INTRODUCTIONHeritage embodies tangible and intangible aspects of a people’s cultural inventory. It comprises those elements held as treasures and legacies from past experiences, norms, values, beliefs, traditions and ways valorised by people as reflecting their identity and worth. Cultural heritage is non renewable and priceless. The essence of this module is to introduce students to the diverse cultural heritage sites in Zimbabwe and elsewhere in Africa and lay a foundation on how this heritage can be properly managed with the view of presenting them for posterity.

What is heritage? Heritage consists of those aspects of a community’s past, present and future that it holds dear and desires to hand over to future generations. Heritage includes practices that are handed down from the past by tradition

Heritage is that which belongs to an individual, group, community or nation as a result of birth, inheritance and membership e.g. built heritage or natural environments

Ashworth (2007:32) says, ‘Heritage is whatever presents choose from imagined pasts for contemporary use and for bequeathing for the use of imagined futures’.

Classification of HeritageLowenthal (1996) classify heritage into personal and collective heritage. Personal heritage is normally inherited by individuals on death of parents or other kin. (But these bequests are just a fraction of a larger legacy of teachings, precepts, and habits drummed into or emulated by an individual since infancy. In some cultures inherited heritage cannot be sold but it is handed down from generation to generation.) Collective heritage denotes group ownership rooted in family legacies. This heritage resembles what people hold together with others in the community, the blessings (and curses) that belong to and largely define a group.

Heritage whether personal or collective, broadly falls under tangible and intangible cultural heritage respectively. Tangible heritage encompasses the physical material, this heritage can be movable (e.g. objects/artefacts) or immovable heritage (e.g. sites, buildings, monuments) whereas intangible heritage is cognitive, a product of accumulated knowledge, experience or creativity passed on from generation to generation. Intangible heritage consists of oral traditions, memories, languages, traditional performing arts or rituals, knowledge systems, values and know how that we want to safeguard and pass to future generations. Intangible cultural heritage is constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history provides them with a sense of identity and continuity promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity.

1

Illustration below;Heritage

Tangible Intangible

(Animals, objects, buildings, sites, monuments) (Language, memories, performing arts, rituals, values, knowledge

systems, oral traditions)

Q. Discuss the relationship between tangible and intangible cultural heritage. How important are these two components in heritage preservation in Zimbabwe?

Definition of CultureCulture is a set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of society or social group. It encompasses, in addition to art and literature, learned experiences, knowledge systems, traditions and beliefs. Peterson (1979) says Culture mainly include four aspects i.e. norms, values, beliefs and expressive symbols. Norms are the way people behave in a given society, values are what they hold dear, beliefs are how they think the universe operates and expressive symbols are representations, often representations of social norms, values and beliefs themselves. For example an object or cultural heritage site can represent shared significance embodied in material form. This object or site may tell a story about a people’s way of life, their history, values, beliefs and norms.

Relationship between Culture and HeritageCultural heritage cannot be conserved or managed without recognising how human cultures have influenced and in some cases shaped existence of such sites. Cleere (1989) says an awareness of the past is a characteristic unique to human beings. Myth and history intermingle to create a tradition i.e. a living reality which is vital in creating social awareness and cohesion. The past is a living component of present day life and this identity of past and present is often associated with specific locations and structures .e.g. Nyadzonya, Mbuya Nehanda- streets and sites named after her.

Sanoja and Vargas (1989) say cultural resources are concerned with materials resulting from human activity in the past and present. The creation of cultural heritage is the phenomena essential for all people. Socially organised communities interact with the landscape in order to change and adapt it to conform to the requirements of the development of its productive resources. Child (1981) notes that a natural environment may or may not have been modified by human activity but whatever the case, it is used and conceived according to the values of the culture for which it forms a material base. In other words culture heritage stand as evidence of human activity which was influenced by the culture-values, beliefs of a social group

The survival of all or part of past natural and cultural environments acts as a guide to the preservation of tangible cultural heritage. Man and nature are twin agents of a continuous revolution which is at one time or another changing the face of the earth and modifying nature through the activities of social groups. Middleton (1990) says heritage communicate the natural and built environment of places, the origins and character of human endeavour that brought civilisation in general and localities in

2

particular, to their present state. Kristiansen (1989) is of the view that heritage contributes to identity of nations, people and local communities. It is part of the sum of knowledge and experience from which decisions of tomorrow are taken at all levels in society. It represents an irreplaceable contribution to what has been termed the collective memory of mankind.

Cultural identity makes use of historical landscapes among others aspects Culture defines actions, events and seasons on which traditional rituals are done at

CHS to maintain the sanctity of spiritual sites Culture furnishes us with the language, taboos, customs, myths and legends

crucial in protection of CHS Culture helps in interpretation and presentation of sites through ethnography Culture and heritage can stand as evidence of the intangible beliefs conferred on

material objects, monuments, structures, places and landscapes Culture and heritage are products of individual or collective memories of a social

group

Discuss? Is it possible to have heritage without culture or vice versa? How can language as part of culture be used to manage cultural property

1 Define the symbiotic relationship between culture and heritage (10)2 In what ways is this relationship useful in heritage preservation in Zimbabwe and

any other African country of your choice (10)

Background to Heritage Management in Africa- ZimbabweThe mandate to protect and present cultural heritage in southern Africa is generally entrusted to national institutions. In such countries as Kenya, Zimbabwe, and South Africa where there was a large European settler population, heritage management developed as a specialised discipline for a selected few and as a result it was viewed as a highly academic subject never meant for popular consumption. In addition, colonisation in Southern Africa resulted in local communities being alienated from their cultural heritage. Most of the legislation and administrative structures prohibited local communities to access their own heritage for cultural rituals were not allowed to take place on sites and communities were moved hundreds of kilometres away from their original homes thereby creating physical and spiritual distance between them and their ancestral homes. Cleere (1989) refers to this as a period of cultural discontinuity. He argues that few, if any countries can claim to have had an unbroken cultural continuity of any kind. Herrmann (1989) observes that during the advent of bourgeoisie-capitalist society in Europe, monuments were destroyed wherever they stood in the way of the capitalist economy or where profit was to be gained. The destruction of monuments later became a world problem. In their colonies, the colonial powers often put a stop to the traditional utilisation and maintenance of the material cultural heritage thereby suppressing the indigenous people’s sense of identity.

