Usvajanje Jezika, Lecture 01, 1112

First language acquisitionFirst language acquisition

Universality of First Language Acquisition

The ability to acquire language is present in almost every human child.Children who are born blind – do not have many problems learning to speak; occasional problems with the acquisition of words for colours or geographic locationsChildren who are born deaf – readily acquire a sign language as long as they are exposed to native sign language speakersChildren who have lost both hearing and sight (e.g. Helen Keller) – can acquire language through symbols expressed in touch and motion


Children with neurological disorders (e.g. brain lesions, hydrocephalus) – often acquire complete control over spoken language, despite a few months of early delayChildren with the most extreme forms of mental retardation – still able to acquire the basic units of human communication


The pervasiveness and inevitability of FLA (first language acquisition) vs. utmost complexity of languageThe fact that nearly all of us succeed in acquiring our first language – indication of how well the structure of language adapts to our underlying abilities

First language acquisition viewed from linguistic perspective

Linguistics – the concept of language as having a universal core (Universal Grammar) from which individual languages select out a particular configuration of features, parameters, and settings.Child language – an interesting slice of the universal pie. The shape of this slice is presumably limited:

1. by formal universal constraints2. by the child’s mental abilities or developmental

status

First language acquisition viewed from psychological perspective

Psychology – language acquisition is a window on the operation of the human mind. This window allows us to view the structure and functioning of neural circuits in the brain, and to understand how these circuits support processes such as reinforcement, generalization, imagination, and thinking.Controlled experiments – in which children learn new words, sounds and rulesPsychologists (or psycholinguists) measure these processes using neural imaging techniques, or they may simply study the changes in the language of the child across time

When does language learning begin?

Some say language learning begins in the womb – not trueIn the womb, the amniotic fluid muffles the sound available to fetus. When the baby is born, all of this changes suddenly. As the amniotic fluid drains out of the ears and the child opens his eyes, he begins to hear sounds and see sights that were never present before

Early auditory processing and memory

The basic level of auditory processing – auditory processing relies on extensive pre-processing of signals for pitch and intensity in the cochlea and the auditory nerve. By the time the signal reaches auditory cortex, it is fairly well structured.Beyond this basic level – infants have a capacity to record and store sequences of auditory events. The repeated strings of sounds will stand out and affect later listening. The infant can grow tired of these repeated strings and will prefer the sound of other strings.Recent studies of these effects in auditory memory – suggest that we are born with an ability to store and recall the sounds of human language


During the first year – the child is exposed to several thousand hours of human language. During this period, the child still has no idea about the link between sounds and meaningsBabies also prefer the language that resembles the speech of their mothers, thus a French infant will prefer to listen to FrenchAlso, babies demonstrate a preferance for their own mother’s voice, as opposed to that of other women


Together, these abilities and preferences suggest that, during the first eight months, the child is remarkably attentive to languageThe child is acquiring the basic auditory and intonational patterns of his native languageAs the child sharpens his ability to hear the contrasts of his native language, he begins to lose the ability to hear contrasts not represented in his native languageGrowing up in a bilingual environment – full perceptual flexibility is maintainedIn a monolingual environment – flexibility in processing is gradually traded off for quickness and automaticity

The speed of FLAThe speed of FLA

Remarkable feature of first language acquisition Remarkable feature of first language acquisition – the speed with which it takes place: by the – the speed with which it takes place: by the time a child enters elementary school, he or she time a child enters elementary school, he or she is an extremely sophisticated language-useris an extremely sophisticated language-user‘‘Innate’predisposition in the human infant to Innate’predisposition in the human infant to acquire language – ‘language faculty’ of the acquire language – ‘language faculty’ of the human with which each newborn child is human with which each newborn child is endowedendowedBy itself, this faculty is not enoughBy itself, this faculty is not enough

