Natural Half-life
Nuclide (u) Abundance
(%)
hydrogen IH 1.007825 99.985
deuterium 2HorD 2.01410 0.015
tritium 3HorT 3.016050 12.26y
helium-3 3He 2 3.016030 0.00013
helium-4 4He 2 4.002603 100.0
lithium-6 6Li 3 6.015125 7.42
lithium-7 7Li 3 7.016004 92.58
beryllium-9 9Be 4 9.012186 100.
boron-lO lOB 5 10.012939 19.78
boron-ll llB 5 11.009305 80.22
carbon-12 12e 6 12.000000 98.89
carbon-13 l3e 6 13.003354 1.11
carbon-14 14e 6 14.003242 5730y
nitrogen-14 14N 7 14.003074 99.63
nitrogen-15 15N 7 15.010599 0.37
oxygen-16 160 8 15.994915 99.759
oxygen-17 170 8 16.999133 0.037
oxygen-18 180 8 17.999160 0.204
fluorine-19 19F 9 18.998405 100.0
A.7. MISCELLANEOUS 505
TABLE A.8 Miscellaneous Occasionally Used Constants
Name Symbol Value Units Remarks
Earth's mass M (fJ 6 x 1024 kg 10 moles of lcilograms
Earth-Sun distance RES 1.5 x 1011 m 1A.U.
Earth radius R(fJ 6.366 x 106 m 2rrR(fJ = 40Mm
Earth-Moon distance REM 3.82 x 108 m 60R(fJ
Moon's mass M) 0.01234 M (fJ M (fJ /81
Sun's mass Mo 2 x 1030 kg 333,000M(fJ
Viscosity of air YJ 18.2 fLPa·s at lOü e Speed of sound in air Vs 343 ms-1 at 20ü e
TABLE A.9 Some Conversion Factors Between
English and Metric Units
English English Metric
In 2.54 cm
ft 12 in 30.48 cm
mile 5280 ft 1609.3 m
3.28 ft m
0.396 In cm
mph 1.467 ftls 0.447 mls
0.621 mph 0.911 ftls kmlhr
2.24 mph 3.28 ftls mls
lb 16 oz 453.5 g
oz 28.3 g
2.205 lb kg
Index
Absorption spectrum, 475 activity,427
and radioactive decay, 434 radioactivity, 427 standards of, 429 units
curie (Ci), 432 SI: becquerel (Bq), 433
age and death of nuclei, 437
see also radioactive decay of people, 438 of stars, 438
alpha particles, see also radioactive radiations
are helium ions, 429 scattering, 439
apparatus of Geiger and Marsden, 441
from atoms, 439 alpha rays, see alpha particles, radioactive
radiations AM radio frequencies, 240 American adults
heights,17 masses,17
amplitude of a wave, 267 angle, 21
degrees, 21, 22 arc seconds, 23
minutes,22 seconds,22 sexagesimal system, 23
radians, 21, 25 rays,21 small-angle approximation, 25, 26 subtend,21 vertex, 21
Angstrom, 112 angstrom, see length angular momentum, 469
quantization of, 463, 469 anions, 188 anode, 188 antiproton, 333 approximations
by binomial expansion, 282 mathematical tool for, 278 non-relativistic, see non-relativistic
approximations ofbinomial functions, 282 small-angle, 284 straight-line,278
atmospheric pressure, 71 Web site for, 88
atom of charge, see electron, elementary charge
atomic mass unit, 58, 173 in MeVlc2, 325
atomic masses, 501
507
508 INDEX
atomic (cont.) atomic nucleus, 447, 455
discovery from radioactivity, 447 see also nucleus
atomic number Z, 448, 453, 455 see also nucleus, electric charge of
atomic spectroscopy, 260 atomic spectrum, 261 atomic weights, 58
chemical scale, 58 of some elements, 59
isotopes, see isotopes atoms, 5
absorption of photons by, 475 diffraction of, 397 early history, 51 electrical nature, 187 emission of photons by, 468 energy levels in, 475 energy states of, 468, 471 energy transitions in, 473 evidence for, 52 hard-sphere, 6, 113 integers,52 internal structure deduced from
emitted light, 254, 464 made of + and - charges, 6 mass of, 62 not welliocalized, 6 nuclear model, 6 shell structure of, 482 sizes, 6,17,112 spectra of, 267
atoms of gases average force, 94 average kinetic energy, 113
at room temperature, 100 average square speed, 96 average velocity, 108 effective collisional cross section, 103 hard-sphere model, 94 mean free path, 103, 110 mean square velocity, 96, 97 number density, 96
at STp, 97 pressure, 94 root mean square velocity, 98 viscosity, 110