Pwiti and Ndoro (1999) note that from 1890, when Zimbabwe was colonised the colonial system tried all possible ways to tread upon the identity of indigenous people. The intolerance of colonialists to African virtues resulted in an end in some

3

communities to traditional practices and values. The Zimbabwean population was displaced as a result of land policies like the Land apportionment Act of 1930 and the Land Tenure Act of 1969. Shrines in European areas were left unattended as colonial property rights could not allow entry into areas now under private ownership. Ndoro (2008) further argues that the pioneering legislation was not founded on an objective approach to preserve the diverse African cultural landscape but rather on protecting a few sites which served the interest of white settlers. (A case in point is the controversy at Great Zimbabwe, which initiated the movement towards heritage management. The mystery of the stone built sites led to the proclamation as national monuments in the hope that they would reinforce the idea of a vanished, but superior and foreign civilisation.) Most sites proclaimed in the colonial period were either archaeological sites or colonial memorials that had to do with the process of colonisation. After the colonial period the same system continued whereby colonial heritage was inherited as national heritage.eg Rhodes Grave. Postcolonial administrative and legal frameworks adopted the ex-colonial policies on heritage management further alienating communities from their own heritage. However, there are efforts to include the local community and intangible aspects in heritage management. In West Africa most heritage sites are looked after by local communities with minimum influence from government or central authority e.g. the Osogbo Groves (WHS of Nigeria) and the Sukar Cultural Landscapes and the Royal Palaces of Abomey in Benin. The heritage ensemble on national and WHL still reflect an imbalance representation of heritage sites. In Eastern and Southern Africa archaeological heritage is still the main heritage being managed.

Approaches to heritage management in AfricaManagement is often defined as the administrative direction or as the control of the course of affairs by one’s own actions. Ndoro (1997) says management or conservation is a term used to mean all actions that are taken to ensure long term conservation of a site. These include such steps as management policy, physical interventions to ensure structural stability and visitor management. Tombaugh (1986) define conservation as the foresighted utilisation, preservation and or renewal of forests, waters, lands and minerals for the greatest good and greatest number for the longest time. [Conservation means the wise use of the earth and its resources for the lasting good of man.]

Top- Down ApproachModern heritage conservation was born in many western countries in the form of commitment by governments to recognise and care for heritage on behalf of public interests. The commitment is often translated into designation, support and development of control procedures placed within state led management frameworks. They adopted top-down approaches often expressed in the form of government driven management plans and legal frameworks.

Bottom-Up ApproachThe approach stresses need for consultative, participatory management mechanisms which include and define the voice of the public in defining and implementing conservation policies. The approach recognises the importance of traditional forms of heritage management and protection. It is also important in enhancing community development

4

Advantages In cases where there are diverse interests and stakeholders, the approach gives

priority to traditional custodians of a given cultural property It promotes community involvement and development The locus of decision making is moved closest to people affected by the decision

Integrated Management Approach In its simplest sense, an integrated conservation and management approach entails working together in a combined effort. The approach goes beyond professional boundaries with all stakeholders involved in order to achieve best results. The process vary from a simple effort to integrate scientific methods and tools to better understand behaviour of materials, the processes of decay to working with legislative bodies, agencies, communities on management of cultural heritage. It also involves working in an integrated fashion within an organisation. The term ‘Integrated Conservation’, although old in practise, received official status with the Declaration of Amsterdam by the Congress of European Architectural Heritage in 1975. Initially it was an effort to expand the definition of architectural heritage to include all areas of towns or villages of historic or cultural interest and to seek support for their conservation within urban and regional planning activities. Applicability of concept now extends to conservation and management of cultural heritage in general – Wijesuriya, G (ICRROM Newsletter 34, December 2008:8)

Why an Integrated Management Approach? An integrated approach facilitates consultation and coordination with community

groups and agencies. Understanding the views of all who have an impact on heritage at an early stage

enhance inclusiveness of the decision making process The approach accrues benefits to the heritage sector, allocation of human and

financial resources for conservation Improves communication between sectors and sharing of knowledge Helps in formulation of complementary or new regulatory instruments to enhance

long term protection of heritage. It results in a shift of organisational cultures and participants towards acceptance

and pursuit of cooperative approaches.

Q. Which conservation approach is best suited to address African realities in heritage management? Give reasons for your choice and support answer with relevant examples. Challenges to heritage management in AfricaMany factors threaten the cultural heritage of Africa and these include environmental pressures, uncontrolled developments, warfare and communal conflicts, poverty, lack of political unity, lack of awareness for the value of heritage resources, poor funding, inadequate expertise and equipment, illicit trafficking, poor documentation and excavations,

Lack of legislations and planning lawsIn most African countries, laws are now outdated such that they fail to meet contemporary realities of integrated development. They fail to address issues of land

5

use, employment, gender, etc and they tend to be in conflict with other legislations on the environment, land planning, and mining and community values. In Zimbabwe for example legislation seems to be in conflict when it comes to conservation of cultural property for example the NMMZ versus the Mines and Minerals Act, the Towns and Planning Act. Most legislations favour the concept of monumentalism taking little cognisance of associated intangible and spiritual value.

Wars and ConflictsIntra and inter communal conflicts continue to create havoc in most African countries in relation to the conservation of cultural property. Wars in Liberia, Sudan, DRC, Rwanda, Angola etc threaten heritage. On the other hand religious fundamentalism has resulted in the deliberate burning and destruction of monuments, shrines and sacred places considered offensive to ne w beliefs systems. The vandalism at Domboshava was as a result of religious fundamentalism.

Poor Involvement of Local Communities and Other Stakeholders in Planning and ManagementMost legislative and management systems are top down in approach thus disempowering the primary owners of their heritage. Secondary stakeholders would make the decisions regarding the conservation, interpretation and or presentation whilst primary stakeholders are not consulted. In some cases local stakeholders are cosmetically consulted. Thus they lack the power and capacity to change decisions or manage the site and monuments in their localities. This results in the neglect, looting and vandalism of the cultural property

Poor Documentation and Lack of InventoriesRecords on cultural heritage are grossly inadequate or even nonexistent for most countries in Africa. Records are needed for purposes of planning and the implementation of conservation and presentation strategies. The heritage picture for most African countries is therefore still very incomplete e.g. in Zimbabwe most rock art sites are still to be documented.

Non Integration of Heritage into Development EffortsThis results in the destruction of cultural property as the developers fail to respect heritage e.g. mining activities in the Shavarunzi cultural landscape and the dam construction in the Nyamweda area where burial were exhumed during construction.