Basic requirementsBasic requirementsInteraction with other language-users in order to bring Interaction with other language-users in order to bring the ‘language-faculty’ into operation with a particular the ‘language-faculty’ into operation with a particular language – crucial requirementlanguage – crucial requirementCultural transmission – the language a child learns is not Cultural transmission – the language a child learns is not genetically inherited, but is acquired in a particular genetically inherited, but is acquired in a particular language-using environmentlanguage-using environmentPhysical capacity of sending and receiving sound signals Physical capacity of sending and receiving sound signals in a language (i.e. A child must be able to hear the in a language (i.e. A child must be able to hear the language being used)language being used)Hearing language sounds is not enough (a reported case Hearing language sounds is not enough (a reported case of a normal-hearing child of deaf parents)of a normal-hearing child of deaf parents)The crucial requirement is: the opportunity to interact The crucial requirement is: the opportunity to interact with others via languagewith others via language

The acquisition scheduleThe acquisition scheduleAll normal children develop language at roughly the same time, along much All normal children develop language at roughly the same time, along much the same schedulethe same scheduleThe language acquisition schedule has the same basis as the biologically The language acquisition schedule has the same basis as the biologically determined development of motor skills – this biological schedule is tied determined development of motor skills – this biological schedule is tied very much to the maturation of the infant’s brain and the lateralization very much to the maturation of the infant’s brain and the lateralization processprocessGeneral biological program underlying language acquisition is dependent on General biological program underlying language acquisition is dependent on an interplay with many social factors in child’s environmentan interplay with many social factors in child’s environmentChild as having the biological capacity to cope with distinguishing certain Child as having the biological capacity to cope with distinguishing certain aspects of linguistic input at different stages during the early years of lifeaspects of linguistic input at different stages during the early years of lifeAcquistion ‘capacity’ requires then a sufficiently constant input from which Acquistion ‘capacity’ requires then a sufficiently constant input from which the basis of the regularities in the particular language can be worked outthe basis of the regularities in the particular language can be worked outChild is seen as actively acquiring the language by working out the Child is seen as actively acquiring the language by working out the regularities in what is heard and then applying them in what he saysregularities in what is heard and then applying them in what he says

Some controversiesSome controversies

The controversy over the issue of The controversy over the issue of ‘innateness’ – according to Chomsky, ‘innateness’ – according to Chomsky, language development should be language development should be described as ‘language growth’, because described as ‘language growth’, because the ‘language organ’ simply grows like any the ‘language organ’ simply grows like any other body organother body organThis view underestimates the importance This view underestimates the importance of environment and experience in the of environment and experience in the child’s development of languagechild’s development of language

Caretaker speechCaretaker speechThe simplified speech style adopted by somenone who The simplified speech style adopted by somenone who spends a lot of time interacting with a young child is spends a lot of time interacting with a young child is called called caretaker speech caretaker speech (also called ‘motherese’)(also called ‘motherese’)

e.g. e.g. Oh, goody, now Daddy push choochoo?Oh, goody, now Daddy push choochoo?Some features of this type of speech: frequent questions; Some features of this type of speech: frequent questions;

exaggerated intonation; a lot of forms associated with exaggerated intonation; a lot of forms associated with ‘baby-talk’ (simplified words like ‘baby-talk’ (simplified words like tummytummy, or alternative , or alternative forms, with repeated simple sounds, for different objects forms, with repeated simple sounds, for different objects like like choo-choochoo-choo, , wawawawa etc.); a type of conversational etc.); a type of conversational structure which seems to assign an interactive role to the structure which seems to assign an interactive role to the young child even before he/she begins to actually speak, young child even before he/she begins to actually speak, simple sentence structures and a lot of repetition.simple sentence structures and a lot of repetition.

Stages in the acquisition processStages in the acquisition process

Pre-language stages: ‘cooing’ and ‘babbling’Pre-language stages: ‘cooing’ and ‘babbling’The period from about 3 months to 10 months: 3 stagesThe period from about 3 months to 10 months: 3 stages1. first recognizable sounds – cooing (velar consonants 1. first recognizable sounds – cooing (velar consonants kk and and gg, and high vowels , and high vowels ii and and uu))2. by 6 months, the child can usually produce a number 2. by 6 months, the child can usually produce a number of different vowels and consonants – babblingof different vowels and consonants – babbling3. by 10 or 11 months, a child is capable of using his 3. by 10 or 11 months, a child is capable of using his vocalizations to express emotions and emphasis – late vocalizations to express emotions and emphasis – late babbling stage. It is characterized by a lot of ‘sound-play’ babbling stage. It is characterized by a lot of ‘sound-play’ and attempted imitations. This pre-language vocalization and attempted imitations. This pre-language vocalization gives children some experience of the social role of gives children some experience of the social role of speech because parents tend to react to the babbling as speech because parents tend to react to the babbling as if it is the child’s contribution to social interactionif it is the child’s contribution to social interaction