atoms nuclear model, 448 nuclei of, 447 transmutation of, 431
average computation of, 114 of a distribution, 117, 118
average force, 32 average velocity, 108 Avogadro's constant, 61, 208
atomic masses, 62 sizes of atoms, 63
Avogardo's number see Avogadro's constant
Avogadro's principle, 57 Avogadro,Amadeo,56
diatomic molecules, 56
Backscatter peak, 375, 377, see also scintillation counter
Bainbridge apparatus, see charge-to-mass ratio, electron
Bainbridge, K. T., 172, 194 Balmer series, see hydrogen atom Balmer,].].,465 barometer equation, 72 Becquerel, Henri, 425
discovers radioactivity, 353 Becquerel, Henri
discovers radioactivity, 425 experiments on radioactivity, 426 measures e/m of radioactive
radiations, 427 Bertsch, G. F., 460 Berzelius, Jons, 57 beta rays, 455, see also radioactive
radiations binomial expansion, 282 binomial function, 281 bins, see distribution bins of a distribution, 116
velocity, 120 Bohr atom, see Bohr model Bohr model, 463
and hydrogen-like ions, 480 and Moseley's law, 485 and x-ray lines, 481 energy states, 470
first Bohr-orbit radius, 471 K and L x-rays, 483 limitations of, 488 three assumptions, 487
Bohr radius, see Bohr model Bohr, Niels, 463 Boltzmann's constant, 99 Boyle's law, 76 Boyle, Sir Robert, 74
experiment on gases, 75 Brackett series, see hydrogen atom,
spectrum Bragg law of crystal diffraction, see
Bragg law of x-ray reflection Bragg law of x-ray reflection, 357 Bragg spectrometer, 363 Bragg, WH., 340, 356 Bragg, WL., 356 buoyancy force, 90
Cathode, 188 cathode rays, 192
electrons, 193 cations, 188 Chadwick, ].
discovered the neutron, 453 characteristic x-rays, 481, 482, 488, see
also x -rays, line spectra charge, see electric charge charge-to-mass ratio
of electron Bainbridge method, 197 significance of, 198 Thomson's method, 194 value, 198
of hydrogen atom, 192 of proton, 192
chart ofthe nuclides, 455, 457 circumference of a circle, 15 color, see light, wavelength common, see electrical ground Compton edge, 375, 376 see also
scintillation detector Compton effect, 335, 367, 369, 378
data, 370 frequency shift in, 373 wavelength shift in, 374
Compton scattering, 367, 369,407
equation for, 373 Compton, A. H., 367
INDEX 509
conductor, see electrical conductor conservation of energy, 36, 38
conversion of gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy, 40
conservation of momentum, 30 constants of physics, 498
from NIST on the Web, 497 most important, 498
Coolidge tube, 354, see also x-rays, production of
Coulomb's law, 136 force constant, 136
Coulomb, Charles Augustin, 13 5 crystal spectrometer, see x-rays,
spectrometer crystals
lattice spacings of common, 363, 389 Miller indices, 390 ordered arrays of atoms, 356, 378 rock salt lattice spacing, 361 spacing between atom planes in, 389 spacing of atoms in, 360
curie see activity, units Curie, Marie, 425, 427
and radioactivity of thorium, 428 discovers polonium, 428 discovers radium, 428
Curie, Pierre, 425, 428 current, see electric current cutoff of x-ray spectrum, see x-rays,
continuous spectrum
Dalton,John,53 model of atom, 54
Davisson and Germer apparatus, 394 verify wave nature of electrons, 393
Davisson, c.]., 393 Davy, Sir Humphrey, 53 de Broglie wavelength, 385
equation for, 399 implies large energies to probe small
objects, 400 implies particles are not sharply
localized, 401 de Broglie, Louis, 385
510 INDEX
Debye-Scherrer diffraction rings, 359, see also x-rays, powder diffraction, 377
decay constant see radioactive decay density,13
Earth's crust, 19 iron, 19 mercury,19 of agas, 62 of gases at STp, 87 of some gases, 59 water, 13, 19
