Vis 2009 - Built Environments Constructed Societies

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Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs Lcòadg` @. Ygs



[ghcstn`c Vrcss A `cw bc`cratgn` ni Vuljgsmg`b

Wnu arc rcahg`b a iujj vcrsgn` ni tmgs lnne, inr ircc!

Xmgs lnne gs part ni tmc [ghcstn`c c-jglrary wmcrc dnst ni nur

puljgkatgn`s arc iujjy akkcssgljc inr ircc. Inr akkcss tn dnrc

ircc lnnes vgsgt? www.sghcstn`c.knd/jglrary

Hnw`jnah Iujj VHI

Ygsgt tmc [ghcstn`c c-jglrary tn lrnwsc nur c-lnnes. Inr a dg`gdaj

icc ynu ka` purkmasc a iujjy iu`ktgnàj VHI a`h ly hng`b sn, ynu

mcjp tn eccp nur jglrary ru``g`b.

www.sghcstn`c.knd/jglrary



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs

[ghcstn`c Vrcss





Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs

G`vcrtg`b spatgaj aàjysgs

Lcòadg` @. Ygs



Xmgs lnne gs lasch n` tmc nrgbgàj DVmgj tmcsgs supcrvgsch ly Vrni. Hr. Oa` Enjc`

a`h Ajcxa`hcr Bcurhs, VmH, wrgttc` at tmc Iakujty ni Arkmacnjnby, Jcghc` S`gvcrsgty, Jcghc`, Oaùary <667.

Knddgttcc g` kmarbc?

Vrni. Hr. Oa` Enjc`

Ajcxa`hcr Bcurhs, VmH

Vrni. Hr. Onm` Lg`tjgii

Vrni. Hr. Mugl Cr`stc

Vrni. Hr. Daartc` Oa`sc`

© <667 Lcòadg` @. Ygs

Vuljgsmch ly [ghcstn`c Vrcss, Jcghc`

www.sghcstn`c.knd

[ghcstn`c rcbgstratgn` ùdlcr? [[V;=92666<

G[L@? 72=-76-==76-6;=-7

Gjjustratgn`s, lnne hcsgb`? Dgkma Dcgocr



‚Inr tmc jayda` a`h skgc`tgst ajgec G wnujh jgec tn say G iccj vcry strn`bjy tmat wc dust

rcknb`gzc a`h u`hcrsta`h tmc kujturaj prnkcss. Rc hn`‗t `cch dnrc dgssgjcs a`h M-

lndls `carjy sn dukm as wc `cch dnrc spckgfik e`nwjchbc ni nurscjvcs as partgkg-

pa`ts g` kujturc.—

Chwarh X. Majj 1737? <13





Kn`tc`ts

Vrciakc ]

G`trnhuktgn`

Lgnbrapmgk-kajjs ;

Kn`tc`t-wgsc 9

[ulocktgvgst Nlocktgfikatgn` 11

Kmaptcr 1 Axcs ni Hcvcjnpg`b [nkgctgcs

Cpgstcdnjnby 12

Axgs ni Xgdc - Alsnjutc Xgdc 1=

Axgs ni Xgdc - [nkgaj Xgdc <6 Axgs ni Xgdc - [ulocktgvc Xgdc <;

Axgs ni Muda` Aktgn` - Hgskgpjg`ch Muda`gsd <3

Axgs ni Muda` Aktgn` - Dax Rclcr <9

Axgs ni Muda` Aktgn` - Juhwgb vn` Dgscs <=

Axgs ni Muda` Aktgn` - Ajirch [kmútz ;6

Axgs ni Muda` Aktgn` - Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau ;3

Axgs ni Muda` [pakc - Cxgstc`tgajgsd a`h Cdlnhgdc`t ;7

Axgs ni Muda` [pakc - Xcrrgtnrgajgty a`h Vrnxcdgks 81

Axgs ni Muda` [pakc - Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`t 83 Axgs ni Muda` [pakc - [pakc [y`tax 8=

Kmaptcr < Ajn`b Hgskgpjgàry Jg`cs

Inu`hatgn`s ni Muda` Bcnbrapmy 32

@cw Bcnbrapmy, @cw Arkmacnjnby 3=

Vrcsc`t a`h Iuturc Hgsknurkc 91

[nkgaj Cvnjutgn`gsd 9;

Kujturc Mgstnry, Kujturc Arcas 92

Kmaptcr ; Vrnkcsscs ni Lckndg`b

Xgdc-bcnbrapmy a`h [trukturatgn` 2;

G`trnhukg`b Ajja` Vrch, Krgtgkgsg`b A`tmn`y Bghhc`s 28

Vjakc a`h tmc [nkgaj 27

Vjakc lcyn`h [trukturatgn` =1

Xnwarhs Vjakc as Mgstnrgkajjy Kn`tg`bc`t Vrnkcss =8

Rmat alnut tmc Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`t> 7<



Kmaptcr 8 Xmcnrgsg`b tnwarhs Hatascts

Irnd \cbgnàjgsatgn` a`h Kujturc Arcas 77

Xnwarhs \cbgnàjgsatgn` a`h Kujturc Arcas 16<

Kn`struktg`b Hctagjch [ystcdgsatgn` 111

Xnwarhs Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts 119

Kmaptcr 3 Xmcnrctgkaj G`tcbratgn` inr Hatascts

[ndc Iu`hadc`tajs 1<7

[nkgaj Vnsgtgn`g`b ni [patgajgtgcs 1;;

[patgaj Hatascts, G`tcrprctgvc Gssucs 1;2

[patgaj Icaturcs 18;

Lnu`hargcs a`h tmc Dakrn [kajc 18=

Hgsputatgn` ni Vntc`tgajgtgcs

Arc Xmg`bs [tgrrg`b g` Arkmacnjnby> 133

Lasg`b a Xmcnry 132

Lugjhg`b a Xmcnry 196

A Dctmnhnjnbgkaj Xur` 19<

Kn`kjuhg`b \cdares 19;

Ake`nwjchbcdc`ts 199

\cicrc`kcs 19=





Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs]

Vrciakc

Xmgs lnne was nrgbgàjjy wrgttc` as a Dastcr‗s tmcsgs rcsujtg`b irnd a` akahcdgk prn-

braddc g` arkmacnjnby at tmc Iakujty ni Arkmacnjnby, Jcghc` S`gvcrsgty. Lcinrc tmc

fiàj puljgkatgn` ni tmc tmcsgs tcxt sndc dg`nr rcvgsgn`s rcbarhg`b kn`tc`t a`h jg`bugs-

tgks wcrc karrgch nut. Hurg`b tmc wrgtg`b prnkcss gt snn` lckadc kjcar tmat tmrnubm

tmc inkus ni tmgs stuhy gt knujh kn`trglutc tn n`bng`b hclatcs g` arkmacnjnbgkaj tmcnry.

[ndc pcnpjc strn`bjy ahvgsch abag`st bcttg`b g`vnjvch wgtm arkmacnjnbgkaj tmcnry,

nitc` strcssg`b tmc nlvgnus pgtiajjs, mgbmjgbmtg`b tmc rgse ni bcttg`b hctakmch irnd wmat

praktgkaj arkmacnjnby gs ajj alnut. Xaeg`b tmgs ahvgkc tn mcart, gt gs stgjj tmcnry wmgkm gs

tmc prgdary tnpgk ni tmgs lnne. Mnwcvcr, karc gs taec` tn daec a snjgh kn``cktgn` tn cs-

sc`tgaj kmaraktcrgstgks ni arkmacnjnbgkaj hatascts. At tmc sadc tgdc gt was g`surdnu`t-

aljc tmat tmgs stuhy wnujh `nt eccp wgtmg` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc ajn`c.[g`kc G mavc a jgicjn`b iaskgàtgn` wgtm lgb pmgjnsnpmgkaj qucstgn`s gt gs marhjy sur-

prgsg`b dy rcscarkm wnujh iudljc wgtm tmc inu`hatgn`s ni tmc hgskgpjg`c. G`vcstch wgtm

tmc rcjatgvc ircchnd ni a ynu`b skgc`tgst, G ajjnwch dyscji tmc auhakgty tn bct g`vnjvch

wgtm sgb`gfika`t aspckts ni vargnus hgskgpjg`cs g` tmc snkgaj skgc`kcs. Xmc dnst gdpnrta`t

kn`trglutgn` was dahc ly snkgaj bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnry. Bcnbrapmy a`h arkmacnjnby

wcrc lcirgc`hch inr a sgb`gfika`t pcrgnh g` tmcgr hgskgpjgàry inrdatgn`s, lut kmnsc

hgvcrtg`b patms ajn`b tmc way. As hcdn`stratch g` tmgs rcscarkm, tmgs prnvcs tn lc

a dnst uìnrtuàtc cvc`t. Apprnakmg`b arkmacnjnbgkaj prnljcds irnd a pcrspcktgvc

hcrgvch irnd snkgaj skgc`kcs npc`ch up nppnrtu`gtgcs inr rcasn`g`b irnd a hgssc`tgc`tpng`t ni hcparturc u`rcstrgktch ly typgkaj praktgkc rcspcktch g` kurrc`t arkmacnjnbgkaj

hgsknursc. Xmcrcinrc tmc ghcas kn`tag`ch g` tmgs lnne arc lnr` irnd jnbgkaj rcasn`g`b

ratmcr tma` kn`krctc e`nwjchbc. Xmat gs ajsn wmy gts dag` arbudc`ts arc lasch n`

kjnscjy-rcasn`ch tmcnrgcs g`stcah ni cdpgrgkaj cvghc`kc. Xmgs typc ni apprnakm ases

inr tmc rcahcr tn ahnpt a sta`kc tmat hgvcrts irnd usuaj hgsknursc. Dy kn`vgktgn` tmat

tmcrc gs `nt n`c way tn snu`hjy kn`hukt skgc`kc gs hcrgvch irnd dy pcrsnàj rcjatgv-

gst a`h g`hgvghuajgst wnrjhvgcw, dukm ni wmgkm gs cxpjag`ch g` tmc G`trnhuktgn` tn

tmc lnne. [mchhg`b tmc kn`strag`ts ni tcstg`b mypntmcscs, tmgs stuhy gs tmc rcsujt ni a

scarkm g`tn wmat pjausgljc akahcdgk snjutgn`s ka` lc niicrch tn kcrtag` gàhcquakgcs

G `ntch g` prcvajc`t hgsknursc. \atmcr tma` wnreg`b irnd a kndparatgvc a`bjc, tmgs

stuhy injjnws a kurgnsgty alnut tmc g`tcrprctgvc vajuc ni snkgaj skgc`tgfik tmcnry g` gts

nw` rgbmt. G` sukm ciinrt tmcnry day lckndc lntm kn`stgtutgvc as wcjj as a mcurgstgk

hcvgkc. @cxt tn tmc prcsc`tch tmcnry tmc g`tcrhgskgpjgàry a`bjc ni tmc kurrc`t lnne

day stgjj rc`cw dutuaj hgskgpjgàry g`tcrcsts, wmgkm bgvcs a snu`h lasgs inr hgskgpjgàry

ahva`kcs g` vargnus hgrcktgn`s.

Hcspgtc gts fird lasgs g` hgskgpjgàry a`h parahgbdatgk hclatcs, tmc spckgfik spatgaj

g`tcrcst ni tmc rcscarkm gs `n kng`kghc`kc cgtmcr. Irnd dy first g`trnhuktgn` tn ficjh



Vrciakc ]G

arkmacnjnby n`warhs G hcvcjnpch a strn`b g`tcrcst g` tmc spatgaj aspckt ni hatascts.

Daps, sgtc jay-nut a`h hgspcrsgn` pattcr`s ajj appcajch tn dc. As G lckadc akquag`tch

wgtm bcnpmysgkaj prnspcktgn` a`h acrgaj arkmacnjnby hurg`b dy first ficjh scasn`s, G

was gddchgatcjy hraw` tn gt. Vcrmaps, g` tmc lcbg``g`b gt was a daskujg`c aiicktgn`

kausch ly prnspcktgn`‗s tckm`njnbgkaj darvcjs ratmcr tma` prnicssgnàjgsd. @cvcrtmc-

jcss, tmc brcat pntc`tgaj tmc iuturc mnjhs inr tmcsc tckm`gqucs, lcg`b a pnwcriuj snurkc

ni gìnrdatgn` ong`ch wgtm tmc ahva`tabc ni lcg`b `n`-g`vasgvc, knujh `nt cskapc dy

attc`tgn`. Vrnspcktgn` prnhukcs g`krcasg`bjy hctagjch a`h bnnh quajgty hata ni tmc

spatgaj icaturcs ni datcrgaj rcdag`s. [pakc, mnwcvcr, gs `nt dcrcjy a datcrgaj icaturc.

Gts prg`kgpaj pnsgtgn` g` tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj hgskgpjg`c gs partgkujarjy dahc cxpjgkgt ly tmc

kujturc-spckgfik g`tcrcsts G kmcrgsm.

Xmc nrgbgàj g`kc`tgvc tn start dy stuhgcs g` arkmacnjnby was a strn`b aiicktgn` inr

tmc mgstnry ni Dcsnadcrgka` kujturcs. Dy LA rcscarkm trcats tmc kasc ni tmc VnstkjassgkE‗gkmc‗ Daya kgty ni Q‗udareaao g` Buatcdaja, inkusg`b n` tmc utgjgtarga` rcjatgn`smgp

lctwcc` arkmacnjnby a`h (ctm`n)arkmacnjnby. Xmc attc`tgn` bgvc` tn tmc rcjatgn` lc-

twcc` sgtc jay-nut a`h snkgaj nrba`gsatgn` g` Q‗udareaao trgbbcrch dy g`tcrcst g` par-

tgkujar. Gt hcdn`stratcs tmc hgstg`kt gùc`kc ni urla`gsd a`h arkmgtckturc as prnhukts

ni mgstnrgkaj snkgaj prnkcsscs. Mnwcvcr, gt ajsn dahc dc wn`hcr alnut tmc rasm usc ni

tcrds jgec kujturc a`h snkgcty, cspckgajjy kn`sghcrg`b tmc way tmcy mavc hctcrdg`ch tmc

mgstnry ni arkmacnjnby a`h stgjj gùc`kc tmc sulhgvgsgn` ni tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj wnrjh.

Xmc lnrhcrs wgtmg` Dcsnadcrgka hraw` n` dnst daps, day sccd tn lc kjcar-kut, yct

tmcy arc iar irnd u`kn`tcstch. Mc`kc, G was attraktch tn inkus n` tmc castcr` lnrhcrni tmc Daya kujturc arca a`h lcyn`h. Xmc castcr` Daya pcrgpmcry a`h G`tcrdchgatc/

Kmglkma`/Kgrkud-Kargllca` arca arc pnnrjy rcscarkmch. Xmcrcinrc tmcy wnujh daec

a brcat pjakc tn start tn rchcfi`c tmc hcsgbàtgn` ni kujturaj nr snkgctaj jalcjs irnd a

trujy snkgaj skgc`tgfik png`t ni hcparturc. Xmc appjgkatgn` ni sukm jalcjs tn spatgaj c`tgtgcs

g`tcricrcs wgtm nur u`hcrsta`hg`b ni rcbgn`s a`h lnu`hargcs. Hcspgtc tmcgr hgiicrc`kcs

tmc vargnus rcscarkm tmcdcs kn`tag`ch g` tmcsc pcrsnàj g`tcrcsts tur` nut tn mavc

dnrc g` knddn` tma` cxpcktch.

Cvc`tuajjy gt was hckghch tmat a kujturc-spckgfik a`bjc was tnn cxtc`sgvc tn ah-

cquatcjy ahhrcss at tmgs stabc. [g`kc tmc prgdary kn`trglutgn` ni tmc tmcsgs gs tmcnrctg-

kaj, a sckn`hary kasc stuhy prnlaljy wnujh `nt mavc lcc` lc`cfikgaj. Lckausc ni tmgs

hckgsgn` tmc cxpjgkgtjy bc`craj a`h nvcrtjy tmcnrctgkaj àturc gs prcscrvch, wmgkm `nw

daecs tmc rcscarkm g` tmgs lnne wghcjy appjgkaljc. G c`knurabc tmc rcahcr tn usc gts

ghcas g`hcpc`hc`t irnd tmc hgskgpjg`c gt nrgbgàtch irnd.

Lcòadg` @. Ygs

Jcghc`, Nktnlcr <667





G`trnhuktgn`





G`trnhuktgn` ;

Lgnbrapmgk-kajjs

Nlocktgvc skgc`kc hncs ̀ nt cxgst. G rcajgsch tmgs carjy n` g` dy stuhgcs at Jcghc` S`gvcr-

sgty. Xmnubm da`y skmnjars wgjj smarc tmgs g`sgbmt, icw mavc usch gt as a kn`struktgvc

pnwcr g` tmcgr akahcdgk praktgkc. Gi nlocktgvc skgc`kc hncs `nt cxgst, kn`scquc`tgajjy

gt lckndcs cssc`tgaj `nt n`jy tn lc awarc ni ynur nw` sulocktgvgty, lut daec ntmcrs

awarc ni tmat sulocktgvgty tnn. Inr lntm, `cutrajgty wgjj lc alrnbatch as a iradc ni rci-

crc`kc. N`c‗s pcrsnàj sulocktgvc lakebrnu`h, abag`st wmgkm rcscarkm gs kn`huktch,

cvc`tuajjy aiickts tmc ways gts nutkndcs arc kndprcmc`hch. Xmgs tmcsgs gs wgt`css tn

tmc iakt tmat skgc`kc ka` cxpjgkgtjy kn`kur wgtm pcrsnàj hcvcjnpdc`t. Gt kn`tag`s scv-

craj kn`kgsc rcprnhuktgn`s ni pntc`t tmcnrctgkaj asscrtgn`s prnpnsch ly ntmcrs. Xmcsc

rcprcsc`t a scjcktgvc lnhy ni jgtcraturc tmat vargaljy appcajs tn dy pcrsnàj wnrjhvgcw,

a`h tmus akts as a tmcnrctgkaj dchgatnr inr lasg`b arbudc`ts. Kjnsg`b g` tmc kndlgà-tgn` ni tmcdcs prcsc`tch g` tmgs wnre arc tmc g`sta`ta`cnus rcsujt ni tmc hgskgpjgàry

g`tcrcsts G pursuch nvcr tmc past icw ycars. Dy wnrjhvgcw, sulskrglch cpgstcdnjnbgkaj

`ntgn`s, a`h pcrsnàj mgstnry jarbcjy kndprgsc dy sulocktgvgty. Xmcy arc nitc` qugtc

hgrcktjy rcspn`sgljc inr tmc qucstgn`s tmat bc`cratch tmgs rcscarkm. G` nrhcr tn lcttcr

apprckgatc gts tmcnrctgkajjy arbudc`tch hgsputatgn`s, g` ahhgtgn` tn dy kn`vgktgn` tmat

skgc`kc gs `nt nlocktgvc, G iccj nljgbch tn g`trnhukc tmgs stuhy sjgbmtjy autnlgnbrapmg-

kajjy.

Xmrnubm akkudujatgvc g`tcrcsts g` tmc past kujturcs ni @atgvc Adcrgka, arkmacn-

jnbgkaj prnspcktgn` tckm`gqucs a`h tmcnrgcs ni snkgaj arkmacnjnby, tmgs tmcsgs nrgbgàjjydca`t tn sct nut inkusg`b n` tmc jattcr, wmgjst startg`b wgtm tmc first. [jnwjy, mnwcvcr,

kujturaj partgkujargsd hgsappcarch g`tn tmc lakebrnu`h as G kadc tn rcajgsc tmat tmc

kn`trglutgn` G knujh daec kn`kc`tratch arnu`h tmcnry, huc tn praktgkaj a`h g`tcj-

jcktuaj rcasn`s. @cvcrtmcjcss, tmcsc tmrcc dag` pn`hcrg`bs cvc`tuajjy prndptch tmc

rcscarkm nlocktgvcs. Xmcsc qugkejy kadc tn kn`kc`tratc arnu`h gssucs wgtm tmc kn`-

tgùajjy g`tcrtwg`ch tmcdcs ni tgdc, spakc a`h snkgajgty. Xmc dag` prnljcd inkuscs

n` tmc sccdg`bjy gìcrc`tgaj gàlgjgty tn rcbarh muda` spakc as snkgajjy dca`g`biuj

wgtmnut rcicrrg`b tn styjgstgk fi`crgcs. Gt appcarch prnljcdatgk tn dc tmat arkmacnjnby

starts wgtm prcsudaljy nlocktgvc dcasuraljc gìnrdatgn` n` spatgaj hata, g` nrhcr tn

g`tcrprct tmc snkgaj. Xmcrcinrc tmc first agd wnujh lc tn fi`h a tmcnrgsatgn` cxpjgkat-

g`b tmc way spakc lckndcs datcrgajgsch ly snkgajgty. Assnkgatch qucstgn`s rcbarh tmc

statgk kmaraktcr askrglch tn spakc a`h pjakc, injjnwg`b tmc jake ni tcdpnrajgty g` spa-

tgaj aàjysgs. Wct dca`g`biuj a`h vargaljc kn`kcpts ni tgdc smnujh kn``ckt gìcrc`tgaj

pcrspcktgvcs. Arkmacnjnby, lntm as a datcrgaj a`h snkgaj skgc`kc, apparc`tjy hncs `nt

usc gts strc`btm tn cxpjag` snkgn-spatgaj pmc`ndcà ly niicrg`b a tgdc-spakc spckgfik

hcvcjnpdc`taj vgcw. (Xmrnubmnut tmgs stuhy, tgdc-spakc gs usch ahocktgvajjy tn cxprcss

tmat tmat `ntgn` pcrtag`s tn tgdc a`h spakc sgdujta`cnusjy, g`stcah ni ”g`tcrvaj‗ as gts



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs8

dca`g`b g` pmysgks.) At tmc g`tcriakc ni spakc a`h snkgcty, tcdpnraj snjutgn`s `cch tn

lc cxpjnrch.

At tmc start tmcrc was dy iaskgàtgn` wgtm tmc snutm-castcr` Daya `cgbmlnurs g`

tmc sdajj ni Kc`traj Adcrgka, wmgkm brcw as G kn-nrba`gsch tmc Curnpca` Daya Kn`-

icrc`kc mcjh g` Jcghc` g` <663 a`h kn`huktch tmc rcscarkm inr dy Lakmcjnr‗s hcbrcc.

Xmgs part ni tmc wnrjh g` arkmacnjnby gs ajtcràtcjy e`nw` as tmc G`tcrdchgatc arca (cs-

pckgajjy Rgjjcy 1721), tmc Gstmdn-Knjndlga` arca wgtm tmc g`kjusgn` ni ̀ nrtmcr` [nutm

Adcrgka (In`scka a`h Knnec 177;), tmc Kgrkud-Karrglca` arca cxkjuhg`b tmc Vakgfik

Knast (Onm` Mnnpcs5 pcrsnàj knddu`gkatgn`) nr Kmglkma` Arca (Kn`stc`ja Sdaña

1771, Onm` Mnnpcs pcrsnàj knddu`gkatgn`). Xmc prnljcd wgtm gts hcsgbàtgn` jgcs g`

tmc kujturc mgstnry apprnakmcs bc`crajjy usch tnwarhs tmc hcfi`gtgn` ni kujturc arcas.

As tmc arca gs usuajjy kn`sghcrch tcrra g`knb`gta, a`h tmc gssuc gs `nurgsmch ly tmc vcry

jgdgtch u`hcrsta`hg`b ni gts knddnàjgtgcs g` vgrtuajjy ajj ficjhs ni rcscarkm. Lcsghcstmc hctcrdgàtgn`s ni daonr kujturc arcas lnrhcrg`b Kc`traj Adcrgka` kujturcs, jgec

Daya nr Dnkmc, wcrc nitc` dahc g` tmc sadc rchuktgn`gst ways. Xmc jg`bugstgkajjy a`h

a`tmrnpnjnbgkajjy hcfi`ch Jc`ka kujturc jnkatch g` Mn`huras a`h Cj [ajvahnr g` par-

tgkujar kaubmt dy g`tcrcst. [kmnjars assudc tmc Jc`ka mah tmc strn`bcst tgcs wgtm tmc

dnùdc`tajgty ni gts Dcsnadcrgka` `cgbmlnurs ni ajj surrnu`hg`b brnups, prnvghg`b

pnrtajs a`h patmways inr kn`takt a`h trahc wgtm snkgctgcs rcsghg`b g` tmc snutm. [ulsc-

quc`tjy, Ryjjgs A`hrcws‗ (1729) cxkavatgn`s ni Qucjcpa, prcsudaljy tmc jarbcst urla`

scttjcdc`t nutsghc ni tmc Dcsnadcrgka` arca, a`h tmc cxgstc`kc ni sulsta`tgaj dnu`hs

g` ̀ nrtmcr` @gkarabua (Onrbc _adlraà pcrsnàj knddu`gkatgn`), lrnahc`ch dy mn-rgzn`s tn tmc pnssglgjgty ni appjyg`b kn`sta`tjy gdprnvg`b prnspcktgn` tckm`gqucs g`

tmc arca. G`gtgajjy tmcsc dctmnhs knujh lc usch inr hctcktg`b a`h dappg`b arkmgtcktur-

ajjy kn`struktch sgtcs irnd agr a`h nutcr spakc, vcrgiyg`b a`h cxpa`hg`b tmc kurrc`tjy

pnnr arkmgvcs ni arkmacnjnbgkaj sgbmtg`bs. Aitcrwarhs, dnrc hctagjch tckm`gqucs, sukm

as JgHA\ a`h bcnpmysgks, knujh lc cdpjnych tn prnhukc spatgaj hatascts. Xmcsc rgvaj

tmc akkuraky ni cxkavatgn` daps wmgjst npcratg`b n` cxtc`sgvc skajcs. Dnst gdpnr-

ta`tjy, gt knujh kma`bc tmc bc`craj tc`hc`ky ni arkmacnjnbgkaj rcscarkm n` spakc g` tmc

Adcrgkas tmat inkusch ajdnst cxkjusgvcjy n` hatascts ni cjgtc arkmgtckturc, nlstruktg`b

a brasp ni tmc iujj kndpjcxgty ni a`y g`hgbc`nus snkgcty. Xmc knddnàjgty lctwcc`

tmcsc twn g`tcrcsts gs inu`h g` tmcgr spatgajgty, tmnubm npcratg`b n` hgiicrc`t jcvcjs ni

hctagj. Xmc prgdary snurkc ni gìnrdatgn` prnhukch ly prnspcktgn` tckm`gqucs gs ni

a spatgaj àturc, a`h sn a tmcdc startch tn hcvcjnp. Hcspgtc dy cabcr`css tn bct dy

ma`hs hgrty, cvc` pja`s jgdgtch tn tmc sgtc ni Qucjcpa prnvch pcrmaps nvcradlgtgnus

inr tmgs tmcsgs. G` iurtmcr cxpjnrg`b tmc Jc`ka kujturc G kadc akrnss A`hrca Bcrstjc‗s

(17==) VmH-rcscarkm n` Knpá`. Bcrstjc‗s inkus n` tmc kmaraktcrgsatgn` ni gts lugjt c`-

vgrn`dc`t tn askrglc kndpnu`hs tn kcrtag` snkgn-kujturaj brnups inrcgb` tn tmc Daya

ahdg`gstratgn` (Bcrstjc 17==) npc`ch dy cycs tn tmc pnssglgjgty ni kndlg`g`b dy



G`trnhuktgn` 3

tmrcc dag` g`tcrcsts irnd a tmcnrctgkaj a`bjc.

Xmgs jch tn a ratmcr suhhc` g`tcrcst g` tmcnrctgkaj ahva`kcdc`ts dahc g` snkgaj

bcnbrapmy. Aitcr ajj, tmgs hgskgpjg`c cxpjgkgtjy icaturch ajj tmg`bs spatgaj, gìnrdch ly

snkgaj tmcnrgcs. Xmgs kn`snjghatch cspckgajjy wmc` bcnbrapmy was tgppch-nii abag` as

a prndgsg`b snurkc ni g`spgratgn` g` dcctg`bs wgtm \nscdary Onykc a`h Onm` Lg`tjgii.

Hcspgtc Bcrstjc‗s (17==) g`tcrcstg`b jg`c ni rcasn`g`b smc cvc`tuajjy lasch ajdnst ajj

snkgaj askrgptgn`s n` tmc lasgs ni kcradgk typnjnbgcs. [gdgjarjy, mcr vgcw ni arkmgtckturaj

tragts at Knpá` was ratmcr statgk ajsn. G`stcah ni usg`b snkgaj tmcnrgcs tn stuhy spatgaj

pattcr`g`b, arkmacnjnby appcarch tn mavc gts dg`h sct n` statgstgkaj pattcr` aàjysgs,

jcavg`b snkgaj gìcrc`kc dnstjy tn spckgfik styjgstgk tragts. [nkgctgcs arc tmus rchukch tn

datmcdatgkaj inrdujas a`h mgcrarkmgkaj kjassgfikatgn`s.

Xmgs iccjs as gi tmc snkgn-kujturaj g`tcrcsts ni arkmacnjnby arc dag`jy jgdgtch tn tmc

dnst vnju`tary, arlgtrary a`h kma`bcaljc styjgstgk aspckts ni datcrgaj rcdag`s. G` ahhg-tgn` tn tmc g`huktgvc a`h rchuktgn`gst trahgtgn` ni hcsgbàtg`b kujturc arcas, rcstrgktg`b

g`tcrprctgvc rcscarkm ly `nt taeg`b g`tn akknu`t tmc past snkgctgcs g`malgtg`b tmcd,

tmcrc appcars tn lc `n snjgh brnu`h inr a snkgaj tmcnrctgkaj va`tabc png`t. Hcspgtc

rcpctgtgvc pnstprnkcssuaj attcdpts tn cxpjnrc ntmcr apprnakmcs tn snkgaj, kujturaj a`h

pcrkcptgvc g`qugrgcs wgtm vargnus kn`tcxtuajgsatgn`s ajjnwg`b inr g`hgvghuajgsd, arkmac-

njnby sccds gàhcquatcjy cqugppch tn ahhrcss lgb qucstgn`s n` tmc iu`hadc`taj as-

pckts ni hcvcjnpg`b snkgctgcs. Arkmacnjnby daecs jgttjc usc ni gts hgskgpjgàry algjgtgcs.

Xmc dnst gdpnrta`t kn`trglutgn` tn sukm bra`h tmcdcs was tmc pnstprnkcssuajgst c`-

hnwdc`t ni hgsknursc wgtm cvcryhay jgic.[g`kc arkmacnjnby‗s datcrgaj rcknrhs arc lasgkajjy kndprgsch ni usuajjy dcasuraljc

spatgaj a`h tcdpnraj prnpcrtgcs (ajtmnubm gt gs rcknb`gsch tmat ajj muda` prnhuktgn` tn

vargnus cxtc`ts gs a snkgaj aiiagr), G tmgè gt wgjj lc mcjpiuj tn attcdpt tn inrdujatc a trujy

snkgaj tmcnry gìnrdg`b a`h pcrmaps kma`bg`b gts pcrsgstg`b kurrc`t cdpgrgkgst dctm-

nhnjnbgcs. Xmgs smnujh avngh tmc nlvgnus pgtiajjs darech ly pnstprcssuajgsd. Kma`bc,

as tmc dnst dca`g`biuj kndpn`c`t ni kn`tgùgty, `cchs tn lc dahc g`tcjjgbgljc. Xmc

dnst rcahgjy avagjaljc way tn hn tmgs wnujh lc tn inkus n` pcrinrdch prnkcsscs, g.c.

snkgaj prnkcsscs. Hcvcjnpdc`t a`h prnkcss arc ajsn part a`h parkcj ni cvnjutgnàry

apprnakmcs. Xmc g`krcasch g`tcrcst g` lgnjnby, jatcraj tn tmc apprnakmcs rcsujtg`b irnd

g`tcrprctgvc pnstprnkcssuajgsd, tmrgvcs inr nlvgnus rcasn`s g` (ficjhs ni prcmgstnrgk) ar-

kmacnjnby. Mnwcvcr, Harwg`ga` dnhcjs ni cvnjutgn` nitc` prnvc gàhcquatc inr tmc

cxpjaàtgn` ni tmc vargalgjgty g` snkgaj cxprcssgn`s as wcjj. Cvnjutgnàry tmnubmt stnnh

at tmc krahjc ni tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj hgskgpjg`c, lut carjy snkgaj ahaptatgn`s mavc jch

tn prcouhgkgaj pnjgtgkaj praktgkcs a`h kn`scquc`tgajjy icjj irnd brakc g` arkmacnjnby,

ajtmnubm tmcgr bc`crajgtgcs stgjj pcrvahc arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc. Xmc stuhy ni prnk-

css was, ni knursc, n`c ni tmc dag` g`tcrcsts ni prnkcssuaj praktgkcs injjnwg`b tmc

@cw Arkmacnjnby dnvcdc`t ni tmc 1726s. \caktg`b abag`st prcvgnus trahgtgn`s a`h




g`spgrch ly tmc àturaj skgc`kcs, at tmc tgdc gt was `nt rcajgsch tmat tmcgr praktgkc jct

carjgcr rchuktgn`gst a`h kjassgfikatnry dctmnhs prcvagj. @cxt tn tmc usc ni lgnjnby, `nw

arkmacnjnbgkaj rcscarkm inkusg`b n` prnkcss gs ratmcr skattcrch a`h àrrnwjy hcfi`ch.

Gi a rctur` tn snkgaj prnkcsscs gs hcsgrch, G dust taec karc `nt tn lc dgstaec`jy kat-

cbnrgsch as a `cwlnr` prnkcssuajgst. Xmcrcinrc, wmc` appjgkaljc, G kmnnsc tn usc tmc

wnrh prnkcssgvc ratmcr tma` prnkcssuaj mcrc. [ndc g`gtgaj g`vcstgbatgn`s ni tmcnrctgkaj

jgtcraturc n` tmc muda`gsatgn` ni spakc lrnubmt dc tn a`tmrnpnjnbgkaj g`tcrcsts g`

prnxcdgks a`h assnkgatch cdlnhgch spakc. Xmcrc, kcrtag` snkgaj bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnrgcs

wcrc dc`tgn`ch. Spn` rcahg`b, G strn`bjy icjt tmat sukm tmcnrgcs hn `nt n`jy g`knrpn-

ratc cvcryhay jgic, tmcy put g`hgvghuajs tn npcratc snkgaj prnkcsscs g` nrhcr tn ahhrcss

kujturaj a`h mgstnrgkaj qucstgn`s n` tmc rcbgn`s a`h bcnbrapmgcs tmcsc g`hgvghuajs lntm

prnhukch a`h g`malgtch. Dnrcnvcr, G lcjgcvc tmc way g`hgvghuajs arc trcatch, taecs g`

tmc iujj kndpjcxgty ni tmc prnkcsscs tmat bc`cratc a`h dca`g`biujjy gìnrd spatgaj ha-tascts. [ukm hatascts wgjj lc dukm jgec tmc n`cs wc arc aljc tn prnhukc g` arkmacnjnby,

cspckgajjy taeg`b g`tn akknu`t tmc prnbrcssg`b nppnrtu`gtgcs niicrch ly prnspcktgnàj

tckm`gqucs. \atmcr tma` startg`b irnd rchuktgn`gst kjassgfikatgn`s nr mgcrarkmgcs, bc-

nbrapmy appcars tn kn`kc`tratc n` tmc iu`hadc`taj hcajg`bs ni muda`s wgtm spakc.

Rmat arkmacnjnby u`knvcrs, arc tmc rcsujts ni gts datcrgajgsch tra`sinrdatgn`. [n dy

dg`h was sct n` tryg`b tn cstaljgsm tmc pntc`tgaj ni sukm snkgaj bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnrgcs

tn gìnrd nur spatgaj rcknrhs, a`h g`tcrprctgvcjy càljc a`h rcg`statc tmc kc`traj lgb

gssuc ni hcvcjnpg`b snkgctgcs. Arkmacnjnby smnujh lckndc lcttcr prcparch tn daec

asscrtgn`s n` snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgtgcs.

Kn`tc`t-wgsc

Xmc wcjj gìnrdch rcahcr wgjj prnlaljy e`nw tmat tmc hgskgpjg`cs ni arkmacnjnby a`h

bcnbrapmy mavc mah a jnt g` knddn` g` tmc past. G` iakt, gt gs rcdarealjc mnw sgdg-

jar tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni bcnbrapmy a`h arkmacnjnby was up tn tmc prcsc`t. Aitcr tmc

cdcrbc`kc ni pnstprnkcssuajgsd prgdargjy sndc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj bcnbrapmy was

gdpnrtch. G` tmc S[A tmgs nkkurrch nitc` tmrnubm a`tmrnpnjnby, wmcrc tmc dca`g`b

ni pjakc lckadc a dag` kn`kcr`. [pckgfikajjy g` C`bja`h tmc @cw Kujturaj Bcnbrapmy

ni Hc``gs Knsbrnvc c.a. ajsn was nkkasgnàjjy ahnptch, gìnrdg`b tmc kn`kcpt ni pjakc

g` arkmacnjnby. Jcss spckgfich, gt knujh lc subbcstch tmat arkmacnjnby ajdnst jnst sgbmt

ni bcnbrapmy g` iavnur ni dnrc partgkujargst apprnakmcs.

Lcinrc cxpjnrg`b tmc pnssgljc pntc`tgaj ni ntmcr pcrspcktgvcs hcvcjnpch ly bcnb-

rapmy, tmc hgiicrc`kc tmat brcw lctwcc` tmc hgskgpjg`cs `cchs tn lc u`hcrstnnh. G`

spgtc ni tmcgr kndparaljc mgstnrgcs, bcnbrapmy `cvcr strukturajjy `ntgkch arkmacnjnby.

Wct, dnrc gdpnrta`tjy, tmc qucstgn` ni wmy arkmacnjnby kadc tn lc scjcktgvc g` gts

g`tcrcst tnwarhs gts sgb`gfika`t ntmcr argscs. G` tmc sckn`h kmaptcr ni tmgs tmcsgs, a smnrt



G`trnhuktgn` 2

mgstnrgkaj nvcrvgcw gs bgvc`, wmcrc tmc ahva`kcdc`t ni muda` bcnbrapmy (ni wmgkm

snkgaj bcnbrapmy gs a part) gs hgskussch a`h ong`ch wgtm arkmacnjnby at tmc dndc`t

tmc daonr dnvcdc`ts ni @cw Bcnbrapmy a`h @cw Arkmacnjnby rcspcktgvcjy kjagdch

tmcgr vngkc. G` kn`trast, tmc ahva`kcdc`t ni arkmacnjnby as a hgskgpjg`c g` tmc jgbmt

ni snkgaj cvnjutgn` a`h kujturc mgstnry gs tmc` cjalnratch upn` scparatcjy. Lntm hgs-

kgpjgàry jg`cs arc injjnwch u`tgj tmc tmcnrctgkaj png`t n` wmgkm tmc hgskgpjg`cs kjcarjy

hgvcrbc. G` tmgs way, gt wgjj lc hcdn`stratch wmy arkmacnjnby‗s gìcrc`tgaj hcfikgc`ky

knujh pntc`tgajjy lc kndpjcdc`tch ly a` ahaptatgn` ni tmc tmcnrctgkaj kmngkc dahc

ly muda` bcnbrapmy.

Xmc hgskgpjgàry hcvcjnpdc`ts g` kmaptcr twn kn`tcxtuajgsc tmc iu`hadc`taj tmcn-

rctgkaj rcasn`g`b prcvgnusjy prcsc`tch g` kmaptcr n`c. Hcpartg`b irnd tmc pnsgtgn` ni

arkmacnjnby, `n`c ni tmc tmcnrctgkaj nlocktgvcs a`h qucstgn`s arc wcjj gìnrdch wgtm-

nut tmc hgstg`kt lugjhg`b ljnkes rcsujtg`b irnd arkmacnjnby‗s g`tcrcst g` tmc hcvcjnp-dc`t ni snkgctgcs. Xmc lugjhg`b ljnkes kn`sgst ni spckgfik ̀ ntgn`s rcsujtg`b irnd spckgfik,

yct vargnus hgskgpjgàry ghcas inrdch alnut tmc bc`craj tmcdcs ni tgdc, muda` aktgn`

a`h muda` spakc. Xmc rcprcsc`tch g`tcrcsts mavc a` g`tcrhgskgpjgàry kmaraktcr, tmus

tmc kmaptcr cdlchs tmc iu`hadc`taj `ntgn`s cpgstcdnjnbgkajjy. As sukm, tmcrc gs `n

cskapg`b kcrtag` pmgjnsnpmgkaj inu`hatgn`s tmat arc lrgcy tnukmch upn` at tgdcs.

Xmc nrhcr tmc bc`craj tmcdcs arc hgskussch g` iu`ktgn`s akkudujatgvcjy, jcahg`b tn

kn``ckt tmc tmcnry hgrcktjy tn tmc datcrgaj wnrjh. Xmc g`tcrkn``cktch `ntgn`s g` tmc

tmcdcs kndprgsc tmcd as tmrcc axcs ajn`b wmgkm snkgctgcs hcvcjnp. Lcg`b g`mcrc`t tn

hcvcjnpg`b snkgctgcs, tmcy jay tmc lasgs inr tmc kndpjcx tmcnrgcs tmat injjnw, wmgjst kn-mcrg`b tmc datcrgaj knu`tcrpart tmrnubm wmgkm arkmacnjnbgkaj cdpgrgkaj aàjysgs day

npcratc. Xmc g`tcjjgbglgjgty ni tmcsc `ntgn`s hncs ̀ nt n`jy scrvc arkmacnjnby. Huc tn tmc

lrnah appcaj ni sukm tcrds, G mnjh `n prctc`tgnus gjjusgn`s alnut tmgs stuhy. Bgvc` tmc

jgdgtch spakc avagjaljc, scvcrc scjcktgn`s mah tn lc dahc as tn wmgkm ̀ ntgn`s arc dnst

cssc`tgajjy kn`trglutg`b tn tmc jg`c ni arbudc`t inr tmc tmcnry tn lc lugjt.

Xgdc mas lcc` knarscjy hgvghch g`tn alsnjutc tgdc, snkgaj tgdc a`h sulocktgvc tgdc,

kndpnsg`b tmcnrctgkajjy kapaljc tcdpnrajgtgcs. G`kjuhch gs a vcry kndpakt hgskussgn` ni

gdpnrta`t tmcnrgcs gìnrdg`b tmc g`trg`sgk tcdpnraj kmaraktcr ni arkmacnjnby, adn`bst

wmgkm tmc A`àjcs [kmnnj ni mgstnrgnbrapmy a`h tmc daeg`b ni sulocktgvc tgdc tmrnubm

pmc`ndc`njnby arc dnst sgb`gfika`t inr g`tcrprctgvc purpnscs. [ulscquc`tjy, muda`

aktgn` gs pjakch abag`st a lakebrnu`h ni muda`gst tmgèg`b, lcinrc kjnsg`b g` n` inur

prndg`c`t tmgècrs n` muda` aktgn`? snkgnjnbgst Dax Rclcr, ckn`ndgst Juhwgb vn`

Dgscs a`h snkgaj pmgjnsnpmcrs Ajirch [kmútz, a`h Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau. Xmcgr ghcas mavc

lcc` mgbmjy gùc`tgaj inr tmc cdcrbc`kc ni injjnwg`b aktgn` tmcnrgcs, wmgkm arc kn`-

tag`ch g` bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnry jatcr n`. Iurtmcrdnrc, tmcy arc mgstnrgkajjy tgch tnbctmcr,

sg`kc vn` Dgscs was a ficrkc krgtgkastcr ni Rclcr. G` tur`, [kmútz was a` apprc`tgkc ni

vn` Dgscs. Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau‗s kn`trglutgn`s arc sjgbmtjy dnrc rckc`t, yct kn``cktch



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs=

tn pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj `ntgn`s as g` tmc wnre ni [kmútz. Xmc` tmc iakgjgtatg`b kndpn-

`c`t ni tmc pcrinrda`kc ni aktgn`, muda` spakc, gs g`gtgajjy cxpjnrch tmrnubm cxgs-

tc`tgajgsd a`h cdlnhgdc`t. Xmgs gs kndpjcdc`tch ly dnrc spckgfich muda` spatgaj

cxprcssgn`s. Igrst tmc cssc`tgaj `ntgn` ni tcrrgtnrgajgty g` prnxcdgks ni a`tmrnpnjnbgst

Chwarh Majj gs hgskussch, tmc` tmc dca`g`b ni a`h trcatdc`t ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t

ly arkmgtckt a`h arkmacnjnbgst Adns \apnpnrt, injjnwch ly tmc vcry snpmgstgkatch

kndputcrgsch dctmnhs ni spakc sy`tax, aàjysg`b pntc`tgajgtgcs inr tmc usc ni spakc g`

tmc kndpjgkatch lugjt c`vgrn`dc`ts ni kgtgcs. [pakc sy`tax as a sct ni aàjytgkaj tnnjs

was prnpnsch ly arkmgtckturaj dnrpmnjnbgst Lgjj Mgjjgcr a`h knjjcabucs g` tmc 1726s,

lut gs stgjj prnbrcssgvcjy brnwg`b dnrc rcfi`ch. Cspckgajjy tmc u`g-hgrcktgnàjgty ni gìcr-

c`tgaj arbudc`ts kn`kcr`ch wgtm spatgaj hatascts hcdn`stratch g` tmc scktgn` ni mu-

da` spakc gs g`satgsiaktnry as a` akkudujatgvc rcsujt ni tmc lugjhg`b ljnkes g` tmc axcs.