The one-word or holophrastic stage: the The one-word or holophrastic stage: the period between 12 and 18 monthsperiod between 12 and 18 monthsIn this period children begin to produce a In this period children begin to produce a variety of recognizable unit utterances – variety of recognizable unit utterances – single terms are uttered for everyday single terms are uttered for everyday objects such as ‘milk’, ‘cookie’, ‘cat’ etc.objects such as ‘milk’, ‘cookie’, ‘cat’ etc.


The two-word stage: begins around 18 to 20 months, as The two-word stage: begins around 18 to 20 months, as the child’s vocabuilary moves beyond 50 distinct words.the child’s vocabuilary moves beyond 50 distinct words.By the time the child is 2, a variety of combinations such By the time the child is 2, a variety of combinations such as as baby chairbaby chair, , mommy eatmommy eat, , cat badcat bad, appears. The adult , appears. The adult interpretation of such combinatins is tied to the context of interpretation of such combinatins is tied to the context of their utterancetheir utteranceFunctional consequence of using such combinations: the Functional consequence of using such combinations: the adult behaves as if communication is taking place, i.e. adult behaves as if communication is taking place, i.e. The child not only produces speech, but receives The child not only produces speech, but receives feedbackfeedbackBy the age of two, whether the child is producing 200 or By the age of two, whether the child is producing 200 or 400 words, he/she will be capable of understanding five 400 words, he/she will be capable of understanding five times as manytimes as many


Telegraphic speech (strings of lexical Telegraphic speech (strings of lexical morphemes such as morphemes such as Andrew want ballAndrew want ball, , cat cat drink milkdrink milk): between 2 and 3 years old, the ): between 2 and 3 years old, the child begins to produce a large number of child begins to produce a large number of utterances which can be classifed as utterances which can be classifed as multiple-word utterancesmultiple-word utterancesThe basic feature of this stage: the The basic feature of this stage: the variation in word-forms which begins to variation in word-forms which begins to appearappear

The acquisition processThe acquisition processChildren are not ‘taught’ languageChildren are not ‘taught’ language: for the vast majority of : for the vast majority of children, no one provides any instruction on how to speak the children, no one provides any instruction on how to speak the languagelanguageMuch more realistic view: children construct actively, from what is Much more realistic view: children construct actively, from what is said to them, possible ways of using the languagesaid to them, possible ways of using the languageThe child’s linguistic production is mostly a matter of trying out The child’s linguistic production is mostly a matter of trying out constructions and testing whether they work or notconstructions and testing whether they work or notChildren do not acquire language through the process of constantly Children do not acquire language through the process of constantly imitating adult speech. Adults simply do not produce many of the imitating adult speech. Adults simply do not produce many of the types of expressions which turn up in children’s speech (e.g. types of expressions which turn up in children’s speech (e.g. Children can often create tottaly new words)Children can often create tottaly new words)Also, adult correction does not seem to be a very effective Also, adult correction does not seem to be a very effective determiner of how the child speaks. In the following dialogue, the determiner of how the child speaks. In the following dialogue, the child, a four-year old, is neither imitating the adult’s speech nor child, a four-year old, is neither imitating the adult’s speech nor accepting the adult’s correction:accepting the adult’s correction:

The acquisition processThe acquisition processChild: Child: My teacher holded the baby rabbits and My teacher holded the baby rabbits and we patted themwe patted themMother: Mother: Did you say your teacher held the baby Did you say your teacher held the baby rabbits?rabbits?Child: Child: YesYesMother: Mother: What did you say she did?What did you say she did?Child: Child: She holded the baby rabbits and we She holded the baby rabbits and we patted thempatted themMother: Mother: Did you say she held them tightly?Did you say she held them tightly?Child: Child: No, she holded them looselyNo, she holded them loosely