deuterium, 454, 504 deuterium: mass-2 isotope of hydrogen,
171 deuteron, 459
mass of, 459 diffraction
of atoms, 397 of electrons, 387 of neutrons, 397
diffraction grating, 254, 267 multi-slit interference, 259 principal maximum
order number, 267 resolution, 259 spectrometer, 260
discharge tube, 262 disintegration constant, see radioactive
decay displacement, 45 displacement in a wave, 267 distance of dosest approach, see
Rutherford scattering distribution, 116, 413
bins, 116, 413 histogram, 117 of velocities, 118, 119 standard deviation of, 414
Doppler effect, 303 blue shift, 305 red shift, 305
Doppler shift, see Doppler effect double-slit interference, 254, 267
effect of single-slit diffraction on, 257 maxima, 255, 267 of electrons, 396
down conversion, 420
down converter, 420 Düker, H., 396 dynodes, see photomultiplier tube
Earth average density, 19 circumference, 15, 17 magnetic field, 165 mass,17
Einstein, Albert, 277, 289 electric charge, 130
forces between, 132 negative, 132 neutral, 132 positive, 132 units
SI: coulomb (C), 137 electric current, 154
direction, 153 source of magnetic field, 170 units
SI: ampere (A), 152 electric deflection
()( llkinetic energy, 196 control of charged partides, 196 inkjet printer, 210 quark hunting, 213
electric field, 13 8 constant in space, 138 direction, 141 magnitude, 155 of a point charge, 139 strength, 138 units
SI: newtons per coulomb (Ne-I), 138
electric potential, 141, 144 and electric potential energy, 146 and potential energy, 141 between charged plates, 145 different from electric potential
energy, 145 equipotential surfaces, 147, 148 maps of, 149 outside a charged sphere, 146 units
SI: volts (V), 145 visualization of, 147
electric potential energy, 146 of a charge in a constant electric field,
143 of a charge in the field of a point
charge, 143 electrical conductor, 134 electrical ground, 159 electrode, 188 electrolysis, 188
Faraday's law of, 188 electrolyte, 188 electromagnetic radiation
probing atoms with, 237 wavelengths
and structure of atoms, 254 x-rays,354
electromagnetic spectrum, 260 electromagnetic waves, 266
frequencies of, 240 electron
charge, 208 component of every atom, 187,378 elementary charge, 187 energy of interaction with atom, 208 mass,208
in keVlc2, 314, 329 in MeV/c2, 325
rest energy, 314 electron diffraction, 387, 393
Debye-Scherrer rings, 388 electron interference, 396 electron volt, 100, 150 electrons
diffraction of, 393 discovery, 193
electroscope, 131 elementarycharge, 150, 191,200,208
value,205 elements, 51, 52
atomic weights, 58 number of, 63
Elster and GeiteI, 336 energy,33
and mass equivalence, 311, 314 gravitational potential energy, 37 kinetic energy, 36 units
electron volt, 100
INDEX 511
electron volt (eV), 150 kilowatt-hour (kW-h), 40 SI: joule 0), 34
energy costs, 40 energy levels, 475 energy states, 468 energy-Ievel diagrams, 471, see also
atoms, energy states of Estermann, 1.,397 ether, 289
Faraday, 188, see also mole of charges Faraday's law of electrolysis, see
electrolysis Faraday, M., 187 federal budget, 16
deficit, 17 Feynman, Richard P., 9, 34
energy analogy, 34 field, see electric field, magnetic field fission, 333 fluorescence, 426 FM radio frequencies, 240 force, 28, 44
F =ma,29 average force, 48 rate of change of momentum, 28, 29 spatial variation of potential
energy,42 units
SI: newton (N), 29 fractional change, 79 fractional difference, 326 fractional error, see precision fractional precision, see precision frame of reference, 285
description of motion depends on, 286
laboratory, 321 no special, 287 rest, 321 transform from one to another, 288