4.0 METHODS OF HERITAGE CONSERVATION Heritage Management Systems include traditional practices, existing legal instruments and other control mechanisms both formal and informal. The system depends on the type, characteristics and needs of the property, its legal and cultural context.4.1 TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS The basic approach to conservation of cultural property has been largely based on a monumental understanding of cultural significance less consideration was given to the distinctiveness of each region of the world and how conservation was perceived locally. Traditional maintenance and conservation practises were not promoted resulting in their abandonment by local populations. In most African sites significant immovable cultural heritage sites with outstanding universal values have been lost or are today quickly deteriorating. Most heritage managers in Africa have insisted on the

6

need to challenge the monumental perception of heritage by recognising a broader approach which takes into consideration the resilient intangible aspect and beliefs that have always contributed to the permanence of the heritage. Traditional conservation practices play a very vital role in the preservation of a country’s immovable cultural heritage which is associated with specific beliefs and rituals, social organisation and sense of community belonging e.g. Old Bulawayo Site. This approach calls for local communities to assist in the conservation of cultural property since they have developed conservation strategies from the past up to the present. These people therefore bring to light those conservation activities that are authorised and these could be a combination of technical activities and the protection of spiritual values.

Customary Laws and PracticesMost African countries have traditional customary mechanisms and practices which operated before the advent of colonialism and have continued to operate with varying degrees of effectiveness. These include taboos, avoidances and practices put in place by the local communities for the protection of sacred heritage places such as grooves, graves, streams, forests, rivers, shrines, temples, palaces, etc. These customary mechanisms can be regarded as unwritten constitutions or laws that operate on the basis of support and respect that they command from community members. Oath An oath can be defined as a solemn pact with the supernatural powers used to protect cultural property such as crops, trees, wells, etc. In such cases, the powerful spirits, both evil and good, are enjoined to protect the site and certain objects are put in place to signify this. So great is the fear of the consequences of breaking the spell, thus obedience to orders.

TaboosIn Africa all nature is seen in religious terms. There are food and behaviour taboos directly linked with plants and animals. Food taboos are closely linked to totemism whereby one is not allowed to eat the object or animal they totemise. This idea is that the totemised plant or animal is not disturbed by a certain ethnic group in the natural environment. Behaviour taboos are based on avoiding certain behaviour or practices e.g killing pythons which might result in drought or lions which are mhondoro mediums. The same goes to the cutting of certain fruit trees such as muzhanje which provided wild fruits in the case of a drought.

Myths and LegendsIn Africa how the universe, natural systems and societies is mainly passed on by word of mouth. Myths and legends were one of the first ways that people related to their natural surroundings. An African mythology grew up based on parables common metaphors which related to the various rules and kinds of access to natural heritage resources.

Traditional LeadersThere is the Traditional Leaders Act.

Assimilation of the natural into the sacred heritageLinking the natural elements of the environment (animals, plants, rocks, stretches of water) with the world of the spirits gives special qualities to some of their components (trees, animals, and ecosystem). This is the origin of sacred places such as mountains,

7

forests, springs, rivers and other landscapes. Sacred sites are areas of special spiritual significance to peoples and communities. Sacred natural sites are areas of land or water having special spiritual significance to peoples and communities. Sacred sites may be viewed as abode of deities and ancestral spirits as sources of healing water and medicinal plants, places of contact with the spiritual realm or communication with more than human reality, they are sometimes burial grounds of ancestors, places of pilgrimage, the locale of a shrine or church. While many sacred natural sites have historical significance they are not static in time and space. New sites can be created in response to changing circumstances and environment.

The Tree Berre and Mesan (1995) say that the importance of trees is especially interesting in African mythology either as single trees or more broadly as sacred woods or forests. Trees have a special role as intermediaries with the divine. The sacred forest is considered a symbol of motherhood, a centre of freshness, water and warmth, a sort of womb where man can regain strength. Certain ritual taboos have saved other species both flora and fauna. The fabric of historical narratives, myths legends, cosmological beliefs and regulatory system veils tangible heritage sites and itself constitute an abiding heritage for mankind.

Case StudyThe Mijikenda Khaya forests are still in existence today based on the strength of local culture and beliefs. Traditional rules and prohibitions have been passed down by elders through generations and are still being held in the minds of local communities. These communities therefore stand in awe and fear of the forest. The Khaya forest are now abandoned but have not lost their importance to the Mijikenda as they have become ritual centres and symbols of ethnic identity and unity. Rules were laid down using a system of oaths, taboos and curses which became deterrent to activities that were forbidden. Strong belief in the supernatural and the activities of both good and bad spirits ensured the survival of the cultural property.

4.2 MODERN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS The emergence of modern states together with colonially derived legislative systems has created conflict between the traditional and western modes of heritage management. Most western derived legislations in post colonial Africa (Zimbabwe included), take no cognisance of community interests, aspirations, and belief systems. South Africa and Uganda have made attempts to address this problem trying to integrate customary and statutory tenure systems. Modern management systems in place include among others legislations and site management plans.

LegislationsThe legal framework includes policies, Acts of parliament, ordinances, by laws, court decisions, Ministerial circulars, guidelines as well as principles of common law. Most heritage legislations in Africa were enacted during the colonial period. The definitions of heritage and its categories were influenced by the colonial experience. The European colonial community imposed typologies of heritage to be protected and definitions adopted were borrowed from mother countries. Material aspects were paramount in defining heritage and rarely were intangible values incorporated into the definition of what heritage is. Colonial heritage excluded indigenous perceptions on heritage e.g. anything associated with African religion was regarded as paganism. The

8

definition columns of the pieces of legislation do not have room for values e.g. monument means any ancient monument, any area of land which has distinct or beautiful scenery or a distinctive geological formation. The colonial definition reflects the perception that for heritage to be of value it had to be old or ancient. Even after independence in Africa the definitions used in heritage law remained unchanged whereas concepts of heritage have changed around the world. Heritage is categorised mainly under ancient monuments, relics and antiquities. The way these categories are defined makes it difficult to include cultural landscapes and intangible heritage within the legal framework. Acceptance of indigenous cultures is a crucial aspect in defining heritage of a country and including this as part of the law.