Xmgs prnvghcs a prg`kgpaj rcasn` inr ahhrcssg`b tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni muda` snkgcty gàrkmacnjnby irnd a snkgaj pcrspcktgvc g`stcah ni datcrgaj. G` ciickt, tmgs wnujh dca` a`

g`vcrsgn` ni aàjytgkaj tmcnry. Xmcrcinrc, tmgs jast scktgn` gs prnvghch wgtm dnrc knd-

dc`tary tmc` tmc ntmcrs, as gt gs irnd mcrc tmat tmc ahaptatgn` ni tmc injjnwg`b snkgaj

bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnrgcs gs jau`kmch. Xmgs cdpgrgkaj arkmacnjnbgkaj tur` gs lcttcr apprckg-

atch wgtm tmc hgskgpjgàry apprnprgatgn`s ni kmaptcr twn.

Xmc ̀ ntgn`s tmat fijc past g` kmaptcr n`c arc scjcktch lckausc ni tmcgr rcjatgvcjy purc

tmcnrctgkaj sta`kcs, sndc ni wmgkm mavc akqugrch gkn`gk quajgtgcs inr kcrtag` typcs ni

hgsknursc g` vargnus hgskgpjg`cs. A` cxtrcdc cxadpjc ni tmgs gs tmc ajdnst a``nyg`bjy

kn`sgstc`t kn`struktgn` ni (ckn`ndgk) snkgcty ly Juhwgb vn` Dgscs. At tmc sadc tgdc,sukm pcrspcktgvcs jnbgkajjy mnjh brcatcr vajuc inr lugjhg`b tmcnrgcs lckausc ni tmcgr

u`knrruptch àturc. Ajtcràtgvcjy, as gs tmc kasc inr tmc apprnakmcs tn tmc lugjt a`h

urla` c`vgrn`dc`t, apprnakmcs mavc lcc` scjcktch lckausc tmcy partgkujarjy scrvc

arkmacnjnbgkaj dctmnhs. Vrcicrc`kc gs bgvc` tn pcrmaps jcss strgktjy rcjatch ghcas, ratmcr

tma` sydlgntgk ahaptatgn`s wmgkm nitc` knrrupt `ntgn`s, lckausc tmcy kn`strukt tmc

injjnwg`b arbudc`ts n` a dnrc iu`hadc`taj jcvcj g`stcah ni partgkujar hctagjs. Xmcrc-

inrc, tmc ghcas prcsc`tch g` kmaptcr n`c tmcnrctgkajjy kn`tcxtuajgsc kmaptcr twn, wmgjc

tmc parahgbdatgk kmaptcr twn hgskgpjgàrgjy kn`tcxtuajgscs kmaptcr n`c. As a wmnjc, gt

scrvcs as a jarbc g`trnhuktnry trcatgsc, rcprcsc`tg`b tmc lakebrnu`h usch a`h cjaln-

ratch upn` g` tmc kn`sckutgvc kmaptcrs kn`tag`g`b dnrc spckgfik hgrcktgn`s injjnwch

ly ntmcrs a`h dyscji. Dnrcnvcr, tmgs cxtc`hch kn`tcxt cdpmasgscs tmc gssucs inr wmgkm

pntc`tgaj snjutgn`s arc hcvcjnpch.

Xmc rcst ni tmc tmcsgs gs hgvghch g`tn tmrcc kmaptcrs? lrghbg`b, lugjhg`b a`h npcra-

tgnàjgsg`b tmcnrctgkaj `ckcssgtgcs injjnwg`b irnd tmc prcsc`tch gssucs. Kmaptcr tmrcc

g`trnhukcs tmc bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnry hcvcjnpch ly Ajja` Vrch g` tmc 17=6s. Mgs wnre

akts as a lrghbc lctwcc` tmc cpgstcdnjnby ni tmc first twn kmaptcrs a`h tmc bcnbrapmg-

kaj gddchgaky ni tmc `cxt. [g`kc mc was spckgfikajjy gùc`kch ly tmc A`àjcs [kmnnj,



G`trnhuktgn` 7

tgdc-bcnbrapmy a`h strukturatgn` tmcnry, tmc sydlgnsgs rcprcsc`tch ly mgs wnre niicrs

a pcrickt lasc. Vrch dahc tmgs tmnubmt appjgkaljc as kn`krctc dgkrnbcnbrapmgcs ni

cvcryhay jgic, cspckgajjy sgb`gfika`t g` tmc ways kma`bc gs càljch ly snkgaj prnkcsscs g`

mgstnry. Xmc bc`craj sknpc ni mgs tmcnrctgkaj kn`trglutgn`s rcahgjy g`hgkatcs tmc nppnr-

tu`gty gt prnvghcs inr stuhyg`b tmc lgb gssuc ni hcvcjnpg`b snkgctgcs. As a bcnbrapmcr,

spakc was g`cxtrgkaljy kn``cktch tn snkgaj nrba`gsatgn` g` mgs rcscarkm. @cvcrtmcjcss,

gt was tmc kn`kcpt ni pjakc tmat mah mgs u`hgvghch attc`tgn` g` tmgs pntc`t carjy wnre,

g` wmgkm sndc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj ghcas arc cvghc`tjy prcsc`t tnn. Vrch saw prnkcsscs

as prnkcsscs ni lckndg`b, a`h g` mgs tmcnry mc pjakch tmcd wgtmg` a mgstnrgkaj nw ni

tgdc a`h npcratg`b g` tmc àturaj c`vgrn`dc`t. [n mc kndlg`ch tgdc, muda` aktgn`

a`h spakc g` a da``cr tmat appcars kjnscjy rcjatch tn wmat knujh lc arkmacnjnbgkajjy

ahaptch. Xmgs kmaptcr krgtgkajjy apprnprgatcs tmc kurrc`t pntc`tgaj ni tmgs apprnakm.

Ni knursc tmcrc arc rckc`t ahhgtgn`s tn sukm tmcnry ajsn. G` tmc jgbmt ni tmcgr pn-tc`tgaj inr arkmacnjnbgkaj rcscarkm nlocktgvcs, twn hgrcktgn`s wgjj lc smnrtjy hgskussch

g` kmaptcr inur, rcprcsc`tch ly Lc``n Rcrjc` a`h Ahrcas Enkm rcspcktgvcjy. G` tmcgr

algjgty tn asscss skajar hgiicrc`kcs g` hctagj, tmcy fijj g` tmc ljaès jcit ly Vrch‗s bc`craj-

gty. Xmcgr sukkcssgvc gdpnrta`kc gs kmaraktcrgsch ly tmc cqugvajc`kc ni tgdc a`h spakc,

wmgkm gs ajsn a` g`trg`sgk part ni Vrch‗s tmcnry. Rmcrcas Rcrjc` wnres n` tmc skajc ni

rcbgnàjgsatgn` a`h lnrhcrs, Enkm wnres at a skajc tmat gs casgjy tra`sjatch g`tn dgkrn

skajc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`ts. Gt knu`ts inr lntm tmat tmrnubm a inkus n` bc`cratgvc prnk-

csscs, tmcsc kn`kcpts jnsc tmcgr statgk àturc. Qugkejy passg`b nvcr pcrinrda`kc, rc-

bgn`s a`h `ctwnre tmcnrgcs, kn`kcptuajgsatgn` brnws g`krcasg`bjy kndpjcx mcrc. N`cni tmc sghc ciickts, as dgbmt lc suspcktch, gs tmc hgsta`kc tmcy krcatc tn arkmacnjnbgkaj

cdpgrgkgsd abag`. Xmcsc rckc`t hcvcjnpdc`ts g` bcnbrapmy a`h tmc hgvcrbc`kc tmcy

knujh kausc n`kc dnrc, bgvc a dnrc kn`krctc inrd tn tmc gssucs wc arc knìrn`tch

wgtm wmc` attcdptg`b tn kn`tgùc sukm tmcnrctgkaj kn`sghcratgn`s g`tn tmc sknpc ni

arkmacnjnbgkaj dctmnhnjnbgcs. Ajtmnubm tmcgr ghcajgsch tmcnrgcs sccdg`bjy hgsta`kc

tmcdscjvcs irnd aktuaj sgtuatgn`s, n` tmc ntmcr ma`h, tmcy inrkc a inkus n` icaturcs ni

dca`g`biuj pntc`tgaj tmat arc ajsn prcsc`t g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hatascts. Xmc gìcrc`tgaj

nppnrtu`gtgcs sukm hatascts kndprgsch ni ghcajgsch icaturcs niicr kn`scquc`tgajjy ̀ cchs

tn lc kn`kcptuajgsch. Lntm a` g`tcbratg`b ahaptatgn` ni tmc prcsc`tch tmcnrgcs inr ar-

kmacnjnbgkaj purpnscs a`h tmgs kn`kcptuajgsatgn` arc part ni kmaptcr fivc. Xmcdcs jgec

pjakc, rcbgn`, kujturc arca, lnrhcrs a`h snkgaj cvnjutgn` arc tmusjy rcvgtajgsch tmrnubm

tmcnrgsatgn`.

Bgvc` tmc knarsc ̀ aturc ni arkmacnjnbgkaj hata, a iagrjy mgbm jcvcj ni hctagj gs `cchch

tn kndprcmc`h tmc dca`g`b lcarg`b snkgaj prnkcsscs prnhukg`b tmc hata. Xmgs gd-

pjgcs a hatasct tmat rcckts dnst aktgvgtgcs a`h snkgctaj rcjatgn`s prnhukch ly snkgajgty,

prcicraljy wgtmg` a mnjgstgk eg`h ni scjcktgn`. Mc`kc a` arbudc`t wgjj lc dahc inr us-

g`b hata irnd urla` c`vgrn`dc`ts cdlnhyg`b tmc dnst kndpjctc hcbrcc ni pmysgkaj




kn`snjghatgn` a`h dchgatgn` cxprcssch g` a lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmc dag` kn`kcr` ni

sukm a hatasct gs gts algjgty tn ahhrcss gìcrc`tgaj prnljcds ly cdpjnyg`b arkmacnjnbg-

kaj dctmnhnjnbgcs tn g`krcasc g`sgbmt g` tmc u`hcrjyg`b snkgaj prnkcsscs. Xmrnubm tmc

ainrcdc`tgn`ch bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnrgcs, kcrtag` aspckts ni tmc spatgaj rcknrh wgjj lc

subbcstch as lcg`b spckgfikajjy gìnrdatgvc n` g`tcraktgnàj prnkcsscs. Mcrc gt wgjj lc

asscrtch tmcrc arc spckgfik jnkajgtgcs wmcrc sgb`gfika`t snkgaj pnsgtgn`s arc `cbntgatch.

Xmcsc jnkajgtgcs arc g`vcstch wgtm cjcvatch snkgaj dca`g`b ly tmgs systcdgk ̀ cbntgatgn`,

lntm prnhukg`b tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t a`h lcg`b dchgatch ly gt. Xmc kucs tmat inj-

jnw irnd sukm tmcnrctgkaj kn`sghcratgn`s wgjj lc ni a dnrc iu`hadc`taj àturc tma`

tmc styjgstgk tragts wmgkm mavc nvcrsmahnwch dnst kujturajjy partgkujar stuhgcs sn iar.

\cknb`gsg`b spatgaj sgbàturcs n` tmc lasgs ni tmcnrctgkajjy scjcktch kucs smnujh jcah tn

a` apprnprgatgn` ni tmc snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty ni pjakcs lasch n` a praktgkc ni snkgajjy

pnsgtgn`g`b spatgajgtgcs as g`tcrspatgaj rcjatgn`s brcw nvcr tgdc.Hcajg`b wgtm hatascts ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t a`h past kgtgcs kndcs wgtm sndc

prnpcr prnljcds a`h gs kurrc`tjy hndgàtch ly bc`crajjy akkcptch assudptgn`s hg-

kmntndgsg`b gìcrc`kc. Dgkmacj [dgtm (<662) cxkcjjc`tjy g`hcxch dnst ni tmcsc g` mgs

kndparatgvc artgkjc n` carjy kgtgcs. Xmc dnst nlvgnus prnljcd gs tmc awch hatascts

akqugrch ly arkmacnjnby. Huc tn tmc hcbc`cratgvc kn`hgtgn` ni datcrgaj rcdag`s, hc-

tagjs arc jnst nvcr tgdc a`h prcvgnus hcvcjnpdc`taj stabcs arc supcrgdpnsch nr hcdnj-

gsmch. Ajsn, hatascts arc rcstrgktch ly smccr skajc, rc`hcrg`b arkmacnjnby g`cvgtaljy sc-

jcktgvc. Xmcrc arc sgdpjy praktgkaj a`h fià`kgaj g`mglgtgn`s tn knvcrg`b sgtcs cxtc`sgvcjy

nr kndpjctcjy, hcspgtc tmc ciinrts tmat mavc lcc` dahc. Dnrcnvcr sgtcs smnujh `nt lcaàjysch as gsnjatch kascs, wmgkm qucstgn`s tmc vcry bcndctrgkaj hcfi`gtgn` ni a sgtc.

Xmcsc praktgkaj prnljcds ka``nt lc nvcrkndc.

[ckn`hjy, tmc tmcnrctgkaj gdpjgkatgn`s wgjj kast hnult n` sndc bc`craj hgkmntndgcs.

[dgtm (<662) dnst `ntaljy sgbàjs tmc iajsc hgkmntndy ni pja``ch a`h u`pja``ch kgt-

gcs (nr pja``ch a`h nrba`gk brnwtm), gb`nrg`b tmc rcocktgn` ni krnss-kujturaj kndparg-

sn`s inr g`tcrprctgvc purpnscs. G` ahhgtgn`, G wgjj kmajjc`bc tmc trahgtgnàj hgkmntndy ni

kn`tgùgty a`h kma`bc, cspckgajjy tmc kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni kma`bc as cvc`ts nr smnrt-

jgvch rcvnjutgn`s. Mcrc spckgfikajjy tmc prnpnsajs ni Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau (17==) niicr a

pcrsuasgvc pcrspcktgvc, ajjnwg`b inr a rcapprnprgatgn` ni kma`bc. As wgjj lc smnw`, tmc

kn`tgùaj hgajcktgk prnkcsscs ni strukturatgn` aktuajjy g`trg`sgkajjy g`knrpnratc lntm tmc

jn`b a`h smnrt tcrd. Xmc kn`kcpt ni stratgbrapmy day mcjp tn hctckt strukturaj kma`b-

cs kn`snjghatch g` tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. Kn``cktch tn tmgs gs tmc hgkmntndy lctwcc`

dgkrn a`h dakrn skajcs, wmgkm wgjj lc tmcnrctgkajjy kapturch g` tmc sadc prnkcss inr

lntm tgdc a`h spakc. Qucstgn`g`b tmcsc hgkmntndgcs jcahs tn a jcss gsnjatch hcajg`b

wgtm g`qugrgcs n` snkgajgty g` tgdc a`h spakc n` tmc lasgs ni arkmacnjnbgkaj hata. Ajsn,

gt smnujh put arkmacnjnbgkaj gìcrc`kc g` a snkgn-kujturaj pnsgtgn` tn c`jgbmtc` e`nwj-

chbc ni tmc past, wmgkm mcjps a lcttcr apprckgatgn` ni nur nw` kurrc`t pnsgtgn` g` sukm



G`trnhuktgn` 11

way tmat tmgs g`sgbmt ka` lc usch inr iuturc c`hcavnurs g` nur hcajg`bs wgtm spakc.

@cvcrtmcjcss, tmgs stuhy hncs ̀ nt prndgsc a`y kcrtag`tgcs, wcjj-hcfi`ch dctmnhnjn-

bgcs nr kjcar-kut a`swcrs. Ajn`b tmc vargnus tmcdcs ahhrcssch, gt mnpcs tn ragsc a` g`-

tcrcst inr ajtcràtc jg`cs ni rcasn`g`b a`h cstaljgsm tmc pntc`tgaj ni snkgaj bcnbrapmgkaj

tmcnrgcs a`h stgdujatc tmc usc ni tckm`njnbgkaj hata akqugsgtgn`. As a wmnjc gt dgbmt

lcttcr lc taec` as a` g`kc`tgvc, scttg`b tmc abc`ha, ratmcr tma` a` a`swcr tn mnpcs

a`h praycrs.

[ulocktgvgst Nlocktgfikatgn`

As dgbmt mavc lckndc kjcar g` tmc alnvc, G c`vgsgn` arkmacnjnby as a hgskgpjg`c wgtm

a strn`b a`h dca`g`biuj rcjatgn` tn tmc prcsc`t a`h iuturc, kn`trglutg`b sgb`gfika`t

e`nwjchbc n` snkgctaj prnljcds wc arc lntm kurrc`tjy knìrn`tg`b a`h arc yct tn lciakch wgtm. Xmc trahgtgnàj attgtuhc tnwarhs arkmacnjnby as prgdargjy jnneg`b at tmc

past ly wnreg`b irnd cdpgrgkgsd, lckausc ni nur g`cvgtaljc tgcs tn datcrgaj rcdag`s,

smnujh lcttcr lc jcit lcmg`h. Hcspgtc gts gàlgjgty tn niicr hcfi`gtc snjutgn`s nr kndpjctc,

iujjy-chbch dctmnhnjnbgcs, tmgs stuhy attcdpts tn cxpjgkgtjy taec g`tn akknu`t nur

datcrgaj kn`hgtgn` upn` wmgkm cdpgrgkaj g`qugrgcs arc lasch. G` nrhcr tn iakgjgtatc a

dnrc hgrckt kndprcmc`sgn` ni tmc asscrtgn`s dahc g` dy wrgtg`b tnwarhs arkmacnjnby,

G smnujh hgskuss tmc sulocktgvgsd hcrgvch irnd dy pcrsnàj vgcws tmat pcrdcatcs tmgs

cpgstcdnjnby a`h tmcnry. Xmcrcinrc G c`h tmgs g`trnhuktgn` ly dc`tgn`g`b sndc ni tmc

prndg`c`t pcrspcktgvcs u`hnultchjy sccpg`b irnd dy wnrjhvgcw g`tn tmgs rcscarkm.Hurg`b mgs jgictgdc, pmgjnsnpmcr a`h inu`hcr ni pmc`ndc`njnby, Chdu`h Mus-

scrj ajrcahy rcdarech tmat kn`trary tn praktgkc tmc`, tmc g``cr wnrjh ni muda` lc-

g`b smnujh `nt lc stuhgch wgtm tmc sadc dctmnhs usch ly tmc rcscarkmcrs ni àturc

(tmc nutcr wnrjh) (Kjnec c.a. 1771). N` tmc lasgs tmat wc arc muda` lcg`bs stuhyg`b

nur nw` spckgcs, G kn`kur wgtm tmat. Xmc brcatcr hgsta`kc tmat cxgsts lctwcc` muda`

lcg`bs stuhyg`b ntmcr spckgcs ajjnws us tn akkcpt tmc rnjc ni nlscrvcr. As gjjustratch

ly a`tmrnpnjnby, g`gtgajjy tmgs rnjc ni nlscrvg`b a`h hcskrglg`b was knddn` praktgkc

g` rcscarkm n` ntmcr kujturcs. Cvc`tuajjy sndc a`tmrnpnjnbgsts hckghch tn suldcrbc

tmcdscjvcs g` a`ntmcr kujturc g` nrhcr tn lcttcr u`hcrsta`h gts trahgtgn`s a`h lcjgcis.

Vmc`ndc`njnby, mnwcvcr, smnws us tmc u`gquc pnsgtgn` ni cakm muda` lcg`b g`mglgt-

g`b a` cxakt a`h truc u`hcrsta`hg`b ni ntmcrs‗ tmnubmts. [tgjj, lckausc ni tmc rckgprn-

kaj knb`gtgvc prnkcss ni g`tcrprctg`b ntmcrs ly dca`s ni nurscjvcs, tmc rcjatgn`smgp

lctwcc` muda` lcg`bs gs hgiicrc`t irnd nur rcjatgn`smgp tn ntmcr spckgcs. Xn dc, tmgs

gs tmc brnu`h inr tmc kn`hukt ni snkgaj skgc`kc, wmgkm day strn`bjy hgiicr g` kn`hukt

irnd àturaj skgc`kc. Wct gt rcdag`s hcpc`hc`t n` gt inr tmc hcfi`gtgn` ni nur spckgcs.

Cdlchhch g` tmgs asscrtgn` jgcs a vcry g`hgvghuajgstgk gdabc ni muda` lcg`b. Xmc

pmysgkaj a`h pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj u`gquc`css ni lcg`b muda`, pcrdgts g` dy vgcw tmc



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs1<

cxgstc`kc ni mavg`b nrgbgàj tmnubmts. Xmc u`gquc`css ni tmc knb`gtgvc prnkcss ni pcr-

kcptgn`, a`h tmc aktgn`s tmat day injjnw irnd tmat, akknu`t inr kn`tgùaj kma`bc ly

tmc ma`hs ni da`. Nrgbgàj tmnubmt, inr dc, gs kjcarjy gjjustratch g` tmc prnkcss ni jcar`-

g`b. Jcar`g`b kn`sgsts ni rnubmjy twn parts? dcdnrgsg`b a`h u`hcrsta`hg`b. Dcdnry

gs awch a`h pmc`ndc`njnbgkajjy prnpcr. Gt hgrckts tmc pcrkcptgn` a`h cvc`tuajjy kn`-

kcptgn` ni pmc`ndcà g` cakm dg`h g` sgdgjar ways, lut g` rcprnhuktgn` gt tmcrcinrc

kn`tag`s g`hgvghuajjy u`gquc vgcws. S`hcrsta`hg`b gs tmc knb`gtgn` ni a prnkcss prcvg-

nusjy mcjh g` tmc dg`h ni a`ntmcr. [tgjj tmgs gs u`gquc, sg`kc gt gs fijtcrch ly g`hgvghuaj

cxpcrgc`kc. Xruc u`hcrsta`hg`b ni a`ntmcr‗s rcasn`g`b dca`s rcprnhukg`b a` nrgbgàj

tmnubmt g` rcicrc`kc tn n`c‗s scji. Dnrcnvcr, muda` lcg`bs mavc kn`tgùnus hgspnsaj

ni ircc wgjj, c`vgsgn`g`b a rcsujt a`h a ircc kmngkc tn akt akknrhg`b tn tmcgr nrhgàj cx-

pcktatgn`s ni gts kn`scquc`kcs. Xmgs ircc wgjj gs n`jy kn`strag`ch ly datcrgaj, lgnjnbgkaj

a`h pmysgnjnbgkaj rccxcs a`h gdpnssglgjgtgcs, ajtmnubm akqugrg`b (tckm`njnbgkaj) algjg-tgcs wgjj g`krcasc tmc adnu`t ni pnssglgjgtgcs. Xmgs pcrspcktgvc cssc`tgajjy puts muda`

lcg`bs as ircc abc`ts g` tmc wnrjh, kapaljc ni scji-hctcrdgàtgn` a`h u`hcrsta`hg`b

tmc ̀ aturaj a`h snkgaj wnrjh scji-rcicrc`tgajjy.

Iurtmcrdnrc, cpgstcdnjnbgkajjy G ad dnhcratcjy rcjatgvgstgk. Xmat g`hgkatcs tmat

G bc`crajjy akkcpt ajj ntmcrs‗ jnbgk. @cvcrtmcjcss, tmat hncs `nt dca` ajj g`hgvghuaj

wnrjhvgcws arc ni hcfi`gtc vajuc tn akahcdgk ahva`kcdc`t. G` tmgs G mavc lcc` g`-

spgrch ly Mgjjary Vutàd‗s cpgstcdnjnby, wmgkm c`tagjs tmat a`y arbudc`t ka` lc truc

wmc` kn`sgstc`tjy appjgch wgtmg` a spckgfik kn`kcptuaj iradcwnre (Vutàd 17=1).

Xmgs `ntgn` mas lcc` g`tcrkma`bcaljy tcrdch prabdatgk rcajgsd, g`tcràj rcajgsd a`hkn`kcptuaj rcjatgvgsd. Lasgkajjy, sukm cpgstcdnjnby ajjnws inr sulocktgvc skgc`kc, as

dc`tgn`ch lcinrc, n`jy gi tmc rcscarkmcr stays jnyaj tn mgs tmcnrctgkaj iradcwnre a`h

tmgs gs knddu`gkatch. Xmgs tnn was subbcstch ly Vutàd lcinrc (ghcd). Ahhgtgn`-

ajjy, gt gddchgatcjy pcrdgts tmc jatcraj cxgstc`kc ni pjuraj skgc`tgfik trutms. Inr dc, tmgs

dca`s tmat kn`huktg`b rcscarkm irnd a snkgn-kujturaj pcrspcktgvc hncs `nt kausc tmc

rcocktgn` ni àturaj skgc`tgfik apprnakmcs. Xmcy ka` cxgst sghc ly sghc, lntm prnhukg`b

tmcgr nw` trutms. Dnrcnvcr, tmc e`nwjchbc tmcy prnhukc smnujh lc scc` as kndpjc-

dc`tary. G`mglgtgn`s kn`tag`ch g` àturaj skgc`tgfik g`sgbmts wgjj smarpc` tmc inkus n`

u`hcrsta`hg`b snkgn-kujturaj vargatgn`s. Xmc jn`b tcrd hclatc n` tmc u`gquc`css ni

mndn sapgc`s sapgc`s as a spckgcs scparatch irnd a`gdajs gs grrcjcva`t tn dc (ki. Knrlcy

<663) a`h tmcrcinrc `nt a part ni tmgs tmcsgs nr tmc hcfi`gtgn` ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t

(ki. G`bnjh <666). Muda` lcg`bs arc a prnhukt ni lgnjnbgkaj cvnjutgn` a`h u`hcrsta`h-

g`b ni gt stcahgjy g`krcascs. Xmus, cssc`tgajjy ajj tmg`bs muda` arc a prnhukt ni lgnjnby,

g`kjuhg`b tmc snkgn-kujturaj. Mnwcvcr, tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc snkgn-kujturaj hncs `nt

`ckcssargjy injjnw tmc rujcs ni lgnjnby a`h day g`tcricrc (ic`ntypgkajjy) g` tmc cvnju-

tgnàry prnkcss. G` smnrt, G arbuc tmat gt gs g` tmc rcjatgnàj hgiicrc`kc g` nur akahcdgk

pnsgtgn` tn nur spckgcs tmat a` ajtcràtgvc aàjytgkaj (nr snkgaj) dctmnh gs oustgfich. Xmgs



G`trnhuktgn` 1;

attgtuhc tn snkgaj a`h lgnjnbgkaj apprnakmcs G tc`h tn kajj prabdatgk àturajgsd.

N` tmc lasgs ni ajj tmgs, gt gs marhjy surprgsg`b tmat G kmnsc tn taec a png`t ni hcparturc

inr arkmacnjnby hciyg`b gts datcrgajjy lnu`h kn`hgtgn`. Xmgs aprgnrgstgk snkgaj tmcnrctg-

kaj apprnakm (ki. vn` Dgscs 177=, Rcrjc` <663) wgjj lc cxpcrgc`kch as trnuljcsndc

inr da`y arkmacnjnbgsts, cspckgajjy as G mavc kmnsc` `nt tn cxkjuhc cxpjgkgt datcrgaj

kascs tn gjjustratc dy asscrtgn`s. Kndparaljc tn tmc way Dax Rclcr‗s kjassgfikatnry

tmcnry nubmt tn lc usch a`h mnw Ajja` Vrch arbucs inr tmc vajuc ni mgs `ntgn`s, tmgs

tmcnry lugjhg`b wgjj prnvc tn lc ni dag`jy gìcrc`tgajjy gìnrdatgvc usc ratmcr tma` ni-

icrg`b hgrckt a`swcrs tn spckgfik qucstgn`s. Dnrcnvcr, tmc tmcnry rcqugrcs spckgfik typcs

ni hata a`h inrkcs hata akqugsgtgn` akknrhg`bjy. Ajtnbctmcr tmgs g`hgkatcs tmat prcsc`t-

g`b partgkujar cxadpjcs mcrc wgjj kausc dgsu`hcrsta`hg`bs g`stcah ni kjargiyg`b tmcn-

rctgkaj pntc`tgajs. Inrtuàtcjy, g` bcnbrapmgkaj jgtcraturc Lc``n Rcrjc` g` mgs wnre n`

cvcryhay rcbgnàjgsatgn`s mas arbuch inr a sgdgjar png`t ni hcparturc inr tmc spatgajjylnu`h bcnbrapmgkaj hgskgpjg`c. ‚UDy pcrspcktgvcT cxgsts g` kn`trast tn ajj apprnakmcs

tmat lcbg` wgtm rcbgn`s, lnrhcrs, spatgaj pattcr`s a`h ntmcr spatgaj pmc`ndcà a`h

wnre tnwarh a` aàjysgs ni snkgaj strukturcs, ratmcr tma` tmc ntmcr way arnu`h.— (Rcr-

jc` <663? 82) Xmgs, g` a ùtsmcjj, gs tmc eg`h ni lakebrnu`h abag`st wmgkm tmgs rcscarkm

smnujh lc rcah.





Kmaptcr 1 Axcs ni Hcvcjnpg`b [nkgctgcs





Axcs ni Hcvcjnpg`b [nkgctgcs 12

Cpgstcdnjnby

Lgb tmcdcs arc `ntmg`b tn lc skarch ni. Xmcy arc a kmajjc`bc tmat a`y akahcdgk hgskg-

pjg`c smnujh lc mappy tn akkcpt, hcspgtc gts gdpjgkatgn` ni lgb qucstgn`s injjnwch ly

lgb gssucs. Xmc dag` g`tcrprctgvc gssuc g` arkmacnjnby gs tmc qucstgn` mnw muda` sn-

kgctgcs hcvcjnpch. Sìnrtuàtcjy, tmc prcouhgkgaj rcsujts ni carjy pn`hcrg`bs alnut tmgs

partgkujar lgb gssuc, cspckgajjy tmnsc nrgbgàtg`b irnd cvnjutgnàry gìusgn`s, mavc jch

tn vargnus hcbrccs ni rcocktgn` g` tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj hgskgpjg`c, as

gs lrgcy hcdn`stratch g` kmaptcr twn. Xmgs mas nlstruktch nppnrtu`gtgcs inr dnrc ̀ u-

a`kch ahaptatgn`s ni cvnjutgnàry tmnubmt, spckgfikajjy tmnsc fit inr ahhrcssg`b snkgaj

prnkcsscs tmat prnhukc snkgcty.

[nkgaj g`qugrgcs arc usuajjy trcatch g` àrrnwjy hcfi`ch a`h rcstrgktch ficjhs ni rc-

scarkm, rc`hcrg`b e`nwjchbc asu`hcr. Dnrcnvcr, arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc, huc tn gtsdatcrgajjy lnu`h kmaraktcr, tc`hs tn wnre irnd datcrgaj nlockts ratmcr tma` snkgaj

arbudc`ts gìnrdg`b aàjysgs. Xmc stuhy ni snkgcty g` gtscji gs a kndpjcx kndpnsgtc ni

e`nwjchbcaljc cjcdc`ts. Ahhg`b tn tmat tmc rcqugrcdc`t ni a pmysgkaj knu`tcrpart tn

càljc tmc cdpgrgkaj rcscarkm dctmnhs cdpjnych ly arkmacnjnby, cvc` dnrc cjcdc`ts

`cch tn lc kn`sghcrch, hgstrglutg`b tmc lgb gssuc nvcr da`y tnpgks. [g`kc ajj tmcsc

cjcdc`ts mavc lcc` dahc part a`h parkcj ni scvcraj hgskgpjgàry g`tcrcsts, e`nwjchbc

alnut tmcd gs cvc` iurtmcr hgspcrsch, kndpjgkatg`b tmc akqugsgtgn` ni a` nvcrvgcw ni

tmcnrctgkaj ̀ ntgn`s scparatcjy hcvcjnpch g` tmnsc hgskgpjg`cs. Arkmacnjnby wgjj nskgjjatc

tmrnubm ajj parts ni tmgs stuhy, wmgjc pmgjnsnpmy, snkgnjnby, mgstnry, a`tmrnpnjnby a`hbcnbrapmy nkkupy tmcgr rcspcktgvc pjakcs. Xmc kmajjc`bc ni lcg`b aljc tn ahhrcss a`h

pnsgtgn` sukm a tmcdc gs `nt n`jy hnw` tn arkmacnjnby, lut `cchs a` cpgstcdnjnbgkaj

lrg`bg`b-tnbctmcr cxpjnrch g` tmgs first kmaptcr.

Mcrc G wgjj g`gtgajjy cxpjnrc g`tcrhgskgpjgàry tmnubmt n` hcvcjnpg`b snkgctgcs ajn`b

tmrcc dag` kn`stgtutgvc axcs kn`kcptuajgsch as iu`hadc`taj kndpn`c`ts pjayg`b gd-

pnrta`t rnjcs g` tmc kndpnsgtc ni snkgcty. G` hng`b sn, gt first cstaljgsmcs e`nwjchbc ni

tmc dnst cssc`tgaj ghcas, ratmcr tma` ahaptgvc kndpjcdc`targjy g`kjg`ch hgsknurscs,

kndprgsg`b tmc snkgctaj tmcdc g` arkmacnjnby. Xmcsc axcs arc rcprcsc`tch ly tgdc, mu-

da` aktgn` a`h muda` spakc. Xmgs kmaptcr wgjj lc iar irnd cxmaustgvc n` tmc pjctmnra

ni hgskgpjgàry `ntgn`s rcjatg`b tn tmc axcs tmat mavc lcc` inrdujatch nvcr tgdc. G`-

stcah gt kmnnscs tn cxadg`c scvcraj `ntgn`s assnkgatch wgtm kcrtag` prndg`c`t skmnj-

ars. Xn sndc cxtc`t tmcsc gjjustratc dy pcrsnàj png`t ni hcparturc, wmgkm cdlchs tmc

dnrc partgkujar tmcnrgcs tmat wgjj lc hgskussch jatcr, a`h daec cxpjgkgt tmc kn``cktgn`s

tmat tgc tmc tmrcc axcs tnbctmcr. As wgjj lc hcdn`stratch snkgaj a`h sulocktgvc tgdc arc

a kn`stgtutgvc lakebrnu`h tn tmc aktgn` tmcnrgcs ni Dax Rclcr, Juhwgb vn` Dgscs, a`h

Ajirch [kmútz, wmgkm g` tur` gdpjy a muda` c`vgrn`dc`t kn`kcptuajgsch as pmysgkaj

spakc ly cdlnhgdc`t a`h tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. Xaeg`b a sjgbmtjy hgiicrc`t a`bjc,



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs1=

Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau‗s rcapprnprgatgvc aktgn` wgjj smnrtjy lc hgskussch ajsn.

Xmc first kmaptcr wgjj casgjy kn`vcrbc wgtm tmc sckn`h, niicrg`b a kn`tcxt ni rcjcva`t

pcrspcktgvcs n` a scjcktgn` ni scquc`tgaj g`tcrvajs ni hgskgpjgàry mgstnry. Xmcsc aka-

hcdgk hcvcjnpdc`ts arc sgjc`tjy prcsc`t g` tmc prckchg`b hgskussgn` ni tmc tmrcc kn`-

stgtutgvc axcs. Xmc mgstnrgkaj nvcrvgcw wgjj inkus n` tmc hgskgpjg`cs ni arkmacnjnby a`h

bcnbrapmy, cxpjnrg`b tmcgr inrdcr cpgstcdnjnbgkaj ou`ktgn`s a`h tmc prcsc`t hgsta`kga-

tgn`. G` dnst kascs, tmc pcrspcktgvcs a`h `ntgn`s hgskussch wgjj mavc a pmgjnsnpmgkaj

lakebrnu`h bc`crajjy rcicrrg`b tn muda`gsd, cxgstc`tgajgsd a`h pmc`ndc`njnby. Xmgs

mgstnrgkaj nvcrvgcw wgjj ajjnw a lcttcr apprckgatgn` ni tmc jatcraj pnsgtgn`g`b ni kndpa-

raljc `ntgn`s g` tmc axcs ni tmc snkgctaj kndpnsgtc. Ajsn, gt wgjj `nw cxpjgkgtjy u`knvcr

tmc rcasn`s inr tmc pntc`tgaj c`tagjch g` rcpcatg`b tmc hgskgpjgàry ou`ktgn` n`kc abag`,

iurtmcr cdlchhg`b tmc injjnwg`b kmaptcrs tmat jca` mcavgjy n` tmc kndlg`ch gìnrda-

tgvc arbudc`ts ni tmcsc twn kmaptcrs. Ajtnbctmcr tmgs first part ni tmc tmcsgs wgjj dnvc lake a`h inrtm g` tgdc g` nrhcr tn

rcakm tmc sadc tmcnrctgkajjy subbcstgvc hcstgàtgn` at scvcraj nkkasgn`s ly injjnwg`b

tmc kn`stgtutgvc axcs a`h hgskgpjgàry hcvcjnpdc`ts. G` tmc dca` tgdc gt gìnrds lntm

tmc rcasn`s inr tmc prcsudch pntc`tgaj ni tmc snkgaj bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnrgcs prcsc`tch

g` jatcr kmaptcrs a`h smapcs tmcgr kn`tcxts. Xmc agd gs `nt tn wrgtc a kndpcjjg`b pmg-

jnsnpmy nr cpgstcdnjnby g` gts nw` rgbmt, lut tn prnvghc tmc e`nwjchbc `ckcssary tn

kndprcmc`h tmc kurrc`t sgtuatgn` nlstruktg`b ahcquatc asscssdc`ts ni tmc lgb gssuc ni

g`tcrprctg`b snkgctaj hcvcjnpdc`t g` arkmacnjnby. Kn`scquc`tgajjy, tmgs part g`trnhukcs

tmc rcqugrcdc`t ni kma`bg`b nur tmcnrctgkaj a`bjc tn cqugp a iu`hadc`taj trcatgsc nitmgs lgb gssuc. Inr tmgs, spatgn-tcdpnraj hata wgjj prnvc tn lc tmc dnst rcahgjy avagjaljc

snurkc ni gìnrdatgn`. Xmc axcs prcsc`tch mcrc wgjj gìnrd tmc rcahg`b ni tmc snkgaj

bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnrgcs inr iuturc kn`hukt, as wcjj as daec a` attcdpt tn nvcrkndc tra-

hgtgnàj pgtiajjs rcsujtg`b irnd tmc snkgaj cvnjutgnàry a`h kujturc mgstnrgkaj apprnakmcs

prcsc`tch g` kmaptcr twn a`h tmcgr stgjj prcvajc`t hgskursgvc ckmncs.

Axgs ni Xgdc - Alsnjutc Xgdc

As tmc stuhy ni muda` hcvcjnpdc`t n` tmc lasgs ni datcrgaj rcdag`s, tmc hgskgpjg`c ni

arkmacnjnby cxgsts ly brakc ni tmc passabc ni tgdc. @cvcrtmcjcss, tmc hgskgpjg`c saw a

`cbjckt ni tmgs iu`hadc`taj kn`hgtgn` g` gts hgsknursc nvcr tmc past hckahcs, hcspgtc

tmc carjy nvcrvgcw n` tgdc g` arkmacnjnby ly Bcnii Lagjcy (17=2). A` cxtc`sgvc injjnw-

up, chgtch ly Xgd Durray (1777), lu`hjch a wghc array ni artgkjcs hcajg`b wgtm ajj

kn`kcptgn`s a`h cdpgrgkaj gdpjgkatgn`s ni tgdc. Mcrcaitcr gt was tmc kndpcjjg`b lnne

ni Bavg` Jukas (<663), Xmc Arkmacnjnby ni Xgdc , tmat rckc`tjy jagh a hcfi`gtc inu`hatgn`

inr tmc rckurrc`kc ni tmc tnpgk. [ndc ni mgs fi`hg`bs wgjj kn`kgscjy lc rcprnhukch

mcrc.




Xmc trahgtgnàj hcajg`b ni arkmacnjnby wgtm tgdc g`knrpnratcs qugtc statgk tcrds,

dnst iu`hadc`tajjy kapturch g` tmc kn`kcpt ni kmrn`njnby. Kmrn`njnby gs hgvghch g`

twn scts ni kn`kcpts? firstjy, alsnjutc kmrn`njnbgcs, a`h sckn`hjy, rcjatgvc kmrn`njnbgcs.

Alsnjutc kmrn`njnbgcs arc kjcarjy jgèch tn tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj dctmnh ni kajc`hrgkaj

hatg`b, wmgkm ajjnws nur hatascts tn lc prckgscjy sgtuatch n` a tgdcskajc. Xmcy prnvghc

us wgtm vajualjc gìnrdatgn` a`h dcasuraljc iakts tmat ka` lc rcprnhukch at wgjj.

\cjatgvc kmrn`njnbgcs rcjatc tn tmc g`tcrhcpc`hc`kc ni scjcktgn`s ni hata, wmgkm,

tmrnubm dctmnhs ni kjassgfikatgn`, jcah tn pcrgnhgsatgn`s a`h stratgbrapmgcs (Jukas

<663). ‚U@ntT ajj arkmacnjnbgsts wnujh `ckcssargjy abrcc wgtm tmgs katcbnrgsatgn` U…T,

g` da`y ways, tmc hgstg`ktgn` lctwcc` alsnjutc a`h rcjatgvc tgdc gs dnstjy n`c ni skajc

a`h rcbujargty. Ajj kmrn`njnbgcs arc ujtgdatcjy lasch n` cvc`ts tmat g`knrpnratc tgdc

g`tn tmcgr vcry strukturc.— (ghcd? =) @ntc tmat tmcsc ratmcr dctmnhnjnbgkajjy cdlchhch

taecs n` tgdc kn`kc`tratc n` pnsgtgn`g`b statgk katcbnrgcs hctcktch g` arkmacnjnbgkajhata.

Xmgs kmaraktcr ni tgdc injjnws irnd tmc prnljcd, ajsn `ntch ly Jukas, tmat tgdc gs

kn`kcptuajgsch as a u`g-jg`car scquc`kc. Xmgs aiickts arkmacnjnbgkaj g`tcrprctatgn`. As

appjgch tn typnjnbgcs a`h stratgfikatgn`, tmc way tgdc gs hcajt wgtm ajsn rcckts n` tmc

snkgaj a`h tmc spatgaj as a iradcwnre ni gìcrc`kc. Hcspgtc gts gìnrdatgvc vajuc, gt gs

aktuajjy a dnrc alstrakt `ntgn` ni tgdc tmat gs ni g`tcrcst mcrc? tgdc g` a prnkcssgvc,

cvnjutgnàry nr mgstnrgkaj sc`sc. G` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc gt gs tmc hcbc`cratgvc prnk-

css g` tmc prnbrcssgn` ni passg`b tgdc tmat jcavcs us wgtm datcrgaj rcdag`s, daeg`b da-

tcrgaj rcdag`s tcdpnraj. Dnst gdpnrta`tjy, mnwcvcr, passg`b tgdc càljcs tmc aàjysgsni muda` hcvcjnpdc`t as a prnkcss, daeg`b tmc snkgaj tcdpnraj ajsn.