Franck,J.,477 Franck-Hertz experiment, 477
apparatus,478 data,479 significance of, 479
Fraunhofer, J. v., 465
512 INDEX
frequency, 267 units
SI: hertz (Hz), 240 frequency of a wave, 240 Friedrich, w., 355 fringes, 291, 292 Frisch, 0., 397 fusion, 333
Galileo, 1,3,41 Discourses on Two New Sciences, 1
gamma in relativity, 299 gamma rays, see radioactive radiations gauge pressure, 74 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 55
law of thermal expansion of gases, 79 Geiger, Hans, 439, 445 Germer, L. H., 393 gram atomic weight, 61 gram molecular weight, 61 gravitation, 1 gravitational potential energy, 37,141
depends onlyon vertical distance, 39 ground, see electrical ground
Half-life, 433, see also radioactive decay Hallwachs, W, 336
photoelectric effect, 336 harmonie waves, see waves, sinusoidal Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 408,
412,422 estimating average kinetic energy
with,415 estimating force with, 416 estimating size with, 416
Heisenberg, Werner, 412 helium
discovered in Sun, 261 discovered on Earth, 261
Hertz, G., 477 Hertz, Heinrich, 335
discovers photoelectric effect, 336 generates radio waves, 335
histogram, 117 hydrogen atom
Bohr model of, 463 energy states of, 470 mass
in MeV/c2 , 325 spectrum
Balmer series, 465, 466, 473 Brackett series, 474 Lyman series, 473 Paschen series, 474 Pfund series, 474
hydrogen-like ions, 480
Ideal gas, 83 volume of a mole at STP, 87
ideal gas law, 84 Kelvin temperature scale, 85
impact parameter, 443 indistinguishability, 418, 420 inkjet printer, 210 insulator, see electrical insulator interference, 246,267
constructive, 249 defining property of waves, 246 destructive, 249 from many slits, see multi-slit
interference from one slit, see single-slit diffraction from two slits, see double-slit
interference in 2-D, 252 of a particle with itself, 409, 422 oflight
fringes, 253 of two 1-D waves, 249
intensity,251 patterns
sizes and structures determined from, 267
U. ofRochester apparatus for, 418 interference patterns, 252
revealstructure, 263 interferometer, 290
fringes, 291, 292 ions, 188 isotopes, 171,454,455
notation for, 455 of carbon, 171 of chlorine, 171 of hydrogen, 171 oflead,176 of oxygen, 171
relative abundances of, 177
Jaffe, Bernard,484 jumps, see atoms, energy transitions in
Kx-rays, 483, see also x-rays, line spectra, 488
and the Bohr Model, 483 Kashy, E., 460 Kaufmann, W, 315
measures e/m of beta rays, 427 Kelvin (Lord), 85 kinetic energy, 44
relativistically correct, 319 Kirchhoff, G. R., 465 Knipping, P., 35 5
L x-rays, 483, see also x-rays, line spectra, 488
measured by Moseley, 492 lattice constant, 389 Laue diffraction, 377 Laue pattern, 356 Laue spots, 356 Lavoisier, 51 law of combining volumes, 55 law of constant proportions, 53 law of multiple proportions, 53 Lenard, Philipp, 336
measures charge-to-mass ratio of charges emitted in photoelectric effect,336
length,14 units
Angstrom (A), 112, 361 SI: meter (m), l4
light "atomicity" of, 345 intensity of, 312 pressure from, 311 speed of, 329
constancy of, 289 limiting velocity, 6
wavelength and color, 253 light dock, 297 light waves, 23 8
electromagnetic waves, 240 sinusoidal
INDEX 513
pure color, 238 velocity in a vacuum, 240
same for moving and stationary observers, 268
line spectra, 260 linear approximation, see
approximations, straight-line localization, 410
connected to measurement, 410 longitudinal wave, 244, 267 Lorentz contraction, 301, 302 Lorentz force, see magnetic force Lorentz, W A., 199 Loschmidt, J. J., 111 Lyman series, 466, see also hydrogen
atom, spectrum Lyman, T., 466