Role of LegislationHeritage legislation

Should define heritage and the values that ought to be preserved. The definitions should avoid favouring particular categories at the expense of others and should be based on wider consultation with the public and not to be left for specialists alone e.g. recent legislation for South Africa, Namibia and Kenya have tried to incorporate definitions which incorporate perceptions of the general public.

Should be able to help bring about a sense of order and equity among various stakeholders. The current practise is to have a Board of Trustees appointed by a minister according to the relevant Act with less or no interest in issues of heritage. Such Boards are supposed to include representatives from local communities.

Legislation should put people at the centre not at the periphery, people are viewed as a threat to heritage and a number of rules are prescribed to distance them from monuments and sites. As a result most rituals and ceremonies are not allowed, strict controls are set up to regulate activities and use of sites. Only tourists and educational groups have free access. Legislation thus becomes oppressive not protective.

May include possible penalties for offenders Should state clearly what to mange and ways of managing it

A theory of legal pluralismAccording to Mumma, A (1999), people’s perceptions are seldom governed by a monolithic one dimensional normative framework. Legal pluralism therefore describes a situation characterised by a coexistence of different normative systems. There is a multiplicity of legal systems in the protection of cultural property, all of which have a claim to legal validity, eg, the coexistence of state law, customary law, religious law, etc. this legal environment has always proven to be antagonistic as following one system might mean contravening the other. Cultural property however must have adequate legal, contractual and/or traditional protection and management mechanisms that ensure survival. it is therefore essential that African countries find a lasting formula that harmonizes traditional management systems and state based management systems.

In most African states, the relationship between state law and customary law has typically been one of antagonism and conflict, with state law designed to abolish customary law. Cultural property laws must reverse this trend and seek to create synergies and a complementary relationship between state law and customary law. It

9

has therefore been argued that the theory of legal pluralism offers a framework within which two or more sources of authority and power can function in a symbiotic and complementary fashion.

Q “The concept of legal pluralism would be the best suited in protecting cultural landscapes in Africa”. Discuss

Legislations vs Community management of cultural heritageLegislation on the protection of cultural heritage must grapple with the legal issues surrounding community management of the heritage. It must also ensure long term sustainability and integrity of the community by ensuring that it does not disintegrate as a result of economic, political or cultural pressure. The community can be defined as that unit or group that has a special relationship with the cultural property, thus giving value to that site and making it worth protecting. In some cases, it is that entity whose livelihood depends on the use of the site. Legislation must also define ownership and use rights over the cultural property. In most cases, state laws place such properties under government ownership at the expense of local communities thus alienating them and removing their incentive to protect the cultural heritage in a sustainable way. It has therefore been argued that, ownership and use rights should be given to the communities. Community participation has two key components, a right to access to information and a right to be consulted in decision making. Communities should never be passive observers of events around a site. It is their statutory right to be consulted about and participate in decisions and actions affecting the cultural site.

Review of African LawsAfrican legislations do not make any systematic provisions for the pluralistic framework as most of them are still monolithic. Most African laws focus on the cultural property and not on the community, that is, it seeks to separate the cultural landscapes from the community.

1) The antiquities and monuments act of Kenya. Gives minister power to prohibit or restrict access or development or use which is liable to destroy the site.

2) Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Act. Prohibits any activities within its designated areas without a permit.

3) The Environment Conservation Act, Act No.73 of 1989. South Africa4) The Uganda Wildlife Statute, Act No. 14 of 1996. This provides for the

protected areas and wildlife conservation areas making it an offense for one to enter into such areas without authority.

5) Tanzania wildlife conservation Act. Act No.12 of 1974. Prohibits activities in game reserves without a permit

6) The Ethiopian Proclamation No. 94 of 1994. Looks at the conservation, development and utilisation of forests. No access without a permit.

“Africa’s scenario is one where there is a symbiotic relationship between the ecosystems and the ethno systems”. This is so because the cultures of Africa have evolved out of nature and they still draw their authority from it. This therefore has implications on the aspects of boundaries, ownership, authenticity/integrity, as well as

10

political, social and economic considerations in the management of cultural sites. Unfortunately, a look at most African legislations reveals that they tend to ignore most of these aspects.

With regards to boundaries, most African legislations failm to clearly define issues pertaining to the boundary of cultural property and the people responsible for defining those boundaries. As such, most aspects of the site end up under threat thus creating conflict between the community and the government.

Ownership- who owns the property? Is it the community or the legal institutions

Authenticity- is the legal document ideal for the preservation of the authenticity of cultural property?

Traditional Leaders ActThe disintegration of community systems and community leadership structures has undermined the sustainable management and conservation of heritage in most of Africa. Communities must function as viable entities if community management of heritage is to become viable. In Zimbabwe the powers of Chiefs to convene local courts and impose fines have recently been restored through the Traditional Leaders Act of 1999. Courts in traditional systems are less prolonged compared to the formal justice system. This means that cases are resolved faster ensuring quick social learning when offenders are punished. Mumma (2004, 2008) argues that restoring communities does not necessarily mean a revival of traditional systems and structures unless these have remained viable and continue to command legitimacy. Traditional leadership and authority systems have at times been undemocratic (excluding marginalised groups within the community), allocated local resources inequitably (to those close to power) and looked for legitimacy and justification of their demands in past practices rather than their relevance to today’s circumstances. These features have undermined the legitimacy of traditional management systems in the eyes of many community members particularly at a time when societal change, introduction of western style of education, cash based economy, different religions and cultural beliefs and practises have undermined the authority of traditional systems. As a result the restoration of integrity of community systems may require the reconstruction of communities on the basis of present day concepts of democratic and accountable governance systems and structures (including the selection of leaders), of equity in resource distribution, and of knowledge and rationalisation which depend on science and technology rather than on past practise per se. With regard to the management of cultural heritage, community management systems need to consciously foster a conservation ethic in order to ensure the balanced utilisation of the resources. Thus, communities have to recreate themselves in the image of today’s heritage managers.

National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe Act of 1972In Zimbabwe, an Act of Parliament vests management of both movable and immovable heritage to National Museums and Monuments. National Museums and Monuments is a parastatal semi-independent organisation but under the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Minister of Home Affairs appoints a Board of Trustees presided over by a Chairman. The Board is in a sense decentralised as legislation provides for the establishment, with the consent of responsible Minister, of local or regional committees to assist the Board in carrying out its duties. The provision of the NMMZ Act exhorts Museums and Monuments Board to maintain a continuous flow of

11

information to the public regarding the professional activities, programmes and projects of the organisation and hence provide for dissemination of information via a variety of means.