Rgtm tmgs `ntgn` (spckgfikajjy g` pcrgnhgsatgn`) tgdc dnvcs g`tn a hclatc n` cvnju-

tgn`. Gùc`kch ly tmc tcjcnjnbgkaj àturc ni lgnjnbgkaj ahva`kcdc`t g` tmc tmcnry ni

cvnjutgn`, rcscarkmcrs jgec Jcwgs Mc`ry Dnrba` g` tmc 17tm kc`tury a`h Ycrc Bnrhn`

Kmgjhc g` tmc <6tm kc`tury cxpa`hch tmc sn-kajjch tmrcc abc systcd, iurtmcr cjalnrat-

ch ly rcvnjutgnàj pgvnts. Xmgs rcsujtch g` a trahgtgn` ni rcscarkm kajjch snkgaj nr kujturaj

cvnjutgn`, g` wmgkm snkgctgcs wcrc scc` as hcvcjnpg`b irnd larlargsd a`h savabcry

tnwarhs a kgvgjgsatgn` nr statc. Gdpjgkatgn`s ni sukm apprnakmcs wmgkm wgjj lc hgskussch

g` kmaptcr twn. As wgjj ajsn lckndc apparc`t mcrc, Inukaujt‗s vgcw n` kmrn`njnby

gs aktuajjy qugtc g`sgbmtiuj, hcspgtc dag`tag`g`b a` cdpmasgs n` pcrgnhgsatgn`? ‚Cakm

pcrgnhgsatgn` gs tmc hcdarkatgn` g` mgstnry ni a kcrtag` jcvcj ni cvc`ts, a`h kn`vcrscjy

cakm jcvcj ni cvc`ts hcda`hs gts nw` spckgfik pcrgnhgsatgn`, lckausc akknrhg`b tn tmc

kmngkc ni jcvcj hgiicrc`t pcrgnhgsatgn`s mavc darech nut a`h, hcpc`hg`b n` tmc pcrgn-

hgsatgn` n`c ahnpts, hgiicrc`t jcvcjs ni cvc`ts lckndc akkcssgljc. Xmgs lrg`bs us tn tmc

kndpjcx dctmnhnjnby ni hgskn`tgùgty.— (Inukaujt 17=6? 92)

Xmc hgskn`tgùgty ni Inukaujt kjcvcrjy g`kjuhcs a`h cjalnratcs n` wmat g` snkgaj

cvnjutgn` cvc`tuajjy was ajsn rcknb`gsch? tmc assudch u`g-hgrcktgnàj, tcjcnjnbgkaj



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs<6

hcvcjnpdc`t was ̀ nt bng`b at tmc sadc pakc cvcrywmcrc (Jukas <663). Xmgs g`hgkatcs

tmat tgdc gs `nt n`jy alsnjutc, gt gs ajsn sgtuatgnàj tmus rcjatgvc. G` tmgs sc`sc gt dgbmt

lc lcttcr tn spcae ni tcdpnrajgtgcs ratmcr tma` tgdc. ‚UXcdpnrajgtyT gs `nt kmrn`njnby

(as nppnsch tn tgdc), a`h gt gs `nt mgstnry (as nppnsch tn kmrn`njnby). U…T G` tmc

dcrc sukkcssgn` ni cvc`ts tmcrc gs `n tgdc, as `ntmg`b hncs. U…T Xcdpnrajgty c`tagjs

a pcrspcktgvc tmat kn`trasts rahgkajjy wgtm tmc n`c U…T tmat scts up mgstnry a`h

kmrn`njnby g` a rcjatgn` ni kndpjcdc`tary nppnsgtgn`.— (G`bnjh <666? 178) G` nrhcr

tn inrd tcdpnrajgtgcs, G`bnjh taecs tmc kndpjcdc`tary A a`h L-scrgcs ni DkXabbart.

Xmc L-scrgcs c`tagj aktgn`s nr cvc`ts scc` as gsnjatch sukkcchg`b mappc`g`bs, iradc ly

iradc. G` tmc A-scrgcs ‚tgdc gs gdda`c`t g` tmc passabc ni cvc`ts U… c`kndpassg`bT

a pattcr` ni rctc`tgn`s Uknrrgb.T irnd tmc past a`h tmc prntc`tgn`s inr tmc iuturc.

Xmus irnd tmc A-scrgcs png`t ni vgcw, tcdpnrajgty a`h mgstnrgkgty arc `nt nppnsch

lut ratmcr dcrbc g` tmc cxpcrgc`kc ni tmnsc wmn, g` tmc aktgvgtgcs, karry inrwarh tmcprnkcss ni snkgaj jgic.— (ghcd? 178) Xmcsc aktgvgtgcs taec` tnbctmcr kndpnsc G`bnjh‗s

taseskapc , wmgkm lcars tcdpnrajgty wgtmg`. Xcdpnrajgtgcs tmus ajjnw inr hgiicrg`b

rmytmds, huratgn`s, ctk. g` aktgvgtgcs akknrhg`b tn tmc kn`tcxt a`h cxpcrgc`kc ni tgdc.

Ajtcràtgvcjy, as Lnurhgcu mas put gt? ‚tgdc hcrgvcs gts cifikaky irnd tmc statc ni tmc

strukturc ni rcjatgn`s wgtmg` wmgkm gt kndcs g`tn pjay— (Lnurhgcu 1722? 2), tmnubm

mc sgdujta`cnusjy lcjgcvch g` g`tcjjgbgljc nlocktgvc strukturcs prnhukch ly mgstnry,

jayg`b tmc inu`hatgn` inr strukturajgst rcjatgn`smgps g` tgdc. A spckgfik aspckt ni tmc

g`tcrprctgvc aktgvgtgcs ni arkmacnjnby smnujh lc kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc u`hcrsta`hg`b ni

vargnus tcdpnrajgtgcs. G` nrhcr tn prnhukc a kjcar pcrspcktgvc n` tcdpnrajgtgcs, tmc`ntgn` ni snkgaj tgdc cdcrbcs.

Axgs ni Xgdc - [nkgaj Xgdc

Xmcrc arc scvcraj skmnjars wmn mavc kn`trglutch kn`sghcraljy tn tmc kmaraktcrgsatgn`

ni snkgaj typcs ni tgdc. Ahva`kch tmgècrs jgec @nrlcrt Cjgas (1772) a`h Xgd G`bnjh

(17=9) mavc prnpnsch tmat tmc <6tm kc`tury rcocktgn` ni stuhyg`b jn`b tcrd hcvcjnp-

dc`ts ni snkgaj jgic ly tmc hckn`struktgn` ni cvnjutgnàry tmcnrgcs, gs a` gdpnvcrgsm-

dc`t ni u`hcrsta`hg`b muda` aktgvgty a`h knìuscs tmc nppnsgtgn`s ni abc`ky a`h

strukturc g` tcdpnraj kn`tcxts (Hu``g`b a`h Ergcec` 1772). G`bnjh g`trnhukch tmc

hgstg`kt tcdpnrajgty ni snkgaj jgic a`h snkgaj cvnjutgn` (G`bnjh 17=9), wmgkm kn`kgscjy

c`tagjs tmc kn`trast ni tmc rcaj tgdc ni snkgaj jgic a`h tmc alstrakt tgdc assnkgatch wgtm

snkgaj nr kujturaj cvnjutgn`. Xmgs hgiicrc`tgatgn` tc`hs tn gìnrd nr rckn`strukt gùc`-

tgaj hgstg`ktgn`s dahc g` mgstnrgnbrapmy.

Ahvcrtch ly Mc`rg Lcrr, Jukgc` Iclvrc, Dark Ljnkm a`h Icrà`h Lrauhcj, tmc A`-

àjcs [kmnnj g` mgstnry cdcrbch g` Ira`kc. G` mgs cxtc`sgvc artgkjc n` Lrauhcj, Mcxtcr

ajrcahy ̀ ntch tmat ‚abag`st kn`sghcraljc nhhs Ua strukturc rcsujtg`b irnd tmc dc`tajgty



Axcs ni Hcvcjnpg`b [nkgctgcs <1

kma`bc (inkusg`b n` snkgaj a`h ckn`ndgk mgstnry) ni mgstnrgnbrapmyT mas taec` nvcr

mgstnrgkaj stuhgcs g` Ira`kc, at tmc sadc tgdc wg``g`b inr tmnsc stuhgcs wnrjhwghc ah-

dgratgn`.— (Mcxtcr 172<? 8=;) Xmgs gùc`kc hgh ̀ nt rcdag` rcstrgktch tn tmc mgstnrgkaj

hgskgpjg`c, lut was qugtc rcahgjy appjgch g` da`y ni tmc snkgaj skgc`kcs. Mcxtcr‗s nw`

krgtgkgsd, jcahg`b tn a` ajtcràtgvc vgcw, mas `cvcr lckndc as wghcjy akkcptch.

Xmc tcdpnraj kn`kcpts ni mgstnrgnbrapmy, dnst gdpnrta`tjy prnpabatch ly

Lrauhcj, mavc lcc` kn`kcr`ch wgtm a ̀ n`-jg`car mgstnry a`h npcratch n` hgstg`bugsmch

tcdpnraj skajcs. G` kn`trast tn a`tmrnpnjnby a`h snkgnjnby, mgstnrgnbrapmy mas lcc`

knìrn`tch wgtm tmc `cch tn u`hcrsta`h tmc àturc ni snkgaj tgdc (O. \. Majj 17=6).

Xmc A`àjcs [kmnnj gs kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc rcjatgvgty ni dujtgpjc skajcs ni nlocktgvc

tgdc. Xmc A`àjcs mgstnrga`s inkusch n` prnkcsscs tmat dnvch lcyn`h g`hgvghuaj‗s

g`tc`tgn`s a`h tcxts, a typc ni strukturajgsd tmat kng`kghcs wgtm tmc wnre ni Cdgjc

Huremcgd (O. \. Majj 17=6, Jukas <663) a`h Lnurhgcu (1722). Xmc wnre ni Icrà`hLrauhcj gs cssc`tgaj inr tmc inkus n` tcdpnraj skajcs. Mc prnpnsch tmrcc tcdpnraj

skajcs? jcs tcdps knurts nr j‗mgstngrc çvç`cdc`tgcjjc , ja dnyc``c hurçc nr snkgaj mgstnry,

a`h ja jn`buc hurçc nr a` cknjnbgkaj nr bcnbrapmgkaj mgstnry (O. \. Majj 17=6, [a`tadarga

a`h Lagjcy 17=8, Lg`tjgii 1771l, Jukas <663). Lrauhcj hncs strcss tmat tmcsc skajcs arc

`nt tn lc taec` scparatcjy. Ajj skajcs g`tcrrcjatgnàjjy gùc`kc cakm ntmcr, a`h mc

cvc` mnjhs tmat ajj skajcs mavc tmcgr nw` kykjcs a`h rmytmds iu`ktgn`g`b wgtmg` tmcd.

Mnwcvcr, cvc`tuajjy tmcrc gs n`jy n`c (nlocktgvc) tgdc ni mgstnry tmat tmcy ajj ahmcrc

tn (O. \. Majj 17=6), wmgkm gs sgdgjar tn Lnurhgcu‗s strukturc ni nlocktgvc mgstnry. Wct

Lrauhcj was dnstjy g`tcrcstch g` tmc jn`buc hurçc, wmcrc mc pjakch tmc prnkcsscsni bcn-mgstnry a`h (kma`bg`b) dc`tajgty? a` u`hcrjyg`b kurrc`t ly wmgkm, g` a way,

cvcrytmg`b gs kn``cktch. Arkmacnjnby àturajjy inu`h gtscji hgrcktjy appjgch tn tmgs

jn`b tcrd mgstnry. Xmcrcinrc, jgttjc attc`tgn` mas lcc` bgvc` tn tmc cvc`ts ni jcs tcdps

knurts nr tmc snkgn-ckn`ndgkaj a`h hcdnbrapmgk prnkcsscs ni tmc knòu`kturcs g` ja

dnyc``c hurçc. G` arkmacnjnby, tmc A`àjcs [kmnnj ajsn mas rckcgvch kn`sghcraljc

attc`tgn` g` vargnus kn`tcxts, lut dnst cjalnratcjy g` tmc vnjudc chgtch ly Onm` Lg`tjgii

(1771a), Xmc A`àjcs [kmnnj a`h Arkmacnjnby . Xmgs lnne pjakcs strukturaj mgstnry g` tmc

pcrspcktgvc ni tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj parahgbds ni prnkcssuajgsd a`h pnstprnkcssuajgsd,

arbualjy daeg`b tmcd kndpjcdc`tary g`stcah ni nppnsg`b pnsgtgn`s (Lg`tjgii 1771l)

(scc kmaptcr twn).

Hcspgtc tmc iakt Lrauhcj ake`nwjchbch mgs skajcs tn lc part ni a wmnjc, tmc

arlgtrary hgvgsgn` mas prnvc` tn lc qugtc usciuj inr nrhcrg`b aàjysgs. Inr tmc brcatcr

part, gt mas lcc` usch inr appjgkatgn`s g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hata g` tmgs iasmgn`. Xmgs mas

jch tn g`tcrprctatgn`s n` hgiicrc`t tcdpnraj jcvcjs. Igrstjy, rcknb`gsg`b cvc`ts tmat mah

prninu`h ciickts injjnwg`b irnd (smnrt jgvch) traudas, tmat arc ajsn kajjch kn`tg`bc`t

katajysts. N` tmc sckn`h jcvcj, aàjysg`b prnkcsscs ni kujturaj a`h ckn`ndgk kma`bc,

wmgkm gs wmcrc snkgaj cvnjutgn` knujh prnlaljy lc pjakch. Igàjjy, rcakmg`b tmc



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs<<

rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` tmc c`vgrn`dc`taj a`h pcnpjc, wmgkm dnvcs at tmc sjnwcst ratc (O.

\. Majj 17=6, Lg`tjgii 1771l, Jukas <663) a`h appcars dnst appjgkaljc tn nur hgskgpjg`c.

G`tcrprctatgn`s injjnwg`b irnd tmgs aàjysgs rcg`statc Lrauhcj‗s arlgtrary hgvgsgn` ratmcr

tma` rcakmg`b tmc png`t ni g`tcbratg`b hgiicrc`t tcdpnraj skajcs, a pnssglgjgty tmat mc

aktuajjy hgh càljc.

Xmc tc`hc`ky ni snkgaj skgc`kcs tn jnne inr strukturcs a`h pattcr`s g` nrhcr tn u`-

hcrsta`h lcmavgnur knujh lc scrvch ly g`knrpnratg`b sndc ntmcr cjcdc`ts ni Lrauhcj‗s

kn`kcpts. G` tmc first pjakc, mc `ntcs tmat ajj strukturcs arc hcfi`ch ly huratgn` a`h

sulscquc`tjy tmcgr ciickt n` muda` lcmavgnur. [ckn`hjy, mgs `ntgn` ni sgdujta`cgty,

wmgkm g`hgkatcs tmc kndlg`ch prcsc`kc ni tmc past, prcsc`t, a`h iuturc ([a`tadarga

a`h Lagjcy 17=8), gs appjgkaljc tn asscrtgn`s a`h nlockts ni stuhy g` da`y hgskgpjg`cs

jgec mgstnry, arkmacnjnby a`h a`tmrnpnjnby. Xmgs gdpjgcs tmcrc gs n`jy tmc prcsc`t, wgtm

rctc`tgn`s irnd tmc past a`h prntc`tgn`s inr tmc iuturc, a` ghca hcvcjnpch ly pmc-`ndc`njnbgst Chdu`h Musscrj, lut kn`tgùch upn` ly Xgd G`bnjh (<666) (scc alnvc).

As sukm, g` tmc stuhy ni tmc past n`jy prcsc`t dndc`ts a`h hgrckt gìcrc`kc ni tmc past

cxgst. Xmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj sta`kc tn tgdc gs tmus cssc`tgajjy a-mgstnrgkaj, lckausc tmc

past a`h tmc iuturc kn`tgùnusjy iusc tnbctmcr g` u`gquc kndpnsgtgn`s g` tmc prcsc`t

(Enjc` <663). Xmc gdpjgkatgn` ni tmc scarkm inr strukturcs gs tmat rcscarkmcrs arc `nt

n`jy gdprgsn`ch ly a `ntgn` ni tgdc as huratgn` a`h dcasurcdc`t, lut tmcy arc ajsn

kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc mgstnry ni snkgnjnbgsts tmat stuhgcs tmc kn`strag`ts n` tmc pnssglgjg-

tgcs ni muda` aktgn` ([a`tadarga a`h Lagjcy 17=8).

Mcrc [a`tadarga a`h Lagjcy g`trnhukc us tn a` u`casy hgkmntndy g` Lrauhcj‗s kn`-kcpt ni huratgn` tmat ouxtapnscs inrdaj (datmcdatgkaj, cxnbc`nus, nlocktgvc) tgdc

tmat dcasurcs mgs trgpartgtc hgvgsgn`, a`h datcrgaj (g`tcràj, sulocktgvc) tgdc tmat rc-

ajgscs tmnsc g` tcrds ni bcnbrapmgkaj, snkgaj, a`h g`hgvghuaj tgdc. Xmgs kn`trahgktgn`

gs lasch n` tmc prnljcd tmat tmc inrdaj hgvgsgn` ni tgdc c`vcjnps ajj skajcs ly n`c

a`ntmcr, wmgjc tmc datcrgaj tgdcs, hcrgvch irnd kn`kcpts ni ntmcr hgskgpjg`cs, hn `nt.

Lrauhcj asscrts tmat sulocktgvc vargaljc kn`kcpts ni tgdc, rcvcajg`b tmc rcjatgn`smgp ni

snkgaj aktgn` a`h tmc prnkcsscs ni mgstnry, hctakm tmcdscjvcs irnd nlocktgvc tgdc a`h

tmus attcdpt tn cskapc mgstnrgkaj tgdc. Xmgs mas lcc` nppnsch ly pmc`ndc`njnby

wmgkm mnjhs tmat grrcvcrsgljc nlocktgvc tgdc gs u`hc`galjc, lut aktuajjy sy`tmcsgscs tmc

dujtgpjgkgty ni sulocktgvc tcdpnraj cxpcrgc`kcs (O. \. Majj 17=6). Gt gs tmgs u`hcrsta`hg`b

tmat gs ni partgkujar g`tcrcst tn tmgs stuhy, sg`kc tmc grrcvcrsgljc nlocktgvc nw ni tgdc

(ki. Musscrj‗s tcdpnraj ux (Jukas <663) g` tmc scktgn` n` Ajirch [kmútz lcjnw) gs oust

tmc pmgjnsnpmgkaj nr akahcdgk vcmgkjc sgtuatg`b tcdpnrajgtgcs g` tmc jarbcr iradcwnre

ni kn`tgùnus hcvcjnpdc`ts.

Xmc asscrtgn`s pmc`ndc`njnby rcaktch tn hc`y tmc pnssglgjgty ni aàjysg`b kn`-

krctc pmc`ndcà a`h tmc ̀ n`-kmrn`njnbgkaj dca`g`biuj kmaraktcr ni aktuaj snkgaj jgic.

Xmgs was cxcrkgsch ly tmc strukturajgst pmgjnsnpmy ni Ajtmusscr a`h jatcr Lajglar, wmn



Axcs ni Hcvcjnpg`b [nkgctgcs <;

g`mglgtch rckn`kgjgatgn` ni tmcgr tmcnry wgtm tmc kn`krctc ly `nt g`knrpnratg`b sulock-

tgvc a`h g`tcrsulocktgvc tcdpnraj kn`kcpts. Xmcgr g`vcstgbatgn` ni snkgaj jgic rcqugrch

tmat sulocktgvgst kn`kcpts ni tgdc wcrc tra`sinrdch g`tn tmc strukturajgst chgfikc (O. \.

Majj 17=6). Xmgs ka` casgjy lc prnocktch lake tn tmc hcfikgc`ky tmat tmc A`àjcs [kmnnj

mas mah hcicktgvc attc`tgn` inr tmc tmcnrgsg`b ni tmc cvc`t as a prcsc`t dndc`t.

Xmc cvc`t was scc` as hctcrdg`ch ly tmc past a`h iuturc, jcavg`b gàhcquatc spakc

inr tmc kn`tcdpnrary, ratmcr usg`b tmc sulocktgvc g`tcrprctatgn`s ni a pcrgnh ([a`-

tadarga a`h Lagjcy 17=8). Xmc A`àjcs [kmnnj ajsn jakech a tmcnry ni snkgaj kma`bc,

nr tmc smgit irnd n`c mgstnrgkaj c`tgty tn a`ntmcr. Xmc cvc`t ka``nt sta`h ajn`c, lut gs

rchgrcktch tn tmc dnyc``c hurçc inr a`y u`hcrsta`hg`b ni gt. Gt sccds tmat tmgs gs tmc

kn`scquc`kc ni tmc jake ni g`qugry g`tn tmc ciickts ni aktgn` n` tmc krcatgn` ni struk-

turcs (ghcd). Gt gs ajsn kndparaljc tn Ajtmusscr‗s `ntgn` tmat g`hgvghuajs arc n`jy tmnsc

wmn càkt tmc hctcrdgàtc strukturc (O. \. Majj 17=6). Xmgs gs lckausc tmc jn`buc hurçcas a strukturc gs supcrgdpnsch n` tmc ntmcr tcdpnraj skajcs. G` nrhcr inr kma`bc tn

mappc` a` cvc`t smnujh cxkcch tmc jgdgts nr nlstakjcs hcfi`ch ly tmc strukturc ni tmc

jn`buc hurçc, tmcrcly tmc gssuc ni gts krcatgn` gs avnghch ([a`tadarga a`h Lagjcy 17=8).

Xmgs dca`s tmat g` nrhcr tn rcakm a` u`hcrsta`hg`b ni jn`b tcrd hcvcjnpdc`ts, wc

`cch tn dnvc lcyn`h strukturajgst nlocktgvc tgdc tnwarhs a` u`hcrsta`hg`b ni g`hg-

vghuaj sulocktgvc tgdc g` a` g`tcrsulocktgvc tcdpnraj wnrjh. [nkgn-tcdpnraj dca`g`b gs

prnhukch n` nkkasgn`s, as Majj arbucs? ‚Cakm snkgaj nkkasgn` mas sulocktgvc tcdpnraj

jnkatgn`s ecych tn tmc pasts a`h a`tgkgpatch iuturcs ni tmc pcrsn`s g`vnjvch U…T5 tmcy

arc c`dcsmch g` `n`-scquc`tgaj sulocktgvc kn`tcxts ni dca`g`b, wmgkm bgvc a` cxtra-kmrn`njnbgkaj kmaraktcr tn uìnjhg`b snkgaj jgic.— (O. \. Majj 17=6? 1<8-1<3)

Axgs ni Xgdc - [ulocktgvc Xgdc

Xmgs lrg`bs us lake tn tmc ainrcdc`tgn`ch hgstg`ktgn` ni tmc tgdc ni snkgaj jgic a`h

snkgaj cvnjutgn` (G`bnjh 17=9). Xmc snkgaj jgic taecs pjakc g` rcaj tgdc, wmgjc snkgaj

cvnjutgn`, wmgkm gs krcatch tmrnubm kn`tg`bc`t snkgaj jgic, ka` lc jalcjjch as taeg`b

pjakc g` a` c`jarbch, alstrakt tgdc. Ajsn, kndparc tmcsc `ntgn`s wgtm G`bnjh‗s taec

n` tmc A a`h L-scrgcs dc`tgn`ch lcinrc, arrgvg`b at tmc tcdpnrajgty ni taseskapcs tmat

npcratc snkgaj jgic (G`bnjh <666). Nvcrajj, G`bnjh tgcs hgiicrc`t typcs a`h cxpcrgc`kcs

ni tgdc g`trgkatcjy tnbctmcr g`tn a ”kn`tgùnus statc‗ ni prcsc`t. [trn`bjy gùc`kch

ly pmc`ndc`njnbgst cxpcrgc`tgajgsd, icaturg`b tmc tcdpnraj nkkasgn`s ni g`hgvghuajs,

G`bnjh iurtmcr cjalnratcs n` tmc kn`kcpt ni tmc prcsc`t g` mgs lnne Xmc Vcrkcptgn` ni

tmc C`vgrn`dc`t . Xmc prcsc`t gs tmc skajc g` wmgkm çvc`cdc`ts taec pjakc. G` hng`b sn

mc aktuajjy prnvghcs a pjausgljc tmcscs inr wmat tmc utgjgsatgn` ni tmc A`àjcs [kmnnj

was dgssg`b. Injjnwg`b asscrtgn`s dahc ly pmc`ndc`njnbgsts jgec Dcrjcau-Vn`ty a`h

Bcjj, mc kn`kcptuajgscs tmc prcsc`t as a u`gquc dndc`t tmat g`knrpnratcs a vgsta ni tmc



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs<8

past a`h tmc iuturc tmat n`jy gs avagjaljc inr tmat spckgfik dndc`t a`h ̀ n ntmcr. \atmcr

tma` lcg`b hcjgdgtch tn tmc past nr tmc prcsc`t, gt batmcrs tmc past a`h tmc iuturc g`tn

gtscji, càljg`b gt tn dnvc (g` tgdc) wgtmnut krnssg`b tcdpnraj lnu`hargcs (ghcd). Xmgs

daecs a bnnh kn`tcxt inr cvc`ts tn npcratc g` a`h taec n` spckgfik dca`g`bs akknrh-

g`b tn tmc sulocktgvgtgcs ni tgdc.

[ulocktgvgst mgstnrga`s mavc gb`nrch sulocktgvc tgdc, wmgjc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj

aàjysgs ni tgdc mas rcdag`ch a-mgstnrgkaj. Xn rcsnjvc tmgs mgatus pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj

apprnakmcs dust lc appjgch tn tmc cdpgrgkaj tases ni g`tcrprctatgvc snkgnjnby a`h

mgstnrgnbrapmy (O. \. Majj 17=6). Inr g`vcstgbatgn`s ajn`b tmcsc jg`cs, Musscrj‗s pmc`nd-

c`njnbgkaj aàjysgs ni cssc`tgaj strukturcs ni tgdc-kn`skgnus`css ka` lc usch tn hcrgvc

ajtcràtgvc kn`kcpts ni tgdc, usg`b tmcd tn c`rgkm snkgnjnbgkaj kn`kcpts a`h aàjysc

spckgfik mgstnrgkaj hcvcjnpdc`ts. Xmgs appjgch pmc`ndc`njnby rcknb`gscs inur ghcaj-

gsch typcs ni sulocktgvc tcdpnraj nrgc`tatgn`s, lasch n` Musscrj‗s a prgnrg pnssglgjgtgcs nitgdc-kn`skgnus`css? sy`kmrn`gk (rcicrrg`b tn tmc g`tcrsulocktgvc tcdpnraj nrgc`tatgn`s

tmc ”`nw‗ gs tmc jnkus ni g`hgvghuaj a`h knjjcktgvc attc`tgn`, iujjy kn`skgnusjy ”jgvch

tgdc‗), hgakmrn`gk (hc-cdpmasgscs tmc ”`nw‗ g` iavnur ni rcprnhuktgn` ni tmc past a`h

a`tgkgpatgn` ni tmc iuturc), stratcbgk (cxkjusgvc cdpmasgs n` tmc a`tgkgpatgn` ni tmc

iuturc, bnaj hgrcktch, hctcrdg`g`b aktgn`s g` tmc ”`nw‗ wgtm tmc past n`jy kn`strag`-

g`b pnssgljc aktgn`s), ctcràj (hcrgvg`b dca`g`b irnd a dytmgkaj past, prckchg`b a`y

hgakmrn`y, attag`g`b a kmaraktcr ni tgdcjcss rckrcatgn`) (ghcd). Cspckgajjy tmgs jast tcd-

pnraj nrgc`tatgn` gs ajsn wmcrc n`c knujh jnkatc kcrtag` kujturaj spckgfik ghcas n` tgdc.

Da`y kujturaj (dytmgkaj) kn`kcpts ni tgdc mavc lcc` hcvcjnpch, varyg`b irnd Jçvg-[trauss‗ a`h Jcakm‗s strukturajgst nppnsgtgn`s g` tcdpnraj kndpn`c`ts (Jukas <663) tn

tmc dnrc rgkm a`h kndpjcx kn`kcpts as prgdnrhgaj a`h kgrkujar tgdc, cjalnratch upn`

ly Dgrkca Cjgahc (Cjgahc 1737). Mnwcvcr kujturajjy c`tgkg`b, tmcsc ghcas hn `nt hgrcktjy

kn`trglutc tn tmc dnrc iu`hadc`taj kmaraktcr ni tgdc at staec mcrc.

Xmc appjgkatgn` ni pmc`ndc`njnby, aktuajjy a inrd ni [kmútz‗s kn`stgtutgvc pmc-

`ndc`njnby (Kjnec c.a. 1771), knujh cstaljgsm Musscrj‗s jgic-wnrjh as tmc zn`c ni sn-

kgnjnbgkaj aàjysgs, a`h sulocktgvc tgdc as tmc lasgs inr dca`g`b, snkgaj aktgn`, kndpjcx

ficjhs ni snkgaj aktgn`, a`h mgstnry. Majj rcdares tmat da`y cvc`ts mappc` g` rcajds

ni aktgvgty, wmgkm arc `nt cssc`tgajjy tgch tn a`y jnkatgn` n` tmc nlocktgvc tgdc skajc,

wmgjc nlocktgvc tgdc g` hgiicrc`t ways rcdag`s dnrc nr jcss gdpnrta`t. Xmcy mavc tmcgr

dca`g`b g` tmc kn`tc`t ni snkgaj jgic (O. \. Majj 17=6). Xmgs g`hgkatcs tmat gi tmc cvc`t,

hcspgtc mavg`b a huratgn` g` nlocktgvc tgdc, gs `nt tgch tn spckgfik jnkatgn`s g` tmat

tgdc, wc mavc sukkcssiujjy rcpjakch tmc `cch inr kmrn`njnby wgtmnut jnsg`b tnukm

wgtm nlocktgvc tgdc. Xmc rcjatgn`s wgtmg` sulocktgvc tgdc arc dnrc dca`g`biuj tma`

sulstgtutg`b gt wgtm tmc kn`sckutgvc àturc ni cvc`ts g` kmrn`njnby. G` sukm tcdpnraj

g`tcrkn``cktch`css gt suifikcs tn say tmat tmc tcdpnrajgtgcs ni prnkcsscs arc nlocktgvcjy

tgch (rmytmds a`h tgdc-spa`s), yct tmcgr cxakt pnsgtgn` g` nlocktgvc tgdc g` gtscji hncs




`nt mnjh gìcrc`tgaj vajuc. Xmcgr npcratgnàj inrkc as a knb-wmccj g` tmc prnbrcssgn` ni

snkgaj jgic hncs. Xmc skajc ni nlocktgvc tcdpnraj kma`bc day tra`skc`h tmc g`hgvghuaj‗s

kn`skgnus`css, lut tmc pmc`ndcà tmcdscjvcs cdlnhy sulocktgvc tcdpnrajgty. ‚Gi wc

arc tn avngh a eg`h ni alstraktgn` wmgkm nlskurcs tmc àturc ni tmcsc pmc`ndcà, wc

dust g`sgst tmat cvcry kn`kcpt ni snkgaj tgdc U…T lc lasch g` part n` rcicrc`kc tn tcd-

pnraj sulocktgvc akts ni kn`skgnus`css.— (ghcd? 1<9) Huc tn snkgaj jgic lcg`b hcpc`hc`t

n` cvc`ts (nr nkkasgnàj nppnrtu`gtgcs inr mappc`g`bs), sulscquc`tjy g`tcrkn``cktch

wgtm a` alstraktch tgdcskajc cxtc`hch g`tn snkgaj cvnjutgn`, tmc jn`b tcrd kn`kcr`

lckndcs scparatch irnd tmat nlocktgvc iradcwnre as wcjj. Xmc sulocktgvc tcdpnrajgty

gssuc gs `nw kn`kcptuajgsch as dndc`targjy spckgfik pcrkcptgn` ni tmc past a`h tmc

iuturc (tmc prcsc`t ni cvc`ts) g` tmc kn`tcxt ni snkgaj jgic. Lntm sulockts a`h rcscarkm-

crs ahmcrc tn tmat, sn sulocktgvc tgdc ciicktgvcjy lckndcs a` ajj g`kjusgvc `ntgn`. Gi

tcdpnrajgtgcs arc kausatgvc ni tmc npcratgn` ni snkgaj jgic, tmcy dust lc g`malgtch lymuda` lcg`bs, jcahg`b tn tmc awarc`css tmat muda` aktgn`s arc cvc`ts. Gt gs abag`st

tmgs lakehrnp tmat tmc g`tcrprctgvc pntc`tgaj ni tcdpnrajgtgcs g` tmc stuhy ni hcvcjnpg`b

snkgctgcs smnujh lc apprckgatch.

Axgs ni Muda` Aktgn` - Hgskgpjg`ch Muda`gsd

Muda` aktgn` cvc`tuajjy hcpc`hs n` tmc algjgty ni a muda` lcg`b tn pcrinrd tmat ak-

tgn`. [g`kc `nt n`jy aktgn`, lut pmysgnjnbgkajjy spcaeg`b, ajsn muda` lcg`bs arc fi`gtc

(tmus tcdpnraj), a kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni muda` lcg`bs `ckcssargjy taecs g`tn akknu`ttmc bgvc` prckn`hgtgn` ni tmc nw ni tgdc a`h tmc cxgstc`kc ni tcdpnrajgtgcs. Xmcrc

mavc lcc` da`y hgskgpjg`cs at vargnus pcrgnhs tmat hcvcjnpch tmcgr nw` da`ginjh hcfi-

`gtgn`s ni ”da`‗, lut gt wnujh scrvc `n purpnsc tn lc cxmaustgvc mcrc. Dnst gdpnr-

ta`t inr tmgs stuhy arc tmnsc vgcws tmat, hgrcktjy nr g`hgrcktjy gùc`kch ly muda`gst

tmnubmt, pjakc muda` lcg`bs g` tmc kn`tcxt ni tmcgr aktgn`s. G` ahhgtgn`, cxgstc`tgajgst

pmgjnsnpmgcs mavc tmnrnubmjy sgtuatch muda` lcg`bs g` tmcgr c`vgrn`dc`t a`h scpa-

ratcjy gùc`kch da`y hgskgpjgàry apprnakmcs. Da` gs a` aktg`b lcg`b. [g`kc lntm

da` a`h mgs aktgn`s arc tcdpnraj, da` as a iakgjgtatnr inr aktgn` wgtm pmysgkajjy prc-

kn`hgtgn`ch algjgtgcs a`h pntc`tgajjy càljch ly ircc wgjj gs dnst sgb`gfika`t mcrc.

G` tmc first pjakc, muda` lcg`bs mavc trahgtgnàjjy lckndc tmc inkus ni a`tmrnpnj-

nby. Xmc pnsgtgn` ni tmgs hgskgpjg`c gs spckgaj huc tn gts twninjh kmaraktcr, g`tcràjjy

u`gtg`b tmc àturaj skgc`tgfik apprnakm ni pmysgkaj a`tmrnpnjnby wgtm tmc snkgaj a`h

kujturaj kmaraktcrgsatgn` ni da` a`h mgs c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmgs twninjh kmaraktcr gs sck-

n`hch ly arkmacnjnby wmgkm mas lcc` mcavgjy gùc`kch ly a`tmrnpnjnbgkaj tmnubmt,

g` tmc S`gtch [tatcs g` partgkujar. Lcinrc kn`vcrbg`b tmc pmysgkaj muda` lcg`b wgtm gts

snkgaj knu`tcrpart g` spckgfik hctagjs, bng`b lake tn tmc krahjc ni pnsgtgn`g`b muda`

lcg`b kc`trcinjh tn akahcdgk aàjysgs wgjj lc dnst gìnrdatgvc inr tmc u`hcrsta`hg`b






trcatgsc tmat g`trnhukcs a`h kn`tcxtuajgscs tmc purpnsciuj `ntgn`s inr tmc axgs ni mu-

da` aktgn` g` Rclcr‗s wnre.

Rclcr‗s vcrsgn` ni muda` aktgn` c`tagjs lntm cdntgn` a`h vajucs, as wcjj as ra-

tgnàj kajkujatgn` a`h g`kjuhcs vajuc-ircc snkgaj skgc`kc. Xmgs kng`kghcs wgtm mgs pcrsnàj

huajgty, as mc lntm ahdgrch tmc akmgcvcdc`ts ni dnhcr` snkgcty, wmgjc apprckgatg`b

hgiicrc`t kujturcs as a snkgnjnbgst. G` mgs vgcw, snkgnjnby attcdpts tmc g`tcrprctgvc u`-

hcrsta`hg`b ni snkgaj aktgn` g` nrhcr tn cxpjag` gts kausc a`h ciickts. Yajuc-ircc sgb`gfics

tmat a skgc`tgst hctakmcs mgdscji irnd pcrsnàj vajucs, sg`kc tmcsc ka``nt lc hchukch

irnd cdpgrgkajjy nlscrvaljc iakts. Mnwcvcr, tmc skgc`tgfik apprnakm smnujh `cgtmcr lc

a kndprndgsc ni tmcnrgcs wmc` g`tcrprctg`b nr cxpjag`g`b snkgaj pmc`ndcà. [ukm

vajuc kndprndgsc gs `nt dahc, mc mnjhs, wmc` kmnnsg`b pmc`ndcà tn stuhy. Xmgs gs

hn`c lcinrc skgc`tgfik g`vcstgbatgn` gtscji, as jn`b as n`c smnws tmat tmcsc kmngkcs mavc

lcc` dahc. Iurtmcrdnrc mc mcjh tmat g` nrhcr tn u`hcrsta`h a`h cxpjag` lcmavgnur,n`c dust c`tcr tmc dg`h a`h dnnh ni snkgaj aktnrs. Vut hgiicrc`tjy, tmgs wnujh lc

jgec tmc cdpatmy cdpjnych ly a`tmrnpnjnbgsts jgec Lnas, Huremcgd, Jçvg-[trauss a`h

Bccrtz. Mnwcvcr, Rclcr says gt gs `nt `ckcssary tn c`hnrsc aktnr‗s tmnubmts a`h iccj-

g`bs, lut n`c smnujh lc rcstrgktch tn hcdn`stratc tmcgr dca`s (Kadplcjj 17=1).

Inr Rclcr, snkgaj aktgn` gs `nt tmc sadc as lcmavgnur. Inr cxadpjc, dnvcdc`t gs

n`jy aktgn` wmc` gt g`vnjvcs dca`g`b inr tmc aktnr. Xmgs rcqugrcs awarc`css (aàjysch

g` tcrds ni tmc cxpcrgc`kc ni g`tc`tgn`s), dntgvcs a`h iccjg`bs, hctakmch irnd dnvc-

dc`t wgtmnut g`tc`tgnàj rcicrc`kc. Aktgn` gs snkgaj g`sniar as tmc dca`g`b attakmch

taecs g`tn akknu`t tmc lcmavgnur ni ntmcrs. Mc cxkjuhcs aktgn`s abag`st tmg`bs, u`jcsstmcy mavc sgb`gfika`kc inr tmc aktgn`s ni ntmcrs (c.b. arts a`h kraits prnhuktgn`). Gt

hncs `nt rcqugrc dutuaj awarc`css, lut at jcast n`c g`hgvghuaj bgvg`b dca`g`b tn tmc

aktgn` g` tcrds ni sulocktgvc cxpcrgc`kc. S`hcrsta`hg`b snkgaj aktgn` (g`tcjjcktuajjy,

cdpatmctgkajjy a`h assudptgvc) rcqugrcs cvghc`kc ni tmc snkgaj dca`g`b bgvc` tn gt ly

aktnrs, rcqugrg`b a tntaj u`hcrsta`hg`b ni tmc kndpjcx ni dca`g`b tmc aktnr uscs tn

cxpjag` mgs rcasn`s. Xmcrcinrc e`nwg`b tmc sydlnjs (usuajjy ja`buabc) gs `ckcssary.

Xmcrc gs a hgiicrc`kc lctwcc` u`hcrsta`hg`b a`h cxpjag`g`b aktgn` g` kausaj tcrds.

[nkgnjnbgkaj u`hcrsta`hg`b ni aktgn` gs lasch n` sta`harh dca`g`bs ni typgkaj snkgaj

aktgn`s tmat ka` lc cxprcssch g` knddn` sydlnjs. Xmcrcinrc, u`hcrsta`hg`b a` ak-

tgn` gs rcknb`gsg`b gt as a typc ni aktgvgty kmaraktcrgstgk tn tmat snkgcty. Xmc aktnr mas tn

rcknb`gsc gt as fittg`b a typc. Xmc rcscarkmcr `cchs tn mypntmcsgsc a typc ni kn`hukt

knddn` tn g`hgvghuajs g` sukm sgtuatgn`s (ghcd).

G` tmgs ajdnst kausaj bc`crajgsatgn` Rclcr‗s dnst gdpnrta`t kn`kcpt ajrcahy

appcars? tmc ghcaj typc . Ghcaj typcs ahmcrc tn tmc spjgt ni u`hcrsta`hg`b a` nlocktgvc

kausaj cxpjaàtgn`. Xmcy arc dca`g`biuj sgdpjgfich dnhcjs ni snkgaj aktgvgtgcs usch g`

tmc g`tcrprctatgn` ni muda` lcmavgnur. Ghcaj pcrtag`s tn mavg`b vajuc ircc ghcas ni

aktgn`, cxtrapnjatgn`s ni scjcktch aspckts ni aktgn` tmat inrd a` g`tcjjgbgljc kndpjcx



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs<=

g` wmgkm wc ka` u`hcrsta`h aktuaj lcmavgnur. Rclcr subbcsts ghcaj typcs arc `nt

kausaj bc`crajgsatgn`s g` tmcdscjvcs, lut ka` lc utgjgsch tn cdpgrgkajjy kjassgiy a`h

tn hraw kn``cktgn`s lctwcc` snkgaj pmc`ndcà. Ajsn, tmcy prnvghc cxpjaàtgn`s ni

cdpgrgkaj knrrcjatgn`s tn scc dca`g`biuj kn``cktgn`s lctwcc` vajucs a`h nlscrvaljc

snkgnjnbgkaj iakts. [ukm ghcaj typcs arc `nt kndpjctc rcprcsc`tatgn`s, lut scjcktgvc

nvcrsgdpjgfikatgn`s tn prndntc u`hcrsta`hg`b ni tmc àturc ni snkgaj pmc`ndcà

(ghcd).

Rclcr‗s tmcnry ni da` gs kndprgsch ni inur ghcaj typcs ni muda` aktgn`. 1) \atgnàj

kn`hukt? tmc dnst ciicktgvc dca`s tn akmgcvc a` c`h g` partgkujar kgrkudsta`kcs a`h

sghc-ciickts ni tmcsc dca`s tn mgs ntmcr purpnscs. <) Yajuc-ratgnàj kn`hukt? u`kn`hg-

tgnàj vajuc ni tmc aktgvgty a`h tmc dca`s tn akmgcvc tmc vajuch nlocktgvcs. ;) Aiicktgvc

nr cdntgnàj aktgn`? hndgàtch ly iccjg`b, tmus grratgnàj. 8) Xrahgtgnàjgst, malgtuaj

kn`hukt? cstaljgsmch praktgkcs a`h rcspcktg`b cxgstg`b autmnrgty, wmgkm arc n`jy par-tgajjy kn`skgnus a`h ratgnàj. Xmcsc ghcaj typcs akt as ways tn bgvc dca`g`b tn aktgn`.

Xnbctmcr tmcy kndpnsc a pgkturc ni a`y g`hgvghuaj akknrhg`b tn tmcgr lcmavgnur a`h

vajucs. Vcnpjc vary akknrhg`b tn tmgs kndpnsgtc a`h tmc vajucs tmcy kmnnsc. Mnwcvcr,

pcnpjc arc ircc tn kmnnsc tmcgr vajucs, wmgkm wgjj gùc`kc tmcgr aktgn`s `nt ahmcrg`b

tn a u`gvcrsaj sct ni vajucs. G` mgs ̀ ntgn`s n` u`gvcrsajgsd, Rclcr was kjcarjy gùc`kch

ly @gctzskmc‗s cxgstc`tgajgsd. Vcnpjc arc gùc`kch g` tmcgr kmngkcs ly tmcgr snkgaj rc-

jatgn`smgps a`h prn`c tn injjnw autmnrgtatgvc strukturcs. As sukm, tmc tmcnry ni da` gs

c`ta`bjch wgtm tmc tmcnry ni snkgcty. Xmc kndpnsgtc pgkturcs ni g`hgvghuajs lasch n`

tmc ghcaj typcs ni aktgn` arc tmc lugjhg`b ljnkes ni snkgcty kapturch wgtmg` ghcaj typcsni snkgaj g`tcraktgn`. Mc hcvcjnpch ghcaj typcs ni sukm pmc`ndcà g` nrhcr tn kn`trast

trahgtgnàj a`h ratgnàj (nitc` kn`tcdpnrary) typcs ni snkgcty, rchukgljc tn dca`g`biuj

pattcr`s ni g`tcraktgn` c.b. snkgaj rcjatgn`smgps (ghcd).

Rmat wc day taec irnd Rclcr‗s tmcnry gs prgdargjy mgs inkus n` aktgn` a`h tmc

sgb`gfika`kc ni aktgn` g` tmc kn`tcxt ni kn`stgtutg`b snkgcty. Hgskursgvcjy, mgs `ntgn` ni

tmc ghcaj typc gs ajsn ni g`tcrcst. Gt ajjnws aprgnrgstgk hcfi`gtgn` wgtmnut ̀ ckcssgtatg`b cx-

gstc`kc ni gts rcprcsc`tatgn`s g` rcajgty. Aprgnrgstgk rcasn`g`b gs ajsn tmc lasgs inr Juhwgb

vn` Dgscs‗ ghcajgst tmcnry ni snkgcty.