Magnetic deflection cxllmomentum, 196 control of moving charges, 177, 180,
196 discovery of isotopes, 171
magnetic field, 163 constant, 170
momentum of charged partide in, 168
moving charge in, 167 uniform circular motion of acharge
in, 167 direction, 164, 165, 180
outside a long straight current, 170 exerts forces only on moving charges,
178 magnitude, 164 ofEarth,165 outside a long, straight current, 170 produced by electric currents, 169 source of, 164, 180 strength
outside a long straight wire, 170 units
gauss, 165 SI: tesla (T), 165
used to measure momentum of a charged partide, 167
magnetic force, 178 direction, 163, 180
514 INDEX
magnetic (cont.) right-hand rule, 165
on a moving charge, 163 direction, 165 Lorentz force, 166
magnetic mass spectrometer, 172 Bainbridge design, 172 mass doublets, 174
Mandel, L., 418 Marsden, E., 441, 445 mass,ll
and energy equivalence, 311, 312, 314 dependence on velocity, 315 familiar objects, 12 liter, 12 units
eV/c2 , 322 SI: kilogram (kg), 11
mass doublets magnetic mass spectrometer, 174
mass number A, 453, 455 mass spectrometer
magnetic mass spectrometer, 172 Maxwell,James Clerk, 110 mean free path, 103, 110
ofN2 at STP, 104 medium, 238 Michelson, A. A., 263, 289
interferometer, 290, 295 microwave oven frequencies, 241 Miller indices, 390 Millikan, RobertA., 187, 199
oil-drop experiment, 199 photoelectric effect experiment, 341
model,93 mole, 61
of charges, 188, 190 molecules, 53, 56 Möllenstedt, G., 396 momentum, 26,44, 45
relativistically correct, 318 units
eVlc, 322 SI: newton-seconds (N s), 30
Moon 3.8 x 108 m from Earth, 18 60 Earth radii distant from Earth, 23
Modey, E. w., 289
Moseley's Iaw, 485 and Bohr model, 485 data for, 484 measurements of K and L x-rays
establish, 484 significance of, 488
Moseley, H. J. G., 448, 484 multi-slit interference
diffraction grating, 259 principal maxima, 258, 267 secondary maxima, 258
Neutron, 397,453 diffraction of, 397 mass
in MeV/c2 , 325 neutron number N, 453, 455 neutron
and isotopes, 454 half-life, 453 properties of, 453
Newton, 1, 7, 9 Newtonian physics
low speed limiting case of relativistic physics, 278
non-relativistic approximations how good?, 326 rules of thumb, 327, 329
nuclear force, 452, 456 nuclear model of the atom, 448
hydrogen, 463 nucleons in nucleus, 455 nucleus, 443
atomic number of, 453 electric charge of, 448 electrostatic potential energy of an
alpha particle in, 452 mass number of, 453 neutrons in, 453 nuclides, 454 protons and neutrons in, 455 radius of, 448, 455
by proton scattering, 459 random decay of, 437
nuclides, 454 masses of, 501, 504 chart of, 455 notation for, 455
number of stable, 454 radioactive, 454
number density, 62, 96
Optical spectroscopy, 260
Paschen series, 466, see also hydrogen atom, spectrum
Paschen, E, 466 Pauli exclusion principle, 482, see also
atoms, shell structure of pendulum, 40
conversion of kinetic energy into gravitational potential energy, 41
Galileo,41 period of a wave, 240, 267 periodic table of the elements, 484
ordered by Moseley, 484 permittivity of free space: EO, 137 Pfund series, see hydrogen atom,
spectrum phase, 267 phase constant, 244 phosphor, 192 photocathode, see photomultiplier tube photocurrent, see photoelectric effect
effects oflight frequency on, 338 effects of light intensity on, 338
photoelectric effect, 335, 336,407 alkali metals, 336 Bragg on the strangeness of, 340 discovered, 336 Einstein equation for, 341 emitted charges are electrons, 336 Millikan's data on, 343 Millikan's experiment on, 341 photoecurrent, 336 photoelectrons, 336 some work functions for, 345 work function, 33 9, 341