NMMZ Act of 1972 section 24 stipulates that the Board of trustees may acquire a national monument or relic located on a piece of land via a ‘mutually agreed settlement with the landowner’. If agreement cannot be reached the Board may apply to the president for authority to compulsorily acquire a monument or relic. There is no basis set out for compensation to be determined in such instances. The bases upon which the President may determine whether or not to authorise acquisition of a monument is on the basis of restriction of access by the owner (Hall 2008:68)

In Zimbabwe preparations are underway to revise the existing legislation that was inherited from the colonial times without amendment. There is no provision for the role of local communities in this legislation. In practise significant changes have been made at such sites as Domboshava Caves and Great Zimbabwe. An area of controversy has been to find a generally acceptable definition of a local community. A local community is usually one that holds historical associations with the site either by having built and/or occupied that property and/or by usage. But in some cases for example at Great Zimbabwe there are two groups contesting ownership and usage of site (Mahachi and Kamuhangire (2008).

There are no explicit requirements for archaeological impact assessment studies prior to development projects in Zimbabwe. However, the Zimbabwean legislation is implicitly strong in implying that damage to cultural heritage is a crime punishable by law. This implies need to assess potential damage. In addition a general environmental policy document exists that requires the carrying out of environmental impact assessment prior to any development project (Ndoro and Kiriama 2008).

World Conventions-World HeritageMunjeri (2008) - International treaties whether general or specific, establish rules expressly recognised by contesting states. Treaties are known and often called conventions, International Agreements, Covenants, Acts, Charters, Pacts, Statues etc. All these terms denote to written agreements which can bind two or more international subjects in a way to set up particular relations between themselves.

A distinctive feature of law making treaties/ conventions is that they are intended to have universal as opposed to local applicability. In these treaties those referred to as state parties to the agreement elaborate their perception of international law upon any given topic and then establish new rules which will guide them in their international conduct. The formation of treaties is a process that involves a number of stages;

The negotiating stageThe goal is to reach consensus on issues and other interests raised at the Convention

Adoption stage This is when State parties to the negotiations agree upon provisions of the treaty. Adoption does not mean that negotiating parties have expressed consent to be bound by the treaty e.g. the 2001 Convention of the Protection of Underwater cultural

12

Heritage 87 states voted in and 4 against but the treaty is not yet operational because only 14 states have agreed to be bound by it.

Signature stageMany international conventions incorporate a signature procedure for states. Signature means that state concerned regard text as correct recording of what has been agreed and in the meantime they would not do anything contrary or in conflict with the Convention. UNESCO rules under which almost all cultural heritage treaties fall do not however follow this signature process. After adoption the president of the general conference signs on behalf of all member states and Director General signs on behalf of the secretary general of the United Nations. Following this stage is ratification, acceptance or approval whereby state establishes at an international level its consent to be bound by a treaty. UNESCO instruments are registered with the United Nations in accordance with article 102 of the UN charter. The higher the number of state parties to the convention, the more effective the instrument is because it reflects the number of states bound by the provisions of the legal instruments e.g. the convention for the Protection of World’s Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) also known as the World Convention has been ratified by 183 states out of 192 member states of the United Nations.

Entry in forceThis is the last stage. Ratification is necessary for entry into force or in order for the treaty to enter into effect upon signature or specified date. To date all cultural heritage conventions have entered into force after a stipulated number of states have ratified the Convention e.g. the 1972 World heritage convention entered into force in December 1975.

Purpose Ratification commits member states to be bound by the provisions of a treaty. In

the case of cultural heritage this entails adopting policies and establishing institutional and legal frameworks that preserve and promote that heritage.

International instruments do not only declare intent to protect and conserve cultural heritage but go as far as to provide guidance on implementation of the legislations e.g. the ICH Convention (2003) parties urged to define the various elements of ICH present in their territory with the participation of communities

World Conventions on Protection of World’s Cultural and Natural Heritage

The need to create an association of specialists independent of the already existing association of museologists became urgent after the 1st World War. The development of conservation and restoration techniques required qualified specialists, but at the same time, this very development represented a new threat to historic buildings in general. In 1931, the International Museum Office organized, at the Athens Conference, a meeting of conservationists of historic buildings. It was not until1957 that the architectural specialists themselves organized their own congress in Paris. Specialists grew aware of a new fact: the sole listing and safeguarding of major historic buildings were not enough. These were, in principle, out of danger, being works of art preserved in situ. It was essential to place the architectural heritage in its real context and the historic buildings in their environment.

13

The First International Congress of Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings, Paris 1957 The Congress strongly recommended that:1. the countries which still lack a central organization for the protection of historic buildings provide for the establishment of such an authority,2. the creation of an international assembly of architects and specialists of historic buildings should be considered,3. a specialized professional training of all categories of personnel should be promoted so as to secure highly qualified workmanship and that remuneration should be commensurate with such qualifications,4. the hygrometric problems relating to historic buildings should be discussed in a symposium,5. contemporary artists should be requested to contribute to the decoration of monuments,6. close cooperation’s be established among architects and archaeologists,7. architects and town-planners cooperate so as to secure integration of historic buildings into town-planning.

Finally, UNESCO invited all member states to join the Rome Restoration Centre (1 CROM).The Congress ended with the invitation of Mr .Piero Gazzola to hold the second Congress in Venice. The Venice Charter 1964 At the Second congres1 f Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings held in enice in 1964, 13 resolutions were adopted. The adopted solutions were known as the International Restoration Charter or the Venice Charter. The second resolution which was put forward by UNESCO, provided for the creation of ICOMOS.Five major principles sum up the Charter:

1) The concept of historic buildings -this concept has been extended as regarding both isolated buildings and groups of buildings.

2) Conservation- in order to secure the conservation of a building, its use is actually necessary, but no change of lay-out or decoration should be permitted. The surroundings should be protected. No transfer should be allowed nor any removal of ornaments ( except in case of emergency).

3) Restoration- will be undertaken only when necessary .No reconstruction should be admitted; the structure and authenticity of materials must be respected. Any new element should be distinguishable. Whenever traditional techniques prove to be inadequate recourse may be made to modem but well-tried techniques. Elements of value of a period should be respected. Falsification in replacing missing parts is to be ruled out.

4) Archaeology - Excavations should be carried out only by specialists. The Rehabilitation of archaeological sites should not alter the buildings or sites so as to enhance understanding.