MorphologyMorphologyBy the time the child is 3 years old, he is going beyond By the time the child is 3 years old, he is going beyond telegraphic speech and incorporating some of the telegraphic speech and incorporating some of the inflectional morphemes which indicate the grammatical inflectional morphemes which indicate the grammatical function of the nouns and verbs usedfunction of the nouns and verbs used--inging form is the first to appear in expressions such as form is the first to appear in expressions such as cat cat sittingsitting, , mommy reading bookmommy reading bookThen comes the marking of regular plurals with the Then comes the marking of regular plurals with the –s–s form. The acquisition of this form is often accompanied form. The acquisition of this form is often accompanied by a process of overgeneralization – the child by a process of overgeneralization – the child overgeneralizes the rule of adding -overgeneralizes the rule of adding -ss to form plurals and to form plurals and we hear words such as we hear words such as footsfoots, , mansmansThen come the use of possessive inflection –’s Then come the use of possessive inflection –’s (Mummy’s book) and the different forms of the verb ‘to (Mummy’s book) and the different forms of the verb ‘to be’ such as be’ such as areare and and waswas..

MorphologyMorphologyThen comes the use of Then comes the use of wentwent and and camecame – irregular past- – irregular past-tense forms which precede the appearance of –tense forms which precede the appearance of –eded inflection.inflection.Once the regular past-tense forms begin appearing in Once the regular past-tense forms begin appearing in the child’s speech, then the irregular forms dissapear for the child’s speech, then the irregular forms dissapear for a while and are replaced by overgeneralized versions a while and are replaced by overgeneralized versions such as such as goedgoed and and comedcomed..Often the –Often the –eded inflection is added to everything, inflection is added to everything, producing oddities such as producing oddities such as walkededwalkeded, , wentedwented..However, after the age of four the child works out which However, after the age of four the child works out which forms are regular and which are not.forms are regular and which are not.Finally, the –Finally, the –ss marker on third person singular present marker on third person singular present tense verbs appears. It occurs first with full verbs and tense verbs appears. It occurs first with full verbs and then with auxiliaries.then with auxiliaries.

MorphologyMorphology

Throughout this phase there is a great Throughout this phase there is a great deal of variability: individual children may deal of variability: individual children may produce ‘good’ forms one day and ‘odd’ produce ‘good’ forms one day and ‘odd’ forms the nextforms the nextThe child is working out how to use the The child is working out how to use the linguistic system while actually using it as linguistic system while actually using it as a means of communicationa means of communication

SyntaxSyntax

Two features which have been well-documented Two features which have been well-documented and which seem to be acquired in a regular way and which seem to be acquired in a regular way if the development of syntax in children’s if the development of syntax in children’s speech: questions and negativesspeech: questions and negativesIn the formation of questions and the use of In the formation of questions and the use of negatives – three stages:negatives – three stages:Stage 1 occurs between 18 and 26 monthsStage 1 occurs between 18 and 26 monthsStage 2 between 22 and 30 monthsStage 2 between 22 and 30 monthsStage 3 between 24 and 40 monthsStage 3 between 24 and 40 months

QuestionsQuestionsStage 1 – has two procedures: simply add a Stage 1 – has two procedures: simply add a whwh-form (where, who) -form (where, who) to the beginning of the expression or utter the expression with a rise to the beginning of the expression or utter the expression with a rise in intonation towards the end. e.g. in intonation towards the end. e.g. Where kitty?, Where horse go?, Where kitty?, Where horse go?, Sit chair?, See hole?Sit chair?, See hole?Stage 2 – more complex expressions can be formed; the rising Stage 2 – more complex expressions can be formed; the rising intonation strategy continues to be used; more intonation strategy continues to be used; more whwh-forms come into -forms come into use, e.g. use, e.g. What book name?, Why you smiling?, You want eat?, See What book name?, Why you smiling?, You want eat?, See my doggie?my doggie?Stage 3 – the required inversion of subject and verb in English Stage 3 – the required inversion of subject and verb in English questions appears, but the questions appears, but the whwh-forms do not always undergo the -forms do not always undergo the required inversion. In fact, childern entering school may still form required inversion. In fact, childern entering school may still form whwh-questions without the inversion, e.g. -questions without the inversion, e.g. Can I have a piece?, Will Can I have a piece?, Will you help me?, What did you do?, Did I caught it?, How that opened? you help me?, What did you do?, Did I caught it?, How that opened? Why kitty can’t stand up?Why kitty can’t stand up?