photoelectrons, 336, see also photoelectric effect, 337
emitted with no time delay, 338 maximum kinetic energy of, 338
photomultiplier tube anode of, 346 dynodes of, 347 photocathode of, 347
INDEX 515
quantum efficiency of, 347 photon,341,345,349,407
x-rays, 365 photopeak, 373, see also scintillation
detector Physics and Astronomy Classification
Scheme (PACS), 2 URL,2
pion lifetime, 330 rest mass, 330, 333
Planck constant, 340, 349,467 /j (h bar), 463
plum-pudding model, 439 pole-in-the-barn puzzle, 305 positron, 331 see also radioactive decay potential, see electric potential potential energy, see gravitational
potential energy, see electric potential energy
powder diffraction patterns, 358 precision, 174 pressure, 69
force per unit area, 71 of enclosed gases, 74 of fluid, 70 units, 73
SI: pascal (Pa), 73 principal quantum number, 470 principle of relativity, 277, 287
examples, 286, 300 proton
mass,17 in MeVIc2 , 325, 329
Proust, J.-L., 52
Quantization, 345 quantum, 340, 349 quantum efficiency, see photomultiplier
tube quantum mechanics, 263, 408, 456, 488 quantum number, 470 quantum theory, 263 quark hunting, see electric deflection quarks,213
Radial quantum number, 470 radioactive decay, 315, 433
516 INDEX
radioactive (cont.) a purely random process, 437, 456 alpha partides, 455 and activity, 434 causeless randomness in, 438 decay chains, 431 decay constant, 435 disintegration constant, 435, 456 half-life, 433, 456 half-life data for UXl, 436 half-life of thorium-234 (UXl), 434 law of, 435, 456 positron emission, 455 radioactive series, 431 relation between decay constant and
half-life, 437 radioactive elements
emanation (radon), 431 polonium, 428 radium, 428 radon, 431 thorium, 428, 432 uranium, 427 uranium-x UXI 234Th, 431
radioactive radiations, 430 alpha rays, 429 beta rays, 429 energies of, 455 gamma rays, 430, 456 large energies of, 449, 451 their elm, 427
radioactivity, 315,425,426 activity of, 427 related to internal structure of atoms,
428 used to identify new elements, 428 widespread phenomenon, 428
rainbow, 260 reference frame, see frame of reference Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC),
178 relativity
and Newtonian physics, 278 constancy of c, 277 constancy of laws of physics, 277 correct transformation of velocities,
305 gamma,299
of simultaneity, 277, 306 physical events same for all observers,
302 principle of, 287
resolution, 259 rest energy, 314 rest mass, 314 right-hand rule
for direction of B outside a long, straight, current, 170
for magnetic force on a moving charge, 165
Roentgen,K discovers x-rays, 353
root mean square velocity, 98, 101 Rutherford scattering, 443
distance of dosest approach, 447 equation for, 443 experimental data, 444 Geiger's and Marsden's experiment,
444,446 used to measure the charge of a
nudeus, 448 Rutherford, Ernest, 425, 428
discovers the nudeus, 448 distinguishes alpha, beta and gamma
rays, 429 observes scattering of alpha partides,
439 Rydberg atoms, 475, 476 Rydberg formula, 465 Rydberg states, 476 Rydberg, J. R., 465
Scattering, see alpha partides, see Rutherford scattering
scintillation, 348,441 scintillation detector, 348
sodium-iodide crystal, 375 zinc sulfide, 441
secondary emission, 346, 393 series limit, 465 shell structure, 488 SI prefixes, 44, 497 SI units, 11
metric system, 13 prefixes, 11
simultaneity, see relativity of simultaneity
sine waves, see waves, sinusoidal single-slit diffraction, 256, 267
minima, 257, 267 Sklodowska, Marie, see Curie, Marie small-angle approximation, 284 Soddy, Frederick, 425, 431 sound waves, 266