5) Documentation and publication -any action taken should be accompanied by a report to be deposited with the public archives. Publication is recommended.

The emphasis on monumentality in contemporary heritage management and conservation has been argued to have emanated from this much celebrated Venice Charter. It has also been argued that despite all political and national differences, cultural heritage belongs to all people, that is, it emphasised on the universal value of cultural property.

14

The Venice Charter stresses the importance of setting, respect for original fabric, precise documentation of any intervention, the significance of contributions from all periods to the building's character, and the maintenance of historic buildings for a socially useful purpose. The Charter outlines the basic doctrine of what is now accepted to be an appropriate approach to dealing in philosophical terms with historic buildings.

A comparison of the 1931 and the 1964 texts bears witness to the long evolution of ideas and actions. To begin with, the concept of 'monument' has been extended. Also, a greater importance is attached to the need to keep a building 'in situ' . Finally, unlike the Athens Charter, the use of modem materials is subject to restrictions whereas traditional techniques are recommended. However, a number of concepts still remain unformulated:

1) The concept of site which also applies to historic landscapes and gardens2) The concept of reversibility in restoration3) The social and financial issues

ln subsequent years, the scope of action of specialists bas been extended and with the proliferation of investigations a greater number of symposia took place; they gave birth to resolutions and recommendations whose purpose was to create a consciousness among specialists with regards to their responsibility .

The Burra charterThe Venice charter was redefined in Australia to form the Burra Charter (The Australian ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance,1981). This Charter therefore redefined the principles detailed in the Venice Charter to suit local Australian requirements. It includes a comprehensive list of definitions of items such as place, fabric, conservation, maintenance, preservation, restoration, reconstruction, adaptation and compatible use. It also introduces the concept of cultural significance, the 'aesthetic, historic, scientific or social value for past, present and future generations', and requires this to be defined for each place, and conservation plans to be established and justified prior to any intervention. It continues with a description of conservation principles and processes that are intended as a definition of good practice. The Burra Charter is not only established in Australia but has been adopted by most African states and is frequently used by these governments in its formal capacity.

Q. Discuss the applicability of the Venice and the Burra charters in the conservation of African cultural heritage. Are the standards set attainable for African countries?Q. Discuss the applicability of the Burra charter in the conservation of rock art?

The Nara document on authenticity

1972 World Conventions on Protection of World’s Cultural & Natural Heritage

The Convention was triggered when Egypt decided to build the Aswan High Dam which would result in the flooding and destruction of archaeological sites and

15

treasures in Nubia. Faced with this threat in 1959 Governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO’s assistance and launched an appeal in the name of UNESCO for international cooperation to safeguard sites and monuments of ancient Nubia.

The Convention has been summed up as a unique legal instrument based on the idea that some cultural and natural heritage sites are of universal and exceptional importance and therefore need to be protected as part of the common heritage of all humanity. States have an obligation to protect sites of outstanding universal value and to transmit that heritage to future generation. The focus for Global action by the international community is to address global issues that threaten cultural and natural heritage and also participate in the protection of this heritage of outstanding universal value.

Listing of World Heritage Sites, Challenges for Southern Africa

The European conception of heritage draws a clear distinction between tangible and intangible heritage. The two dimensions are perceived as parallel lines which will never meet with tangible heritage belonging to the realm of science and the intangible dimension falling within the bracket of superstition. Intangible heritage is therefore given little to no attention. The World Heritage List is testament to this with the intangible heritage aspect (shrines, pilgrimage routes; trade routes, slave routes, cultural landscapes) which is characteristic of Africa being left out. In many African countries there is no demarcation between nature and culture and this principle must form the basis of legislation relating to culture and nature. Sustainability of cultural and natural heritage is achievable if there is harmony between international law, domestic and customary law. Q. Critically examine the provisions of NMMZ Act 25:11 in the conservation of intangible heritage. Q. Critically analyse the NMMZ Act with regards to the protection of diverse cultural heritage in Zimbabwe.

Site Management PlansSite Management entails the control of elements that make up the physical and social environment of a site, its physical condition, land use, visitors and interpretation. Site management plan is a plan that is developed to help guide decision-making and interventions on a heritage site. A management plan defines the management process by which the management objectives are achieved. A single management plan may not be applicable to the rest of the sites. The nature of a site demands on the type of plan to be implemented. Plans have to be re-evaluated from time to time. What started as a short term plan can evolve into a long term plan.

Why develop site management plans? It ensures that preservation, enhancement, presentation and maintenance of a place

are deliberately and thoughtfully designed to protect place values Provides and establishes guiding principles or coordinate actions or activities on

site, including conservation, maintenance, monitoring and evaluation Provide framework to make informed decisions that will be taken in future

16

Helps define the resource we manage and take stock of the existing situation, where possible it also helps minimise damage or destruction

Helps in rationalising resources at our disposal e.g. manpower, funds Helps ensure the effective protection of nominated/ declared property for present

and future generations To present site to the public and safeguard heritage

Steps to Draft an Integrated Site Management PlanFive Basic Steps

STEP ONE

1. Preparation and Setting up (Social assessment, identification of stakeholders, formation of the management committee)

• A team should be formed in order to initiate the project and lead the management committee.

• There is need to identify all relevant stakeholders and have stakeholder meeting to explain intended goals.

• Information to be gathered on the identity of the place

IDENTIFICATION QUESTIONS

• Who holds title to the land?

• Who holds title to the heritage places on this land?

• Who are the custodians of the place?

• Who is looking after the place now?

• Who else has interests?

• What sources of funds are there for the place?

STEP TWO

2. Data Gathering (Documentation, research, and investigation of the site).

• Identity of the place e.g. the geography of the area and boundaries (How one person defines a site may be different from someone else definition), Connection of site with other heritage places, Sensitivity of any specific parts of the area, Buffer zones, Who has interests in what?

• Gathering of what we know about the place. (include documentation oral history)

• Gathering data which puts the place into context e.g. the relevant legal documents and development plans.

17

• Gathering data on the state of place e.g. a detailed condition survey

• Gathering data on past and present management regimes.

• Gathering data on current interpretation, presentation, and visitor management practices at the site.