Axgs ni Muda` Aktgn` - Juhwgb vn` Dgscs

G` tmc jgbmt ni muda` aktgn` a`h Rclcr‗s ghcas, gt gs a jnbgkaj kn`tgùatgn` tn taec g`tn

akknu`t tmc wnre ni ckn`ndgst Juhwgb vn` Dgscs (1==1-172;). Ajtmnubm mgs c`tgrc

tmcnry ni muda` aktgn` a`h snkgcty mah tmc agd ni prnvghg`b a tmnrnubm tmcnry inr

ckn`ndy, mgs vcry purc `ntgn` ni muda` aktgn` gs `nt n`jy vcry kndprcmc`sgljc, lut

ajsn tmcnrctgkajjy pcrsuasgvc inr jatcr spckgfikatgn`s g` snkgaj tmcnry. G` mgs g`sgbmtiuj

a`h prnvnkatgvc lnne Muda` Aktgn` (nrgbgàjjy puljgsmch g` 1787), mc bgvcs a vcry




kjcar hcfi`gtgn`? ‚Muda` aktgn` gs purpnsciuj lcmavgnr.— (vn` Dgscs 177=? 11) As mc

cjnquc`tjy arbucs, tmgs hcfi`gtgn` smnujh `nt `cch iurtmcr cxpjaàtgn`, lut knujh lc

cjalnratch wgtm da`y kjargiyg`b asscrtgn`s, wmgkm day prcvc`t dgsg`tcrprctatgn`. As

purpnsciuj lcmavgnur, muda` aktgn` sta`hs g` smarp kn`trast tn u`kn`skgnus lcmav-

gnur, g.c. dag`jy rccxgvc pmysgnjnbgkaj aktgn`s. Inr vn` Dgscs praxcnjnby , tmc bc`craj

tmcnry ni muda` aktgn`, gs tmc lasgs. Vraxcnjnby gs `nt kn`kcr`ch wgtm mnw aktgn`s

knb`gtgvcjy kadc alnut, wmgkm gs g` tmc rcajd ni psykmnjnby, lut trujy inkuscs n`

tmc aktgn`s tmcdscjvcs. Aktgn`s as purpnsciuj lcmavgnur mavc a tcjcnjnbgkaj kmaraktcr.

Xmcy arc agdch tn a` c`h a`h mavc a (ratgnàj) dca`g`b inr tmc aktnr pcrinrdg`b tmc

aktgn`. Aktgn` gs `nt oust bgvg`b prcicrc`kc. Xmgs gs ajsn hn`c g` uàvnghaljc sgtuatgn`s

nr lcjgci. ‚Mc wmn n`jy wgsmcs a`h mnpcs hncs ̀ nt g`tcricrc aktgvcjy wgtm tmc knursc ni

cvc`ts a`h wgtm tmc smapg`b ni mgs nw` hcstg`y. Lut aktg`b da` kmnnscs, hctcrdg`cs,

a`h trgcs tn rcakm a` c`h. Ni twn tmg`bs lntm ni wmgkm mc ka``nt mavc tnbctmcr mcscjckts n`c a`h bgvcs up tmc ntmcr. Aktgn` tmcrcinrc ajways g`vnjvcs lntm taeg`b a`h

rcù`kgatgn`.— (ghcd? 1<) Gi tmnubmts arc cxprcssch rcicrrg`b tn aktgn`s (a`ù`kgatgn`,

rcknddc`hatgn`, rcocktgn`), tmgs smnujh `nt lc knìusch wgtm aktgn`. Aktgn` gs rcaj,

`nt tmc tmg`bs ̀ nt rcajgsch. Mnwcvcr, tmat gs ̀ nt tn say tmat aktgn` gs ̀ nt cxtc`hch g`tn

tmc wnrjh ni spcckm, as aktgn` ka` c`tagj kmnnsg`b tn taje nr `nt tn taje, nr kn`sudp-

tgn` a`h cònydc`t as wcjj as alstag`g`b irnd tmcd. Xmcrc gs `n hgstg`ktgn` tn lc

dahc lctwcc` a` aktgvc nr passgvc dc`tajgty, inr tmc kmngkc ̀ nt tn akt gs ajsn aktgn` as

gt day aiickt tmc knursc ni cvc`ts. ‚Rmcrcvcr tmc kn`hgtgn`s inr muda` g`tcricrc`kc

arc prcsc`t, da` akts ̀ n dattcr wmctmcr mc g`tcricrcs nr rcirag`s irnd g`tcricrg`b. U…T Aktgn` gs `nt n`jy hng`b lut `n jcss ndgttg`b tn hn wmat pnssgljy knujh lc hn`c.—

(ghcd? 1;) [jgbmtjy tautnjnbgkajjy, n`c knujh say tmat aktgn` gs tmc da`gicstatgn` nr

prnhukt ni da`‗s wgjj nr kmngkc. Aktgn` a`h gts dca`g`b hcpc`h n` tmc ircchnd ni

kmngkc. Vut g`tn a snkgaj scttg`b, da` gs `nt cdpatmctgk, lut u`hcrsta`hs a`ntmcr ly

dca`s ni mgdscji. Xmc sadc nrhgàj hckgsgn` prnkcss taecs pjakc g` aktgn`s lcarg`b

snkgaj kn`scquc`kcs as tmnsc pcrinrdch c`tgrcjy inr tmc lc`cfit ni n`cscji (ghcd).

Yn` Dgscs gs sagh tn lc n`c ni Rclcr‗s scvcrcst krgtgks a`h injjnws mgs tmcnry tmrnubm

g` a prgstg`c way, as nppnsch tn wmat knujh lc sagh ni Rclcr. Xmc hgiicrc`kc gs tmat

vn` Dgscs was `nt kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc gìcrc`kc ni aktuaj sgtuatgn`s, lut ratmcr was

lugjhg`b a` ghcajgsch wnrjh tmat iu`ktgn`s g` a kndpjctcjy jnbgkaj way. Xmcrcinrc tmcrc

was `n `cch tn taec g`tn akknu`t hcvgatgn`s tmat dgbmt nkkur g` tmc appjgkatgn` ni mgs

ghcas, as tmc prckn`hgtgn`s wnujh `nt lc dct g` aktuaj sgtuatgn`s. Mc wnres g` a trujy

aprgnrgstgk way. G` spgtc ni lcg`b hctakmch irnd aktuajgty, mgs purc tmcnrctgkaj `ntgn`s

ka` lc gìnrdatgvc g` tmc sadc way Rclcr‗s ghcaj typcs ka` lc. Aktuaj sgtuatgn`s day

lc kn`trastch abag`st mgs asscrtgn`s a`h ways ni (ckn`ndgk) gdprnvcdc`t day lc

sct nut upn` tmc g`sgbmt tmat gs prnhukch. @ntc, mnwcvcr, tmat vn` Dgscs‗ purpnsciuj

ratgnàjgty gs `nt a` ghcaj typc g` tmc sc`sc ni Rclcr, sg`kc tmc way tn akt wnujh `nt



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs;6

lc u`gvcrsaj. Hcspgtc tmgs hgiicrc`kc, vn` Dgscs rcknb`gscs g` mgs praxcnjnby tmat at a`

alstrakt jcvcj tmcrc arc u`hcrjyg`b rujcs tn aktgn` tmat arc u`gvcrsaj. Xmcrc arc knd-

dnàjgtgcs g` aktgn` tmat tmrnubm rcscarkm ka` lc inu`h as vajgh inr ajj pcnpjc ni ajj

cras, rakcs a`h snkgaj kjasscs (ghcd). Xmgs partgajjy u`gvcrsajgstgk tc`hc`ky ni vn` Dgscs

ka` lc kndparch tn Mnhhcr‗s usc ni Rnlst‗s dnhcjs ni krnss-kujturaj bc`crajgsatgn` g`

styjgstgk tragts as dcssabcs knupjch tn tmc sgzc ni snkgaj u`gts nr tmc vgsglgjgty ni artciakts.

Mnhhcr g`tc`hch tn strcss kujturaj hgiicrc`kcs n` tmc lasgs ni tmcsc bc`crajgsatgn`s,

prnvghg`b nppnrtu`gtgcs inr kndpargsn` (Mnhhcr 17=9). Xmc u`gvcrsajgsd ni snkgaj

prnkcsscs mcrc, mnwcvcr, smnujh `nt sn dukm jcah tn hgskcr`g`b kujturaj hgiicrc`kcs,

lut ratmcr aiinrh kujturaj kma`bcs.

Yn` Dgscs‗ wnre prnvghcs us wgtm n`c ni tmc dnst kndpcjjg`b, u`knrruptch hcfi-

`gtgn`s ni muda` aktgn` a`h tmgs gs wmat wc smnujh eccp g` dg`h, tmnubm iurtmcr

hcvcjnpch rcasn`g`b n` tmc lasgs ni muda` aktgn` dgbmt cjalnratc nr kma`bc gts à-turc. Ajsn, vn` Dgscs‗ g`hgvghuajgstgk a`h scji-rcicrc`tgaj vgcw ni snkgaj da` gs a strn`b,

yct kn`kgsc va`tabc png`t inr kn`tgùch cxpjnratgn`s g`tn snkgctgcs. Ajtmnubm da`y

snkgnjnbgsts, pmgjnsnpmcrs a`h a`tmrnpnjnbgsts wnujh arbuc abag`st gt, G ad kn`vg`kch

ly tmc cxgstc`kc ni ircc wgjj a`h tmc ircchnd ni kmngkc. Knìnrdgst aktgn`s arc stgjj a

kmngkc a`h cxprcss tmat tmc kn`scquc`kc ni rcsgsta`kc nr alstg`c`kc wgjj mavc lcc`

c`vgsgn`ch as jcss iavnuraljc. Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau cxadg`cs sukm ̀ ntgn`s g` sndc hctagj,

lut cxtc`hs mgs rcscarkm g`tn knb`gtgn` a`h tmc g`vgsgljc lcmg`h gt. A scji-rcicrc`tgaj u`-

hcrsta`hg`b ni tmc wnrjh gs part ni pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj vgcws n` pcrkcptgn`, da` a`h

mgs c`vgrn`dc`t. [tgjj tmc ghcajgstgk tmcnry ni vn` Dgscs rcsts uàiicktch g` ajj gts purgty,pnsgtgn`g`b aktgn` kc`trcinjh g` hcvcjnpg`b snkgcty.

Axgs ni Muda` Aktgn` - Ajirch [kmútz

G` snkgnjnbgkaj ahva`kcdc`t ni snkgaj tmcnrgsg`b, n`c ni vn` Dgscs stuhc`ts mas lc-

kndc dnst gùc`tgaj? Ajirch [kmútz (1=77-1737). Mc was ̀ nt kn`kcr`ch wgtm ckn`n-

dy lut snkgnjnby, a`h inu`h mgdscji strn`bjy g`spgrch ly tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj ghcas

ni Chdu`h Musscrj. Mgs ghcas kadc tn lc e`nw` inr g`trnhukg`b pmc`ndc`njnby tn

snkgnjnbgkaj tmnubmt. Mc sct tmc first stcp g` scceg`b tn kjargiy Rclcr‗s snkgnjnby g`

tcrds ni Musscrj‗s pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj pmgjnsnpmy. Xmgs pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj snkgnjnby

cxpnsch ntmcrwgsc nlskurc pmgjnsnpmgkaj ghcas, a`h g` hng`b sn suppnrtch u`hcr-

sta`hg`b ni wmat mc kajjch tmc snkgaj wnrjh. Inu`hg`b pmc`ndc`njnby, Musscrj mah

kn`kcptuajgsch tmc ”strcad ni g`tcràj tgdc-kn`skgnus`css‗ as tmc snurkc ni dca`g`b,

tmcrcly bgvg`b a prninu`h krgtgquc ni Rclcr‗s sulocktgvcjy dca`g`biuj aktgn` (O. \. Majj

17=6). Xmgs prgdnrhgaj, prc-rccxgvc ghca ni tgdc gs hcrgvch irnd a` ghca ni tmc mctcrn-

bc`cnus kn`tgùud ni tgdc hciyg`b a hcfi`gtgn` g` jgvch cxpcrgc`kc. Xmgs mc cxprcssch

as tmc tcdpnraj ux (Jukas <663).



Axcs ni Hcvcjnpg`b [nkgctgcs ;1

[ukm kn`kcpt ni tgdc hcdn`stratcs tmat Musscrj‗s pmc`ndc`njnby gs a dctapmysg-

kaj n`c, gùc`kch ly Kartcsga` ratgnàjgsd. Xmgs ghcajgst ratgnàjgsd c`tagjs tmc cxgst-

c`kc ni tmc trutm ni tmc wnrjh nr nlockts, lcinrc skgc`kc nr muda` sulocktgvgty knujh

dg`bjc wgtm gt. G` mgs prc-rccxgvc nr prc-skgc`tgfik (g.c. lcinrc kn`kcptuajgsatgn` taecs

pjakc) tgdc, tmcrc gs a sjgbmt pnsgtgvgst tc`hc`ky kn`kurrg`b wgtm mgs dctapmysgks. @cv-

crtmcjcss, gt kadc as a` nppnsg`b rcaktgn` tn pnsgtgvgstgk rcscarkmcrs gb`nrg`b tmcgr

nw` g`vnjvcdc`t. Musscrj was `nt a` ahvcrsary ni tmc prcvajc`t àturajgst attgtuhc ni

skgc`kc. Aktuajjy mc strcssch tmat muda`gst tmgècrs `cchch tn hcvcjnp a pmgjnsnpmy

tmat c`tagjch hgstg`ktgvc dctmnhnjnbgcs tn lc aljc tn u`hcrsta`h tmc g``cr muda`gty.

Xmcrcinrc mc inu`h tmat, as was tmc praktgkc at tmc tgdc, tmc g``cr wnrjh ni muda`

lcg`b smnujh ̀ nt lc stuhgch wgtm tmc sadc dctmnhs usch ly tmc rcscarkmcrs ni ̀ aturc

(tmc nutcr wnrjh). Vnsgtgvgstgk skgc`kc iagjs g` hcajg`b wgtm tmc hgspnsgtgn` a`h lcmavgnur

ni ”tmg`bs‗ lckausc ni a` a prgnrg kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni cssc`kcs tmat arc vgcwch sgduj-ta`cnusjy as cxpjaàtgn`s. A pmgjnsnpmcr smnujh pc`ctratc g`tn tmc cssc`kcs ni tmg`bs

tn cxpjag` tmc way tmg`bs akt. Inr Musscrj tmcsc cssc`kcs ni tmg`bs wgjj lc tmc trutm

ni e`nwjchbc alnut tmcd. Xmc cssc`kcs ni skgc`kc hn `nt rcsghc g` tmc nlockt u`hcr

stuhy `nr tmc muda` rcscarkmcrs, lut g` tmc rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` tmcsc nlockts a`h

sulockts (Kjnec c.a. 1771, Clcrjc 17=8). Xmgs inu`hatgn` g`hgkatcs tmat g` arkmacnjnby

pmc`ndc`njnby was wrn`biujjy ahaptch as a vcmgkjc inr prnhukg`b pcrsnàj a`h ghg-

nsy`kratgk pcrspcktgvcs ni tmc wnrjh. Xmgs gs gjjustratch ly tmc brcat gdpakt Xgjjcy‗s A

Vmc`ndc`njnby ni tmc Ja`hskapc (1778) a`h [maès‗ Cxpcrgc`kg`b tmc Vast (177<) mavc

mah g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc, wmnsc carjgcr papcrs ajsn hcdn`stratch a jake g` tmckn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni tgdc.

Musscrj‗s injjnwcrs, g`kjuhg`b [kmútz a`h Dcrjcau-Vn`ty, prnpnsch ajtcràtgvcs g`

cxgstc`tgaj a`h kn`stgtutgvc pmc`ndc`njnbgcs tmat hn `nt attcdpt tn tra`skc`h tmc

cvcryhay, lut stuhy tmc cvcryhay dca`g`bs partgkujar tn pcnpjcs, snkgctgcs nr kujturcs.

[tgjj ntmcrs tur`ch lake tn a typc ni psykmnjnby hcprgvch ni Musscrj‗s tra`skc`hc`tajgsd

(Kjnec c.a. 1771). [kmútz tnne a` cxadgàtgn` ni tmc tcdpnraj kmaraktcr ni dca`g`b-

iuj aktgn` as mgs startg`b png`t. Rgtm tmgs mc ajsn prnvghch a hcskrgptgvc pmc`ndc`njnby

ni tmc tcdpnraj strukturcs ni tmc jgic-wnrjh , a(`) (g`hgvghuaj) wnrjh ni paradnu`t rcajgty.

Xmc jgic-wnrjh gs wmat muda`s akt g` nr upn`, ly dca`s ni nur a`gdatc nrba`gsds. Mc

n`jy hcskrglch tmc a prgnrg tcdpnraj strukturcs ni tmc jgic-wnrjh, wmgkm arc g`varga`t

a`h cssc`tgaj, a`h `cvcr usch tmcd inr mgstnrgnbrapmgk purpnscs ni hcskrglg`b cdpgrg-

kaj varga`ts ni tmcsc tcdpnraj strukturcs (O. \. Majj 17=6). Xmgs jgcs vcry kjnsc tn tmc way

Lrauhcj‗s trgpartgtc hgvgsgn` ni tgdc smnujh lc usch g` akahcdgk aàjyscs.

As a prnbrcssgvc ajtcràtgvc tn Rclcr‗s sulocktgvc g`hgvghuajs a`h g`spgrch ly vn`

Dgscs, [kmútz‗s pmc`ndc`njnby rctur`s tn tmc snkgaj aktnr. Mgs tmcnry ni snkgcty gs

lasch n` tmc aàjysgs ni tmc g`hgvghuaj‗s snkgaj cxpcrgc`kc, g` wmgkm snkgaj jgic gs a` g`-

tcràj rcajgty kn`stgtutch ly tmc sulocktgvc cxpcrgc`kcs ni aktnrs. Xmgs rcsujtch hgrcktjy



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs;<

irnd Musscrj‗s cxadgàtgn` ni tmc g``cr jgic, tmc strcad ni kn`skgnus`css kndprgsch

ni cxpcrgc`kcs ni pmc`ndcà. [kmútz avnghs n`tnjnbgkaj g`qugrgcs g`tn ”rcajgty‗, as np-

pnsch tn Musscrj‗s Kartcsga` kn`hukt. Mc assudcs tmat cxpcrgc`kc gs `nt a bgvc`, lut

g`tc`tgnàj g` tmat tmc aktnr hgrckts attc`tgn` tnwarhs nlockts tmat arc pcrkcgvch ak-

knrhg`b tn past cxpcrgc`kcs a`h akqugrch e`nwjchbc, wmgkm kndpnsc mgs cxpcrgc`kc.

Xmgs prnkcss mc kajjs appcrkcptgn`? tmc spn`ta`cnus attrglutgn` ni dca`g`b tn wmat gs

pcrkcgvch. Ajj kn`skgnus`css gs kn`skgnus`css ni nlockts, tmus kn`strukts dahc ly tmc

g`hgvghuaj hgrcktg`b attc`tgn` tn nlockts g` mgs kn`skgnus`css (Kadplcjj 17=1). @ntc

tmat mcrc [kmútz bcts g`vnjvch wgtm knb`gtgvc prnkcsscs tmat wcrc `nt part ni vn`

Dgscs‗ muda` aktgn`, wmgjst dag`tag`g`b tmat tmc hgrcktg`b ni attc`tgn` gs g`tc`tgnàj

(purpnsciuj). Xmgs dca`s tmat attrglutg`b dca`g`b tmrnubm cxpcrgc`kc gs at jcast par-

tgajjy a prnkcss ni ircc kmngkc g` tmc algjgty tn hgrckt n`c‗s attc`tgn`, hcspgtc tmc aktuaj

attrglutgn` ni dca`g`b lcg`b spn`ta`cnus. Cxpcrgc`kc (tmc sulocktgvc jgic-wnrjh) gskndprgsch ni vargnus cjcdc`ts tmat ka` lc rcdnvch ly rccktg`b n` cxpcrgc`kc. N`c

hncs `nt rcajjy scc sndctmg`b spckgfik, lut rcicrs tn tmg`bs as spckgfik scts ni nlockts

g` n`c‗s cxpcrgc`kc. Rmcrc Musscrj mnpch tn arrgvc at tmc lasgk cjcdc`ts a`h u`hcrjy-

g`b strukturc (tmc cssc`kc) ni nur cxpcrgc`kc, [kmútz inkuscs n` tmc prnkcss ni pmc-

`ndc`njnbgkaj rchuktgn`. G` sn hng`b, mc attcdpts tn rcakm a png`t wmcrc, hcrgvch

irnd tmcnrctgkaj prckn`kcptgn`s, tmc dca`g`b ni pmc`ndcà ka` lc aàjysch as cx-

pcrgc`kch. Mc prcicrs `nt tn fijtcr nut ajj cdpgrgkaj cjcdc`ts, g`kjuhg`b tmnsc hgrcktch

ly tmc g`hgvghuaj kn`skgnus`css, as Musscrj‗s scarkm inr cssc`kc hcda`hs (Kadplcjj

17=1, Clcrjc 17=8). Xmgs rchuktgn` pjakcs [kmútz g` a pnsgtgn` lctwcc` Rclcr a`h vn`Dgscs, sg`kc gt jcts pmc`ndc`njnby arrgvc at jcvcjs ni alstraktgn` wgtmg` ghcaj typcs.

Xmcsc smnujh ̀ nt lc scc` as rujcs, lut ratmcr knddn`jy prcsc`t kn`tg`bc`kgcs. At tmgs

jcvcj tmcrc gs a `cch inr cdpgrgkaj aàjysgs ni rcasn`, sc`sc a`h dntgvcs (Clcrjc 17=8).

Rgtm tmgs mc pusmcs g`tcrcst lcyn`h tmc nlocktgvcs kn`tag`ch g` tmc `ntgn`s ni lntm

Rclcr a`h vn` Dgscs.

[kmútz‗s kn`kcr` jgcs at tmc tnpgk ni snkgaj cxpcrgc`kc a`h hgsknvcrg`b tmc cjcdc`ts

ni snkgaj jgic. Mc rcckts n` snkgaj cxpcrgc`kc as g`tcraktg`b g`hgvghuajs nr as tmc g`tc`-

tgn` ni snkgaj jgic. Abag` tmgs g`mglgts tmc prcsuppnsgtgn`s alnut tmc rcajgty ni tmc wnrjh,

k.q. tmc rcajgty ni snkgaj jgic nutsghc nur cxpcrgc`kc (Kadplcjj 17=1). Rclcr‗s tmcnry

ni snkgcty pjakcs g`hgvghuaj aktgn` at tmc kc`trc ni arbudc`t. [nkgaj g`tcraktgn`s arc

dca`g`biuj inr tmc partgkgpa`ts. N`c ka` u`hcrsta`h tmc kndpjcx ni snkgaj rcjatgn`s

daeg`b up a snkgcty ly u`hcrsta`hg`b tmc sulocktgvc aspckts ni g`tcrpcrsnàj aktgvgtgcs

ni dcdlcrs ni tmat snkgcty. [gdgjarjy, vn` Dgscs jcts aktgn` lc dca`g`biuj g` tmc cyc ni

tmc lcmnjhcr, pjakg`b g`hgvghuaj sulocktgvgsd as a` g`mcrc`t part ni muda` rcasn`. Inr

vn` Dgscs g`hgvghuaj sulocktgvgsd c`tagjs tmat aktgn`s hcpc`h n` tmc nrhgàj vajuc ni

tmc kn`scquc`kc tmat injjnws tmc aktgn`. G` snkgaj g`tcraktgn` tmgs dca`s tmat cdpatmy

hncs ̀ nt cxgst as a dntgvatnr inr aktgn` (vn` Dgscs 177=). Xmgs strc`btm gs kn`tgùch ly



Axcs ni Hcvcjnpg`b [nkgctgcs ;;

[kmútz g` tmat mc avnghs spckujatgvc cdpatmy g` tmc cxpjaàtgn` ni mnw wc u`hcrsta`h

tmc jgvcs ni ntmcrs, lut inkuscs n` nur nw` cxpcrgc`kcs ni nurscjvcs tn u`hcrsta`h ntm-

crs (Kadplcjj 17=1). Lntm tmc ghcas ni vn` Dgscs a`h [kmútz g` tmgs way g`sgst tmat n`c

u`hcrsta`hs a`ntmcr ly rcicrrg`b tn mgs ghc`tgfikatgn` ni mgdscji. G` snkgaj g`tcraktgn`

tmcrc gs a` g`tcr-sulocktgvc dutuaj u`hcrsta`hg`b, wmgkm g`knrpnratcs a sc`sc ni lc-

jn`bg`b. Xmc g`tcr-sulocktgvc`css ni dutuaj u`hcrsta`hg`b as a part ni g`hgvghuaj sul-

ocktgvgsd daecs snkgctgcs g`tcjjgbgljc ly tmc aàjysgs ni vargnus typcs ni muda` aktgn`.

[kmútz asscrts tmat g`hgvghuaj sulocktgvgsd gs ̀ nt pnssgljc g` rcaj tgdc (prcsc`t), lut

n`jy inr past cvc`ts tmat ka` lc aàjysch g` tcrds ni tmc rcicrc`tgaj nlockts ly wmgkm

wc ka` daec sc`sc ni tmc wnrjh. S`hcrsta`hg`b aktgn` a`h g`tcrprctg`b gt gs n`jy pns-

sgljc g` rccktg`b n` nur past lcmavgnur, lckausc gt `ckcssgtatcs tmc hgvgsgn` ni aktgn`

g`tn hgskrctc akts wgtm hgstg`bugsmaljc nlocktgvcs. Xmgs nlscrvch jcar`g`b prnkcss ni

braspg`b tmc dca`g`b ni nur aktgn`s ka``nt taec pjakc wmgjc wc arc c`babch g` tmatlcmavgnur. Ygvgh cxpcrgc`kc gs awch ly dcdnry. G` sndc rccxgvc kascs tmc g`hgvghuaj

gs aktgvc, lut g`tc`tgnàj cxpcrgc`kc g`vnjvcs spn`ta`cnus aktgvgty. ‚Cvcryhay jgic gs U…T

a prabdatgk nrgc`tatgn` tn tmc iuturc.— (Kadplcjj 17=1? <6<) Xmc aktgvgty ni muda`

lcg`bs gs tmcrcinrc a u`gty, wmgkm lckndcs scparatch tmrnubm rccktgn` g` dcdnry.

Wct lckausc gt lcjn`bs tn n`c pcrsn`, gt rcdag`s a u`gty tmat gs g`scparaljc irnd tmc

cxpcrgc`kc ni aktgvgty gtscji (Kadplcjj 17=1).

Xmgs rcsujts g` trakg`b lake tmc prnljcds ni snkgaj skgc`kcs tn tmc iu`hadc`taj iakts

ni kn`skgnus jgic. Ajtmnubm tmgs sccds a` ghcajgst g`hgvghuajgstgk dctmnh ni cxpjag`g`b

snkgaj jgic tmrnubm tmc jgvch cxpcrgc`kcs ni tmc g`hgvghuaj, snkgaj cxpcrgc`kc gs aktuajjya`kmnrch g` tmc knddu`gty. Muda` kn`skgnus`css prcsuppnscs tmc rcajgty ni ntmcr

pcnpjc a`h gts cxpcrgc`kcs arc dchgatch tmrnubm past snkgaj rcjatgn`smgps (ghcd). Mcrc

[kmútz hccpc`s tmc g`tcrcst ni vn` Dgscs tn u`hcrsta`h tmc tc`hc`ky inr snkgaj rcja-

tgn`s g` muda` aktgn`. [kmútz‗s tmcnry ni muda` lcg`b gs dag`jy rcstrgktch tn ‚tmc

cssc`kc ni tmc muda` kn`hgtgn` g` tmc sulocktgvc cxpcrgc`kc ni aktg`b a`h ahnptg`b

attgtuhcs tnwarhs tmc cvcryhay ”jgic-wnrjh‗. Inr [kmútz tmgs gs a wnrjh ni praktgkaj aktgv-

gty.— (ghcd? <66) N`c ka` hgskcr` muda` kapakgtgcs aàjysg`b tmc cjcdc`ts ni praktgkaj

kn`skgnus`css. Xmc kn`tgùnus aktgn` pcrinrdch tn akmgcvc a bnaj càljcs us tn scc

jgic g` tcrds ni tmc prnockts pursuch. As mgs tutnr ajrcahy asscrtch? ajj aktgn` gs dca`g`b-

iuj, lckausc gt gs ajways kn`skgnusjy hgrcktch tnwarhs a` c`h, wmgkm tmc aktnr gdabg`ch

g` mgs dg`h, a purpnsc (vn` Dgscs 177=). G` tmgs prnkcss tmc g`hgvghuaj dust ghc`tgiy mgs

sgtuatgn` ly kn`trastg`b gt tn a knddn` stnke ni e`nwjchbc tmat mc hcvcjnpch tmrnubm

mgs nw` cxpcrgc`kcs a`h snkgaj g`mcrgta`kc. Xmc sgtuatgn` tmat scts tmc pnssglgjgtgcs inr

purpnsciuj aktgn` tmus lckndcs hctcrdg`ch tmrnubm lgnbrapmy , tmc pcrsnàj mgstnry

ni cxpcrgc`kcs, wgtmg` tmc kn`tcxt ni mgs snkgcty. Xmc bnajs tmcdscjvcs arc ajsn hcpc`h-

c`t n` ghc`tgiyg`b tmc sgtuatgn` tmc aktnr gs g` a`h tmcrcinrc aiicktch ly mgs lgnbrapmy

(Kadplcjj 17=1, Clcrjc 17=8).




Xmc stnke ni e`nwjchbc, utgjgsch tn hcfi`c sgtuatgn`s, prcsuppnscs tmc algjgty tn

tmgè g` alstrakt kjassgfikatnry tcrds. Gt c`tagjs kn``cktch kjassgfikatgn`s tmat càljc tmc

rcknb`gtgn` ni sgtuatgn`s as a typc, tmus scttg`b tmc pnssglgjgtgcs inr aktgn` ly pcrdgt-

tg`b a vgcw ni tmc wnrjh as dca`g`biuj kn`fiburatgn`s (Kadplcjj 17=1). [ndcmnw

tmc g`mcrgtch part ni tmc stnke ni e`nwjchbc sccds tn ahnpt tmc kmaraktcr ni Rclcr‗s

ghcaj typcs a`h tmc typgfikatgn`s ni tmnsc wmn injjnwch, lut [kmútz‗s stnke ni e`nwj-

chbc gs dnrc kndpjcx. Xmc g`hgvghuaj hgstg`bugsmcs mgs cvcryhay wnrjh g` hndag`s ni

rcjcva`kc, tmc prgdary ni wmgkm pcrtag`s tn ajj tmg`bs mc ka` gddchgatcjy pcrkcgvc,

rcqugrg`b hctagjch e`nwjchbc. Hcpc`hg`b n` mgs g`tcrcsts a`h hcsgrcs, hndag`s ni

rcjcva`kc arc hgstg`bugsmch akknrhg`b tn kjassgfikatgn`s, ajsn pcrdgttg`b mgd tn kma`bc

mgs sgtuatgn` ly aktgn`. Mc gdabg`cs pntc`tgaj prnockts a`h ly taeg`b tmc sgtuatgn`

g`tn akknu`t, hcfi`cs tmc aktgn`s aljc tn iujfij tmat purpnsc. Xmgs gs ratgnàj aktgvgty ,

tmc dntgvatch jgvch cxpcrgc`kc at tmc kc`trc ni sulocktgvc awarc`css. Aktnrs cxpjag`tmcdscjvcs akknrhg`b tn tmcgr prnockts, ratgnàj aktgvgtgcs a`h tmcgr lgnbrapmgcs. Gt gs g`

tmgs kndpnsch ”g` nrhcr tn‗ dntgvatgn` inr aktgn` (g`kjuhg`b g`mcrgta`kc a`h lgnbra-

pmy, g.c. hctcrdgàtgn` a`h spn`ta`cgty, c`vgsgn`g`b a bnaj, kndprgsg`b vargnus typcs

ni rcjcva`kc) tmat strgktjy hgskcr`s [kmútz irnd mgs prchckcssnrs. Xmc aktnr ajways akts

irccjy, nrgc`tch tnwarhs tmc iuturc (ki. vn` Dgscs). N`jy g` rctrnspckt hncs aktgn` ap-

pcar hctcrdg`ch. Da` gs snkgaj, as gs mgs cvcryhay kn`skgnus`css (ghcd).

Xn tmgs png`t tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj snkgnjnby ni [kmútz mas g`trnhukch sndc ni

tmc dnst apt lugjhg`b ljnkes inr a snkgaj tmcnrctgkaj taec n` tmc prnkcsscs ni hcvcjnp-

dc`t a`h dca`g`b g` snkgctgcs. Mgs wnre dnvcs n` tn spckgiy snkgaj rcjatgn`smgps g`snkgcty a`h bncs iurtmcr tma` wmat gs kapturch g` tmc kn`kgsc spakc hchgkatch tn gt

mcrc. @ntgn`s jgec tmc stnke ni e`nwjchbc, ratgnàj aktgvgty, lgnbrapmy, a`h a snkgajjy

lnu`h g`mcrgta`kc wgjj lckndc g`krcasg`bjy gdpnrta`t g` tmc arbudc`ts tn injjnw. G`

mgs wnre, oust as inr dnst pmc`ndc`njnbgsts (dnst ̀ ntaljy Dcrjcau-Vn`ty), mc cdpma-

sgscs tmc rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` da` a`h mgs c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmgs rcjatgn`smgp mas lcc`

àdch tmc lg-gdpjgkatgn ̀ni muda` lcg`b, a dutuajjy gùc`kg`b rcjatgn`smgp ni da`

a`h wnrjh, wmgkm rcpjakch tmc prckchg`b u`ghgrcktgnàj kausaj aàjysgs ni tmgs rcjatgn`.

Xmgs aspckt ni pmc`ndc`njnby wgjj lc sgb`gfika`t inr tmc injjnwg`b, lut ajsn mas mah

brcat gùc`kc n` tmc wnre ni tmc ainrcdc`tgn`ch Xgd G`bnjh a`h ntmcr rcscarkmcrs

(ki. G`bnjh <666, Enjc` <663).

As a `ntc ni krgtgquc, G tmgè tmc `ntgn` ni g`mcrgta`kc wgtmg` tmc knddn` stnke

ni e`nwjchbc `cchs tn lc karciujjy ahhrcssch. Xmc knddn` stnke ni e`nwjchbc ka`

`cvcr lc a` cxakt tra`sicrc`kc ni cxpcrgc`kc mcjh wgtmg` a knddu`gty nr snkgcty.

Igrstjy, `n sg`bjc partgkgpa`t ni snkgcty mnjhs a` cxakt ”knpy‗ ni tmc knddn` stnke ni

e`nwjchbc, huc tn tmc aiicktgvc kn`hgtgn` ni mgs nw` lgnbrapmy. Iurtmcrdnrc, a`y

`cw dcdlcr jcar`g`b tmc knddn` stnke ni e`nwjchbc wgjj hn sn g` a` g`hgvghuajjy

sulocktgvc way. Xmgs daecs a`h gùc`kcs scjcktgn`s ni gt, lckausc tmc knddn` stnke




ni e`nwjchbc wgjj n`jy lckndc part ni tmc partgkgpa`t‗s lgnbrapmy. Xmrnubm kmngkcs,

scjcktgn`s a`h tmc hgrcktgn` ni attc`tgn`, injjnwg`b tmcgr nw` jg`c ni jnbgk, ajj g`hgvghu-

ajs mnjh a pcrsnàjgsch vcrsgn` ni tmc knddn` stnke ni e`nwjchbc. N`jy g` jn`b tcrd

kn`tgùnus partgkgpatgn` g` snkgctaj aktgvgty wgjj dnrc knddnàjgtgcs lc g`vcstch g` tmc

g`hgvghuaj. Ygkc vcrsa, g`krcasg`bjy dnrc gùc`kc ni tmc g`hgvghuaj lgnbrapmy wgjj fi`h

gts way g`tn tmc knddn` stnke ni e`nwjchbc. Xmgs day gdpjy tmat gts kn`kcptuajgsa-

tgn` gs rchgrcktch tn a jcvcj ni akahcdgk kn`strukts nr aàjytgkaj ghcajgst inrdajgsatgn`.

Xmc rcscarkmcr nr nlscrvcr gs tmc n`c wmn alstrakts tmcsc aspckts ni knddn` cxpcrg-

c`kc, dukm jgec Rclcr‗s ghcaj typcs.

G` bc`craj [kmútz‗s tmcnry gs pntc`t, sg`kc gt jcavcs npc` pnssglgjgtgcs inr jn`b tcrd

hcvcjnpdc`ts a`h rapgh kma`bcs ly gìnrdg`b tmc iu`hadc`tajs ni muda` aktgn`.

G` tmgs, tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj àturc ni mgs tmcnry g`kjuhcs tmc g`hgvghuaj jgic-wnrjh,

strcssg`b tmc lg-gdpjgkatgn` ni da` a`h wnrjh. Da` gs hgrcktjy spatgaj a`h tcdpnraj. Lytmc vcmgkjc ni mgs lnhy aktgn`s arc g`tcraktgn`s. Mc karrgcs mgs pcrsnàj lgnbrapmy g`hg-

vghuajgsg`b mgs dca`g`biuj aktgvgtgcs a`h pcrkcptgn` ni tmc wnrjh. Mc gùc`kcs mgs nw`

jcar`g`b prnkcss, krcatg`b mgs nw` stnke ni e`nwjchbc. Xmgs dca`s n`c smnujh ahnpt

a krgtgkaj sta`kc tnwarhs tmc sn-kajjch knddn` stnke ni e`nwjchbc, wmgkm gs lcttcr

utgjgsch as a` ghcaj typc inr akahcdga. Rc knujh jcar` irnd tmc stcps [kmútz taecs tn

g`kjuhc parts ni tmc knb`gtgvc prnkcss g` pcrkcptgn` a`h hckgsgn` daeg`b. Xmgs day c`-

rgkm nur kn`kcpts ni aktgn` a`h g`tcraktgn`, wmgjst tmc u`knrruptch pcrinrdch muda`

aktgn` ni vn` Dgscs ka` lc dag`tag`ch. Aktg`b da` rcdag`s a ircc abc`t, ajtmnubm gt

wnujh lc lcttcr tn usc tmc tcrd sulockt irnd mcrc n`. Xmc strn`b g`hgvghuajgst sul-ocktgvgty ni pmc`ndc`njnby pa`hcrs tn rahgkaj rcjatgvgsd (g.c. cxkjusgvcjy pcrsnàjgsch

pcrkcptgn`s ni tmc wnrjh) g` skgc`tgfik hgsknursc. Ajtmnubm G tc`h tn pmgjnsnpmgkajjy ah-

mcrc tn tmgs, as sagh g` tmc g`trnhuktgn`, n`c smnujh lcttcr lc a`h daec ntmcrs awarc ni

n`c‗s sulocktgvgty g` nrhcr tn càljc a dca`s ni gìnrdatgvc tra`sjatgn` ni n`c‗s wnre.

Axgs ni Muda` Aktgn` - Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau

Dc`tgn`g`b Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau (17<3-17=9) adn`bst tmcsc aktgn` tmcnrgsts, gs dag`jy

kausch ly tmc g`trg`sgk vajuc mc askrglcs tn muda` aktgn` g` mgs dnst gùc`tgaj lnne,

Xmc Vraktgkc ni Cvcryhay Jgic g` 17=8. Hc Kcrtcau was a pmgjnsnpmcr a`h snkgaj skmnjar

cxpjnrg`b ctm`njnby a`h mgstnry. Xmgs kurrc`tjy jcahs tn tmc appjgkatgn` ni mgs ghcas g`

hgskgpjg`cs as ckn`ndy, snkgnjnby a`h a`tmrnpnjnby.

Xmc praktgkcs ni cvcryhay jgic arc sgdpjy ways ni npcratgn`, hgstg`kt lckausc ni tmcgr

rcpctgtgvc a`h partgajjy u`kn`skgnus àturc. Hc Kcrtcau g`trnhukcs tmc cxadgàtgn` ni

tmc praktgkcs ni cvcryhay jgic spckgfikajjy `nt as a` gdpjgch rctur` tn g`hgvghuajgty, tmc

g`hgvghuaj as a` axgnd g` snkgaj atndgsd. A (snkgaj) rcjatgn` hctcrdg`cs gts tcrds, `nt

tmc rcvcrsc. Xmc g`hgvghuaj gs n`jy a jnkus g` wmgkm a pjurajgty ni sukm rcjatgnàj hctcr-




dgàtgn`s g`tcrakt. Xmcrcinrc mgs stuhy kn`kcr`s skmcdata ni aktgn` a`h `nt hgrcktjy

tmc sulockt gtscji. Mgs agd gs tn smnw tmc systcds ni npcratgnàj kndlgàtgn`s wmgkm

ajsn kndpnsc a kujturc a`h tmc dnhcjs ni aktgn` tmat uscrs ahmcrc tn, wmgjst lcg`b

hndgàtch g` snkgcty kn`kcajch as kn`sudcrs. ‚Cvcryhay jgic g`vc`ts gtscji ly pnakmg`b

g` knu`tjcss ways n` tmc prnpcrty ni ntmcrs.— (hc Kcrtcau 17==? xgg)

Mgs ghcas arc gùc`kch ly tmc da`gicstatgn`s ni dnhcr` snkgcty a`h dass prnhuk-

tgn`, pcrmaps daeg`b da`y arkmacnjnbgsts rcjukta`t tn gts usc g` tmc nitc` `n`-dnh-

cr`, `n`-kapgtajgst kascs ni tmc past tmcy arc knìrn`tch wgtm. Hc Kcrtcau cxpjnrch

tmc cvcryhay aktgvgtgcs ni prnhuktgvc a`h kn`sudptgvc snkgcty. Wct mc was ajsn vcry

rckcptgvc tn tmc ghca ni knjn`gsatgn` as gdpnsg`b c`tgrc prcialrgkatch scts ni prnhukts

tn `cw kn`sudcrs. Xmgs gs a skcàrgn tmat da`y arkmacnjnbgst iakc, cspckgajjy tmnsc

kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc @cw Rnrjh. Gt gs `ckcssary tn hctcrdg`c tmc usc ni rcprcsc`tatgn`s

ni a snkgcty a`h gts dnhcs ni lcmavgnur ly brnups nr g`hgvghuajs. Rmat hncs a sulockthn wgtm a rcprcsc`tatgnàj prnhukt hurg`b tmc tgdc gt taecs tn kn`sudc gt> Rmat hncs

tmc kujturaj kn`sudcr daec ni gt (g` tcrds ni prnhuktgn` nr krcatgn`)> [ystcds ni

prnhuktgn` hcfi`c tmc arcas kn`sudcrs usc, sn tmcy ka` `n jn`bcr g`hgkatc wmat tmcy

dahc ni tmc systcd‗s prnhukts as tmc systcd jcavcs `n pjakc inr tmat. Kn`sudptgn` gs

a` cjusgvc eg`h ni prnhuktgn`, da`gicstch tmrnubm gts ways ni usg`b prnhukts gdpnsch

ly a` ckn`ndgk nrhcr (ghcd).

Xmc knjn`gsatgn` ni tmc @cw Rnrjh jcahs hc Kcrtcau tn say tmat knjn`gsatgn`

gdpnscs a systcd ni rcprcsc`tatgn`s a`h jaws tmat g`hgbc`nus pcnpjc usc wgtmnut

daonr ajtcratgn`s. Xmcy hn `nt rcockt tmcd, yct usc tmcd wgtm kndpjctcjy ntmcr ghcastma` tmnsc g`tcràj tn tmc gdpnsch systcd tmcy mah `n kmngkc lut tn akkcpt. G` tmcgr

prnkchurcs ni kn`sudptgn` ni tmc systcd tmcy hgdg`gsm tmc hndgà`t pnwcr, wmgkm

tmcy knujh `nt kmajjc`bc. G` tmgs way tmcy stgjj cskapch (ghcd). Xmgs arbudc`t n`

knjn`gsatgn` ka` ajsn lc cxtc`hch tn dgbra`t pnpujatgn`s. G` arkmacnjnby, dukm

tmnubmt mas lcc` bgvc` tn tmgs, cspckgajjy g` tmc parahgbd ni @cw Arkmacnjnby,

inkusg`b n` kujturaj hgspcrsgn` a`h g`vasgn`. Lurdcgstcr (<666) mas prnpnsch tn jnne

at tmc hgiicrc`kcs lctwcc` tmc g`tcràj a`h cxtcràj hndag`s, g.c. tmc prgvatc a`h tmc

puljgk aktgn`s spmcrcs ni dgbra`t pnpujatgn`s. Mc rcasn`ch tmat pcnpjc `nw jgvg`b g`

a hgiicrc`t c`vgrn`dc`t nr kujturc wnujh stgjj akt g` ways tmat arc knddn` praktgkc g`

tmc kujturc tmcy nrgbgàtc irnd, g`krcasg`bjy sn g` tmc prgvatc spmcrc. N`jy rarcjy wgjj a`

artciakt katcbnry ni tmcgr nrgbgàj kujturc fi`h gts way g`tn tmc ̀ cw kujturaj c`vgrn`dc`t.