frequencies of, 240 sinusoidal
pure tone, 233 space and time interconnected, 277, 297 special theory of relativity, 277, see also
relativity spectrallines, 260, 261
produced by discharge tube, 262 spectrometers, 260 spectroscopists, 260 spectroscopy, 260,464
and astronomy, 263 and quantum theory, 263
spectrum, 261, 465, see also electromagnetic spectrum
standard deviation, see distribution standard temperature and pressure, 87 stationary states, 463, 468 Stern, 0., 397 Stevinus,43
conservation of energy, 44 perpetual motion machines are
impossible, 43 Stokes's law, see viscous force STP, 87 strong force, see nuclear force summation notation, 118 Sun
1.5 x 1011 m from Earth, 18 mass,18 volume, 18
Superconducting Supercollider (SSC), 177
superposition principle of, 247
Temperature and energy, 113 units
SI: kelvins (K), 85 temperature of gases
INDEX 517
energy of random motion of atoms, 99
kelvin scale, 102 kinetic energy of atoms, 99
thermal energy at room temperature, 101
thermal expansion, 79 volume coefficient of, 80
some values, 80 Thomson, G. P., 387, 388
verifies de Broglie wavelength, 388 Thomson,].]., 187, 193, 315
charge-to-mass ratio of charges from photoelectric effect, 336
discovers electron, 353 discovers the electron, 193 plum-pudding model of atom, 467
Thomson,JJ,439 time, 19
units SI: second (s), 20 year (y), 17
time dilation, 297, 299 Torricelli, E., 71
first vacuum, 71 Torricellian vacuum, 72 torsion balance, 13 5 trajectory, 2 transformation, 288 transitions, see atoms, energy
transitions in transrnutation, 431, 455
alpha decay, 454 beta decay, 454
transverse wave, 244, 267 traveling sine wave, 267
one-dimensional general form, 244 Tristan particle accelerator, 331 tritium, 454, 504
Ulrey, C. T., 363 ultrarelativistic approximations, 328
rules of thumb, 329 uncertainty principle, see Heisenberg
uncertainty principle uniform magnetic field, see magnetic
field, constant units, 500
518 INDEX
units (cant.) abbreviations, 500
universal gas constant R, 85
Vacuum,71 ultra-high, 110
valence,63 Van der Broek, A
identifies nuclear charge as atomic number,448
vectors,45 addition, 46 components, 46 magnitude, 46
velocity, 45 velocity filter, see Wien velocity filter viscosity, 105
coefficient of, 106 how to measure, 105 momentum transfer, 107 of gases
dependence on molecular weight, 113
independent of density, 113 temperature dependence, 113
units poise, 106 SI: pascal seconds (pa s), 106
viscosity of air, 208 viscous force, 201
Stokes's law, 201 visible light
frequencies of, 241 voltage, see electric potential volume
cylinder, 14 formulas, 16 sphere,15 three factors of length, 16
von Laue, M., 35 5 interference ofx-rays, 355
Wang,J. L., 418 wave-particle duality, 407
wavelength' 240, 267 size needed to determine structural
features, 266 waves, 238, 266
energy,267 energy carried by, 245 intensity,245 interference of, see interference sinusoidal, 238, 266
amplitude of, 242 displacement of, 242 frequency,24O intensity,267 parameters of, 238 period of, 240, 241 periodic in space, 240 periodic in time, 240 phase constant, 244 phase of, 243 wavelength,24O
superposition of, 247 velocity of, 267
Wien velocity filter, 172 work, 34 work function, 349, see also photoelectric
effect values for some metals, 345
X-ray crystal spectrometer, 377 x-ray lines, 488 x-rays, 266, 353, 354
as probe of structure, 378 atomic shells, 482 continuousspectrum,363
short wavelength cutoff, 363, 377 Ulrey's data, 363
detection of, 354 interference of, 355 line spectra, 481, 482
and Bohr model, 481 K x-rays, 483 L x-rays, 483
photons of, 365 powder diffraction, 358