STEP THREE

3. Analysis of the information gathered, value assessment- assess value of the place to the community or particular sections of the community and note major management needs- weigh the values of the place with a range of management issues, including its physical condition

• Determine Values of the place

• Determine Cultural significance

• Determine the Key issues

• Authenticity and integrity of the place

• Guiding Principles

• Analysis

• Evaluation of the type of responses

HOW

• Stakeholders involvement

• SWOT and other tools

• Extraction of key issues

• Develop a problem tree (LFA) on Key issues.

• Use Logical Framework Analyses (LFA) to analyse response.

• Reflection on the type of response : what type of response is needed?

STEP FOUR4. Development of appropriate responses.

• Develop Specific objectives, specific activities are generated to fulfil each objective, priority issues to be identified

• Designing strategies for meeting the objectives

• Development of an Action Plan, priority issues to be identified. The best way to get to this action is to draft a strategic plan. The process involves calling for a workshop where heritage professionals and stakeholders discuss issues and

18

concerns. This will result in the formulation of mission statement and goals set to achieve objectives

• Implementation

• Develop Monitoring and Evaluation Strategies

PLAN REVIEW BEFORE IMPLEMENTATION

CONCEPTUAL REVIEW

• Does the plan fit the objectives

• Will the plan address the issues identified?

FEASIBILITY STUDY

How realistic are the plans objectives?

• How realistic is the scope, budget and time requirements

• Are the appropriate resources to be made available to implement the plan.

• Does the team have the technical expertise to implement the plan.

BENEFIT-COST• What are the benefits from this management plan for the site and the

stakeholders.

• Will it be worth the resources being allocated in terms of value

• Can it be done otherwise?

RISK ASSESMENT What could go wrong and with what consequences?

• What are the uncertainties in the plan?

• What if we fail to meet our objectives?

• What is the risk that it will not address the key issues?

STEP FIVE

5. Implementation of the actions identified by the plan

• Management Plan review

• Formation of a relevant cultural management institution, if necessary.

• Implementation of the short term actions proposed by the plan.

• Fundraising and proposal writing for medium and long term actions.

19

• Continued monitoring and evaluation of the progress of the implementation.

• Modification of the plan.

Policies are essential to provide basic criteria for national significance, heritage planning, heritage facilities, visitor use, concessions management, treatment of heritage and research involving heritageGuidelines serve as reference and source of direction for heritage management and planningStandards and Procedures are essential to outline how heritage management and planning should be done and the expected standard to be attained nationwide. Without these documents heritage management can fail to clear direction (Katanekwa 1995:39)

SWOT Categories . Strengths

any positive factors that can be appreciated from an “internal” point of view of the situation (also called: advantages)

2. Weaknessesany negative factors that can be “criticised” from an “internal” point of view of the situation (also called: disadvantages)

3. Threatsany foreseen negative factors from outside that could aggravate the situation of the site if nothing is done. (also called: constraints, risks, limits, barriers, etc.)

4. Opportunitiesany current or upcoming factors that can positively impact on the situation of the organisation or the site. (also called: potential, possibilities, etc.)

Q. The management of heritage is constrained in space and time. CommentQ. Heritage is a contemporary creation called into being in response to contemporary requirements, and thenQ. All heritage has, by definition, some use in or for contemporary society. Discuss

5.0 MANAGEMENT PLANNING PROCESSPlanning is a systematic process whose goal is to reach certain objectives. Process can be defined as an organised development of activities based on prior logical thought. The planning process in heritage management is necessary to establish a detailed scheme, programme or method to reach the set objective.

Choice of what to manageThe management of heritage takes place at different levels involving stakeholders with varying interests. Questions about what to manage, protect and why are linked

20

with legal, economic and political issues of a country, as a result, one approach may propose that preservation should be determined by scientific relevance whereas another maintain that each piece of cultural heritage has a value on its own right. The basic principle in all protection should be that monuments and sites are to be protected in their own right, in all their variety. In legal terms it implies that protection should be based on general regulations relating to ownership at a national level. Determination of which types or groups to be covered by such regulations remains a political or government decision based on historical, archaeological and political traditions (Kristiansen 1989).

Munjeri (2005) notes that heritage can only be preserved through conservation however, the decision on what to preserve depends on the values attached to that heritage. The problem is the diverse nature of values which are driven by different motives, economic, ethics, epistemologies which result in different approaches to preserving heritage.

Who is involved?Heritage is a medium through which identity, power and society are produced and reproduced. As a result it involves a variety of stakeholders, the individual, the family, local community, ethnic, and religious groups, the nation-state and world at large.

Importance of Stakeholder Involvement Traditional custodianCustodians are individuals or groups of people usually within traditional institutions, who have responsibility to take care of a specific heritage site or sites. Custodians may reside close or at considerable distance from the heritage site to which they are linked through history, culture, self identification and spiritual practise. Professional heritage managersInclude trained staff responsible for managing cultural property, e.g. archaeologists, anthropologists, ethnographers, monuments inspectors, tour guides etc Role of National Institutions (NMMZ, National Gallery, National Parks, EMA)Middleton (1994) suggests the primary duty of heritage bodies is to manage the resource be it a collection, a historic house or nature reserve. Knowledge and skills relevant to the resource are uppermost in the minds of trustees, owners, volunteers and employees responsible for it.

Community ParticipationThe defining feature of heritage sites is that people cared for them often for a very long time. These are people who have acted as guardians and custodians of the spiritual, cultural, biological and other values of such sites. The people work collectively to safeguard their heritage that they closely identify with. Community participation entails involvement of people in a local community in the conservation of cultural heritage. (This can be broadened to include stakeholders at national or international community.)

Why community participation? Motivates people to work together Gives them sense of responsibility and ownership

21

The community knows their sites better so they can bring input and help decide on way forward

Present opportunity for them to better own lives and the community as whole.g establishing cultural centres where they interpret own history, sell curios

Volunteers to work on heritage sites Enables continuity of cultural heritage Q. a) Define community participation (5)

b) What role does local community play in the conservation of cultural heritage? (10)c) What challenges are likely to be faced as a result of community involvement and how best can you overcome them? (10)

6.0 HERITAGE MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTThe aim of this section is to discuss the place of cultural heritage management in economic development.

Environmental Impact Assessments.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the process by which the anticipated effects on the environment of a proposed development or project are measured. If the likely effects are unacceptable, design measures or other relevant mitigation measures can be taken to reduce or avoid those effects. The objective of the EIA is to ensure that environmental aspects are addressed and potential problems are foreseen at the appropriate stage of project design. EIA should be envisaged as an integral part of the planning process and initiated at the project level from the start.