Da`y ni tmcgr sulkn`skgnus aktgn`s wgjj lc karrgch nut usg`b tmc prnhukts ni tmc `cw

kujturc, daeg`b tmcd arkmacnjnbgkajjy u`rcknb`gsaljc g` tmc prnkcss. Lurdcgstcr

subbcsts tmat g` nrhcr tn fi`h dgbra`t pnpujatgn`s, wc smnujh start jnneg`b at tmc

way nlockts arc usch (Lurdcgstcr <666). G` ntmcr wnrhs, tmc hgiicrc`tgatg`b aktgn`s ni

g`hgvghuajs a`h brnups prnhukg`b tmc cvcryhay praktgkcs varyg`b g` tmc prgvatc a`h

puljgk hndag`s, wmgkm ajsn g`kjuhcs tmc sulkn`skgnus usc ni nlockts g` ways hcvgatg`b




irnd tmc systcd prnhukg`b tmcd.

G` dnhcr` snkgcty, dgbra`t pnpujatgn`s a`h tmc rcsujts ni knjn`gsatgn` arc dnrc

knddn`pjakc, pcrmaps kma`bg`b tmc prnpnrtgn`s ni dca`g`b lctwcc` tmc prnhukg`b

a`h kn`sudg`b kujturaj systcds. Hc Kcrtcau strctkmcs tmgs hgiicrc`kc tn tmc nrhgàry

cvcryhay praktgkcs g` snkgctgcs, daeg`b tmcd adlgbunus ly hgstg`bugsmg`b knddn`

kn`sudcrs (uscrs) ni a kujturc (nlockts) irnd tmc ”cjgtcs‗ prnhukg`b a`h gdpnsg`b tmc

kujturc. ‚Xmc prcsc`kc a`h kgrkujatgn` ni a rcprcsc`tatgn` U…T tcjjs us `ntmg`b alnut

wmat gt gs inr gts uscrs. Rc dust first aàjysc gts da`gpujatgn` ly uscrs wmn arc `nt gts

daecrs.— (hc Kcrtcau 17==? xggg) Mc`kc, tmc prnkcss ni usg`b gs a sckn`hary prnhuk-

tgn`. Oust as g` ja`buabc tmc uttcra`kc (pcrinrda`kc) ni a sc`tc`kc kn`struktch ly a

sulockt gs `nt rchukgljc tn tmc e`nwjchbc (kndpctc`kc) ni tmc ja`buabc. [pcaeg`b gs

a rcapprnprgatgn` ni tmc ja`buabc, ‚cstaljgsmg`b a prcsc`t rcjatgvc tn a tgdc a`h pjakc

a`h gt pnsgts a kn`trakt wgtm tmc ntmcr (tmc g`tcrjnkutnr) g` a `ctwnre ni pjakcs a`hrcjatgn`s.— (hc Kcrtcau 17==? xggg) Xmgs rcapprnprgatgn` hc Kcrtcau rcknb`gscs g` ajj

cvcryhay kn`sudptgvc aktgn`s. Irnd tmgs injjnws tmat mc nppnscs tmc prgvgjcbc bgvc` tn

pnwcr a`h hgskgpjg`c as cxcrkgsch ly Inukaujt (c.b. Inukaujt 17=<). Inukaujt‗s dgkrn-

pmysgks ni pnwcr kn`kc`tratcs n` tmc prnhuktgn` ni hgskgpjg`c. [g`kc hgskgpjg`c gs kn`-

tgùnusjy brnwg`b dnrc hgstg`kt, gt lckndcs gdpnrta`t tn scc ‚mnw a` c`tgrc snkgcty

rcsgsts lcg`b rchukch tn gt, wmat pnpujar prnkchurcs U…T da`gpujatc tmc dckma`gsds

ni hgskgpjg`c a`h knìnrd tn tmcd n`jy g` nrhcr tn cvahc tmcd, a`h fiàjjy, wmat ”ways

ni npcratg`b‗ inrd tmc knu`tcrpart, n` tmc kn`sudcr‗s U…T sghc, ni tmc dutc prnk-

csscs tmat nrba`gzc tmc cstaljgsmdc`t ni snkgnckn`ndgk nrhcr. Xmcsc ”ways ni npcrat-g`b‗ kn`stgtutc tmc g`ùdcraljc praktgkcs ly dca`s ni wmgkm uscrs rcapprnprgatc tmc

spakc nrba`gsch ly tckm`gqucs ni snkgnkujturaj prnhuktgn`.— (hc Kcrtcau 17==? xgv)

Hc Kcrtcau ake`nwjchbcs tmat tmgs gs aàjnbnus wgtm Inukaujt g` tmat gt ajsn stuhgcs

tmc dg`gskujc npcratgn`s wgtmg` strukturcs a`h hccktg`b tmcgr iu`ktgn`g`b tmrnubm

taktgks pcrinrdch g` tmc hctagjs ni cvcryhay jgic. N` tmc kn`trary, gt nppnscs Inukaujt g`

tmat gt hncs `nt smnw mnw tmc vgnjc`kc ni nrhcr lckndcs a hgskgpjg`c, lut cdpmasgscs

tmc suldcrbch taktgkaj krcatgvgty ni brnups nr g`hgvghuajs tmat arc ajrcahy kaubmt g`

hgskgpjg`c. Xmcsc aktgvgtgcs ni kn`sudcrs kndpnsc tmc `ctwnre ni a` a`tghgskgpjg`c nr

rcsgsta`kc (ghcd).

Ssc a`h kn`sudptgn` ni snkgcty, kujturc, nr bnnhs as a rcapprnprgatgn` tmat gs

sccdg`bjy knìnrdgst, yct sgjc`tjy rcsgstg`b tmc prnhukg`b nrhcr, gs a pntc`t apprnakm

tn aktgn` rcjatch tn snkgaj nrba`gsatgn` a`h snkgctaj kma`bc. G` rcbarh tn kma`bc, gt

càljcs a krcatgvc pntc`tgaj g` tmc ly hgskgpjg`c apparc`tjy sulhuch sulockts. Ajtmnubm

tmgs kn`kcpt hgvcrbcs irnd tmc u`knrruptch muda` aktgn` ni vn` Dgscs g` g`kjuh-

g`b sulkn`skgnus praktgkcs as wcjj, kn`sudg`b knddnàjgtgcs lckndcs cdpnwcrch,

wmgkm abag` cjalnratcs tmc ircchnd ni kmngkc. Gt gs `ckcssary tn hgiicrc`tgatc lntm

tmc aktgn` tmat tmc systcd ni prnhukts ciickts wgtmg` tmc kn`sudcr, a`h tmc rnnd



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs;=

jcit ly tmc systcd tn da`ncuvrc ly tmc sgtuatgn`s g` wmgkm kn`sudcrs cxcrkgsc tmcgr

”art‗. ‚Kujturc artgkujatcs kn`gkts a`h ajtcràtcjy jcbgtgdgzcs, hgspjakcs, nr kn`trnjs tmc

supcrgnr inrkc. U…TXmc taktgkaj kn`sudptgn` U…T g` wmgkm tmc wcae daec usc ni tmc

strn`b.— (hc Kcrtcau 17==? xvgg)

Huc tn tmc partgaj sulkn`skgnus àturc ni cvcryhay muda` kn`sudptgvc aktgn`,

tmcy injjnw wa`hcrg`b patms nlcyg`b tmcgr nw` jnbgk, kajjch traocktnrgcs ly hc Kcr-

tcau. Ajtmnubm kndpnsch a`h sulnrhgàtch ly nppnrtu`gtgcs nr sy`tax, tmcsc trakc

nut tmg`bs tmat arc `nt hctcrdg`ch ly tmc systcds g` wmgkm tmcy hcvcjnp. [tatgstgks

rcdag`s gb`nra`t ni traocktnrgcs, lckausc gt n`jy brasps tmc datcrgaj ni tmcsc praktgkcs,

`nt tmcgr inrd. [tatgstgks hctcrdg`cs tmc cjcdc`ts usch, `nt tmc pmrasg`b prnhukch

ly krcatgvgty a`h tmc kndlg`g`b ni cjcdc`ts. Gt uscs scji-hcfi`ch u`gts a`h rcnrba`gscs

tmcsc akknrhg`b tn gts nw` knhcs, tmcrcinrc gt n`jy fi`hs tmc mndnbc`nus. Gts pnwcr

jgcs g` tmc algjgty tn hgvghc, lut tmgs irabdc`tatgn` nlskurcs wmat gt kjagds tn rcprcsc`t(ghcd). G ad mappy tn strctkm tmcsc arbudc`ts nvcr tmc gdpnsgtgn` ni kjassgfikatnry a`h

taxn`ndgkaj gìcrc`tgaj rcscarkm dctmnhs. Xraocktnry subbcsts a dnvcdc`t a`h gs ajsn

a trakg`b inr akts, lut smnujh ̀ nt lc rchukch tn tmgs. Xmcrcinrc, n`c dust rcknb`gsc tmc

hgiicrc`kc lctwcc` stratcbgcs a`h taktgks (ghcd).

[tratcby gs hcfi`ch as a inrkc-rcjatgn`smgp, càljch wmc` a sulockt ni pnwcr ka` lc

gsnjatch irnd a` c`vgrn`dc`t. Gt mas a prnpcr pjakc irnd wmgkm gt bc`cratcs rcjatgn`s

wgtm a hgstg`kt cxtcrgnr. Xaktgk gs hcfi`ch as mavg`b `n prnpcr jnkajgsatgn`, `nr lnrhcr

tmat hgstg`bugsmcs tmc ntmcr. Xmc pjakc ni taktgks lcjn`bs tn tmc ntmcr (ki. Lnurhgcu‗s

(1722) malgtus). Gt pnakmcs n` tmc ntmcr pjakc irabdc`targjy, wgtmnut aiicktg`b gts c`-tgrcty a`h wgtmnut tmc algjgty tn eccp hgsta`kc. Xmc prnpcr gs a vgktnry ni spakc nvcr

tgdc, n` tmc kn`trary taktgks mavc `n pjakc a`h tmus hcpc`h n` tgdc. ‚Gt dust kn`-

sta`tjy da`gpujatc cvc`ts g` nrhcr tn tur` tmcd g`tn ”nppnrtu`gtgcs‗.— (hc Kcrtcau

17==? xgx) Xmgs gs akmgcvch g` dndc`ts wmcrc uscrs arc aljc tn kndlg`c mctcrnbc`c-

nus cjcdc`ts sy`tmcsgsch, `nt as a hgsknursc, lut as tmc way a` nppnrtu`gty gs scgzch.

Da`y cvcryhay praktgkcs a`h ways ni npcratg`b arc taktgkaj, arrgvg`b at tmc ainrcdc`-

tgn`ch usc ni tmc strn`b ly tmc wcae (ghcd).

Hcspgtc hc Kcrtcau‗s wnre lcg`b sgtuatch g` a`h appjgch tn dnhcr` snkgctgcs ni

dass prnhuktgn`, systcds ni prnhuktgn` (cgtmcr snkgctaj nr datcrgaj) a`h kn`sudptgn`

nr usc wcrc oust as dukm npcratgnàj g` a`y cra. [nkgaj a`h datcrgaj prnhuktgn` startch

wcjj wgtmg` a`kgc`t prcmgstnry. Ajtmnubm gts sgb`gfika`kc g`krcascs wgtm tmc rgsc ni ah-

dg`gstratgvc, kc`trajgsch nr inrdajgsch trahgtgn`s ni prnhuktgn`, hc Kcrtcau‗s tmcnry ni

aktgn` as rcsgsta`kc day niicr snkgajjy inu`hch hgrcktgn`s ni aàjysgs inr arkmacnjnbgkaj

rcdag`s. Gt ka` smch jgbmt n` ntmcrwgsc ”statgstgkaj nutjgcrs‗, as wcjj as daeg`b strn`b

arbudc`ts inr pcrgnhgk a`h parahgbdatgk smgits. G sulskrglc tn mgs pntc`t arbudc`ts

n` tmc gb`nra`kc ni statgstgks as a` cxpjaàtnry tnnj. G` hc Kcrtcau‗s iasmgn`, kma`bcs

lckndc sgdujta`cnusjy tgch tn systcds ni nrhcr a`h tmc ircchnd ni g`hgvghuajs, wmgjst




put g`tn a rcjatgvc tcdpnraj pcrspcktgvc. Xmc hgiicrc`kcs g` tmc tgdc-spakc kmarak-

tcrgstgks ni stratcby a`h taktgks arc ajsn pntc`t `ntgn`s inr tmc way kma`bc nkkurs

bcnbrapmgkajjy, a jgè wmgkm wgjj cxpjgkgtjy lc rcpcatch g` kmaptcr inur. G` tmgs way, tmc

kn`stgtutgn` ni snkgctgcs a`h rahgkaj kma`bcs arc lntm part ni cvcryhay praktgkcs, ratmcr

tma` sgtuatch g` tmc rcajd ni gsnjatch cxtranrhgàry rcvnjtg`b dndc`ts.

Axgs ni Muda` [pakc - Cxgstc`tgajgsd a`h Cdlnhgdc`t

Xmc axgs ni muda` spakc sn iar mas n`jy lcc` gdpjgkgtjy prcsc`t. Qugtc sgdpjy huc tn

tmc iakt tmat da` cxgsts g` mgs lnhy, tmcrc gs a` g`trg`sgk spatgaj kndpn`c`t tn muda`

lcg`b. Dnst sgb`gfika`tjy, cxgstc`tgajgst pmgjnsnpmy a`h a`tmrnpnjnbgkaj cdlnhgdc`t

kn`kcptuajgsch tmgs spatgaj kndpn`c`t ni lcg`b. As `ntch lcinrc, tmc pmysgkaj nr lgn-

jnbgkaj kn`hgtgn` ni muda` lcg`b kauscs mgd tn lc tcdpnraj. Mcrc tmc cdpmasgs wgjjlc n` mnw tmgs kn`hgtgn` daecs muda` lcg`b a`h muda` aktgn` spatgaj. Xmc spatgaj

kndpn`c`t gs ni paradnu`t gdpnrta`kc tn arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc, lckausc gt gs tmc

prnpcrty tmat daecs aktgn`s cxpjgkgtjy datcrgaj. Muda` tcdpnrajgty a`h aktgn`, wgtm-

nut tmc pmysgkajgty ni tmc lnhy dchgatg`b nppnrtu`gtgcs ni datcrgaj g`tcraktgn` wgtm

tmc wnrjh, hn `nt rcahgjy mavc a pmysgkaj knu`tcrpart g` tmcdscjvcs. Xmat gs `nt tn

say tmat tgdc mas `n pmysgkaj gdpjgkatgn`s lntm g` prnkcsscs g` tmc past a`h tmc prcs-

c`kc ni tmc past g` tmc prcsc`t. Inr gts ciickt n` datcrgaj rcdag`s a`h hcpnsgts, n`c

smnujh n`jy rcah tmc kndpcjjg`b lnne ly Dgkmacj [kmgiicr n` tmc inrdatgn` prnkcsscs

(kujturaj a`h àturaj) g` arkmacnjnbgkaj rcknrhs ([kmgiicr 17=2). Xmc rcjcva`kc ni tgdca`h aktgn` mcrc gs lnu`h tn tmc pmysgkaj hndag` ly tmc muda` lnhy, wmgkm lasgkajjy

lngjs hnw` tn vargnus `ntgn`s ni spakc. [pakc bc`cratcs arkmacnjnbgkaj hata g` da`y

ways, prnhukg`b kjcar-kut iakts ly tmcgr vcry cxgstc`kc. Dnrcnvcr, pmysgkaj spakc gs

dcasuraljc. @cvcrtmcjcss, n`c rcqugrcs a kn``cktgn` tn dca`g`b attrglutg`b prnkcsscs

smapg`b sukm spakcs inr g`tcrprctatgn`.

Da` as a pmysgkaj lcg`b cxgsts wgtmg` spakc ly dca`s ni mgs lnhy. Xmgs lnhy `nt

n`jy kn`hgtgn`s mnw muda` lcg`bs arc wgtmg` spakc, gt ajsn kn`hgtgn`s ajj (g`tcr)aktgn`s

wgtmg` spakc. Xmc pmysgkaj kn`hgtgn` ni tmc lnhy daecs tmat wc mavc a spckgfik hcjgdgtch

jnkajgty wgtmg` nur surrnu`hg`b pmysgkaj c`vgrn`dc`t. Ajj muda` aktgn`s arc g`gtgatch

wgtmg` a`h pcrinrdch ly tmc lnhy. Mnwcvcr, aktgn`s arc pcrinrdch g`, nr g` rcjatgn`

tn a`h dchgatch ly tmc pmysgkajgty ni tmc c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmrnubm dnhcs ni pcrkcptgn`,

as g` tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj tmcnrgcs alnvc, tmc lnhy, gts c`vgrn`dc`t, a`h gts pnsgtgn`

g` tmc c`vgrn`dc`t arc kn`kcptuajgsch tmrnubm cxpcrgc`kcs, nitc` bc`cratch ly tmc

aktgn`s kmnsc` tn pcrinrd. As g` [kmútz‗s pmc`ndc`njnby, tmc sgtuatgn` as u`hcrstnnh

tmrnubm tmc stnke ni e`nwjchbc a`h tmc dcdnry ni n`c‗s lgnbrapmy, tmc pcrkcptgn` ni

tmc c`vgrn`dc`t aiickts tmc kmngkc a`h cxckutgn` ni aktgn`s wgtmg` tmat c`vgrn`dc`t.

‚Cxtcràj pmysgkaj aktgn` ajways g`vnjvcs knìrn`tatgn` wgtm spckgfik c`vgrn`dc`taj




cjcdc`ts, pcrsnàj kn`takts, gùc`kcs, nr gìnrdatgn` g` bc`craj, as wcjj as cdntgn`

a`h iccjg`bs tmat ntmcrwgsc wnujh `nt mavc lcc` cxpcrgc`kch Ua`hT rcqugrcs g`tcràj

dc`taj aktgvgty.— (Vrch 17=8? <=9) Nvcr tgdc, praktgkcs ni pcrinrdch aktgn` wgjj

kn`strukt tmc hgrckt surrnu`hg`bs ni tmc lnhy akknrhg`b tn tmc hcbrcc ni satgsiaktgn`

wgtm tmc way past aktgn`s tur`ch nut g` rcbarh tn tmc datcrgaj a`h snkgaj c`vgrn`dc`t.

Xmc way tmc datcrgaj kn`hgtgn` a`h tmc prnxgdgty tn tmc lnhy arc cxpcrgc`kch

g`hgvghuajjy rcsujts g` a` g`hgvghuaj sc`sc ni tcrrgtnrgajgty, wmgkm gs kn`tgùajjy smapch

ly tmc aktgn`s pcrinrdch g` tmc c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmc pcrkcptgn` ni tmc c`vgrn`dc`t

tmrnubm aktgn`s lckndcs a part ni n`c‗s ghc`tgty (ki. G`bnjh <666). [nkgaj a`h datcrgaj

inrds ni g`tcraktgn` arc a kn`tgùnus rc`cbntgatgn` ni spakc wmgkm, tmrnubm pmysgkaj

tra`sinrdatgn`s, hyàdgkajjy kn`strukts surrnu`hg`b tcrrgtnrgcs wgtmg` a knddu`gty nr

snkgcty, daeg`b kn`struktch spakcs arbualjy snkgaj cxprcssgn`s ni ghc`tgty.

Xmgs asscrtgn` mas lcc` cjalnratcjy cxpjnrch g` a`tmrnpnjnby, tmrnubm hgsknurscskn`kcr`ch wgtm cdlnhgch spakc ? tmc jnkatgn` wmcrc muda` cxpcrgc`kc a`h kn`skgnus-

`css taec n` a datcrgaj a`h spatgaj inrd, tmc kn`struktgn` ni jnkajgtgcs. Gt cxgsts, rcjatch

a`h jatcraj tn pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj pcrspcktgvcs, spatgaj nrgc`tatgn` a`h jg`bugstgk hgdc`-

sgn`s (Jnw a`h Jawrc`kc-_ÿñgba <669). G` tmc sc`sc ni cxgstc`tgaj pmgjnsnpmy, cdlnh-

gch spakc kng`kghcs g` vgrtuajjy ajj aspckts wgtm tmc `ntgn` ni ”lcg`b-g`-tmc-wnrjh‗ tmat

mas lcc` pursuch injjnwg`b Mcghcbbcr‗s (172<) pmgjnsnpmy. Cxgstc`tgajgsd rcsujtch

irnd tmc pmgjnsnpmgkaj assudptgn` tmat da` gs wmat mc daecs ni mgdscji, a`h cspckgaj-

jy [artrc‗s asscrtgn` tmat cssc`kc injjnws cxgstc`kc. Mc`kc tmcrc wcrc qucstgn`s inrdu-

jatch tmat spckgfich tmc rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` muda`s a`h `n`-muda` tmg`bs, wmgkmkujdgàtch g` Mcghcbbcr‗s lcg`b-g`-tmc-wnrjh. Xmgs g`knrpnratch strukturcs inu`hch

g` tmc prgdnrhgaj tcdpnraj a`h spatgaj rcjatgn`smgps lctwcc` muda` lcg`bs a`h `n`-

muda` tmg`bs g` tmc wnrjh, as wcjj as tmcgr g`trg`sgk kn`hgtgn` ni dnrtajgty (Mcghcbbcr

172<, Kjnec c.a. 1771). ”Xn lc‗ (Hascg`), tmrnubm gts strukturaj jgèabcs, rcicrs tn lcg`b

g` tmc wnrjh. Rc `cch a wnrjh tn lc g`, ntmcrwgsc wc ka``nt cxgst (Mcghcbbcr 172<).

Xmc wnrjh, n` tmc ntmcr ma`h, hncs `nt sta`h apart irnd us a`h nur aktgn`s, lut hc-

pc`hs n` nur lcg`b g`. Xmrnubm nur aktgn`s wc krcatc tmc wnrjh g` wmgkm wc arc, wc

krcatc tn lc g` nur krcatgn`s (\gkmarhsn` <669).

Arkmacnjnbgkaj ahaptatgn`s ni cxgstc`tgajgsd mavc lcc` bgvc` lnhy ly tmc sgb`gfi-

ka`t kn`trglutgn`s tn ja`hskapc arkmacnjnby dahc ly Oujga` Xmndas (1779, <661),

g`tcbratg`b tmc tcdpnraj ajsn. G` bcnbrapmy, pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj cxgstc`tgajgsd was

spckgfikajjy g`trnhukch ly Wg-Iu Xua`. Mc asscrtch tmat tmc cssc`tgaj dca`g`b ni wnrjh

gs da`, a`h tmcrcinrc tn e`nw tmc wnrjh gs tn e`nw n`cscji (ki. tmc lg-gdpjgkatgn` ni

pmc`ndc`njnby). Mc hgh `nt scarkm inr nrhcr, lut inr dca`g`b g` spakc. Xmcrc arc

scvcraj cssc`tgaj ways g` wmgkm pcnpjc g`skrglc a`h hcrgvc dca`g`b irnd spakc. Xmc

dca`g`b mc attakmch tn tmc nrba`gsatgn` ni spakc was nitc` kn``cktch tn psykmnjnbg-

kaj cxpcrgc`kc, iccjg`bs a`h tmc muda` lnhy (Xua` 1722, Kjnec c.a. 1771). Xua`‗s




tmcnry ajsn fi`hs gts way g`tn arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc n` kcrtag` nkkasgn`s.

Xmc muda` lnhy gs at tmc lasgs ni ajj cxgstc`tgajgst apprnakmcs, as gt taecs g`tn

akknu`t tmat muda`s mavc a`h arc lnhgcs at tmc sadc tgdc. Xmc lnhy cxgsts lntm

lgnjnbgkajjy a`h g`hgvghuajjy, a`h ka` lcst lc kn`kcgvch as a dujtgpjgkgty ni snkgaj a`h

pmysgkaj aspckts nr hcrgvatgn`s irnd tmat. [tartg`b wgtm tmc lnhy gtscji, tmc cxpcrgc`kc

ni tmc lnhy rcsujts g` lnhy spakc, wmgkm mas lcc` kmaraktcrgsch g` da`y hgiicrc`t ways.

Lnhy spakc mas lcc` asscssch g` psykmn-aàjytgkaj da``crs, strcssg`b tmc g`tcràj psy-

kmnjnby ni cakm muda` lcg`b, g` dctapmnrgkaj a`h sydlnjgkaj da``crs cdpmasgsg`b

gts rcjatgn` g` dytms nr as a` a`tmrnpndnrpmgk inrd g` kujturaj jgic, nr as jnkatgn`s g`

a snkgaj wcl, a sgtc ni aktgn` a`h abc`ky (Jnw a`h Jawrc`kc-_ÿñgba <669). Vrgdargjy

lntm tmc kujturaj a`h snkgaj aspckts arc strcssch g` a`tmrnpnjnbgkaj hgsknursc. Dnrc

mnjgstgk apprnakmcs rcicr tn pmgjnsnpmy, nr ka` lc inu`h g` tmc wnre ni Vgcrrc Lnurhgcu

(1722). Mgs kn`kcpt ni malgtus , wmgkm jnkatcs tmc dca`s inr strukturatgn`, g`knrpnratcscdlnhgch cxpcrgc`kc wgtm a snkgaj knu`tcrpart. ‚A` g`hgvghuaj‗s malgtus gs strukturch

ly tmc snkgaj rujcs a`h g`stgtutgn`s g` wmgkm tmcy cxgst a`h g`tcrakt wgtm ntmcrs g`

tmcgr snkgaj c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmus snkgaj c`babcdc`t at tmc jcvcj ni tmc g`hgvghuaj gs a`

cdlnhgch cxpcrgc`kc hgajcktgkajjy g`cxtrgkaljc irnd snkgcty wrgt jarbc.— (Ry``c-On`cs

a`h Enmrg`b <662? 2) Gt gs `nt marh tn gdabg`c mnw tmgs ajsn ka` lc dahc appjgkaljc

tn tmc datcrgaj hndag` g` spakc. G` arkmacnjnby, Lnurhgcu‗s ghcas arc stgjj ni kn`sghcr-

aljc gdpnrta`kc, cspckgajjy wmc` apprnakmcs wgtmg` tmc abc`ky a`h strukturc hclatc

arc kn`kcr`ch (Jast 177=, Hnlrcs a`h \nll <666l, G`bnjh <666, Larrctt <661, Lg`tjgii

<669).

Axgs ni Muda` [pakc - Xcrrgtnrgajgty a`h Vrnxcdgks

Xmc dnst apparc`t cjcdc`t ni snkgaj spakc gs g`tcrpcrsnàj hgsta`kc as a` cxtc`sgn`

tn tmc way muda` lcg`bs nrba`gsc spakc. Grvg`b Majjnwcjj‗s wnre g`trnhukcs, as tmc

nrba`gsatgn` ni spakc gs g`trg`sgkajjy muda`, kujturc ka` lc inu`h g` spatgaj nrgc`-

tatgn`. A wnrjhvgcw wmgkm supcrschcs pcrsnàj cxpcrgc`kc. Mc rcbarhch hgsta`kc g`

tckm`gkaj tcrds, cspckgajjy mnw gt was dcasurch g` hgiicrc`t kujturcs (Majjnwcj 1733).

_nnjnbgst Mcg`g Mchgbcr was tmc first tn hcskrglc pcrsnàj a`h snkgaj hgsta`kcs g` np-

cratgnàj tcrds, hcvcjnpg`b prnxcdgks g` a`gdaj lcmavgnur, typgiyg`b vargnus sgtuatgnàj

hgsta`kcs. G` hcdn`stratg`b tmat tmnsc hgsta`kcs arc sn prckgsc tmcy ka` lc dcasurch

g` kc`tgdctrcs, mc g`spgrch a`tmrnpnjnbgst Chwarh X. Majj tn wnre n` a muda` nr snkgaj

ahaptatgn` (C. X. Majj 1737, C. X. Majj 179=, C. X. Majj <669). Mc tnne tmgs ghca a`h trujy

startch tn stuhy tmc pcrkcptgn` a`h usc ni spakc as a` aspckt ni kujturc. G` hng`b sn,

mc cstaljgsmch tmc ficjh ni prnxcdgks, wmgkm stuhgcs tmc lcmavgnuraj kndpjcx ni aktgvg-

tgcs, ctmnjnbgkajjy e`nw` as tcrrgtnrgajgty. Xmc sulkn`skgnus scttg`b ni spatgaj hgsta`kcs

lctwcc` g`hgvghuajs sta`hs kc`trajjy g` tmgs ficjh ni rcscarkm. Vrnxcdgks gs a` g`vc`tch




tcrd wmgkm bc`crajjy trgcs tn kapturc tmc kn`tc`ts ni tmgs spckgfik rcscarkm a`h sulstg-

tutcs hcskrgptgn`s jgec ”snkgaj spakc as lgn-knddu`gkatgn`‗ a`h ”dgkrn-spakc g` g`tcr-

pcrsnàj c`knu`tcrs‗ (C. X. Majj <669). A` casy hcfi`gtgn` ni mgs prnxcdgks gs as injjnws?

tmc stuhy ni tmc kujturaj, lcmavgnuraj, a`h snkgnjnbgkaj aspckts ni spatgaj hgsta`kcs

lctwcc` g`hgvghuajs. Muda` lcg`b, cdlnhgdc`t, a`h aktgn` g` tmc kn`tcxt ni snkgaj

rcjatgn`s kndc lcautgiujjy tnbctmcr g` Majj‗s g`sgbmtiuj ghcas n` tcrrgtnrgajgty.

As carjy as 1737, Chwarh Majj ajrcahy pnscs tmat lcsghcs tmc pmysgkaj lnu`hary tmat

hcjgdgts ajj nrba`gsds (tmc lnhy) ‚UaT smnrt hgsta`kc up tmc pmyjnbc`ctgk skajc U…T

a`ntmcr, ̀ n`-pmysgkaj lnu`hary appcars tmat cxgsts nutsghc tmc pmysgkaj n`c. Xmgs ̀ cw

lnu`hary gs marhcr tn hcjgdgt tma` tmc first lut oust as rcaj. Rc kajj tmgs tmc ”nrba`gsds‗

tcrrgtnry‗. Xmc akt ni jayg`b kjagd tn a`h hcic`hg`b a tcrrgtnry gs tcrdch tcrrgtnrgajgty.

U…T G` da`, gt lckndcs mgbmjy cjalnratch, as wcjj as lcg`b vcry brcatjy hgiicrc`tgatch

irnd kujturc tn kujturc.— (C. X. Majj 1737? 1=2)Xmgs g`àtc lnu`hary gs a prckn`hgtgn` inr mnw snkgaj kn`takt taecs pjakc, hcpc`h-

g`b n` tmc snkgaj rcjatgn` tmat ajrcahy day cxgst a`h tmc sgtuatgn`. Xmgs daecs tmc

tcrrgtnrgaj lnu`hary sgtuatgnàj a`h pcrsnàj, lut gt gs ajsn cdlchhch g` tmc spatgaj

aspckts ni kujturc tmat wcrc jcar`ch ly tmc aktnr. Inr tmc jarbcr part, tmc lnu`hary

cxgsts sulkn`skgnusjy nr gdpjgkgtjy a`h n`jy lckndcs cxpjgkgt inr tmc aktnr wmc` tmc

lnu`hary gs vgnjatch, usuajjy wmc` tmc aktnr kndcs g`tn kn`takt wgtm a`ntmcr kujturc

(C. X. Majj 179=, C. X. Majj <669, Jnw a`h Jawrc`kc-_ÿñgba <669). Vcnpjc ka` n`jy lc

vabucjy awarc ni tmcgr nw` kujturc g` tmc alsc`kc ni a hgrckt c`knu`tcr wgtm a`ntmcr.

Gt tmcrcinrc lckndcs dnrc gdpnrta`t tn nlscrvc wmat pcnpjc hn g`stcah ni wmat tmcysay nr cjalnratc upn` wmc` qucstgn`ch, as tmgs pcrtag`s tn tmc kn`skgnus dg`h. Xmc

tmg`bs tmat arc hgifikujt tn kn`skgnusjy kn`trnj arc dnst sgb`gfika`t. Ajsn, n`c smnujh

hgstg`bugsm lctwcc` scvcraj jcvcjs ni awarc`css wgtmg` a kujturc, sg`kc tmcsc wgjj aiickt

tmc lcmavgnuraj pattcr`s (C. X. Majj 179=, C. X. Majj <669). Majj scparatcs twn cxtrcdc

typcs ni awarc`css? tmc inrdaj a`h tmc gìnrdaj. Xmc inrdaj gs a vcry cxpjgkgt kn`skgnus

trcatdc`t ni kujturaj vajucs (nitc` trahgtgnàj), wmgjc tmc gìnrdaj gs cxprcssch ajdnst

c`tgrcjy sulkn`skgnusjy. @cvcrtmcjcss, tmcsc aspckts ni kujturc arc `cvcr trujy mghhc`,

as jn`b as n`c e`nws mnw tn jnne inr tmc cjnquc`t sgb`s (C. X. Majj 1737). A tmgrh jcvcj,

tckm`gkaj awarc`css, n`jy cdcrbcs wmc` aktgvgtgcs arc iujjy cxpjgkatch a`h aàjysch

(C. X. Majj 179=, C. X. Majj <669). Majj hgiicrs g` mgs hcajg`b wgtm awarc`css irnd tmc

kn`skgnus muda` aktgn` kn`kcptuajgsch ly vn` Dgscs a`h [kmútz. Mnwcvcr, G hnult gt

hgrcktjy nppnscs tn tmcd, as tmc gìnrdaj jcvcj appcars tn pcrtag` tn mgstnrgkajjy jcar`ch

snkgaj praktgkc tmat rcsujts g` pattcr`s ni aktgn`, tmus gs a` cxprcssgn` ni tmc knddn`

stnke ni e`nwjchbc.

Majj mgdscji kjcarjy `ntcs a hgifikujty g` pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj apprnakmcs tmat strcss

a` cjalnratc jcvcj ni u`gvcrsajgsd, as tmcy assudc tmat ‚cxpcrgc`kc gs wmat dc` smarc

a`h tmat gt gs pnssgljc tn lypass ja`buabc ly rcicrrg`b lake tn cxpcrgc`kc g` nrhcr tn



Axcs ni Hcvcjnpg`b [nkgctgcs 8;

rcakm a`ntmcr muda` lcg`b. UXmgsT gs lasch n` tmc assudptgn` tmat wmc` twn muda`

lcg`bs arc sulocktch tn tmc sadc ”cxpcrgc`kc‗, vgrtuajjy tmc sadc hata gs ich tn tmc

twn `crvnus systcds a`h tmc twn lrag`s rcspn`h sgdgjarjy. Vrnxcdgks rcscarkm kasts

scrgnus hnults n` tmc vajghgty ni tmgs assudptgn`, partgkujarjy wmc` tmc kujturcs arc

hgiicrc`t. Vcnpjc irnd hgiicrc`t kujturcs g`malgt hgiicrc`t sc`snry wnrjhs. Xmcy ̀ nt n`jy

strukturc spakcs hgiicrc`tjy, lut cxpcrgc`kc gt hgiicrc`tjy, lckausc tmc sc`snrgud gs hgi-

icrc`tjy ”prnbraddch‗.— (C. X. Majj <669? 3<) Xmc cxpcrgc`kc jcar`ch irnd snkgcty nr

kujturc, as wcjj as tmc lgnbrapmy g` [kmútz‗s pmc`ndc`njnby taec away tmgs prnljcd.

Majj kn`tgùcs tmat tmc lnhy inrds tmc dca`s inr g`tcraktg`b wgtm ntmcrs a`h tmc c`-

vgrn`dc`t g` vargnus ways injjnwg`b tmc pattcr`g`b ni tmc sc`scs, wmgkm hctcrdg`cs

spatgaj cxpcrgc`kc. Hata (c.b. arkmgtckturc) gs scjcktgvcjy ahdgttch a`h rcocktch tmrnubm

a skrcc`g`b nr fijtcrg`b karrgch nut ly tmc sc`scs tmat smut tmg`bs nut (C. X. Majj 179=,

C. X. Majj <669). Xmcrc arc ̀ n u`gvcrsaj vajucs tn dcasurc lcmavgnuraj aspckts ni spatgajcxpcrgc`kc, tmcy arc kujturc nr pcnpjc spckgfik. Xmc qucstgn`s tmat smnujh lc ragsch

rcbarh tmc sc`scs a`h psykmnjnby a`h tmcrcinrc `cch ntmcr hgskgpjg`cs tn lc a`swcrch

(ghcd).

G` a ruhgdc`tary way, Majj strcsscs sndc gdpnrta`t tmg`bs g` mgs kujturaj spckgfik

tcrrgtnrgajgtgcs. G` snkgaj g`tcraktgn`, hgsta`kc scttg`b kn`trglutcs strn`bjy tn tmc cstal-

jgsmdc`t ni a` ghc`tgty, wmgkm jgcs at tmc lasgs ni tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni snkgcty. Mc g`trn-

hukcs tmc `ntgn` ni gìra-kujturaj lascs tn prnvghc ways kujturaj spckgfiks ka` hcvcjnp.

Mcrc tmc gùc`kc ni lgnjnby gs kjcarjy ̀ ntaljc? ‚Xmcrc gs ̀ n lrcae lctwcc` tmc prcsc`t,

g` wmgkm da` akts as a kujturc prnhukg`b a`gdaj, a`h tmc past, wmc` tmcrc wcrc `ndc` a`h `n kujturcs. Xmcrc gs a` u`lrnec` kn`tgùgty lctwcc` tmc iar past a`h tmc

prcsc`t, inr kujturc gs lgn-lasgk, rnntch g` lgnjnbgkaj aktgvgtgcs. U…T Xcrrgtnrgajgty gs a`

cxadpjc ni a` gìra-kujturaj aktgvgty.— (C. X. Majj 1737? 96) Xmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni kujturc

gs a` cvnjutgnàry prnkcss tmat taecs pjakc nutsghc tmc lnhy. Majj jalcjs tmgs kndpnsgtc

prnkcss ”cxtc`sgn`s‗, wmgkm inrds a `cw hgdc`sgn`. Xn tmgs kujturaj hgdc`sgn` da`

gs g` a statc ni hyàdgk cqugjglrgud tmat, tn a kcrtag` cxtc`t (dy cdpmasgs), rcpjakcs

àturc. Da`, tmcrcinrc, gs aljc tn hctcrdg`c wmat eg`h ni nrba`gsd mc wgjj lc (C. X.

Majj 179=, <669). Majj ake`nwjchbcs partgkujar cjcdc`ts tmat mcjp aktnrs u`hcrsta`h

kujturaj hgiicrc`kcs g` tmc usc ni spakc. Xmcsc mc kajjs spatgaj kucs, wmgkm knddu`gkatc

nur tcrrgtnrgajgty. Xcrrgtnrgajgty hgiicrs irnd kujturc tn kujturc. Xmc way pcnpjc usc spakc

hctcrdg`cs mnw wc scc tmnsc pcnpjc. G` hgiicrc`t kujturcs hgsta`kcs lctwcc` pcnpjc‗s

pjakcs nr hgvgsgn` ni spakc arc cjcdc`ts tmat ka` hctcrdg`c tmc kmaraktcr ni snkgaj rcja-

tgn`s (C. X. Majj 1737). Inr tmc rcscarkmcr tmc rcjatgn`smgps lctwcc` aktnrs a`h tmcgr

tcrrgtnrgajgty, mcjh wgtmg` tmc knddu`gkatgn` prnkcsscs gìnrdch ly spatgaj kucs, mavc

gìcrc`tgaj pntc`tgaj.

Xmc kn`tgùnus prnkcsscs ni prnxcdgks daec a kn``cktgn` tmat gs ni kn`sghcr-

aljc arkmacnjnbgkaj g`tcrcst. Kujturaj vajucs arc jcar`ch, wmgjst lcg`b passch n` lntm




sulkn`skgnusjy g`tn tmc sulkn`skgnus, as kn`skgnusjy g`tn tmc kn`skgnus. \cpctgtgvc

càktdc`t cstaljgsmcs hagjy praktgkcs g` kcrtag` ways ly pcnpjc ahmcrg`b tn a kujturc.

Xmgs wgjj jcah tn strukturg`b, a`h cvc`tuajjy pmysgkaj kn`struktgn` ni a kujturc g` gts

c`vgrn`dc`t akknrhg`b tn tmgs spatgaj cxpcrgc`kc. Xmus cdlnhgch da`, tmrnubm tmc

pcrinrda`kc ni aktgn`s g` mgs c`vgrn`dc`t, lckndcs tgch tn pmysgkaj tra`sinrdatgn`s

g` tmat c`vgrn`dc`t.

Hcspgtc tmgs pntc`tgaj, prnxcdgks mas inu`h jgttjc brnu`hs g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgs-

knursc. Gt gs prnlaljc tmat gts inkus n` jcvcjs ni knddu`gkatgn`, cspckgajjy lnhgjy knd-

du`gkatgn` a`h bcsturcs, prnvcs iutgjc g` hcajg`b wgtm arkmacnjnbgkaj rcknrhs. N`jy

wmc` nr gi tmcsc knddu`gkatgn`s jcah tn kn`struktch kn`snjghatgn` g` a pmysgkaj sc`sc

knujh prnxcdgks lc a` gìnrdatgvc tmcnry. Ajtmnubm mgs kndpjcx kn`kcptuajgsatgn`

ni tcrrgtnrgajgty gs usciuj, Majj ajsn ka` lc krgtgkgsch inr taeg`b a` cssc`tgajjy ctmnjnbgkaj

sta`kc tn mgs rcscarkm nlocktgvcs. [gdgjar tn tmc dctapmysgkaj kmaraktcr ni Musscrj‗s pmc-`ndc`njnby, Majj prnpnsch a inu`hatgnàj gìra-kujturc (g`spgrch ly gìra-ja`buabc)

(C. X. Majj 1737), abag` a jcvcj ni u`gvcrsajgsd tmat ka` ajsn lc assnkgatch wgtm vn`

Dgscs nr Rnlst dnhcjs g` Mnhhcr‗s \cahg`b tmc Vast (17=9). Xmc bnaj was tn hcvcjnp

kndparatgvc a`bjcs ni aàjysgs, kndg`b hnw` tn `ntg`b kujturajjy spckgfik hgiicrc`kcs.

Inr tmgs, Majj pjakch mgdscji as a rcscarkmcr nutsghc nr scparatch irnd mgs nlockts ni

stuhy, jnneg`b hnw` n` pcnpjc‗s lcmavgnur. Ntmcrwgsc gt wnujh `nt mavc lcc` pnssgljc

tn rcdare tmc hgiicrc`t kujturc spckgfik sc`snry wnrjhs pcnpjc g`malgt. A`tmrnpnjnby

snn` kadc tn taec a mcrdc`cutgk tur` g` wmgkm sukm rcasn`g`b was `n jn`bcr ak-

kcptch. @aturajjy, G hn ̀ nt hgrcktjy ahmcrc tn tmgs pnsgtgn`g`b ni tmc akahcdgk cgtmcr. Gtgs cspckgajjy mgs stuhy n` kn`stgtutgvc tcrrgtnrgajgty, pjakg`b tmc daeg`b ni spakc g` tmc

rcajd ni g`hgvghuaj pcrkcptgn`, ahoustg`b hgsta`kcs tn g`tcrpcrsnàj satgsiaktgn`, tmat

gs ni g`tcrcst. Gt hgrcktjy ajjnws pcnpjc tn kn`strukt tmc spakcs arnu`h tmcd akknrhg`b

tn pcrkcptgn`, wmgkm day c`tagj pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj e`nwjchbc, wmgjst g`tcrpcrsnàjgty

(ki. g`tcrsulocktgvgty) pujjs gt g`tn tmc snkgaj hcpc`hg`b n` tmcgr rcjatgn` tn a kujturc nr

snkgcty.

Inr gjjustratgvc purpnscs, G wgjj fiàjjy hchgkatc sndc wnrhs tn tmc hcfikgc`t attc`-

tgn` prnxcdgks mas lcc` bgvc` g` arkmacnjnby. G` mgs 1779 artgkjc Ocrry Dnnrc cxpjgkgtjy

strctkmcs prnxcdgk prnkcsscs g`tn tmc rcajd ni arkmgtckturc, statg`b? ‚sukm apprnakmcs

Uarkmacnjnbgkaj prnxcdgksT kn`sghcr kn`struktch spakcs as arkmgtckturaj arcàs tmat

smapc a`h arc smapch ly snkgaj g`tcraktgn`s partjy strukturch ly dnhcs ni muda`

knddu`gkatgn`.— (Dnnrc 1779? 27=) \gtuaj as a tmcdc gs bratciujjy kmnsc` ly Dnnrc.