NegativesNegativesStage 1 – has a simple strategy which says that Stage 1 – has a simple strategy which says that nono or or notnot should be stuck on the beginning of any expression, should be stuck on the beginning of any expression, e.g. e.g. no mitten, not a teddy bear, no fall, no sit here.no mitten, not a teddy bear, no fall, no sit here.Stage 2 – the additional negative forms Stage 2 – the additional negative forms don’tdon’t and and can’tcan’t are used, and with are used, and with nono and and notnot, begin to be placed in front , begin to be placed in front of the verb rather than at the beginning of the sentence, of the verb rather than at the beginning of the sentence, e.g. e.g. He no bite you, You can’t dance, There no squirrels, He no bite you, You can’t dance, There no squirrels, I don’t knowI don’t knowStage 3 – incorporation of other auxiliary forms such as Stage 3 – incorporation of other auxiliary forms such as didn’tdidn’t and and won’twon’t, and the disappearance of the Stage 1 , and the disappearance of the Stage 1 forms. A very late acquisition is the form forms. A very late acquisition is the form isn’tisn’t, e.g. , e.g. I didn’t I didn’t caught it, He not taking it, She won’t let go, This not ice caught it, He not taking it, She won’t let go, This not ice cream.cream.

SemanticsSemanticsDuring the holophrastic stage many children use During the holophrastic stage many children use their limited vocabulary to refer to a large their limited vocabulary to refer to a large number of urelated objects, f.e. Children often number of urelated objects, f.e. Children often extend extend bow-wowbow-wow to refer to cats, horses and to refer to cats, horses and cows. This process is called cows. This process is called overextensionoverextension..The most common pattern of overextension is The most common pattern of overextension is for the child to overextend the meaning of a for the child to overextend the meaning of a word on the basis of similarities in shape, sound word on the basis of similarities in shape, sound and size, and, to a lesser extent, of movement and size, and, to a lesser extent, of movement and texture. Thus the word and texture. Thus the word ballball is is extended to is is extended to all kinds of round objects.all kinds of round objects.

SemanticsSemanticsThe semantic development in a child’s use of The semantic development in a child’s use of words is usually a process of overextension words is usually a process of overextension initially, followed by a gradual process of initially, followed by a gradual process of narrowing down the application of each term as narrowing down the application of each term as more words are learned.more words are learned.Overextension is not necessarily used in speech Overextension is not necessarily used in speech comprehension, e.g. one two-year-old child, in comprehension, e.g. one two-year-old child, in speaking, used speaking, used appleapple to refer to a number of to refer to a number of other round objects like tomatoes and balls, but other round objects like tomatoes and balls, but had no difficulty picking out had no difficulty picking out the applethe apple, when , when asked, from a set of such round objectsasked, from a set of such round objects

SemanticsSemanticsOne interesting feature of the young child’s One interesting feature of the young child’s semantics – the way certain lexical relations are semantics – the way certain lexical relations are treated – in terms of hyponymy, the child will treated – in terms of hyponymy, the child will almost always use the ‘middle’ level term in a almost always use the ‘middle’ level term in a hyponymous set such as hyponymous set such as animal – dog – poodleanimal – dog – poodle. . All the evidence suggests that children use All the evidence suggests that children use dogdog with an overextended meaning close to the with an overextended meaning close to the meaning of meaning of animalanimal..Antonymous relations are acquired fairly late Antonymous relations are acquired fairly late (after the age of 5). The distinction between a (after the age of 5). The distinction between a number of other pairs such as number of other pairs such as beforebefore and and afterafter, , buybuy and and sellsell, also seem to be later acquisition., also seem to be later acquisition.

SummarySummary

Despite the fact that the child is still Despite the fact that the child is still acquiring aspects of his native language acquiring aspects of his native language through the later years of childhood, it is through the later years of childhood, it is assumed that, by the age of five, the child assumed that, by the age of five, the child has completed the greater part of the has completed the greater part of the basic language acquisition process.basic language acquisition process.The child is in a good position to start The child is in a good position to start learning a second (or foreign) language at learning a second (or foreign) language at the age of 5.the age of 5.

Documents

Usvajanje Jezika, Lecture 01, 1112