Various guidelines on EIA are available. The main steps are as follows:

Preliminary activities include the selection of a coordinator for the EIA and the collection of background information. This should be undertaken as soon as a project has been identified.

Impact identification involves a broad analysis of the impacts of project activities with a view to identifying those which are worthy of a detailed study.

Baseline study entails the collection of detailed information and data on the condition of the project area prior to the project's implementation.

Impact evaluation should be done whenever possible in quantitative terms and should include the working-out of potential mitigation measures. Impact evaluation cannot proceed until project alternative has been defined, but should be completed early enough to permit decisions to be made in a timely fashion.

Assessment involves combining environmental losses and gains with economic costs and benefits to procedure a complete account to each project alternative. Cost-benefit analysis should include environmental impacts where these can be evaluated in monetary terms (see Economic Analysis section).

Documentation is prepared to describe to the work done in the EIA. A working document is prepared to provide clearly stated and argued

22

recommendations for immediate action. The working document should contain a list of project alternative with comments on the environmental and economic impacts of each.

Decision-making begins when the working document reaches the decision maker, who will either accept one of the project alternatives, request further study or reject the proposed action altogether.

Post audits are made to determine how close to reality the EIA predictions were.

Q. Does marketing enhance protection of heritage sites?Marketing HeritageManagement of heritage does not automatically mean that business principles can be readily applied for heritage is not an easily defined market and many believe heritage and profit are not compatible elements. Throsby (1999:40) forewarned that economists have to bear in mind that some values of cultural heritage cannot be reduced to economic terms but can be useful in decision making and policy formulation. This means that some of the outstanding universal values have an intangible element embedded in them and this quality cannot be quantitatively measured. Leask (2006) is of the view that balancing tourism with conservation is a mammoth task for there is often conflict among stakeholders. Stakeholders have varying ‘priorities’ and ‘agendas’ and this often result in conflict.

Ashworth (2007:29-30) Marketing experts recognise consumer diversity in their segmentation of markets into increasingly smaller and more specific niches and even particles… Meanwhile the production and usually management of public heritage is conducted by official agencies, most of which originated a century or more ago, operating under statutes derived from the circumstances of the time of their establishment. They are producer oriented and often object based.

Impact of tourism on management of heritage sitesCultural tourism is one of the fastest expanding segments. Responsible tourism provides potential for economic benefits to indigenous and local communities. Tourism activities must be culturally appropriate, respectful and guided by the value system of custodian communities. Where possible, tourism enterprises that are owned and operated by indigenous and local communities should be supported as long as they are proven to be environmentally and culturally sensitive. Tourism has a potential to enhance and safeguard both physical and intangible heritage. It can help alleviate poverty through employment creation, curb migration of youth and other marginally employed members of community. In some instances tourism strengthens a community’s self respect, value and identity or on the contrary erodes the same self image.

Visitor managementThe aim of visitor management is to manage visitors so as to maximize their appreciation and enjoyment of the site whilst minimizing the risk of damage to the site directly or indirectly. Visitor management incorporates a number of techniques, skills and tools such as barriers, signs, tour guides, etc. effective visitor management is becoming increasingly important as the tourism industry is now booming. Initially,

23

heritage managers adopted a go away policy (the lets pretend the sites are not here approach which is usually adopted for rock art sites).

Visitor Management -Managing AccessVisitor pressure varies with seasons. Unrestricted and excessive tourist activity can lead to the physical destruction of monuments and their surroundings thereby depriving researchers of their source material. Public access to and use of heritage has to be controlled, influenced or constrained through a range of strategic and operational techniques.

Solutions

Since the fragility of monuments is increased under the impact of visitor numbers, the interpretation centre and parking facilities can be put some distance from monument itself requiring visitors to proceed to site on foot.

It is essential to ascertain the requirements of public in its different guises and ensure that there is printed and audio visual material available to explain the significance of heritage to all visitors whether tourists, local residents, school children or professionals.

To employ a tour guide to interpret site and direct visitors to walk in demarcated areas or guidelines can be put in place to guide tourists towards demarcated areas

Restrict and regulate public access within designated reserves and areas under official protection .e.g. on natural environments- limit pollution by restricting flow of motor traffic and effect of other sources of harmful substances, charge a higher entrance fee during peak periods/holidays, restrict number of visitors per hour

Denial of access to certain endangered monuments and the provision of replicas of them in the immediate vicinity. This means that part of the atmosphere inspired by the original is inevitably lost but the cultural and educational experience is nevertheless assured and the original itself is preserved

Renewal of selected endangered monuments and reconstruction Harden visitor routes/ walkways to make site able to withstand the physical

impact of numbers

SummaryWe must preserve the resource if we are to benefit from it, we must study it if we are to understand what the benefits can be, and we must translate the knowledge we gain to the public that the process begins and it is with them that it all must be fulfilled

Risk ManagementCultural property is vulnerable to various risks because of its diverse material composition, its geographical spread, and its values. The risks range from rare and catastrophic events to continual and slow damaging processes. The ability to identify risks, estimate correctly their magnitude and associated uncertainties, to devise cost effective solutions to treat those risks and to communicate clearly with stakeholders throughout the process offers a powerful way to deal with risks. This is the basis of risk management. E.g. of risks are vandalism, earthquake, light fading

24

Sustainable Heritage ManagementSustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development is not a new idea. Many cultures over the course of human history have recognized the need for harmony between the environment, society and economy. Sustainable management is generally accepted to have three interrelated components which include ecology/environment, social/cultural and economic. Sustainability of heritage is about managing the balance between preservation and use so that the significance of a given heritage is passed on to future generations. Success of SHM depends on community involvement, grassroots mechanisms, public consultations, and information dissemination.

25

Reading List

1. Ashworth, G.J (2007) Heritage in Fragments: a Fragmented Instrument for Fragmented Policies pg 29-41, in Cultural Heritage in the 21st Century Opportunities and Challenges, International Cultural Centre, Krakow

2. Griswold, W (2004) Cultures and Societies in a Changing World, 2nd Edition, Pine Forge Press, California

3. Lowenthal, D (1996) The Heritage Crusade and Spoils of History, Penguin Books Ltd, New York

4. Cleere (1989)5. Ndoro, W and Pwiti G (ed) (2005) Legal Frameworks for the Protection of

Immovable Heritage in Africa, ICCROM Conservation Studies 5, Rome6. http//whc.unesco.org

26