Gt gs brnup-spckgfik a`h gts rcpctgtgvc cxckutgn` gs lnu`h tn rcckt g` tmc jay-nut a`h

sgzc ni tmc pjazas. Wct gt dgsscs a` attcdpt tn u`hcrsta`h tmc ̀ aturc ni tmc aktgvgty tmat

kn`kjusgvcjy smapch tmc pjazas. Dnrcnvcr, tmc snkgctaj cjcdc`t gs gsnjatch irnd snkgajjy

c`vgrn`dc`taj aktgn` ly utgjgsg`b tmc prcsuppnsch kjassgfikatgn` ni rgtuaj a`h pjaza

trahgtgn`s. [gdgjarjy, \nàjh Ijctkmcr (<669) `ntgkcs tmat g` tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t tmc




usc ni raw datcrgaj gs `nt iu`ktgnàjjy hctcrdg`ch, wmgkm jcavcs rnnd inr tmc g`tcràj

npcratgnàj kmaraktcr ni lcmavgnur wgtmg` tmc knddu`gty. Xmgs lcmavgnur gs ̀ nurgsmch

ly knddu`gkatgvc trahgtgn`s, mc`kc prnxcdgks kndcs g`tn pjay. ‚A prgnrg UgtT wnujh

sccd u`jgecjy Utmat knddu`gkatgvc trahgtgn`s krcatc spatgaj nrhcrT, as snkgaj aktgn`

a`h vcrlaj hckjaratgn` arc iadnusjy `n`-knrrcspn`hc`t. Xmc lugjt spakc gs, ni knursc,

a kn`scquc`kc tn wmat tmcy hgh tn daec tmc datcrgaj inrd. Mnwcvcr, gt gs a` u`war-

ra`tch lut casy cjgsgn` tn assudc tmat tmc vcrlaj hcskrgptgn` pcnpjc appjy tn tmcgr

snkgaj jgic, iujjy hcskrglc tmnsc aktgn`s.— (Ijctkmcr <669? 1<6) Mc bncs n` tn kn`kjuhc

tmat inrds ni knddu`gkatgn` (hckjaratgn`) arc oust n`c aspckt, a`h hn `nt kapturc

tmc iujj kndpjcxgty, ni tmc datcrgaj pattcr`g`b ni spakc. Xmcrc ka` lc `n hctcrdg`gs-

tgk jgè lctwcc` datcrgaj icaturcs a`h tmc aktgvc kndpn`c`ts ni snkgaj jgic. ‚Xmc ecy

gdpjgkatgn` ni kn`sgstc`ky a`h tmc mcrgtabc ciickt gs tmat muda` spakc gs pattcr`ch ly

g`tcràjjy knmcrc`t sugtcs ni takgt, spatgaj dcssabcs u`gquc tn a knddu`gty. UA dctm-nhnjnby dust lc hcvcjnpch tn rcprcsc`t tmcT datcrgaj spatgaj dcssabcs kndpnsch ni

tmc vgsuaj hgsta`kcs karrgch ly strukturcs a`h tmc jnkatgn` ni c`tgtgcs. U…T UAsT tmc gssuc

gs tn cxpjag` mnw a sugtc ni vgsuaj hgsta`kcs kndcs tn kn`stgtutc a scttjcdc`t.— (Ijctkmcr

<669? 1<3)

Xmus a prnljcdatgk rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` muda` aktgn` a`h knddu`gkatgn` gs u`-

knvcrch, dnvg`b kjnscr tnwarhs tmc dca`g`b ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmc spckgfik

prnkcsscs ni tmc prnhuktgn` ni tmgs lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t, mnwcvcr, arc stgjj nlskurc. Aj-

tcràtgvcjy, tmcrc mavc lcc` da`y dctmnhs inr g`tcrprctg`b arkmgtckturc a`h tmc lugjt

c`vgrn`dc`t tmat startch wgtm tmc datcrgaj rcknrh gtscji. N`c ni tmc dnst gùc`tgaj nitmcsc mas lcc` tmc stuhy ni arkmgtckt (a`h a`tmrnpnjnbgst) Adns \apnpnrt (17=<).

Axgs ni Muda` [pakc - Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`t

G` a`tmrnpnjnby, \apnpnrt‗s wnre mas lcc` rcahgjy rckcgvch lckausc ni gts inkus n` tmc

muda`gty ni urla` inrds a`h tmc ways spatgaj kucs (ki. C. X. Majj) c`knhc snkgajgty (Vcj-

jnw <669, \gkmarhsn` <669). Gt injjnws irnd tmc a`tmrnpnjnbgkaj ghca tmat pcnpjc arc

`nt n`jy a`kmnrch g` spakc, lut g` kjagdg`b gt ajsn hcvcjnp gt (Vcjjnw <669). \apnpnrt‗s

kc`traj tmcsgs pnsgts tmc hgkmntndy ni pja``ch c`vgrn`dc`ts a`h gts uscrs g`tcrprct-

g`b gts dca`g`bs. As nppnsch tn dukm wnre n` tmc dca`g`b ni arkmgtckturc, wmgkm

inkusch n` tmc dca`g`b inr tmc pja``cr, \apnpnrt gs g`tcrcstch g` tmc dca`g`b gt mnjhs

inr gts g`malgta`ts a`h uscrs g` nrhcr tn u`hcrsta`h mnw spakcs ka` lc tra`sinrdch

tn knddu`gkatc spckgfik gìnrdatgn` tn gts uscrs (\apnpnrt 17=<). Xmgs gs `nt tmc stgjj

jakeg`b e`nwjchbc ni mnw snkgaj prnkcsscs prnhukc kn`struktgn`s nr arkmgtckturc. As

G`bnjh `ntcs, tmc g`tcrcst sndcmnw mas tur`ch arnu`h g` hgskgpjgàry hgsknurscs irnd

tmc aktgvgtgcs ni lugjhg`b, kujtgvatgn`, a`h kn`struktgn` as praktgkcs g` g`malgtg`b tmc

wnrjh (hwcjjg`b), tn pnsgtgn`g`b sukm aktgvgtgcs g`tn a wnrjh ajrcahy lugjt. ‚Rmcrc lc-




inrc lugjhg`b was kgrkudskrglch wgtmg` hwcjjg`b, tmc pnsgtgn` `nw appcars rcvcrsch,

wgtm hwcjjg`b kgrkudskrglch wgtmg` lugjhg`b.— (G`bnjh <666? 1=3) Xmgs mc krgtgkgscs,

injjnwg`b Mcghcbbcr, lckausc gt g`mglgts a` u`hcrsta`hg`b ni hwcjjg`b aktgvgtgcs, c.b.

datcrgaj kn`struktgn`, as lcjn`bg`b tn tmc way wc arc (ghcd). G` rcaktgn` tn tmc ap-

prnakmcs prcsc`tch mcrc, inr tmc sadc rcasn`s a` g`vcrsgn` ni hgskursgvc g`tcrcsts wgjj

lc arbuch inr lcjnw.

\apnpnrt gs kn`kcr`ch wgtm wmat mas lcc` jalcjjch tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. Jaw-

rc`kc a`h Jnw (1776) bgvc a ̀ cat hcfi`gtgn` ni tmgs tcrd. Xmcy say tmgs alstrakt kn`kcpt

gs usch tn hcskrglc tmc prnhukts ni muda` lugjhg`b aktgvgty. Gt rcicrs tn pmysgkaj ajtcra-

tgn`s ni tmc ̀ aturaj c`vgrn`dc`t tmrnubm datcrgaj kn`struktgn` ly muda` lcg`bs. Xmgs

g`kjuhcs lugjt inrds, wmgkm c`tagj lugjhg`b typcs a`h hcfi`ch spakcs tmat arc lnu`h,

lut `nt `ckcssargjy c`kjnsch (nitc` gìrastrukturc). Ajsn, gt dgbmt mnjh ja`hdares a`h

sgtcs tmat hn `nt c`kjnsc aktgvgty. Igàjjy, lugjt inrds day rcicr oust tn spckgfik icaturcs,cjcdc`ts nr hgvgsgn`s ni tmc nptgn`s statch alnvc. Xmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t smnujh ak-

knddnhatc ajj ”typcs‗.

Inr mgs stuhgcs, \apnpnrt uscs hatascts ni spckgfik lugjhg`bs, lugjhg`b pja`s, pmascs,

a`h styjcs. Arkmgtckturc mas kn`kc`tratch n` tmc da`gicst iu`ktgn`s ni lugjhg`bs, wmgkm

rcicrs tn tmc g`strudc`taj iu`ktgnàjgsd, ratmcr tma` tmc jatc`t iu`ktgn`s ni lugjhg`bs,

wmgkm rcicrs tn tmcgr cxprcssgn` a`h dca`g`b. \apnpnrt strcsscs tmc gdpnrta`kc ni tmc

dnvcaljc (hcknratgvc) cjcdc`ts g` hcjgdgtch parts ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t, lckausc

tmcy ka` cxpjgkgtjy lc dca`g`b karrgcrs. Ly tmcd, pcrsnàjgsatgn` ni spakc day lc

akmgcvch, wmgjc tmc cjcdc`ts tmat hn `nt aiickt pcrsnàjgsatgn` knujh lc usch inr tmciradcwnre ni spatgaj hcsgb` (\apnpnrt 17=<). Xmcrc gs a strn`b rcjatgn`smgp wgtm stuh-

gcs ni prgvaky, c.b. akkcssglgjgty ni rnnds a`h g`tcrvgsglgjgty. Xmc dnrc prgvatc spakcs arc,

tmc dnrc g`hgvghuajgsch kn`fiburatgn`s ni spakc lckndc. Xn dc tmgs dca`s tmat n`jy tn

a kcrtag` cxtc`t tmc bc`craj prgvaky pattcr` gs g`hgkatgvc inr a bc`crajgsch dca`g`b ni

spakc irnd a spckgfik brnup ghc`tgty. Xmc hcbrccs g` wmgkm pcrsnàjgsatgn` day nkkur

gs (g`tcr)rcjatch tn lntm g`tcràj a`h cxtcràj dca`g`bs ni spakc. Gt gs gdpnrta`t tmat

tmnsc dnvcaljc cjcdc`ts as spatgaj kucs lc `ntgkch, g.c. rcprcsc`t `ntgkcaljc hgiicr-

c`kcs, wmgkm gs `ckcssary inr hcrgvg`b dca`g`b irnd tmcd (ghcd). Xmgs kng`kghcs wgtm

[kmútz‗s pmc`ndc`njnby g` tmc iakt tmat nlscrvch nlockts `cch tn lc kn`trastch tn

cjcdc`ts mcjh g` tmc stnke ni e`nwjchbc ni tmc g`hgvghuaj. Lut \apnpnrt ajsn hgstg`-

bugsmcs lctwcc` pcrkcptgn` a`h assnkgatgn` ni spatgaj kucs. G` smnrt, tmgs dca`s tmat

tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t gs cxpcrgc`kch, wmgjc g` tmgs cxpcrgc`kc gt gs assnkgatch wgtm pns-

sgljc dca`g`bs. Mc arbucs tmat rcsghc`tgaj scttjcdc`t systcds arc nitc` dnrc assnkga-

tgnàj tma` pcrkcptuaj, sg`kc tmrnubm assnkgatch dca`g`b tmgs systcd lckndcs sgb`gfi-

ka`t a`h gìnrdatgvc inr gts uscrs. Xmgs assnkgatgn` gs ajsn kajjch tmc aiicktgvc rcspn`scs

tn dca`g`b, a`h gts npcratgn` sccds kndparaljc wgtm tmc spn`ta`cnus attrglutgn`

ni dca`g`b ni [kmútz. @cvcrtmcjcss, lntm tmc pcrkcptgn` a`h assnkgatgn` ni spakc




arc prg`kgpaj iaktnrs (ghcd). Gt sccds tmat tmc iu`ktgn` a lugjhg`b mas gs rcknb`gsch g`

\apnpnrt‗s pcrkcptgn`, wmgjc tmc (snkgaj) sgb`gfika`kc gt karrgcs gs cstaljgsmch tmrnubm

assnkgatch dca`g`bs. Hcknratgn`, cvc` tn tmc jcvcj ni knjnur, a`h gts assnkgatch pcr-

kcptgn` ka` gùc`kc tmc way spakc gs usch. Xn gjjustratc mgs asscrtgn`s, \apapnrt nitc`

uscs cxadpjcs ni dnùdc`ts. G iccj n`c smnujh taec ̀ ntgkc ni tmc iakt tmat dnùdc`ts

arc g`trg`sgkajjy cxtravaba`t, oust as jarbc prgvatc prnpcrtgcs ka` lc huc tn tmcgr prgvaky.

Xmcrcinrc, tmcgr gdpnrta`kc tn tmc spatgntcdpnraj rcjatgn`s g` tmc snkgaj cvcryhay jgic

gs jgdgtch. Wct g` arkmacnjnby arkmgtckturaj (nitc` dnùdc`taj) styjc mas lcc` cquajjy

gdpnrta`t tn hgstg`bugsm lugjhg`bs ni inrcgb` nrgbg` wgtmg` sgtcs. Xmgs gs appjgch tn rcsg-

hc`tgaj arcas oust as wcjj, c.b. Xcntgmuaka`n prcsc`kc g` Xgeaj (Japnrtc <66;) a`h Jc`ka

prcsc`kc g` Knpá` (Bcrstjc 17==).

\apnpnrt‗s inkus n` tmc dca`g`b ni urla` c`vgrn`dc`ts hcvgatcs irnd tmc way al-

straktch cjcdc`ts ni tmcsc fit g` inrdatgvc prnkcsscs hcvcjnpg`b tmnsc spakcs. Cdpma-sgsg`b vnju`tary dnvcaljc cjcdc`ts a`h styjgstgk kucs, mgs inkus gs jcss iu`hadc`taj tn

lugjt spakc. Cspckgajjy wmcrc kn`kurrg`b wgtm prnxcdgks, \apnpnrt‗s a`tmrnpnjnbgkaj

dctmnhnjnbgcs arc g`suifikgc`t. A`tmrnpnjnbgkaj tckm`gqucs, jgec g`tcrvgcws, arc sgdpjy

gdpnssgljc wgtm arkmacnjnbgkaj hata, wmgkm dca`s nur hgskgpjg`c rcqugrcs a hgrckt kn`-

`cktgn` lctwcc` kausaj aktgn`s a`h kn`scquc`tgaj spatgaj kucs.

As [dgtm (<662) ajsn `ntch g` mgs kndparatgvc krnss-kujturaj apprnakm tn carjy kgt-

gcs, \apnpnrt‗s lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t kn`sgsts ni dcssabc karrgcrs g` tmcgr sta`harhgsatgn`.

Mc scces tn sg`bjc nut tmc (spatgaj, styjgstgk) kucs tmat `n`-vcrlajjy knddu`gkatc tmnsc

dcssabcs. \apnpnrt assudcs tmat snkgaj nrba`gsatgn` a`h kujturc prnvghc fixch scts nirujcs inr tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t tmat daec pcnpjc lcmavc apprnprgatcjy. Kucs lckndc

jcbgljc tmrnubm tmc prnkcss ni c`kujturatgn`, kn`snjghatg`b kucs tmrnubm kn`sgstc`t

usc (\apnpnrt 17=<). G` tmgs, mgs ghcas fi`h kn``cktgn` wgtm Mc`rg Jciclvrc (1771),

wmn cdpmasgscs tmc sydlnjgk dca`g`b a`h sgb`gfika`kc ni spakcs, tmc c`kujturatgn`

ni spakcs, a`h tmc ways kujturc gs spatgajgsch.

\apnpnrt‗s dca`g`b-karryg`b kucs ka` lc g`hgkatnrs ni mnw cvcryhay snkgaj jgic

tnne pjakc, a`h asscss mnw tmgs gs kujturc, knddu`gty nr pjakc spckgfik a`h kma`bcs

nvcr tgdc. Hcspgtc tmgs pnssglgjgty, lntm \apnpnrt mgdscji a`h [dgtm rcknb`gsc tmat

g` tmc apprnakmcs tn tmc g`tcrprctatgn` ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t, tmcrc mas lcc` a

kn`sgstc`t jake ni a tcdpnraj kn`kcpt (\apnpnrt 17=<, [dgtm <662). \apnpnrt‗s jcv-

cjs ni dca`g`b scarkm tn hgstg`bugsm mnw knsdnjnby nr ghcnjnby (ghc`tgty nr status)

kma``cjs a`h g`tcrakts wgtm lcmavgnur a`h dnvcdc`t. G` dnst kascs a` g`tcbratgn`

ni ajj nptgn`s ka` lc cxpcktch. Xmc dghhjc-jcvcj dca`g`b pcrtag`s tn inrd, sgzc, a`h

jnkatgn` ni strukturcs tn gìcr pnwcr, jalnur kn`trnj a`h pjakc ni knddn`crs. Xmgs gs

grrcspcktgvc ni tmc mgbm-jcvcj rujcrs, lugjhcrs, nr rcjgbgnus dntgis a`h usuajjy kn`sgst ni

tmc pnjgtgkaj rcajgtgcs hcrgvch irnd inrdajgty a`h dnùdc`tajgty. Xmc jnw-jcvcj dca`-

g`b pcrtag`s tn tmc rckursgvc rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` lcmavgnur a`h arkmgtckturc ([dgtm




<662). \apnpnrt apprnakmcs tmc jnw jcvcj irnd arkmgtckturc, g`stcah ni irnd da`

prnhukg`b gt. Cssc`tgajjy, tmat gs a tnp-hnw` apprnakm g`stcah ni lnttnd-up. Ntmcr hgi-

fikujtgcs wgtm tmc usc ni \apnpnrt‗s ghcas g`kjuhc mgs statgk kn`kcpt ni arkmgtckturc a`h

`nt kndpjctcjy rccxgvc uscrs nr aktnrs ly assudg`b jcar`ch kujturc. (Ki. c.b. G`bnjh

(<666) arbug`b tmat akkujturatgn` gs a twn way prnkcss. [cc kmaptcr tmrcc n` partgkg-

patgn`.) Xmc jattcr png`t gs pcrmaps rcjatch tn mgs hgkmntndy ni tmc uscr a`h tmc (kuc)

pja``cr, wmcrcas mgstnrgkajjy tmcsc kn`kcpts dcrbc? uscrs lckndc pja``crs tmrnubm

tra`sinrdatgvc a`h kn`struktgvc aktgn`s (scc kmaptcr fivc). Dnrcnvcr, mgs kn`kcpt ni

apprnprgatc lcmavgnur gdpjgcs u`gvcrsaj pcrkcptgn`, g`tcrprctatgn`, a`h sulscquc`t

aktgn`. Xmrnubm lnttnd-up aàjysgs, tmc kucs tmat arc dca`g`biuj tn \apnpnrt arc

hcjglcratcjy pjakch. Ajtmnubm tmat pnssglgjgty gs gdpnrta`t, tmc kucs irnd a lnttnd-up

apprnakm mavc lcc` hcvcjnpch ly snkgaj aktgn`s ajtcrg`b tmc àturaj c`vgrn`dc`t.

Xmcy lckndc dca`g`biuj tmrnubm tmc pcrinrda`kc ni tmc aktgn`s tmat kausch tmcd.Muda` aktgn`, usc, akkcssglgjgty, vgsglgjgty, a`h dnvcdc`t, ka` lc pjakch at tmc jnw

jcvcj ni dca`g`b. G` kndputatgnàj skgc`kc, sndc gdprcssgvc kn`trglutgn`s mavc lcc`

dahc g` tmc dnhcjjg`b ni muda` lcmavgnur wgtmg` lugjt spakcs g` urla` kn`tcxts. Xmc

brcatcst asscdljy ni dctmnhs g` tmgs hgrcktgn` ka` lc inu`h g` spakc sy`tax aàjysgs.

N`c ni tmc dnst gdpnrta`t rcscarkmcrs ahvnkatg`b a`h prnbrcssg`b tmcsc tmcscs gs Lgjj

Mgjjgcr.

Axgs ni Muda` [pakc - [pakc [y`tax

G` tmc jast hckahcs spakc sy`tax mas lckndc a` gdpnrta`t pjaycr g` tmc aàjysgs ni tmc

jaynut ni spakc g` lugjhg`bs a`h kgtgcs. Gt hcvcjnps qua`tgtatgvc a`h hcskrgptgvc tnnjs

ly wmgkm spakc gs stuhgch. Gt gs partgkujarjy appjgkaljc tn tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t, sg`kc gt

nrgbgàtch g` arkmgtckturc. Kc`trcinjh gs tmc qucstgn` ni mnw spakc gùc`kcs lcmav-

gnur, nitc` cxprcssch g` pattcr`s ni dnvcdc`t (Mgjjgcr a`h Ma`sn` 17=8, Mgjjgcr <669).

G` spakc sy`tax, twn lasgk ghcas kng`kghc. Igrst, as ajsn mas lcc` cxpjnrch g` cxgstc`tgaj-

gsd, spakc gs g`trg`sgk tn muda` aktgvgty a`h cxpcrgc`kc. Xmgs g`kjuhcs tmc jg`cargty ni

dnvcdc`t a`h tmc kn`vcx kmaraktcr ni muda` g`tcraktgn` (ajj partgkgpatnry png`ts g`

spakc ̀ cch tn lc nlscrvaljc). Xmc spakcs g` lugjhg`bs a`h lugjt c`vgrn`dc`ts (c.b. ur-

la` c`vgrn`dc`ts) arc cxpcrgc`kch as vargnusjy smapch vgsuaj ficjhs. Cvc`tuajjy, tmcrc

gs a ̀ aturaj bcndctry tn muda` aktgvgty ly wmgkm spakc gs smapch. [ckn`hjy, spakc sy`-

tax rcknb`gscs tmat spakc hncs `nt n`jy iu`ktgn` inr pcnpjc huc tn gts prnpcrtgcs, lut

ajsn lckausc ni tmc rcjatgn`s lctwcc` ajj spakcs daeg`b up a jaynut. Xmc dnvcdc`t

ni pcnpjc wgjj lc aiicktch ly tmc kn`fiburatgn` ni tmc jaynut tmat niicrs scquc`kcs a`h

vargnus g`tcjjgbgljc kmngkcs. S`hcrsta`hg`b mnw jaynut aiickts dnvcdc`t rcqugrcs tmc

algjgty tn daec rcasnàljy kn`sgstc`t hcskrgptgn`s ni jaynuts as spatgaj kn`fiburatgn`s.

Jg`bugstgks gs prnvg`b hgifikujt, as n`jy lasgk spatgaj rcjatgn`s mavc artgkujatch tcrds,




wmgjc sukm kndpjcx spatgaj rcjatgn`s rcdag` u`hcfi`ch. Xmgs knujh lc kausch ly tmc

g`trg`sgk kmaraktcr ni tmcgr cxgstc`tgaj knb`gtgn`, wmgkm gs hgskrcpa`t wgtm kn`skgnusjy

tmgèg`b ni spakc (Mgjjgcr <669). Xmus, spakc sy`tax kndlg`cs twn gdpnrta`t gìcrc`-

tgaj pnsgtgn`s inr wnreg`b wgtm tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t? spakc gs g`trg`sgk tn nur lcg`b,

lut ajsn dag`tag`s a bcndctrgk kndpn`c`t g` tmc cxpcrgc`kc ni gt. Dnrcnvcr, tmc

g`tcrprctatgn` ni hcjgdgtch spakcs smnujh `nt lc hn`c g` gsnjatgn`. Ly akkcptg`b tmcsc

pnsgtgn`s, spatgajgtgcs lckndc part ni a rcjatgnàj kn`fiburatgn` ni spakc, daeg`b tmcd

g`tcrrcjatgnàjjy dca`g`biuj.

Xmcsc spatgaj rcjatgn`s arc prg`kgpaj cjcdc`ts ni inkus g` spakc sy`tax, wmcrc tmcy

taec tmc inrd ni hcbrccs ni akkcss, iakgjgtatg`b dnvcdc`t a`h vgcwsmchs, adn`bst

ntmcrs. Xmgs prnvghcs mypntmcscs alnut kmaraktcrgstgks ni spakcs rcjatch tn pnjgtgkaj

kn`trnj nr rgtuaj cxkjusgn`. Ahhgtgnàjjy, gt ka` prnhukc hgstg`kt pattcr`s rcicrrg`b tn sn-

kgaj hgiicrc`kcs ni kjass strukturcs. Xmcsc mypntmcscs arc kn``cktch tn tmc ways pcnpjccxpcrgc`kc a`h usc tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t, nr c.b. pnjgtgkaj prnkcsscs at pjay g` tmc lugjt

c`vgrn`dc`t (Mgjjgcr a`h Ma`sn` 17=8, [dgtm <662). Inr rcscarkm g` urla` kn`tcxts,

spakc sy`tax suppjgcs tnnjs inr aàjysg`b kgtgcs as tmc `ctwnres ni spakc, injjnwg`b tmc

kn`fiburatgn` ni spakcs as g` tmcgr jnkajgty, kjustcr, a`h nrgc`tatgn`. Gt prnvghcs da``crs

ni nlscrvg`b tmc rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` iu`ktgnàj pattcr`s ni tmc utgjgsatgn` ni spakc

(c.b. dnvcdc`t, hgiicrc`tgatgn`, ja`h usc, dgbratgn`, nr snkgaj mgcrarkmy a`h hgstrcss)

a`h tmcgr part g` tmc `ctwnre ni spakc. Iurtmcrdnrc, gt inrdujatcs tmcnrgcs alnut tmc

dutuaj aiicktgvc rcjatgn` lctwcc` knb`gtgvc iaktnrs a`h spakc `ctwnres (Mgjjgcr <662).

[pakc sy`tax inkuscs n` tmc way tmc cxtraktch spatgaj jaws dchgatc tmc snkgaj kn`-struktgn` ni urla` spakc.

G` vgsuajgsg`b gts rcsujts, spakc sy`tax aàjysgs uscs tmc bc`crajjy e`nw` kndpnsg-

tgn` ni cjcdc`ts a`h rcjatgn`s tn prnhukc axgs daps, tmc dag` hgiicrc`kc lcg`b tmc

jcvcj ni hctagj g` wmgkm tmcsc cjcdc`ts arc g`knrpnratch tn kndpnsc a dap ni mgbm

kndpjcxgty a`h vargnus jcvcjs ni gìnrdatgn` (Mgjjgcr <66<, Mgjjgcr <662). Xmc hgiicr-

c`t typcs ni ajj-tn-ajj rcjatgn`s ni cjcdc`ts nr scbdc`ts g` urla` spakc, arc rnubmjy

hgvghch g`tn tn-dnvcdc`ts (akkcssglgjgty pntc`tgaj) a`h tmrnubm-dnvcdc`ts (pntc`tgaj

g` ajj pagrs ni scbdc`ts). Xmcy arc assgb`ch kajkujatch, wcgbmtch vajucs n` tmc lasgs ni

dctrgk (smnrtcst patms) hgsta`kcs, tnpnjnbgkaj (icwcst tur`s) hgsta`kcs, a`h bcndctrgkaj

(jcast kma`bch a`bjcs) hgsta`kcs. [ukm kajkujatgn` ka` lc dahc irnd cakm scbdc`t

inr cakm vajuc, càljg`b us tn scc tmc kgty at vargnus jcvcjs ni iu`ktgn`g`b a`h skajcs.

Xmc apparc`t strc`btm gs tmat Mgjjgcr assudcs tmat tmc brgh a`h axgs sy`taktgk dnhcjs

rcsujtg`b irnd tmc kajkujatgn`s kapturc tmc scji nrba`gsg`b jnbgk ni kgtgcs (Mgjjgcr <662).

N`c ni tmc prnljcds spakc sy`tax gs knìrn`tch wgtm gs u`hcrsta`hg`b kujturaj

hgiicrc`kcs a`h tmc appcara`kc ni g`varga`t cjcdc`ts tmat cdcrbc irnd tmc prnkcsscs

bc`cratg`b kgtgcs. A pnssgljc hgrcktgn` inr a snjutgn` inr tmgs, gs tmc snkgn-kujturaj gdpn-

sgtgn` ni jnkaj bcndctrgcs n` jnkaj kn`struktgn`s ni urla` spakc, wmgjst g`varga`ts, sukm




as pmysgkaj a`h snkgn-ckn`ndgk g`mglgtgn`s a`h ̀ ckcssgtgcs, bag` gdpnrta`kc g` tmc hc-

vcjnpdc`taj brnwtm ni kgtgcs (Mgjjgcr <66<, Mgjjgcr <662). Xmcsc aspckts krcatc bc`cra-

tgvc jaws ly wmgkm tmc kgty hcvcjnps, sukm as tmc nrba`gsatgn` ni kgty spakcs g` ljnkes

a`h brnups wgtm jg`car spakcs kn``cktg`b tmcd (Mgjjgcr 17=8, Mgjjgcr <662). [pakc

sy`tax rcscarkm mas jch tn da`y dnrc (g`krcasg`bjy kndpjcx) jaws, g`vnjvg`b da`y

bc`craj icaturcs g` lugjt c`vgrn`dc`ts (Mgjjgcr <662). Cvc`tuajjy, tmcsc datmcdatgkaj

jaws smnujh càljc kajkujatgn`s prnhukg`b a dnhcj inr kgty brnwtm.

As a way tn hn krnss-kujturaj kndpargsn`s wgtm hatascts n` lntm past a`h prcsc`t

kgtgcs, spakc sy`tax mas prnvc` tn lc a strn`b tnnj. \cscarkmcrs ajj nvcr tmc wnrjh mavc

appjgch tmc aàjytgkaj tckm`gqucs tn kgtgcs g` ajj parts a`h rcbgn`s (Mgjjgcr <662). Gt mas

tmc ahva`tabc ni prnvghg`b vargnus scts ni hctagjch gìnrdatgn` n` tmc lasgs ni kgty

pja`s, tmus daeg`b gt appjgkaljc tn arkmacnjnbgkaj hatascts as wcjj. Arkmacnjnbgsts,

injjnwg`b arkmgtckts, g`tcrgnr hcsgb`crs a`h kgty pja``crs, mavc sjnwjy lcbu` tn rcajgsctmat spakc sy`tax niicrs sgb`gfika`t tnnjs inr aàjysg`b hcjgdgtch spakcs g` jarbcr spatgaj

kn`tcxts. Cspckgajjy g` tmc ajj-tn-ajj rcjatgn`s ni scbdc`ts g` spakc. G` mgs spakc sy`tax

stuhy ni tmc _akuaja rcsghc`tgaj kndpnu`h g` Xcntgmuaka`, Dattmcw \nll (<662)

statcs tmat, g` nrhcr tn daec mypntmcscs n` Xcntgmuaka` hndcstgk spakcs, n`c dust

taec g`tn akknu`t tmc jarbcr urla` nrhcr. A` aàjysgs ni tmc Xcntgmuaka` kgty pja` aj-

rcahy smnwch tmat, spakc sy`taktgkajjy, tmc [trcct ni tmc Hcah was pnnrjy akkcssgljc

a`h prnlaljy ̀ nt a scbdc`t niicrg`b tmc pnssglgjgty ni a darectpjakc nr casy travcjjg`b

tmrnubm tmc kgty. As a scbdc`t, gt appcarch rcjatgvcjy gsnjatch wgtmg` tmc kgty. Xmgs

e`nwjchbc a`h ntmcr gìcrc`kcs lasch n` spakc sy`taktgk typcs ni aàjysgs prnhukcha kcrtag` pcrspcktgvc n` tmc snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty ni Xcntgmuaka`. Xmcsc taec g`tn ak-

knu`t tmc bc`craj icaturcs ni ntmcrwgsc mctcrnbc`cnus kndpnu`hs a`h tmc g`hgvgsgljc

rcjatgn`s lctwcc` tmc arkmgtckturaj u`gt, tmc snkgaj g`malgtg`b gt a`h tmc kn`hgtgn`g`b

ni lntm ly tmc statc apparatus (\nll <662).

G` spgtc ni tmc kn`sghcraljc jcvcj ni snpmgstgkatgn` g` spakc sy`tax, tmcrc arc sndc

prnljcds g` usg`b gt as a tnnj inr snkgaj gìcrc`kc. Oust as wgtm \apnpnrt‗s tmcnry, tmc

hgiicrc`kc g` tmc agds ni tmc dctmnh irnd arkmacnjnbgkaj g`tcrprctatgn`s gs kausg`b

dnst ni tmc trnuljc. [pakc sy`tax prnhukcs g` tmc first pjakc gìnrdatgn` tmat knujh

lc usch ly arkmgtckts a`h kgty pja``crs tn lcttcr akknddnhatc tmc way muda`s usc

lugjt spakcs g` iuturc hcsgb`s. Ni knursc, g` nrhcr tn daec a wcjj-rcasn`ch arbudc`t

inr ̀ cw hcsgb`s, n`c `cchs tn u`hcrsta`h tmc snkgn-spatgaj kmaraktcrgstgks aiicktg`b tmgs

lcmavgnur. Mcrc a kn``cktgn` gs dahc tn snkgn-kujturaj gìcrc`kcs, lckausc tmcsc kmar-

aktcrgstgks knujh càljc us tn inrdujatc arbudc`ts alnut a snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty. Mgjjgcr

lcjgcvcs g` a kcrtag` hcbrcc ni u`gvcrsajgty g` da`‗s hcajg`b wgtm spakc, gìcrrg`b u`g-

vcrsajgty g` tmc knb`gtgvc prnkcsscs kausg`b tmc bc`cratgvc jaws tmat appcar tn jct kgtgcs

hcvcjnp g` kcrtag` ways. Mc hncs attcdpt tn hgskcr` lctwcc` cxpcrgc`tgaj u`gvcrsajgsd

a`h hgiicrg`b kujturaj kmaraktcrgstgks5 sgdgjar tn tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni pmc`ndc`njnby




tmat wc`t irnd tmc scarkm inr cssc`kcs tn taeg`b g`tn akknu`t pcrsnàj a`h snkgctaj

hgiicrc`kcs. Wct Mgjjgcr‗s inkus jgcs n` rcasn`g`b irnd tmc nutkndcs ni lntm u`gvcrsajg-

tgcs a`h kujturaj spckgfiks, wmgjc tmc u`hcrjyg`b snkgaj prnkcsscs tmat bc`cratc datcrgaj

kn`struktgn` ni spakc g` tmcgr pmysgkaj g`tcraktgn`s wgtm tmc c`vgrn`dc`t gs `nt bgvc`

prgdaky. Xmgs dca`s tmat cvc`tuajjy, snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty gs stgjj gìcrrch n` tmc lasgs

ni tckm`gkaj rcprcsc`tatgn`s ni pattcr`s g` tmc hatasct, snpmgstgkatch as tmcy day lc,

ratmcr tma` g`vnjvg`b a snkgaj u`hcrsta`hg`b ni tmc inrdatgvc snkgaj prnkcsscs smap-

g`b tmcd. Cssc`tgajjy, gt rcdag`s a statgstgk dctmnh, prnvghg`b a pnssgljc datmcdatgkaj

cxpjaàtgn` inr mnw tmc kgty knujh mavc brnw` g`tn gts `nw kn`snjghatch pattcr` ni

lugjhg`bs. G` gts hcbrccs ni alstraktgn`, tmc snkgnjnbgkaj pmc`ndc`njnby ni [kmútz

hncs ajjnw inr sndc u`gvcrsajgty (Clcrjc 17=8, Kadplcjj 17=1), ajtmnubm tmcsc arc

rchgrcktch tn snkgaj tmcnrctgkaj prnkcsscs. G` tmcgr npcratgn`, tmcsc day icaturc a pa`n-

pjy ni vargaljc g`hgvghuaj, mgstnrgkaj, pmysgkaj, sgtuatgnàj cjcdc`ts a`h sn inrtm, wmgkmajjnw tmc prnhuktgn` ni dujtginjh nutkndcs gìcrrch as snkgaj spckgfik ghc`tgtgcs ni tmc

lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. Xn a` cxtc`t, lntm \apnpnrt a`h Mgjjgcr hcpc`h n` e`nwjchbc

alnut sukm pcrkcptgn` ni aktuaj sgtuatgn`s, ratmcr tma` snkgajjy gìnrdch kn`stgtutgvc

prnkcsscs ajsn. Mnwcvcr, as gs tmc kasc wgtm arkmacnjnby a`h a`tmrnpnjnby, n`c ka`

`cvcr akmgcvc tmc sadc pcrkcptgn` as a`ntmcr, kcrtag`jy ̀ nt g` bng`b lake g` tgdc. Yn`

Dgscs, pmc`ndc`njnby a`h prnxcdgks ajj abrcc upn` tmc g`hgvghuajjy hgiicrg`b aspckts

ni pcrkcptgn` a`h muda` aktgn`.

Inr rcakmg`b tmcgr bnajs, \apnpnrt a`h Mgjjgcr wnre irnd tmc kurrc`t cxgstc`kc a`h

smapc ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t, arkmgtckturaj spckgfiks, spatgaj kucs a`h jaynuts. Rmcrc-as \apnpnrt trgcs tn kndc tn a` u`hcrsta`hg`b ni tmc pcrkcptgn` ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`-

dc`t ly sg`bjg`b nut sgb`gfika`t icaturcs ni lugjhg`bs a`h tmcgr assnkgatch dca`g`bs,

Mgjjgcr attcdpts tn attakm datmcdatgkaj inrdujas tn tmc way tmc usc a`h pcrkcptgn`

ni spakc g` tmcgr inrdatgvc quajgtgcs bc`cratc kgtgcs. Rgtm spakc sy`tax, gt gs ajsn sn

tmat gts inu`hatgnàj rcasn`g`b wnres irnd a fiàj stabc ni tmc nutkndc, tmus wnreg`b

tnp-hnw` tn bct tn tmc pcnpjc lcmg`h gt. Lntm daec assudptgn`s alnut wmgkm kmar-

aktcrgstgk aspckts ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t nr kgty jaynuts arc ni spckgfik gdpnrta`kc tn

lasc snkgaj gìcrc`kcs n`. G` hng`b tmgs, tmcy jake a snu`h snkgaj tmcnry tmat arbucs inr

tmc sgb`gfika`kc a`h vajuc askrglch tn kmaraktcrgstgks ni scbdc`ts a`h iu`ktgnàj jcvcjs.

Xmcrcinrc tmc kajkujatgn`s tmat arc lasch n` sukm scbdc`ts prnhukc pntc`tgaj iakgjg-

tgcs ni spakc, lut rcdag` hctakmch irnd tmc snkgaj prnkcsscs tmat gìnrd sukm spatgaj

iakgjgtgcs jgec akkcssglgjgty.

Vrnocktg`b spakc sy`taktgk dctmnhs wcgbmg`b tmcsc pnssgljc algjgtgcs lake g` tgdc

day smch jgbmt n` mnw spakc dgbmt mavc iakgjgtatch kcrtag` nws ni dnvcdc`ts a`h

typcs ni usc. Gt wgjj `nt kjargiy mnw tmc urla` c`vgrn`dc`t kadc alnut, wmy gt gs tmc

way gt gs, g.c. tmc snkgaj dca`g`b tmc kn`fiburatgn` ni spakc karrgcs. Xmgs ka` n`jy lc

cjukghatch ly inkusg`b n` inrdatgvc snkgaj prnkcsscs. Gi a tmcnry ni snkgaj prnkcsscs




g`tcricrg`b wgtm tmc kn`struktgn` ni spakc prnvghcs a` arbudc`t inr tmc inkus n` spc-

kgfik aspckts ni hatascts, ajjnwg`b cdpgrgkaj rcscarkm, spakc sy`taktgk kajkujatgn`s knujh

gdprnvc tmcgr sgb`gfika`kc inr snkgn-kujturaj gìcrc`kc (scc kmaptcr fivc).

N`c ni tmc brcat kn`trglutgn`s spakc sy`tax daecs tn arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc gs

tmc way gt hcajs wgtm hctagjch a`h cxtc`sgvc hatascts. G` urla` spakc, tmc lugjt c`vgrn`-

dc`t hcdn`stratcs gts dnst iujjy-brnw` smapc, g` wmgkm ajj snkgaj rcjatgn`s tn sndc

cxtc`t arc dchgatch g` lugjt spatgajgtgcs. Arkmacnjnby, mnwcvcr, jakes ahcquatc prnkcs-

sgvc a`h mnjgstgk tmcnrgcs aljc tn hcaj wgtm sukm cxtc`sgvc hatascts, kausg`b a rcstrgktch

inkus (c.b. aktgvgty arca arkmacnjnby) nr qugtc bc`craj jcvcjs ni gìcrc`kc. Injjnwg`b

a` cxtc`sgvc dab`ctgk survcy ni tmc Mcjjc`gstgk a`h \nda` sgtc ni Hnura-Curnpns g`

[yrga, Kmrgstnpmc Lc`ckm usch Lgjj Mgjjgcr‗s spakc sy`tax tn aàjysc tmc usc ni hndcstgk

spakc g` Hnura-Curnpns mnuscs (Lc`ckm <662). Lc`ckm hcdn`stratch tmc usc ni spakc

sy`tax tn sukm satgsiaktgn` tmat mc mas ajrcahy pja``ch a injjnw-up. Xmgs tgdc mc wgjjsurvcy kgtgcs ni vargnus pcrgnhs, a`h mnpcs tn rcakm sndc jcvcj ni hgakmrn`gk u`hcr-

sta`hg`b (Lc`ckm <66=). Mc rcknb`gsch tmc brcat a`h rgkm pnssglgjgtgcs ni tmc stuhy

ni spakc n` tmc lasgs ni bcnpmysgkaj daps. Lc`ckm cxpckts tmat a dap ni a kndpjctc

sgtc wnujh `nt n`jy ajjnw gìcrc`kc ni tmc usc ni hndcstgk spakc, lut ly g`kjuhg`b ajj

hwcjjg`bs a`h gìrastrukturc càljc a snkgn-kujturaj stuhy tn tmc kgtgcs hcajg`b wgtm

puljgk a`h prgvatc spakc (Lc`ckm <662). G wnujh jgec tn ahh tmat gi sukm pntc`tgaj cxgsts

inr spakc sy`tax, gt dust ajsn cxgst inr a`y snkgaj tmcnrctgkaj ajtcràtgvc inr g`tcrprctg`b

tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. Xnbctmcr wgtm Lc`ckm G lcjgcvc tmat tmc bcnpmysgkaj dap wgjj

qugkejy dnvc lcyn`h dcrcjy jnkajgsg`b `cw pjakcs tn cxkavatc nr tmc kn`firdatgn`tmat sndctmg`b jays lcjnw tmc suriakc. A qua`tgtatgvc dctmnh a`h a snkgaj pcrspcktgvc

knujh kndpjcdc`t a`h gìnrd cakm ntmcr.

[pakc sy`tax taecs up tmc kmajjc`bc ni cxtraktg`b gìnrdatgn` ni bc`cratgvc prnk-

csscs nut ni datcrgaj rcknrhs ni lugjt spakc. Rmat gs rcqugrch gs a` g`vcrsgn` ni g`tcr-

prctgvc aàjysgs wmgkm gs aljc tn daec tmc prnkcsscs ni tmc g`tcrpjay lctwcc` snkgaj

prnkcsscs a`h tmc pmysgkaj c`vgrn`dc`t g`tcjjgbgljc, sn tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc lugjt

c`vgrn`dc`t lckndcs gìnrdch. As Chwarh Majj g` 1737 ajrcahy prndptch? ‚G iccj

vcry strn`bjy tmat wc dust rcknb`gzc a`h u`hcrsta`h tmc kujturaj prnkcss. Rc hn`‗t

`cch dnrc dgssgjcs a`h M-lndls ̀ carjy sn dukm as wc ̀ cch dnrc spckgfik e`nwjchbc

ni nurscjvcs as partgkgpa`ts g` kujturc.— (C. X. Majj 1737? <13) As G dc`tgn`ch alnvc,

G`bnjh prnpnsch sndctmg`b vcry sgdgjar. Xmcrc gs `n usc inr tmc stuhy ni prc-bgvc`

arkmgtckturc, sg`kc gt gs c`ta`bjch g` a kn`tgùnus rckn`struktgn` a`h rcapprnprgatgn`

kn`tag`ch g` tmc hwcjjg`b aktgvgtgcs ni g`malgtg`b tmc wnrjh (G`bnjh <666). Dnrcnvcr,

G wnujh jgec tn strcss tmat as [dgtm (<662) partgkujarjy hrcw attc`tgn` tn, g` tmc trcat-

dc`t ni carjy kgtgcs a`h tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc tmcrc mas

lcc` a rcdarealjc jake ni tcdpnraj kn`kcpts. G` inkusg`b n` prnkcsscs pcrtag`g`b tn

muda` g`tcraktgn`, tgdc gs g`trg`sgkajjy prcsc`t. Ajj tmgs gs `nt tn say tmat ajj stuhgcs n`



Axcs ni Hcvcjnpg`b [nkgctgcs 3;

spatgaj a`h arkmgtckturaj kucs arc iutgjc nr mavc ̀ nt struke gdpnrta`t gìcrc`tgaj aspckts5

ratmcr, tmcy jake sgb`gfika`kc wgtmnut lcg`b cstaljgsmch ly pcrkcgvg`b, aktg`b, usg`b

a`h kn`struktg`b da`, wmn kn`stgtutcs mgs snkgcty.

Xmc snkgaj a`h gts g`knrpnratgn` g` spakc gs a kndlgàtgn` kc`trcinjh tn tmc hgskg-

pjg`c ni muda`, nr spckgfikajjy snkgaj, bcnbrapmy. Xmgs hgskgpjg`c qugtc hgrcktjy cdcrbch

nut ni muda`gstgk tmnubmt. Xmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc bcnbrapmgkaj hgskgpjg`c gs ni spc-

kgfik gdpnrta`kc tn us, lckausc gt partgajjy kn`kurs wgtm tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni arkmacnj-

nby. Lrgcy trakg`b tmcgr mgstnrgcs wgjj kjargiy mnw tmcgr rckc`t ahva`kcdc`ts hgiicr a`h

wmy tmc snkgaj bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnrgcs cxpjnrch jatcr ka` pntc`tgajjy gìnrd a`h mcjp

tmc prnpnsch g`vcrsgn`.





Kmaptcr <

Ajn`b Hgskgpjgàry Jg`cs





Ajn`b Hgskgpjgàry Jg`cs 32

Inu`hatgn`s ni Muda` Bcnbrapmy

G` tmc hgskgpjg`c ni bcnbrapmy, tmc mcrgtabc ni muda`gsd mas inu`h icrtgjc brnu`h.

Xmc lra`km ni bcnbrapmy kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc stuhy ni muda` lcg`bs a`h tmcgr ak-

tgn`s g` spatgaj kn`tcxts lckadc e`nw` as Muda` Bcnbrapmy, wmgkm gs a bc`craj

tcrd g`knrpnratg`b vgrtuajjy ajj typcs ni bcnbrapmy prgdargjy kn`kcr`ch wgtm pcnpjc.

Vmgjnsnpmgkajjy, muda` bcnbrapmy tc`hs tn scc Kartcsga` rcajgsd as hcmuda`gsg`b,

ajtmnubm da`y pmgjnsnpmcrs arbuc abag`st tmgs pnsgtgn`. Akknrhg`b tn tmcd, Hcskartcs

hgh `nt hcmuda`gsc skgc`kc as gt hgstg`bugsmcs qucstgn`s n` tmc hctcrdg`ch quajgtgcs

ni dattcr (nutsghc wnrjh) a`h tmc ircc wgjj ni dg`h (g`tcràj wnrjh), tmus rcsujtg`b g`

pmgjnsnpmgcs ni dca`g`b tmat gùc`kc muda` bcnbrapmy (Kjnec c.a. 1771). Xaeg`b

tmgs jg`c ni rcasn`g`b, Hcskartcs ajrcahy npc`ch tmc way tnwarhs a knòu`ktgn` ni tmc

snkgaj hndag` a`h gts (pmysgkaj) c`vgrn`dc`t.Bcnbrapmy was nitc` usch as a inrkciuj kndpn`c`t ni muda`gst chukatgn`. Xmgs

chukatgn` was kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc kujturaj a`h dnraj aspckts ni muda`gty. Gt ajsn

hgrcktch tmc inkus ni Knsbrnvc‗s rckc`t bcnbrapmy tnwarhs u`hcrsta`hg`b nurscjvcs,

ntmcrs a`h tmc wnrjh wc smarc. Carjy bcnbrapmcrs, mnwcvcr, ajrcahy mah a strn`b

g`tcrcst g` pcnpjc g` tmcgr wrgtg`bs. Adn`bst tmc n`cs dnst gùc`tgaj cspckgajjy tmc

bçnbrapmgc mudag`c, inu`hch ly Vauj Yghaj hc ja Ljakmc (1=83-171=), sta`hs nut. Mgs

asscrtgn`s kmajjc`bch c`vgrn`dc`taj hctcrdg`gsd, prnpnsg`b a dutuajjy gùc`k-

g`b rcjatgn`smgp ni ”ja`h‗ a`h ”jgic‗, g` wmgkm àturc was `nt kn`kcptuajgsch as rgbgh

lnu`hargcs, lut ratmcr a darbg` inr tra`sinrdatgn` sgtuatch wgtmg` muda` pnwcr asa` n`bng`b hgajnbuc. Xmgs hgajnbuc taecs pjakc lctwcc` dgjgcux a`h kgvgjgsatgn`s, a`h

g` gts npcratgn`s prnhukch a wnrjh iujj ni bc`rcs hc vgc , mgstnrgkajjy hgstg`kt tn partgkujar

pcnpjcs jgvg`b g` partgkujar pjakcs. Yghaj, as wcjj as Çdgjc Huremcgd g` a`tmrnpnjnby,

kn`trglutch g` tmcgr inkus n` tmc bcnbrapmgkaj hgiicrc`tgatgn` ni rcbgnàj kujturcs a`h

knddu`gtgcs tn tmc A`àjcs skmnnj (as hgskussch alnvc). Xmc kn`kcpt bc`rc hc vgc

mas lcc` bgvc` da`y g`tcrprctatgn`s, dnst ni wmgkm appcajch tn Huremcgd‗s asscrtgn`

tmat snkgaj kn`tg`bc`ky gs mcjh g` knjjcktgvc snkgctaj ghcas. Bc`rc hc vgc smnujh `nt lc

dgstaec` inr a tmcnry ni kn`tg`bc`ky, ajtmnubm gt kapturch a staljc vgcw n` rcbgnàj

ways ni jgic, gt wnujh iu`hadc`tajjy ajtcr ly kma`bcs g` gts da``crs (Kjnec c.a. 1771,

Enjc` <663). G` mgs tmcnrgcs Yghaj cdpmasgsch tmnubmt a`h aktgn` a`h tmc muda`

algjgty tn kn`trnj hcstg`gcs. Mc mcjh tmat tmc c`vgrn`dc`t niicrs pnssgljc avcùcs inr

muda` hcvcjnpdc`t, wmgjc tmc kmngkc rcdag`s muda` (tmnubm `nt `ckcssargjy taec`

kn`skgnusjy) (Kjnec c.a. 1771). Xmgs g`tcrcst g` jgvch spakcs jch mgd tn tmc `ntgn` ni

pnssglgjgsd wmgkm gùc`kcs tmc brahuaj hcvcjnpdc`t ni bcnbrapmgkaj rcbgn`s, wmgkm

g` tur` aiickts tmc aàjyscs ni pjakc (\nhda` <669, Enjc` <663). Yghaj‗s wnre g`hgkatcs

hctcrdg`gsd hncs ̀ nt prckjuhc tmc pnssglgjgty ni ircc wgjj, ecpt wgtmg` tmc bc`rcs hc vgc

(Kjnec c.a. 1771, Enjc` <663).




Yghaj‗s wnre gùc`kch da`y prndg`c`t bcnbrapmcrs jgec Luttgdcr, wmn tnne mgs

asscrtgn`s as bughcjg`cs inr muda`gstgk bcnbrapmy, càljg`b qucstgn`s n` tc`sgn`s lc-

twcc` trahgtgn` a`h g``nvatgn`. Gts muda`gst tc`hc`kgcs, `nurgsmch ly tmc g`tcrcst g`

pcnpjcs‗ g`tc`tgn`s, bavc way tn tmc `ntgn` tmat pjakcs kadc alnut ly tmc hgsknursc

ni gts g`malgta`ts, `nt n`jy tmcgr àrratgvcs ni gt. Xmc muda`gst kndpn`c`t g`spgrch

bcnbrapmcrs jgec Jcy a`h [aducjs, lut ajsn tmc ainrcdc`tgn`ch Xua` (1729, 1722).

Xmcy kadc tn pjay a` gdpnrta`t rnjc g` a`tmrnpnjnbgkaj tmcnrgsg`b ni pjakc (\nhda`

<669). [pckgfik qucstgn`s n` muda` tmnubmt wcrc g`trnhukch ly Rrgbmt‗s bcnsnpmy ,

ajtmnubm gt hgh ̀ nt `ckcssargjy g`knrpnratc sulscquc`t aktgn`s. Lckausc mgs bcnbrapmy

mah `n pmgjnsnpmgkaj kn`kcr` inr tmcnrgsg`b tmnubmt pcr sc, gt lckadc vcry gùc`tgaj

g` tmc hgskgpjg`c. [ukm bcnbrapmy `nw scrvcs as a prntntypc inr kurrc`t muda` bcnb-

rapmy a`h bavc rgsc tn sul-hgskgpjg`cs as kujturaj, mgstnrgkaj, a`h rcbgnàj bcnbrapmy.

Mnwcvcr, as tmc hgskgpjg`c hcvcjnpch, da`y ni tmcsc ghcas first hgsappcarch wgtm tmcrgsc ni spatgaj skgc`kc (Kjnec c.a. 1771).

@cw Bcnbrapmy, @cw Arkmacnjnby

[patgaj skgc`kc rchcfi`ch bcnbrapmy as a skgc`kc ni spatgaj pattcr`s a`h rcjatgn`smgps,

u`knvcrg`b iu`hadc`taj jaws ni spatgaj nrba`gsatgn` g` ̀ aturaj ja`hskapcs a`h muda`

aktgvgtgcs g` tmcsc ja`hskapcs (Kjnec c.a. 1771). Ly gts nlvgnus kartnbrapmgk cxprcssgn`,

lasgk bcnbrapmgkaj kn`kcpts as jnkatgn`, hgsta`kc, spakc, akkcssglgjgty, a`h spatgaj g`-

tcraktgn` kadc tn hndgàtc tmc aàjysgs ni spatgaj pattcr`s (E`nx a`h Darstn` <66;).Gt jcit `n rnnd inr muda`gsd as gt àrrnwch hnw` skgc`tgfik hgsknursc g`tn attcdpts

tn kapturc a icw iu`hadc`taj cxpjaàtnry spatgaj jaws n` muda` aktgvgty g` spakc. G`

a way, tmgs àrrnw apprnakm tn spatgaj pattcr`s gs ckmnch ly Lgjj Mgjjgcr‗s spakc sy`tax,

ajtmnubm tmc kn`kcpts lckndc dnrc ajj-c`kndpassg`b a`h gts cxpjaàtnry agds wcrc

cxpa`hch.

G` tmgs smgit ni tmc 1796s, ghcajgsch jaws a`h dnhcjs wcrc nitc` lnrrnwch irnd

skmnjars jgec Kmrgstajjcr, Yn` Xmú`c`, a`h tmc snkgnjnby ni Dax Rclcr. Kn`tcdpnra`c-

nusjy, sndc spatgaj skgc`tgsts rcknb`gsch sukm ghcajgsatgn`s as gàhcquatc inr cxpjag`g`b

nlscrvch pattcr`s g` snkgcty, ajtcràtgvcjy prnpnsg`b dnrc prnlalgjgstgk nr stnkmastgk

aàjyscs g`knrpnratg`b kma`kc a`h ra`hnd`css hgstnrtg`b ghcaj pattcr`s (Kjnec c.a.

1771). Ntmcr bcnbrapmcrs prnpnsch a knb`gtgvc-lcmavgnuraj apprnakm hcsgb`ch tn

c`babc hgrcktjy wgtm tmnubmts a`h aktgn`s ni muda` lcg`bs. Mcrc twn dag` hgrcktgn`s

wcrc cxpjnrch? lcmavgnuraj jnkatgn` tmcnry a`h tmc knb`gtgvc aspckts ni muda` lc-

g`bs pcrkcgvg`b a`h prnkcssg`b spatgaj-c`vgrn`dc`taj stgdujg. Xmgs dnvch hgskgpjgàry

g`tcrcst irnd muda` lcg`bs aktg`b g` tmc wnrjh tn muda` lcg`bs sgdpjy rcaktg`b tn

gt, inu`hg`b lcmavgnurgsd. Xmcsc `cwjy-hcvcjnpch a`bjcs rnubmjy kndpnsch tmc sn-

kajjch @cw Bcnbrapmy (ghcd).




Hurg`b tmc sadc pcrgnh g` arkmacnjnby tmc kajj inr a dnrc iujjy brnw` akahcdgk

hgsknursc lckadc strn`bcr. Kndg`b irnd a kndparatgvc, hcskrgptgvc skgc`kc hgskuss-

g`b stabcs a`h gùc`kcs ni kujturcs n` cakm ntmcr, arkmacnjnbgsts jgec Rajtcr Xayjnr,

Bnrhn` Rgjjcy, a`h Vmgjgp Vmgjjgps cxprcssch tmcgr hgssatgsiaktgn` wgtm tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj

gdpntc`kc tn cxpjag` tmg`bs. Xmcy prnpnsch a` cdpmasgs n` snkgaj aspckts g` stuhy-

g`b tmc bc`craj prnkcsscs at wnre g` kujturc mgstnry (scc lcjnw). [ukm g`tcrprctgvc ap-

prnakmcs wcrc lrnubmt tnbctmcr g` prnkcssuaj arkmacnjnby. Xmc nptgdgstgk vgcw n` tmc

pntc`tgaj ni arkmacnjnbgkaj cvghc`kc inr ahhrcssg`b snkgaj gssucs g` past snkgctgcs was

cspckgajjy ahvcrtgsch ly tmc ynu`b Jcwgs Lgìnrh. Xmcgr vgcw ni tmc hgskgpjg`c lckadc

e`nw` as @cw Arkmacnjnby (\cìrcw a`h Lam` <666).

Xmgs `cw arkmacnjnby ka` lc kmaraktcrgsch as a tur` away irnd mgstnry tnwarhs a

kn``cktgn` wgtm a`tmrnpnjnby. As sagh lcinrc5 dnvg`b irnd hcskrgptgn`s tn cxpjaà-

tgn`s a`h g`knrpnratg`b a inkus n` prnkcsscs nlscrvch g` tmc datcrgaj rcknrh càljg`bkrnss-kujturaj bc`crajgsatgn`s. Iurtmcrdnrc, gts dctmnhnjnbgcs mah tn lc dnhcjjch n`

tmc marh (nitc` qua`tgtatgvc a`h àturaj) skgc`kcs, wmgjc a` g`tcrcst g` tmc jaws ni mu-

da` lcmavgnur kma`bch g`tn tmc inrdatgn` prnkcsscs ni tmc datcrgaj rcknrh ([maès

a`h Mnhhcr 177=). Xmc kndparalgjgty tn tmc smgit ni g`tcrcsts g` bcnbrapmy gs `nt n`jy

kjcar g` mg`hsgbmt. Gt was Havgh J. Kjarec‗s Aàjytgkaj Arkmacnjnby tmat arbuch spckgfi-

kajjy inr tmc g`tcbratgn` ni qua`tgtatgvc a`h kndputcrgsch dctmnhs, wmgkm knujh lc

lnrrnwch irnd bcnbrapmy a`h ntmcr skgc`kcs (Kjarec 179=, \cìrcw a`h Lam` <666).

Hcspgtc mgs wgjjg`b`css tn jcar` a`h hcrgvc dctmnhs irnd ntmcr skgc`kcs, mgs wmnnp

kjagdg`b tmat ‚arkmacnjnby gs arkmacnjnby gs arkmacnjnby— (Kjarec 179=? 1;) prnpa-batg`b arkmacnjnby as a oustgfich g`hcpc`hc`t skgc`kc, lckadc cvc` dnrc iadnus.

Igrstjy, prnkcssuaj arkmacnjnby tur`ch ajdnst cxkjusgvcjy tn iu`ktgnàjgst cxpjaàtgn`s,

u`hnultchjy g`spgrch ly Dajg`nwseg‗s iu`ktgnàj a`tmrnpnjnby, g`kjuhg`b cknjnbgkaj

apprnakmcs. [ukm apprnakmcs wcrc tmcrcinrc tcrdch iu`ktgnàj-prnkcssuajgsd aitcr-

warhs. Xmc cknjnbgkaj pcrspcktgvc was ich ly tmc parahgbd ni àturaj skgc`kc. [nkgaj

cjcdc`ts wcrc kn`sghcrch as a sckn`h àturc. Gt was g`spgrch ly lgnjnby a`h usch

tmc dnhcjs ni systcds tmcnry inr qucstgn`s n` sulsgstc`kc. G` dnrc rckc`t tgdcs tmc

knb`gtgvc a`h sydlnjgk aspckts ni snkgcty ajsn kadc g`tn pjay, `nw tcrdch knb`gtgvc-

prnkcssuajgsd (\cìrcw a`h Lam` <666).

G` bcnbrapmy snkgaj knb`gtgn` was sgdgjarjy `nt tmc kn`kcr` ni lcmavgnurgst

bcnbrapmy. Lcmavgnurgsd was g`kjg`ch tn gb`nrc tmc dc`taj prnkcsscs lctwcc`

stgdujus a`h rcspn`sc, rchukg`b g`tcraktgn` lctwcc` da` a`h c`vgrn`dc`t tn dcrc

kausc a`h ciickt rcjatgn`smgps. Dukm ni bcnbrapmgkaj hgsknursc g` tmgs iasmgn` was

kn`huktch irnd a pnsgtgvgst pcrspcktgvc, ajtmnubm sndc wcrc awarc ni tmc prnljcd ni

wnreg`b wgtm u`nlscrvaljc pmc`ndcà ni dg`h. Gt usch statgstgks tn hctckt pattcr`s

a`h jaw-jgec assnkgatgn`s g` tmc way spatgaj skgc`kc g`trnhukch gt (Kjnec c.a. 1771).

[ukm ycar`g`b inr nlocktgvc e`nwjchbc was ajsn cdpjnych g` arkmacnjnby. Vrnkcssuaj




arkmacnjnby was suppnsch tn prnhukc nlocktgvc, `cutraj a`h tgdcjcss e`nwjchbc ni

tmc past. As sukm, tmcrc wcrc iakts ni tmc past wmgkm wnujh `nt kma`bc a`h knujh lc

lugjt upn` ([maès a`h Mnhhcr 177=). Rmgjc prnkcssuaj arkmacnjnby kma`bch gts inkus

tnwarhs knb`gtgvc prnkcsscs, g` bcnbrapmy lcmavgnurgsd was lartcrch inr lcmavgnuraj

bcnbrapmy.

Xmc hgiicrc`kc lctwcc` lcmavgnurgsd a`h lcmavgnuraj bcnbrapmy gs g`hcch tmc

tur` tnwarhs a inkus n` knb`gtgvc prnkcsscs nr tmc pmc`ndcà ni dg`h. G`stcah ni

rcstrgktch stgdujus-rcspn`sc rcjatgn`s, lcmavgnuraj bcnbrapmy g`trnhukch tmc rccxgvc

kmaraktcr ni muda` lcg`b. Hcspgtc tmgs bag` g` ùa`kcs, gt dag`tag`ch a àrrnw kn`-

kcptgn` ni mnw muda` lcg`bs akt a`h tmgè sulskrglch tn vcrsgn`s ni lcmavgnurgsd.

@nt as sgdpjc as stgdujus-rcspn`sc rcjatgn`s, yct `cgtmcr as hgvcrsc a`h kndpjcx as

psykmnjnbgkaj rcjatgn`s. Sìnrtuàtcjy tmc pnsgtgvgst dctmnhs wcrc ajsn dag`tag`ch, us-

g`b statgstgks tn hctckt pattcr`s a`h jaw-jgec assnkgatgn`s, ratmcr jgec spatgaj skgc`kc, g`-stcah ni nppnsg`b gt. @cvcrtmcjcss, lcmavgnuraj bcnbrapmy mah a brcatcr nvcrjap wgtm

muda`gstgk bcnbrapmy. Xmcrcinrc gt ka` g`hcch lc scc` as tmc lrghbc irnd pcnpjcjcss

spatgaj skgc`kc tn ”pcnpjch‗ muda` bcnbrapmy (Kjnec c.a. 1771). G` gts qucstgn`s rc-

barhg`b tmc pcrkcptgn` ni tmc c`vgrn`dc`t, dc`taj dappg`b, a`h tmc cvcryhay spatgaj

prcicrc`kcs ni pcnpjc utgjgsg`b spakc, lcmavgnuraj bcnbrapmy gs stgjj vcry dukm prcsc`t

g` muda`gstgk bcnbrapmy. G` tmc alsc`kc ni trcatdc`t ni pcnpjc g` spatgaj skgc`kc a`h

n`jy partgaj hcajg`b wgtm pcnpjc g` lcmavgnuraj skgc`kc, scji-kn`skgnus muda`gstgk bc-

nbrapmy cdcrbch aitcr 1726, ajtmnubm ̀ nt akkndpa`gch ly a rcocktgn` ni lcmavgnuraj

bcnbrapmy (ghcd). Lcmavgnur g` arkmacnjnby kndparaljy inkusch n` aktgvgtgcs ni snkgajaktnrs wgtmnut assnkgatch abc`ky nr dca`g`b. Ajtmnubm e`nwjchbc, ratgnàjgsatgn`

a`h dntgvatgn` ka` lc cdpjnych g` ratgnàj prnkcsscs nr snkgaj `nrds tmat ka` lc

krnss-kujturajjy kn`trastch (Mnhhcr c.a. 177=). Gjjustratgvc inr tmcgr kjnsc rcjatgn`, inr

tmc hcfi`gtgn`s hgskussch g` Mnhhcr‗s (177=) vnjudc, rcicrc`kc gs dahc tn tmc wghcr

appjgkatgn` ni sgdgjar tcrds g` muda` bcnbrapmy as hcskrglch g` tmc Hgktgnàry ni Mu-

da` Bcnbrapmy (Onm`stn`, Brcbnry a`h [dgtm 1778).

As a krgtgquc n` bcnbrapmy as spatgaj skgc`kc a`h gts rckn`kcptuajgsatgn`, scji-

kn`skgnus bcnbrapmy cdcrbch g` tmc 1726s. Xmc hgrckt kausc was tmc iagjurc ni

spatgaj skgc`kc tn hcaj wgtm nr cvc` rcknb`gsc rcaj muda` prnljcds. Xmcrcinrc, da`y

bcnbrapmcrs startch tn ahapt a lcmavgnuraj pcrspcktgvc. [ndc, mnwcvcr, tmnubmt gt

`ckcssary tn kmajjc`bc tmc c`tgrc pmgjnsnpmgkaj inu`hatgn`s ni spatgaj skgc`kc a`h gts

lcmavgnuraj ahaptatgn`s. Xmcy strgktjy hcfi`ch a`h krgtgkgsch tmc pnsgtgvgstgk praktgkc

ni spatgaj skgc`kc a`h rcpjakch gt wgtm tmc ajtcràtgvc ni muda`gst pmgjnsnpmgcs,

c.b. pmc`ndc`njnby a`h cxgstc`tgajgsd (Kjnec c.a. 1771). Hurg`b tmc 17=6s inr

arkmacnjnby abag` a kndparaljc smgit tnne pjakc tnwarhs tmc parahgbd tmat mas

lcc` kajjch pnstprnkcssuajgsd. Gt was gùc`kch ly `cn-Darxgsd, pnst-pnsgtgvgsd,

mcrdc`cutgks a`h cxgstc`tgaj pmc`ndc`njnby, wmgkm rcsujtch g` a pjctmnra ni nitc`




jnnscjy hcfi`ch tmcnrctgkaj pnsgtgn`s (\cìrcw a`h Lam` <666). Arkmacnjnby tmus

injjnwch bcnbrapmgkaj sc`tgdc`ts alnut a hckahc jatcr.

At tmc carjy lcbg``g`bs ni tmc 1726s muda`gstgk bcnbrapmy sprnutch, inrdg`b a

snjgh pmgjnsnpmgkaj krgtgquc, tmnubm tmc tcrd gtscji was n`jy g`trnhukch ly Wu-Ig Xua`

a icw ycars jatcr. \cscarkmcrs wcrc hgssatgsfich wgtm tmc nlocktgfich rchuktgn` ni pcnpjc

tn statgstgks, brapms nr ùdlcrs. G` ntmcr wnrhs, tmcy icjt muda` lcg`bs mah lcc`

hcmuda`gsch g` hgskgpjgàry hgsknursc lcinrc. Iurtmcrdnrc, muda`gstgk bcnbrapmy np-

pnsch tmc pnsgtgn` ni tmc rcscarkmcr as a` nlocktgvc g`hgvghuaj tmat jcavcs mgs muda`gty

nutsghc tmc rcscarkm prnkcss, tmc knrc ni pnsgtgvgstgk cpgstcdnjnby (Kjnec c.a. 1771).

Vnstprnkcssuajgst arkmacnjnby ajsn agdch gts inkus at pcnpjc a`h tmc praktgkc ni g`tcr-

prctatgn`. Arkmacnjnby gs a datcrgaj praktgkc g` tmc prcsc`t, daeg`b sc`sc ni datcrgaj

rcdag`s ni tmc past? a` n`bng`b prnkcss prnhukg`b a` g`hcfi`gtc akknu`t ni tmc past.

Dnrcnvcr, gt g`hgkatcs tmat tmc nutkndc ni tmc g`tcrprctgvc praktgkc gs cssc`tgajjy pju-raj. As nppnsch tn lcmavgnur, praktgkc gs kn`kcptuajgsch as dca`g`biuj rnutg`gsch ak-

tgn`s ni e`nwjchbcaljc abc`ts ([maès a`h Mnhhcr 177=). Vnstprnkcssuajgsts aktuajjy

kn`tcxtuajgsch arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc g` vargnus ways. Rmgjc muda`gstgk bcnbrapmy

rarcjy artgkujatch gts hgssatgsiaktgn` wgtm spatgaj skgc`kc a`h lcmavgnuraj bcnbrapmy,

pnstprnkcssuajgst arkmacnjnby mah kn`sghcraljc hgifikujty pnsgtg`b a fird tmcnrctgkaj

lasc irnd wmgkm gt jau`kmch gts krgtgquc. Lntm dnvcdc`ts g`vnjvch a kndpn`c`t rc-

aktg`b abag`st tmc way prcvgnus hgsknursc tnne pjakc g` tmcgr rcspcktgvc hgskgpjg`cs

a`h rcasscssch tmc way tmcgr nlockts ni stuhy wcrc ahhrcssch. [gb`gfika`t parts ni tmc

kn`trglutgn`s ni muda` bcnbrapmy a`h pnstprnkcssuajgst arkmacnjnby mavc inkuschn` tmc pnsgtgn` ni tmc rcscarkmcr, arbug`b abag`st pnsgtgvgst cpgstcdnjnby. Xmc muda`-

gst krgtgquc tmat kn`vc`tgnàj skgc`kc iagjs tn rcknb`gsc gts nw` lgascs wmgkm kn`fiburc

gts praktgkcs g` sukm a way tmat tmc rcscarkm kn`huktch gs lnu`h tn kn`fird tmc snkgaj

status qun (Kjnec c.a. 1771), bncs inr lntm hgskgpjg`cs. Gts pmgjnsnpmgkaj krgtgkgsd gs

kn`kcr`ch wgtm rcscarkmcrs bcttg`b g` tmc way ni tmcgr nw` stuhgcs lckausc ni tmcgr

ljg`hg`b sulocktgvgtgcs? a pcrspcktgvc hcrgvch irnd tmc pmgjnsnpmy ni pmc`ndc`njnby

(ghcd). Vnstprnkcssuajgsd a`h muda`gst tmnubmt stgjj mavc a strn`b vngkc g` arkmacnj-

nby a`h bcnbrapmy, lut aitcr tmc 17=6s gt appcars tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc twn hgskg-

pjg`cs was jarbcjy hgskn``cktch.

Vrcsc`t a`h Iuturc Hgsknurkc

Vmc`ndc`njnby a`h strukturatgn`, g` ahhrcssg`b rcscarkm nlocktgvcs n` tmc snkgaj,

wcrc ni paradnu`t gdpnrta`kc tn lntm hgskgpjg`cs. Vmc`ndc`njnby niicrs brcat pn-

tc`tgaj, as mas lcc` g`hgkatch alnvc. @cvcrtmcjcss, n`c smnujh taec `ntgkc tmat da`y

arkmacnjnbgsts g` part mavc prnhukch sgdpjy iajsc ahaptatgn`s ni pmc`ndc`njnby, rc-

hukg`b gt tn pcrsnàj ghgnsy`krasy a`h nitc` hcvngh ni gts rgkm tcdpnraj iradcwnres.




Gt gs g` pmc`ndc`njnby tmat dnst stuhgcs ni ja`hskapc arkmacnjnby ka` lc pjakch.

Ajtcràtgvcjy, tmcrc gs tmc mcrdc`cutgk apprnakm tmat inkuscs n` tmc u`gquc`css ni

cakm kujturaj kndpjcx. Xmgs gs tmc dnst rcjatgvgstgk ni ajj apprnakmcs, cdpmasgsg`b pju-

rajgst g`tcrprctatgn`s, as wcjj as tmc dnst kn`tcxtuajjy cdlchhch apprnakm. Ajtmnubm

gt smarcs tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj lasc ni Musscrj a`h Mcghcbbcr, gt kn`tgùcs wgtm tmc

hgiicrc`tgatgn` lctwcc` àturaj a`h snkgaj pmc`ndcà a`h tmcgr dnhcs ni akqugrg`b

e`nwjchbc, tmat gs, tmc nppnsgtgn` ni u`hcrsta`hg`b a`h cxpjag`g`b. Xmgs mas lcc`

cjalnratch upn` ly tmc Bcrda` mgstnrga` Hgjtmcy a`h jatcr ly tmc kn`kcpt ni prc-

u`hcrsta`hg`b tmat kn`stgtutcs tmc mcrdc`cutgk kgrkjc ni Bahadcr ([maès a`h Mnh-

hcr 177=). [trukturatgn` nr systcds tmcnry, spckgfikajjy ly A`tmn`y Bghhc`s (17=8)

a`h tmc `ntgn` ni malgtus ni Vgcrrc Lnurhgcu (1722), mavc cssc`tgajjy kn`stgtutch a

pnstprnkcssuajgst inkus n` typcs ni praktgkc. G` tmgs, muda` aktgn`s g` tmc sc`sc ni

praktgkc, ajn`b wgtm kn`kcpts ni aktnrs nr muda` abc`ts, arc stuhgch as smapg`b snkgajstrukturc (inr a bnnh hgskussgn` ni praktgkc tmcnry a`h gts rcscarkm abc`ha, scc Vauec-

tat <666a). Wct strukturatgn` g` arkmacnjnby parahnxgkajjy kausch a strn`b g`tcrcst g`

tmc g`hgvghuaj, wmgkm g` tmcnrctgkaj hclatcs kadc tn gjjudgàtc tmc kn`kcpt ni abc`ky

(hcspgtc Lnurhgcu hc`yg`b mgs aktnrs abc`ky).

Ghc`tgty a`h pjakc g` tmc cvcryhay rcjatgn`s ni g`hgvghuajs rckcgvch g`krcasch gd-

pnrta`kc g` tmc usc ni pmc`ndc`njnby, abc`ky, a`h strukturatgn` g` arkmacnjnby a`h

bcnbrapmy. Xmc cssc`tgaj hgiicrc`kc gs tmat arkmacnjnby kmnsc tn injjnw tmc hgrcktgn`

ni abc`ky a`h, g` hng`b sn, scparatch abc`ky a`h tmc g`hgvghuaj irnd gts hgajcktgk wgtm

snkgcty nr strukturc as a prnkcss. As vargnus arkmacnjnbgkaj skmnjars arc `nw startg`btn `ntgkc, tmgs scparatgn` cgtmcr way gs a` gdpnvcrgsmdc`t ni nur u`hcrsta`hg`b ni

tmc past. As Onykc a`h Jnpgparn rgbmtjy statc, strukturatgn` kn`stgtutcs trahgtgn`s nvcr

tmc jn`b tcrd. ‚A inkus n` abc`ky ka`, parahnxgkajjy, rgse nvcrjnneg`b tmc cvghc`kc

ni abc`ky g` strukturatgn`.— (Onykc a`h Jnpgparn <663? ;99) Rmgjc Ry``c-On`cs a`h

Enmrg`b `ntc tmat g` tmc attcdpt tn avngh a rcpctgtgn` ni kujturc mgstnry (hgskussch lc-

jnw), tmc hclatc dnvch away irnd tmc kndpjcxgty ni snkgcty tnwarhs abc`ky (Kmap-

da` <66;, Ry``c-On`cs a`h Enmrg`b <662). @nt wa`tg`b tn hgskarh as trgvgaj tmc

nlvgnus dcrgts tmc tmcnrgsatgn` ni abc`ky g` arkmacnjnby mas lrnubmt us, cvghc`kc ni

wmgkm gs tmc krgtgkajjy apprnakmch array ni tnpgks g`kjuhch g` tmc vnjudc ly Hnlrcs

a`h \nll (<666a) (Kmapda` <66;), Ry``c-On`cs a`h Enmrg`b wgscjy subbcst tmat

wc `cch tn rcvgsgt tmc strukturc a`h abc`ky hclatc as Bghhc`s scts nut. Rc smnujh

gìusc gt wgtm tmc e`nwjchbc wc akqugrch ni abc`ky. Icw skmnjars mavc taec` tmat

stcp, ajtmnubm spckgaj ake`nwjchbcdc`t dust bn tn G`bnjh‗s ciinrts hcdn`stratg`b

snkgaj ja`hskapcs (tckm`njnbgkaj a`h g`tcrpcrsnàj u`hcrsta`hg`bs as kn`struktch ly

pcrsnàj cxpcrgc`kcs) g` snkgajjy krcatch yct strukturg`b c`vgrn`dc`ts (G`bnjh <666).

Ry``c-On`cs a`h Enmrg`b prnpnsc tmat a inkus n` snkgctaj kndpjcxgty smnujh c`tagj

tmc rctur` tn tmc strukturc a`h abc`ky hclatc g` arkmacnjnby (Ry``c-On`cs a`h En-



Ajn`b Hgskgpjgàry Jg`cs 9;

mrg`b <662). Inrtuàtcjy, wc hn `nt sta`h gsnjatch g` tmc pursugt ni sukm bnajs, as mu-

da` bcnbrapmy mas dahc sndc spckgfik ciinrts inkusg`b n` a iurtmcr kn`tgùatgn` a`h

cjalnratgn` n` strukturatgn` tmcnry, sustag`g`b gts iujj kndpjcxgty. Gt jcar`ch tn g`knr-

pnratc lntm spatgaj a`h pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj aspckts ni e`nwjchbc, wmgkm c`rgkmch tmc

ntmcrwgsc àrrnw cdpgrgkaj pntc`tgaj ni Bghhc`s‗ nrgbgàj strukturatgn`. [n `nw, aitcr

a icw hckahcs, tmcrc gs a rcasn` tn rcvgvc tmc kjnsc rcjatgn`smgp g` tmc ahva`kcdc`ts ni

tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj a`h bcnbrapmgkaj hgskgpjg`c.

Xmc prnkcsscs tmat npcratc lctwcc` abc`ky a`h strukturc arc aljc tn rcdnvc tmc

stabàtgn` ni tmc tcdpnraj cjcdc`t g` pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj ahaptatgn`s a`h tmc tmcnrg-

satgn` ni abc`ky, càljg`b a dnrc mgstnrgkaj a`h hcvcjnpdc`taj pcrspcktgvc, tmnubm

tmcnrctgkajjy lcttcr gìnrdch. [n tmc cxkcptgnàj pnsgtgn` ni arkmacnjnby tn rcicr tn

tmc jn`b tcrd day lc cxpjngtch abag`. \ckc`t tmcnrgcs g` muda` bcnbrapmy ka` mcjp

sct nut sndc pntc`tgaj patmways tn akmgcvc tmgs. Kurrc`tjy arkmacnjnby mas tur`chajdnst cxkjusgvcjy tn cknjnbgkaj a`h lgnjnbgkaj cvnjutgnàry g`sgbmts tn dag`tag` gts hc-

vcjnpdc`taj prnkcss nrgc`tch dg`hsct. Mnwcvcr, g`krcasg`b ̀ udlcrs ni smnrtkndg`bs

inr tmc cxpjaàtgn` ni snkgaj pmc`ndcà kndc tn jgbmt. A snkgaj tmcnrctgkaj ajtcràtgvc

bughch ly bcnbrapmgkaj pgn`ccrs, as wgjj lc subbcstch mcrc, smnujh `nt lc scc` as a

rcpjakcdc`t inr lgnjnbgkajjy akqugrch g`sgbmts a`h g`mglgtgn`s. \atmcr, tmcy smnujh cx-

gst jatcrajjy as kndpjcdc`tary jg`cs ni cquaj cxpjaàtnry vajuc. [gdgjarjy, G iccj muda`

bcnbrapmy knujh lc dahc kndpatgljc wgtm spatgaj skgc`kc, rcsnjvg`b prnljcds tmat

wcrc bc`cratch ly gts nw` smnrtkndg`bs, tmcrcly c`jgbmtc`g`b a`h gìnrdg`b lntm

png`ts ni hcparturc. Xrahgtgnàjjy muda` bcnbrapmy gs a knjjcktgvc tcrd inr ajj typcsni bcnbrapmy kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc snkgaj rcajd (kujturc, mgstnry, rcbgn`s, pnstknjn`gaj-

gsd, ctk.). As G dc`tgn`ch carjgcr, tmc sulhgskgpjg`c ni snkgaj bcnbrapmy gs ̀ nt cxcrkgsch

cvcrywmcrc, lut spckgfikajjy gs tmc vnbuc wgtm Bcrda`gk bcnbrapmy. Xmc tmcnrgcs prc-

sc`tch g` tmc injjnwg`b kmaptcrs arc sn g`tcrtwg`ch wgtm snkgaj tmcnry tmat tmc tcrd

snkgaj bcnbrapmy iccjs dnrc appjgkaljc.

G` nrhcr tn lcttcr apprckgatc tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj pnsgtgn`, wc smnujh yct abag` bn

lake tn sndc iu`hadc`tajs g` tcrds a`h tmcnrgcs. Xmgs tgdc kn`kc`tratch n` tmc start

ni arkmacnjnby as a kujturc mgstnrgkaj hgskgpjg`c, stgjj kastg`b kn`sghcraljc gùc`kc g`tn

arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc, nlstruktg`b a jn`b tcrd hcvcjnpdc`taj inkus n` snkgctgcs

a`h tmnsc (pmysgkaj) aspckts tmat arc kn``cktch tn tmcd tmrnubm tmc g`tcrhgskgpjgàry

asscrtgn`s dahc g` kmaptcr n`c.

[nkgaj Cvnjutgn`gsd

Kmaptcr n`c startch ly cstaljgsmg`b tgdc as n`c ni arkmacnjnby‗s dag` kn`kcr`s. Hur-

g`b tmc 17tm kc`tury tmgs kn`kcr` dag`jy kn`trglutch tn tmc rgsc ni tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj

hgskgpjg`c. Xwn 17tm kc`tury kn`kcpts wcrc ni paradnu`t gdpnrta`t inr tmgs hcvcjnp-




dc`t? Harwg`ga` cvnjutgn` a`h tmc tmrcc abc systcd, prcsc`tch ly tmc Ha`c Kmrgs-

tga` Xmndsc`. Xmgs tmrcc abc systcd hgvghch tmc Curnpca` prcmgstnry g`tn a stn`c,

lrn`zc a`h grn` abc, a kjassgfikatgn` tmat was qugkejy ahnptch a`h iurtmcr sulhgvghch

ly Onm` Jullnke a`h ntmcrs. Hgvcrbc`t kmrn`njnbgkaj tcrdg`njnbgcs mah ajrcahy lcc`

hcvcjnpch g` hgskgpjg`cs jgec bcnjnby. Cssc`tgajjy tmgs dahc arkmacnjnby g`tn a stuhy ni

kmrn`njnby a`h pcrgnhs. Xmgs was ni dag`jy tckm`njnbgkaj kn`kcr` a`h mcjpch arra`bc

a`h katcbnrgsc datcrgaj. Xnbctmcr wgtm Harwg`ga` cvnjutgn`, sukm ghcas bavc rgsc tn

tmc praktgkc ni daeg`b typnjnbgcs g` artciakt rcscarkm, prnhukg`b kmrn`njnbgkaj a`h

hcvcjnpdc`taj scquc`kcs (Vjukgc``ge <663, Jukas <663).

Cvnjutgnàry tmnubmt, mnwcvcr, ajsn lrnubmt alnut sndc ghcas tmat wcrc jatcr

kn`hcd`ch. Inr n`c tmg`b, tmc cvnjutgnàj prnkcss n` tmc lasgs ni survgvaj ni tmc

fittcst eg`hjch a pnjgtgks ni wg``crs a`h jnscrs. Carjy n` tmgs lckadc kn``cktch tn

tmc qucstgn` ni rakc, wmgkm jch tn bc`nkghaj praktgkcs. Cspckgajjy Mcrlcrt [pc`kcr, aiaàtgkaj Harwg`gst, was krgtgkgsch inr ̀ nurgsmg`b sukm tmgèg`b g` lrg`bg`b tmc kn`kcpt

tn a jarbcr puljgk a`h hrawg`b a` cxkjusgvcjy prnbrcssgvc pgkturc ni muda` hcvcjnp-

dc`t. Mgs vgcw ni cvnjutgn` was strn`bjy `ckcssgtarga`gst a`h dukm mgs nw` ratmcr

tma` Harwg`‗s. Xmgs was cdpjnych inr gdpcrgajgsd, hndgàtgn` a`h marsm kapgtajgst

kndpctgtgn`. Dnvg`b irnd lgnjnby tn snkgnjnby, [pc`kcr kn`snjghatch tmc ghca tmat

snkgctgcs hcvcjnpch wgtm a` g`krcasc g` sgzc a`h tmc assnkgatch kndpjcxgty ni snkgaj

nrba`gsatgn`. Xmgs rc`hcrch vajuc ouhbcdc`ts n` da`y typcs ni snkgctgcs g` tmc wnrjh

([a`hcrsn` 1776, Vjukgc``ge <663).

Rgtm tmc ghcas a`h praktgkc ni cvnjutgn` a`h typnjnby arkmacnjnby was inu`hch asa kndparatgvc, kjassgfikatnry skgc`kc g` a tckm`gkaj sc`sc. Gt was irnd tmc pcrspcktgvc

ni ctm`nbrapmy tmat, dnst `ntaljy, Jcwgs Mc`ry Dnrba` g`trnhukch a scquc`kc ni

snkgctaj prnbrcss tmat lckadc mubcjy gùc`tgaj. Mgs tcjcnjnbgkaj prnpnsaj c`tagjch tmat

muda` snkgctgcs cvnjvch irnd tmc statc ni savabcry, tmrnubm larlargsd, tn kgvgjgsatgn`s.

Xmcsc stabcs wcrc stgjj knupjch tn datcrgajgst `ntgn`s, wmgkm jch Dnrba` tn g`kjuhc

aktuajjy scvc` stabcs hgvghg`b up snkgctaj hcvcjnpdc`t ([a`hcrsn` 1776, Vjukgc``ge

<663, Jukas <663). Mgs wnre lrnubmt cvnjutgn` g` kjassgfikatnry tcrds firdjy g`tn tmc

snkgaj rcajd5 yct tmc inkus rcdag`ch n` datcrgaj a`h gssucs ni sulsgstc`kc. Dnrba`

cxkjuhch jg`bugstgks a`h rcjgbgn` irnd mgs stuhgcs ni tmc snkgaj, lut g`kjuhch rakc abag`,

kjagdg`b Arya` supcrgnrgty n` suppnsch datcrgaj akmgcvcdc`ts. Dnrba`‗s carjy cvn-

jutgnàry ghcas ajsn mah a sgb`gfika`t knu`tcrpart g` tmgèg`b alnut tmc lugjt c`vgrn`-

dc`t. Dnrba` mgdscji kn`huktch ficjhwnre n` alnrgbgàj mnusc inrds a`h g`malgtg`b

mnuscmnjhs. Xmc lugjt spakcs wcrc scc` as a` g`trg`sgk part ni tmc kndpjcx ni tragts a`h

ahaptatgn`s ajjnwg`b tmc dag`tcà`kc ni snkgaj brnups g` tmcgr ̀ aturaj c`vgrn`dc`t, as

wcjj as dgrrnrg`b tmc kujturcs prnhukg`b tmcd (Jawrc`kc a`h Jnw 1776).

Xmc datcrgaj knu`tcrpart ni snkgaj prnbrcss mah nlvgnus cdpgrgkgst arkmacnjnbgkaj

g`tcrcst. Gt was dag`jy g` tmc S`gtch [tatcs tmat tmc kn`kcr` was hgiicrc`t. Xmc hgiicr-




c`kc was tmat Adcrgka was kn`sta`tjy a`h gddchgatcjy knìrn`tch wgtm ntmcr`css,

wmcrcas inr tmc Curnpca` sgtuatgn` tmgs usuajjy was n`jy tmc kasc g` knjn`gaj arcas. Xmgs

lc`t g`tcrcsts, hrgvc` ly tmc iuturc ni tmcsc àtgvc ntmcrs, tnwarhs prnkcsscs ni ak-

kujturatgn`, kujturc, a`h ghc`tgty. Ajj ficjhs ni Adcrgka` a`tmrnpnjnby wcrc kn`kcr`ch

wgtm tmc bc`csgs ni tmc @atgvc. Hgrckt mgstnrgkaj aàjysgs (nr jatcr tmc hgrckt mgstnrgkaj

apprnakm) jch (rcbgnàjjy) tn a vgcw ni arkmacnjnby a`h ctm`njnby g` a mgstnrgkaj kn`-

tgùud. Xmc kn`kcpt ni tmc ”irn`tgcr‗ was hcvcjnpch, tmc lnrhcrjg`c lctwcc` kgvgjgsa-

tgn` a`h savabcry. Xmus tmc ”G`hga` prnljcd‗ cdcrbch. Xmc ̀ ntgn`s ni snkgaj cvnjutgn`

hgrcktjy gdpjgch kcrtag` snkgctgcs as gìcrgnr, pjakch at a jnwcr stabc ni hcvcjnpdc`t.

Xmcy u`krgtgkajjy `nurgsmch ajj eg`hs ni bmastjy pnjgtgkaj praktgkcs (Vjukgc``ge <663).

Injjnwg`b tmc tc`hc`ky inr bc`crajgtgcs g` cvnjutgnàry tmnubmt, a`tmrnpnjnbgst

Ira`z Lnas‗ mgstnrgkaj partgkujargsd prnvghch tmc lasgs inr dukm dnrc hctagjch hcskrgp-

tgn`s. Mc ajsn prnpabatch inr kjassgfikatgn` systcds inr tmc Adcrgkas tn lc hgiicrc`tirnd tmc Njh Rnrjh. Mgs praktgkc was dag`tag`ch inr a icw hckahcs lcinrc lcg`b rc-

ocktch (Jyda`, N‗Lrgc` a`h Hu``cjj 1772, \cìrcw a`h Lam` <666, Vjukgc``ge <663).

G` tmc 1786s a`h 1736s snkgaj cvnjutgn` was strn`bjy rcvgvch as `cn-cvnjutgn`gsd,

cspckgajjy ly tmc ciinrts ni Bnrhn` Kmgjhc, wmn qugkejy bag`ch suppnrt irnd Jcsjgc

Rmgtc a`h Oujga` [tcwarh, cakm wgtm tmcgr nw` ghcas. Bnrhn` Kmgjhc gs spckgfikajjy

akkrchgtch inr g`scrtg`b tmc ghcas ni a` abrgkujturaj a`h urla` rcvnjutgn` lctwcc`

stabcs ni snkgaj cvnjutgn`. Xmgs rcicrrch tn tmc prnhuktgn` ni a surpjus ni innh aktg`b

as a snkgaj sckurgty càljg`b ntmcr aktgvgtgcs, a`h tmc ckn`ndgk a`h snkgaj prnkcsscs ni

càljg`b urla`gsatgn` ([a`hcrsn` 1776, Jukas <663). Xnwarhs tmc 1796s Jcsjgc Rmgtcsgb`gfika`tjy kn`trglutch tn tmc hclatc. Mgs wnre was brcatjy pcrdcatch ly Dnrba`‗s

cvnjutgnàry stabcs. Dnst sgb`gfika`tjy, mc hgstg`bugsmch twn typcs ni ckn`ndgk sys-

tcds? prgdgtgvc snkgcty (ckn`ndy lasch n` snkgaj rcjatgn`smgps) a`h kgvgj snkgcty (rcja-

tgn`smgps lctwcc` bnnhs hndgàtc snkgaj rcjatgn`s). Xmc tra`sgtgn` lctwcc` tmcsc twn

mc kn`kcptuajgsch as mgs nw` vcrsgn` ni tmc abrgkujturaj rcvnjutgn`, jcahg`b tn kujturaj

kn`scquc`kcs. Mgs pcrspcktgvc n` cvnjutgn` gs kajjch kujturaj cvnjutgn`gsd ([a`hcrsn`

1776, Vjukgc``ge <663). Lntm Bnrhn` Kmgjhc‗s a`h Jcsjgc Rmgtc‗s cvnjutgnàry asscr-

tgn`s wcrc agdch at bc`crajgtgcs a`h parajjcjs lctwcc` kujturcs. Xmcrcinrc tmcgr ghcas,

as wcjj as tmc carjy cvnjutgnàry tmnubmt, wcrc rcahgjy ahnptch ly @cw Arkmacnjnby,

sg`kc gt càljch krnss-kujturaj kndpargsn`s a`h snkgaj kjassgfikatgn`s.

Oujga` [tcwarh‗s wnre n` cvnjutgn` gs sjgbmtjy dnrc ̀ ua`kch, tmnubm sgdujta`cnus-

jy jcss kn`sgstc`t wgtm cvnjutgnàry tmnubmt. Mc hgiicrc`tgatch tmrcc typcs ni cvnjutgn`?

u`gjg`car, u`gvcrsaj a`h dujtgjg`car. S`gjg`car lasgkajjy c`tagjch Dnrba`‗s nrgbgàj ghcas,

wmgkm g` mgs vgcw smnujh lc ala`hn`ch huc tn iaktuaj gàkkurakgcs. [ulscquc`tjy,

[tcwarh ficrkcjy arbuch abag`st tmc u`gvcrsaj cvnjutgn`gsd ni Kmgjhc a`h Rmgtc, wmn

cdpmasgsch tmc bc`crajgsatgn`s g`trg`sgk tn Dnrba`‗s snkgaj cvnjutgn`, rciusg`b tmc aj-

jnwa`kc ni hgvcrbc`kcs a`h jnkaj vargatgn`s. Xmus mc prnpnsch dujtgjg`car cvnjutgn`,




nr ‚tmc scarkm inr jaws hcajg`b wgtm sgb`gfika`t rcbujargtgcs g` kujturaj kma`bc.— ([a`h-

crsn` 1776? 71). Xmcsc kujturaj parajjcjs a`h bc`crajgtgcs wnujh lc ni a dukm dnrc

jgdgtch sknpc rcirag`ch tn inrd, iu`ktgn` a`h scquc`kc wgtm cdpgrgkaj vajghgty. [tcw-

arh‗s kn`trglutgn` gs sgdpjy a kndprndgsc lctwcc` partgkujargst Lnasga`s a`h bc`craj-

gsts as Kmgjhc a`h Rmgtc ([a`hcrsn` 1776, Vjukgc``ge <663).

Ajtmnubm dnst ni tmcsc kn`kcpts mavc lcc` rcocktch tn vargnus hcbrccs, tmcy

stgjj mcavgjy gùc`kc dukm arkmacnjnbgkaj praktgkc, dag`jy lckausc ni tmc sndcwmat

uàwarc ahaptatgn`s ni tmcd g` prnkcssuaj arkmacnjnby. G` tmc 1796s a iurtmcr

cjalnratgn` injjnwch, prnpnsch ly [amjg`s a`h [crvgkc. Xmgs tnn was nrgbgàjjy a

tcjcnjnbgkaj a`h kjassgfikatnry scquc`kc lasch n` tmc assudptgn` ni g`krcasg`b

kndpjcxgty g` snkgaj strukturcs. Gts tcrds mavc lckndc wghcjy akkcptch a`h usch g`

a`tmrnpnjnby a`h arkmacnjnby. [nkgctgcs wcrc scc` tn hcvcjnp scquc`tgajjy irnd la`hs,

trglcs a`h kmgcihnds tn statcs. Xmc dckma`gsds typgkajjy pcrtag`ch tn c`vgrn`dc`tajrcsnurkcs a`h pnjgtgkaj kndpctgtgn` wgtmg` tmcgr nrba`gsatgn` (Vjukgc``ge <663, Jukas

<663).

Xmgs dnhcj ni kndpjcxgty gs stgjj jarbcjy g` usc, ajtmnubm gt mas lcc` rcknb`gsch

tmat snkgctgcs knujh rcbrcss a`h prnbrcss, a`h tmat tmc dnhcj wnujh dnvc at hgi-

icrc`t ratcs g` hgiicrc`t sgtuatgnàj rcbgn`s. Dnhgfikatgn`s tn akknddnhatc kurrc`t

g`sgbmts mavc lcc` dahc ly vargnus rcscarkmcrs. Ija``cry‗s kn`tgùatgn` ni [crvgkc‗s

dnhcj cdpmasgsch tmc gdpnrta`kc ni tmc hgiicrc`kc g` jcvcjs ni hckgsgn` daeg`b a`h

mgcrarkmy g` sgdpjc a`h statcjy snkgctgcs. Dnrc kndpjcx snkgctgcs wcrc tmnubmt tn lc

iurtmcr kc`trajgsch a`h scbrcbatch, krcatg`b jcvcjs ni hckgsgn` daeg`b rcqugrg`b brcatcrprnkcssg`b ni gìnrdatgn`. Ija``cry cxpjgkgtjy jgèch tmc jcvcj ni snkgaj nrba`gsatgn`

ni tmc statc tn tmc `ntgn` ni kgvgjgsatgn` (Ija``cry 172<, Kmapda` <662). Ija``cry‗s

papcr g`spgrch ntmcrs tn hcvcjnp ghcas n` jcvcjs ni hckgsgn` daeg`b scparatg`b tmc

scquc`kc ni [crvgkc‗s dnhcj, inkusg`b n` ahdg`gstratgvc kapakgtgcs. Arkmacnjnbgkajjy

gt was hckghch tmat sgtc sgzc was tmc lcst way tn hgstg`bugsm jcvcjs ni hckgsgn` dae-

g`b. G` prnkcssuaj iasmgn`, tmrnubm krnss-kujturaj kndpargsn`, fivc jcvcjs ni sgtc sgzc

wcrc hgstg`bugsmch (Kmapda` <662). Xmgs ajsn jch tn datmcdatgkaj inrdujas ni sgtc

sgzc raèg`b assnkgatch wgtm pnpujatgn` sgzc, wmgkm wcrc hcvcjnpch tn cstaljgsm sgtc

mgcrarkmgcs (Ija``cry a`h Darkus <66;, Enwajcwseg <66;) nr tmc kc`trajgsatgn`, trglutc

hrawg`b a`h katkmdc`t g`hcxcs ly hc Dn`tdnjjg` (17=7). Arkmacnjnbgkaj scttjcdc`t

aàjysgs a`h scttjcdc`t pattcr`g`b was rcbarhch as datmcdatgkajjy cxpjaàtnry inr

askrglch jcvcjs ni snkgaj kndpjcxgty a`h nrba`gsatgn`. Rmcrcas tmc jgè lctwcc` statc

a`h kgvgjgsatgn` was kn`snjghatch aitcr Ija``cry‗s papcr, tmc jgè lctwcc` kjass snkgcty

a`h kgvgjgsatgn` nrgbgàtch wgtm Kmgjhc. \ckc`tjy g` jarbc krnss-kujturaj stuhgcs, ntmcrs

mavc arbuch sgdgjar pnsgtgn`s (Kmapda` <662). [ukm hcvcjnpdc`ts wcrc dahc wgtm-

nut `ckcssargjy kma`bg`b tmc kmaraktcrgstgk ni tmcsc dnhcjs, uìnrtuàtcjy icaturg`b a

ratmcr u`gvcrsaj kn`kcpt ni mgstnry.




Cvc`tuajjy ajj apprnakmcs c`tagj hcbrccs ni a kn`kcpt ni tgdc wmgkm prcsc`ts a

u`ghgrcktgnàj a`h kjassgfikatnry vgcw ni snkgaj hcvcjnpdc`t, tmus rcdag`g`b sgdgjar tn

kmrn`njnbgcs (Jukas <663). Xmgs hncs `n oustgkc tn tmc npc`-c`hch`css ni Harwg`ga`

cvnjutgn` g` gdpjyg`b tcjcnjnbgkaj prnkcsscs. Vrnkcssuaj arkmacnjnby, nitc` utgjgsg`b

tmcsc ghcas, inu`h gtscji lcg`b ratmcr hctcrdg`gstgk ajsn. A` gjjustratgn` ni tmc jgvcjy

hclatc tmat gs ajdnst kn`sta`tjy mcjh n` tmc hgiicrc`kcs lctwcc` kujturaj nr snkgaj

cvnjutgnàry vgcws a`h Harwg`ga` cvnjutgn` gs tmc artgkjc ly Havgh \g`hns (17=3),

wmgkm prnvnech da`y ficrkc knddc`ts ly scvcraj autmnrs. Dnrc rckc`tjy tmc g`cquaj-

gty ni lgnjnbgkaj a`h kujturaj typcs ni cvnjutgn` gs strn`bjy arbuch inr ly Hwgbmt \cah

(<669), n` tmc lasgs tmat g` Harwg`ga` cvnjutgn` scjcktgn` npcratcs irnd g`hgvghuaj

prnpcrtgcs, wmgkm ka``nt lc usch inr tmc cvnjutgn` ni kujturc as a dc`taj pmc`nd-

c`n`. Xmc kasc ni eg`smgp tcrdg`njnbgcs smnws tmgs, sg`kc `nt tmc g`hgvghuaj prnpcrtgcs

lc`cfit irnd tmc e`nwjchbc ni tcrdg`njnby as a tragt, lut tmc g`hgvghuaj lc`cfits irndtmc prnpcrtgcs ni tmc snkgaj brnup smarg`b tmat tcrdg`njnby, tmcrcinrc lcg`b tmcgr eg`.

Mc mas taec` tmgs e`nwjchbc tn lugjh a prchgktgvc datmcdatgkaj dnhcj inr strukturch

kndpjcxcs ni eg`smgp tcrdg`njnby. A sgdgjar arbudc`t gs cxpjnrch ly Hnubjas Crwg`

(<666), wmn mnjhs tmat tmc jcvcj ni dakrncvnjutgn` gs dnrc tmat tmc akkudujatgn` ni

lgnjnbgkaj dgkrncvnjutgn`s.

Kujturc Mgstnry, Kujturc Arcas

@cxt tn tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni snkgaj cvnjutgn`, tmc S`gtch [tatcs g` partgkujar mavce`nw` a pcrsgstc`t praktgkc inr tmc lcttcr part ni tmc <6tm kc`tury kajjch kujturc mgs-

tnry . Inr tmc dnst part gt c`tagjch stuhgcs tn hgskcr` tragts g` artciakts tmat tnbctmcr

kndprgsc spckgfik datcrgaj kujturcs. Xmcsc wcrc assudch tn ahmcrc tn ctm`gk brnups.

Datcrgaj kujturcs wnujh lcar wgtmg` tmc kmaraktcrgstgks ni sukm ctm`gk brnups, wmgkm

gs cssc`tgajjy a` g`huktgvc apprnakm, as nppnsch tn tmc hchuktgvc kmaraktcr ni jatcr

prnkcssuaj arkmacnjnby. Ajdnst autndatgkajjy tmgs jays a strn`b cdpmasgs n` kndparg-

sn`s n` tmc lasgs ni kjassgfikatgn`s, tmgs praktgkc lcg`b kc`tcrinjh tn kujturc mgstnry. Gt

hcfi`ch tcdpnraj u`gts, artciakt typnjnbgcs, bcnbrapmgkaj hgspcrsgn` a`h scrgatgn`s.

Arkmacnjnbgkaj praktgkc inkusch n` stratgbrapmy, kmnppg`b up tmc mgstnry ni a sgtc g`tn

scparatch scbdc`ts. Xmcsc scbdc`ts wcrc trcatch scji-rcicrc`tgajjy. [tratgbrapmy a`h

typnjnbgcs kn`trnjjch tgdc g` sukm a way tmat gt strukturch gìcrc`kc, sn tmc rcscarkmcrs

dgstaec`jy kadc tn lcjgcvc tmat tmcgr kjassgfikatgn`s mah dca`g`b tn tmc pcnpjc ni tmc

past. Irnd a` nrgbgàj g`tcrcst g` tmc kn`struktgn` ni kmrn`njnbgcs rcscarkm startch tn

kn`kc`tratc dnrc n` tmc hcfi`gtgn` ni arkmacnjnbgkaj kujturcs. Kujturcs wcrc tmnubmt

tn gùc`kc cakm ntmcr, tra`sicrrg`b styjgstgk icaturcs ni gts (datcrgaj) kmaraktcrgstgks

tmrnubm kn`takt g` a ùdlcr ni ways, sukm as trahc, dgbratgn`, snkgaj tgcs, assnkgatch

wgtm abbrcssgn`, g`vasgn` nr knjn`gsatgn`. Xmgs kn`traktuaj prnkcss ni tra`sicrrg`b tragts




gs kajjch hgiiusgn`. Xmcsc gùc`kcs wnujh rcsujt g` ntmcr lcmavgnuraj pattcr`s as tmc

tragts wcrc ahnptch g`tn tmc kujturc. Arkmacnjnbgcs ni g`vasgn` a`h hgiiusgn`, oust as

stratgbrapmy a`h typnjnby, kausc a hgskn`tgùnus vgcw ni kma`bc a`h hcvcjnpdc`t ni

snkgcty. @cvcrtmcjcss, mgstnrgkaj àrratgvcs wcrc kn`struch irnd tmcsc snurkcs ni gìnr-

datgn` (Jyda`, N‗Lrgc` a`h Hu``cjj 1772).

Oust as wgtm prcvgnus snkgaj cvnjutgnàry tmnubmt, dukm ni kujturc mgstnry lckadc

g`tcbratch g` prnkcssuaj tmnubmt a`h tmcrcinrc gs stgjj pcrvasgvc g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgs-

knursc. Kujturc mgstnry tmus appcars tn mavc `cvcr trujy cxpcrgc`kch a hcdgsc. Appar-

c`t parajjcjs arc tmcgr g`tcrcsts g` iu`ktgn`, ahaptatgn` a`h aàjnbgcs, as wcjj as a inkus

n` styjc a`h a ratmcr u`gvcrsaj vgcw ni mgstnry (Jyda`, N‗Lrgc` a`h Hu``cjj 1772). Gt gs

a` cvnjutgnàry g`tcrcst tmcy mavc g` knddn`. Jyda`, N‗Lrgc` a`h Hu``cjj tmcrcinrc

prnpnsch tn bgvc way tn lgnjnbgkaj rujcs ni cvnjutgn` g` arkmacnjnby. Xmc Harwg`ga`

dnhcj wgjj niicr a` a`bjc tmrnubm wmgkm kujturaj kma`bc a`h hcvcjnpdc`t ka` lcpjakch as part ni tmc kn`tgùud tmcy arc part ni, g`stcah ni tmc hgskn`tgùnus cxpjaà-

tgn`s prnhukch sn iar. As sagh lcinrc, da`y mavc injjnwch a`h lgnjnbgkaj cvnjutgn` mas

lckndc a` gùc`tgaj way tn rcg`trnhukc tmc prnkcss g`tn arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc.

Hcspgtc tmc prnbrcss, G mavc tn abrcc wgtm Lrukc Xrgbbcr‗s (177=) knddc`ts n` Jyda`,

N‗Lrgc` a`h Hu``cjj‗s lnne Xmc \gsc a`h Iajj ni Kujturc Mgstnry . Cvnjutgnàry pcrspck-

tgvcs mavc a jnt dnrc tn niicr arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc, yct at tmc sadc tgdc a` cxkju-

sgvc inkus n` lgnjnby gs ratmcr rchuktgn`gst. Cvnjutgnàry scjcktgn` `nt n`jy taecs pjakc

cxtcràjjy, lut g`vnjvcs sgb`gfika`t kujturajjy dchgatch aspckts. Rgtmnut a lgnjnbgkajjy

rchuktgn`gst `ntgn`, cvnjutgn` knujh lc dahc lcttcr cqugppch tn kn`sghcr snkgaj pmc-`ndcà (Xrgbbcr 177=). As lckndcs kjcar g` kurrc`t hclatcs, tmc Harwg`ga` dnhcj as

nppnsch tn dnrc kujturajjy g`kjg`ch dnhcjs ni cvnjutgn` stgjj cvnecs jc`btmy akahcdgk

hgsputcs. Gt sccds tmat snkgaj cvnjutgn`, kujturc mgstnry a`h prnkcssuaj arkmacnjnby ajj

mah tmc rgbmt g`tcrcst, lut jakech a yct tn lc inrdujatch trujy snkgaj cdlchhch ap-

prnakm tn snkgctaj hcvcjnpdc`t.

Xmc hcsgbàtgn` ni kujturc arcas gs assnkgatch wgtm tmc hclatcs n` snkgaj cvnjutgn`

a`h kujturc mgstnry. Jgec kujturc mgstnry, trahgtgnàj dctmnhs ni àdg`b kujturc arcas

arc ratmcr g`huktgvc. Da`y kujturaj tcrds n`jy rcicr tn a kcrtag` ja`buabc, brnup ni

ja`buabcs nr cvc` ratmcr ̀ cutraj bcnbrapmgkaj surrnu`hg`bs, jca`g`b n` a` uìnu`hch

”pars prn tntn‗ prg`kgpjc. Kujturc mgstnry apprnakmcs cdpmasgsc tmc hgiiusgn`

ni pnpujatgn`s a`h tragts n` tmc lasgs ni wmgkm tmcy try tn hcfi`c kujturc arcas as

arkmacnjnbgkaj mnrgzn`s. Xmgs bc`cratcs c`hjcss hclatcs n` tmc nrgbg`s ni tragts a`h

tmcgr ahaptatgn` ly pnpujatgn`s, a`h gdpjgcs hn`nr a`h rckgpgc`t rcjatgn`s lctwcc`

brnups. Hcspgtc kn`trglutg`b usciuj hata, tmc jgè tn sgtuatgn`s a`h pcnpjc g` tmc past

gs `nt inu`hch. Kujturc mgstnry apprnakmcs knujh hcfi`gtcjy mavc dcrgtch irnd a dnrc

dujtghgskgpjgàry pcrspcktgvc wnreg`b wgtm arcas g` hgakmrn`gk iasmgn`. Xmcy prctc`h

tn mavc put dca`g`biuj, aàjytgkajjy usch c`tgtgcs n` nur daps as kujturc arcas, wmgkm




daecs n`c hnult tmc vajuc ni tmgs c`tgrc kn`kcpt.

As gs gjjustratch ly tmc rcjatgvc tcrra g`knb`gta g` Kc`traj Adcrgka e`nw` as tmc

G`tcrdchgatc nr Kmglkma` arca (aitcr a` akahcdgkajjy trnuljcsndc jg`bugstgk iadgjy),

trahgtgnàj apprnakmcs jake tmc algjgty tn daec dca`g`biuj arbudc`ts inr tmc kujturaj

lnu`hargcs ni tmc arcas tmat hctcrdg`c aàjytgkaj rcscarkm qucstgn`s (scc kmaptcr inur

a`h fivc). Xmc kujturc arcas smnw` n` nur daps hcfi`c tmc way wc g`tcrprct tmc sup-

pnschjy knrrcjatch snkgctgcs rcsghg`b g` tmat arca. Arkmacnjnby `cchs tn arrgvc at gts

nw` hcsgbàtch arcas g`hcpc`hc`tjy. As mas lcc` subbcstch, tmc sprcah ni gkn`n-

brapmgk trahgtgn`s g` arkmacnjnbgkaj artciakts knujh g`hgkatc a smarch lcjgci systcd tmat

gs truc tn tmc pcnpjc ni tmc past. Gt ka` lc sagh ni tmc Kmglkma` arca tmat ahva`kcdc`ts

g` jg`bugstgks a`h bc`ctgks smnw tmc pcrsgstc`kc ni pnpujatgn` jg`c tmat rcdag`ch g`

sgtu inr tmnusa`hs ni ycars (Mnnpcs a`h In`scka <66;). Mnnpcs arbucs inr pnsgtgn`g`b

Kmglkma-spcaeg`b snkgctgcs g` tmc lrnahcr kn`tcxts ni sukm rcscarkm, lcinrc kastg`bhnult n` tmc datcrgaj rcjatgn`s wgtmg` tmc arca (Mnnpcs g` prcss).

Rmat a` apprnakm tn kujturc arcas irnd lcjgci systcds gs tryg`b tn bct at gs sgdgjar

tn wmat a hcvcjnpdc`taj pcrspcktgvc lasch n` snkgaj prnkcsscs knujh niicr. Rc smnujh

taec ̀ ntgkc ni tmc gìcrc`tgaj gdpjgkatgn`s a sgdpjc jg`c n` a dap ka` mavc a`h lc karc-

iuj wgtm tmc dca`g`b karryg`b kn``ntatgn`s ni tmc tcrds gdpnsch n` arcas. Ajtmnubm gt

wnujh dca` a ratmcr adlgtgnus prnockt, g`vnjvg`b mubc adnu`ts ni cxtc`sgvc arkmacn-

jnbgkaj wnre nvcr jarbc rcbgn`s a`h suriakcs, tmc kajj inr a snkgaj tmcnrctgkaj c`hcavnur

g` a` arkmacnjnby ni prnkcsscs gs icjt mcrc tnn. Xmc pjca tn rcjcasc arkmacnjnby irnd

tmc lnxg`b-g` praktgkcs tmat inr sn jn`b mavc lcc` typgkaj ni arkmacnjnbgkaj tmnubmt gs`nw bcttg`b strn`bcr. Xmgs ajsn appjgcs tn tmc spatgajjy hcjgdgtch arcas g` wmgkm a`kgc`t

kujturcs a`h snkgctgcs arc tmnubmt tn rcsghc. Xmgèg`b nutsghc tmc lnx mas lckndc

iasmgnàljc a`h ka` lc rcknb`gsch g` tmc praktgkcs a`h tmcnrgcs ni tntaj arkmacnjnby,

c.b. Hndg`gk Vnwjcsja`h‗s jn`b stuhgcs n` tmc Yajc ni Vgkecrg`b (<66;, <669, pcrsnàj

knddu`gkatgn`). [ukm lnxcs mavc lcc` kn`struktch irnd tmc carjy g`trnhuktgn` ni

cvnjutgnàry stabcs n`warhs, kn`sta`tjy kn`snjghatg`b tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj hgskgpjg`c as

yct a`ntmcr typc ni kjassgfikatnry praktgkc. Arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc at prcsc`t gs sjnwjy

lcg`b lc`t tnwarhs aàjysg`b nr kmaraktcrgsg`b snkgctgcs a`h tmcgr kndpjcxgty g` snkgaj

tcrds, as cvghc`kch ly Enmrg`b a`h Ry``c-On`cs‗ (<662) [nkgajgsg`b Kndpjcxgty .

N`kc abag` wc mavc arrgvch at tmc pjakc g` hgsknursc wc rcakmch at scvcraj dn-

dc`ts lcinrc rcspcktgvcjy. Onykc a`h Jnpgparn qugtc rgbmtjy `ntc tmat ‚abc`ky a`h

strukturc arc g`hgvgsgljc parts ni a sg`bjc prnkcss tmrnubm wmgkm snkgcty gs kn`tgù-

nusjy krcatch nvcr tgdc, cvcrytmg`b tmat pcrsgsts nr kma`bcs g` arkmacnjnbgkaj sgtcs gs

cvghc`kc ni abc`ky.— (Onykc a`h Jnpgparn <663? ;93) Ajtmnubm G abrcc wgtm tmgs asscr-

tgn`, gt gs huc tn tmc hclatcs g` arkmacnjnby inkusg`b n` abc`ky ratmcr tma` strukturc

tmat a lrcakm g` snkgaj g`tcjjgbgljc gìcrc`kc mas uè`nwg`bjy lcc` krcatch. Rc wgjj

`nw tur` prckgscjy tnwarhs tmat bap. Hcpartg`b irnd ahaptatgn`s ni strukturatgn`,




pnststrukturajgst muda` bcnbrapmy mas dahc tmcnrctgkaj ahva`kcdc`ts g`vnjvg`b tmc

prnkcsscs lctwcc` abc`ky a`h strukturc, wmgjst g`knrpnratg`b tmc c`vgrn`dc`t a`h

tmc spatgaj, npc`g`b cdpgrgkaj pnssglgjgtgcs. G` tmc injjnwg`b kmaptcr tmc kn`trglutgn`

dahc ly Ajja` Vrch gs tmnrnubmjy hgskussch a`h gts pntc`tgaj inr arkmacnjnbgkaj hgs-

knursc gs cxpjnrch. Kn`sckutgvcjy, sndc sukkcchg`b kn`tgùatgn`s ni tmgs bcnbrapmgkaj

hgrcktgn` arc hgskussch g` kmaptcr inur.



Kmaptcr ; Vrnkcsscs ni Lckndg`b





Vrnkcsscs ni Lckndg`b 2;

Xgdc-bcnbrapmy a`h [trukturatgn`

Abag`st tmc lakehrnp ni spatgaj skgc`kc Xnrstc` Mèbcrstra`h, a [wchgsm bcnbrapmcr,

dahc a` gdpnrta`t ahva`kcdc`t g` bcnbrapmy. Dag`jy hurg`b tmc 1796s a`h 1726s

mc g`trnhukch tmc hgskgpjg`c tn tmc ghca ni tyg`b g`hgvghuajs tn jgic-patms (irnd lgrtm tgjj

hcatm) kn`sgstg`b ni a kn`tgùnus a`h u`gquc scquc`kc ni cvc`ts g` tgdc-spakc. Dnh-

cjs ni tmc jgic-patm kn`kcpt wcrc hcsgb`ch a`h skmcdatgkajjy vgsuajgsch a iu`ktgn` ni

tgdc a`h spakc g` wmgkm a jg`c, rcprcsc`tg`b dnvcdc`t a`h cvc`ts, was hraw`. Xmgs

way ni rcprcsc`tg`b (parts) ni a` g`hgvghuajs‗ lgnbrapmy gs kajjch a tmrcc hgdc`sgnàj

tgdc-spakc hgabrad. Jgic-patms knujh casgjy lc hgvghch g`tn tcdpnraj scbdc`ts as hays,

wcces nr dn`tms. Xmc tgdc-spakc kn`tgùud lntm iakgjgtatcs a`h puts kn`strag`ts n`

g`hgvghuajs‗ aktgn`s. Cspckgajjy tmc pmysgkaj kn`strag`ts wcrc cdpmasgsch g` gts appjgka-

tgn` (ki. tmc cknjnbgkaj cdpmasgs g` prnkcssuaj arkmacnjnby). Mèbcrstra`h‗s kn`kcptbrcw tn lc vcry gùc`tgaj g` bcnbrapmgkaj praktgkc a`h lckadc e`nw` g` tmc 1726s

as tgdc-bcnbrapmy. Gt g`trnhukch a tcdpnraj iaktnr tn spatgaj skgc`kc kapturch g` tmc

g`hgvghuaj wmgkm tmrgvch g` tmc 1796s. Xmc ecy tn gts sukkcss was prnlaljy tmc rcsujt

ni tmc kndlgàtgn` ni rctag`g`b a` nlocktgvgst pmysgkajgty a`h tmc g`hgvghuaj (Mèbcr-

stra`h 1726, Vrch 1722, Bghhc`s 17=8, Majjg` 1771). Vrndg`c`t bcnbrapmcrs sukm as

@gbcj Xmrgit a`h Hcrce Brcbnry wcrc adn`bst tmc n`cs gùc`kch ly tgdc-bcnbrapmy,

tmrnubm wmnd gt inu`h gts way g`tn rcbgnàj a`h kujturaj bcnbrapmgcs (c.b. Xmrgit a`h

Vrch 17=1, Xmrgit 17=;). Ajsn, g` cxgstc`tgajgst pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj bcnbrapmy tmcrc was

hcfi`gtc g`tcrcst g` tmc wnre ni Darwy` [aducjs (1727) adn`bst ntmcr kn`trglutnrsjgec Havgh Jcy (Jcy a`h [aducjs 172=) a`h Hnàjh Dcg`gb‗s (1727) vnjudc n` tmc

g`tcrprctatgn` ni ja`hskapcs g` tmc kn`tcxt ni cvcryhay jgic.

Nutsghc ni tmc bcnbrapmgkaj hgskgpjg`c tmc pntc`tgaj ni tgdc-bcnbrapmy inr snkgnjnby

was rcknb`gsch ly A`tmn`y Bghhc`s, wmnsc dnst gùc`tgaj wnre Xmc Kn`stgtutgn`

ni [nkgcty (17=8) dc`tgn`s gt n` scvcraj nkkasgn`s. Rmcrcas Mèbcrstra`h was tmc

dag` inu`hcr ni tgdc-bcnbrapmy, Bghhc`s jagh tmc lasgs inr strukturatgn` tmcnry g`

snkgaj nrba`gsatgn`. Bghhc`s `ntgkch tmat tmc wnre ni bcnbrapmcr Vauj Yghaj hc ja

Ljakmc a`h mgs kn`trglutgn`s tn tmc Irc`km A`àjcs [kmnnj mah partgkujarjy gùc`kch

Icrà`h Lrauhcj. G` tmat, tmc 17tm kc`tury inu`hatgn`s inr mgstnry, snkgnjnby a`h

muda` bcnbrapmy jarbcjy kng`kghc. Akknrhg`b tn mgd, snkgnjnby mah oust as dukm tn

niicr muda` bcnbrapmy (spckgfikajjy tgdc-bcnbrapmy) as vgkc vcrsa (Bghhc`s 17=8).

Xmc bcnbrapmy ni Vauj Yghaj hc ja Ljakmc ajsn kjagdch a prcsc`kc g` tmc wnre n`

muda` praktgkc ly Vgcrrc Lnurhgcu (1722). G` partgkujar Yghaj‗s bc`rc hc vgc a`h

jatcr Lnurhgcu‗s malgtus lckadc vcry gdpnrta`t inr tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj hgskgpjg`c.

Xnbctmcr wgtm prcvajc`t pmc`ndc`njnby jgèch tn Mcghcbbcrs (172<) cxgstc`tgajgsd,

tmc strukturajgsd ni a`tmrnpnjnbgst Jçvg-[trauss a`h tmc g`tcrprctgvc apprnakmcs ni

\gkncur a`h Bahadcr adn`bst ntmcrs, tmcsc kn`kcpts wcrc ong`ch g` tmc ja`hskapc




arkmacnjnby ni Oujga` Xmndas (1779) (Enjc` <663).

Rgtm tmc iajj ni spatgaj skgc`kc g` tmc 1726s inr muda` bcnbrapmy a`h wgtm tmc rgsc

ni pnstprnkcssuajgsd g` tmc 17=6s inr arkmacnjnby, da`y ni tmcsc prndg`c`t tmgècrs

inu`h tmcgr way g`tn rcspcktgvc hgsknurscs. Vnststrukturajgsd injjnwch smnrtjy, g`spgrch

ly tmc pmgjnsnpmy ni Dgkmcj Inukaujt, c.b. inkusg`b n` pnwcr rcjatgn`s wgtmg` snkgcty.

Vrnbrcssgvcjy scparatch irnd tmc nd`gprcsc`t qua`tgtatgvc apprnakmcs a`h tmc cd-

pmasgs n` c`vgrn`dc`taj hctcrdg`gsd, tmc snkgaj a`h tmc g`tcrprctgvc wcrc g`tcbratch

g`tn akahcdgk hgsknursc. Xmc 17=6s usmcrch g` cxkgtg`b tgdcs. Xmc tmcnry ni Bghhc`s

a`h kcrtag` cjcdc`ts g` tmc wnre ni Lnurhgcu a`h Inukaujt arc sgb`gfika`t inr tmgs

kmaptcr, lut wgjj `nt lc gts dag` kn`kcr`. Xmcrc wnujh lc `n way tn hn oustgkc tn tmc

kndpjcxgty ni tmcgr tmnubmt g` tmc spakc avagjaljc mcrc a`h da`y prninu`h akknu`ts

ni tmcgr wnre mavc lcc` prnhukch g` tmc jast hckahcs. \cpcatg`b tmcgr `ntgn`s wnujh

ahh jgttjc quajgty tn tmc arbudc`ts dahc mcrc. [tgjj, lntm sgjc`tjy a`h at tgdcs cxpjgkgtjy,tmcgr ghcas arc prcsc`t, lckausc g` kndlgàtgn` wgtm tgdc-bcnbrapmy tmcy pavch tmc

way inr Ajja` Vrch‗s tmcnry ni pjakc.

G`trnhukg`b Ajja` Vrch, Krgtgkgsg`b A`tmn`y Bghhc`s

Ajja` \gkmarh Vrch, wmn passch away oust smnrt ni twn ycars abn, jcit a brcat lnhy

ni jgtcraturc a`h e`nwjchbc tmat day niicr as dukm tn mgs nw` hgskgpjg`c, muda`

bcnbrapmy, as tn ntmcrs, sukm as mgstnry. Xmc agd mcrc gs tn asscss mgs wnre n` tmc

kn`kcpt ni pjakc inr usc g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc. Mc mas wrgttc` ùdcrnus artgkjcsa`h lnnes irnd tmc 1796s tn tmc <666s, wgtm g`krcasg`b g`tcrcst g` pnjgtgkaj tmcdcs

g` bcnbrapmy jgec rakgsd a`h tcrrnr, dnvg`b away irnd mgs g`gtgaj inkus n` mgstnry

tnwarhs gssucs ni dnhcr`gty a`h tmc prcsc`t. Ajtmnubm mc gs rgbmtjy pjakch g` tmc

rcajd ni muda` bcnbrapmy, kndlg`g`b mgs ckjcktgk g`tcrcsts g` tmc hgskgpjg`c, mgs snkgaj

tmcnrctgkaj lasgs lrghbcs tmc `cxt stcp tnwarhs spckgfik snkgaj bcnbrapmy as wcjj. As

mc dc`tgn`ch n` mgs pcrsnàj wclsgtc at Lcrecjcy, mc tnne a krgtgkaj sta`kc tnwarhs

muda` bcnbrapmy. S`kn`kcr`ch wgtm gts hgskgpjgàry jgdgts, mc saw bcnbrapmy as

a` g`cvgtaljc n`tnjnbgkaj rcajgty. @n hnult irnd tmgs spckgfik attgtuhc injjnws tmat mgs

stuhgcs ka` lc gìnrdatgvc tn ntmcr hgskgpjg`cs as wcjj. Kn`kurrg`b wgtm dy pcrspcktgvc

n` arkmacnjnby as lcg`b ni vajuc tn tmc prcsc`t a`h iuturc, Vrch was g`tcrcstch g`

daeg`b a` mgstnrgkaj bcnbrapmy ni tmc prcsc`t. Mcrc tmc inkus wgjj lc n` mgs wnre ni

tmc 17=6s, spckgfikajjy tmc tmcnrctgkaj nutjg`cs cxpjnrch g` mgs 17=1 a`h 17=8 artgkjcs.

Xmc rcahg`b ni tmc jattcr artgkjc gs jalcjjch pjuraj a`h hcpc`hc`t n` tmc hgskgpjg`c ni tmc

rcahcr ly Vrch mgdscji (Vrch 17=3). Rgtm tmgs rcdare mc appcars tn strcss tmc pntc`tgaj

tn usc mgs ghcas nutsghc ni tmc bcnbrapmgkaj hgskgpjg`c qugtc jgtcrajjy. Xmc tmcnrctgkaj

nutjg`cs ni 17=1 a`h 17=8 kujdgàtch g` tmc cxtc`sgvc tmcnry hcskrglch g` mgs lnne

Vjakc, Vraktgkc a`h [trukturc (17=9).



Vrnkcsscs ni Lckndg`b 23

Rgtm mgs attc`ha`kc tn tmc tra`sjatgn` ni Xnrstc` Mèbcrstra`h‗s hgsscrtatgn` g`

179=, tmc inu`hatgn` inr tmc strn`b gùc`kc ni tgdc-bcnbrapmy g` mgs wnre gs ajrcahy

akknu`tch inr. Mèbcrstra`h wc`t n` tn hcvcjnp tgdc-bcnbrapmy g` gts nw` rgbmt, a`h

Vrch kn`tgùch gt g`tn tmc mgstnrgkaj a`h snkgaj prnkcssgvc nlocktgvcs ni muda` bcnbra-

pmy. G` mgs 17=1 artgkjc mc cxpjnrcs tmc pnssglgjgtgcs tn taec tgdc-bcnbrapmy nut ni tmc

dcrc kn`huktgn` ni akkcssglgjgty kn`strag`t aàjyscs, iurtmcrg`b gt g`tn tmc cvcryhay jgic.

N` tmc lasgs ni tgdc-bcnbrapmy prnvghg`b a` ciicktgvc hcvgkc inr hcskrglg`b lcmavgnur

a`h lgnbrapmy g` tgdc-spakc, mc arbucs inr a` ahaptatgn` ni tmc knrc kn`kcpts ni

patm a`h prnockt g` hgajcktgkaj inrdujatgn`s tyg`b tmc g`hgvghuaj a`h snkgcty tnbctmcr.

Mc ahhs tmat tmgs pjakcdc`t ni tgdc-bcnbrapmy g`tn hgajcktgk prnkcsscs mah nrgbgàjjy

`nt lcc` hn`c ly Mèbcrsta`h mgdscji (Vrch 17=1). G` 17=8 mc cxpjgkgtjy kn`tgùcs tmc

kndlgàtgn` ni tgdc-bcnbrapmy a`h strukturatgn`, wmgkm gs tmc nrgbg` ni tmc hgajcktgkaj

prnkcssgvc kn`kcpt. Mc wnres tnwarhs a kn`kcpt ni pjakc as a mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`tprnkcss. Vjakcs arc a eg`h ni mgstnrgkaj dgkrn-bcnbrapmgcs, g` wmgkm da`y g`hgvghuaj

tcrrgtnrgcs g`tcrakt a`h lgnbrapmgks knjjghc. Xmc krnssg`bs ni lcmavgnur a`h dnvcdc`t

bc`cratc spatgaj tra`sinrdatgn`s a`h jnkajgsc snkgaj strukturcs. Xmc mgstnrgkaj kn`struk-

tgn` ni pjakc g`vnjvcs tmc apprnprgatgn` a`h tra`sinrdatgn` ni spakc as wcjj as tmc

rcprnhuktgn` a`h tra`sinrdatgn` ni snkgcty g` tgdc a`h spakc (Vrch 17=8). Xmc dnst

gdpnrta`t arbudc`ts arc dahc ly tmc`, lut g` mgs cxtc`sgvc tmcnrctgkaj nutjg`c ni

Vjakc, Vraktgkc a`h [trukturc mc rcakmcs a kndpjctgn` wmgkm scrvcs as a inu`hatgn` inr

a kasc stuhy g` 17tm kc`tury [wchc`.

Vrch gs kjcar alnut mgs snurkcs ni g`spgratgn` a`h bgvcs a jc`btmy akknu`t ni wmcrcmgs ghcas nrgbgàtc irnd. As mas lcc` g`hgkatch alnvc, Vrch kmnsc tn kndlg`c scvcraj ni

tmc da`y trc`hs g` snkgaj skgc`kc tmat wcrc dca`t tn scrvc as a dghhjc brnu`h lctwcc`

strukturc a`h abc`ky? Bghhc`s‗ strukturatgn`gsd, Mèbcrstra`h‗s tgdc-bcnbrapmy a`h

Inukaujt‗s pnst-strukturajgsd. Ig`hg`b tmc dghhjc brnu`h mah gdpjgkatgn`s inr tmc

hclatc n` tmc g`tcraktgn` ni strukturc a`h muda` abc`ky a`h tmc vargaljc àturc ni

lntm tmcsc sgtuatgnàj parts, wmgkm jch tn a lcttcr u`hcrsta`hg`b ni tmc pnsgtgn`g`b ni

aktgn` g` tmc tntajgty ni snkgcty g` tgdc a`h spakc. Xmc apprnakmcs wmgkm injjnwch irnd

gt rcprcsc`t tmc hgifikujty ni kn`struktg`b a tmcnry ni aktgn` wmgkm hgsta`kcs gtscji irnd

lntm tmc hctcrdg`gsd ni strukturajgsd a`h tmc ghcajgst g`hgvghuajgsd ni abc`ky (Kjnec

c.a. 1771). Jgec bcnbrapmy, strukturatgn` `nurgsmch tmc strukturc-abc`ky hclatcs g`

arkmacnjnby, lut gt appcars tmat strukturc‗s hctcrdg`gsd mas brahuajjy lcc` rcpjakch

wgtm àturaj skgc`kcs a`h abc`ky brcw g`tn a partgkujargst taec n` g`hgvghuajgsd,

ratmcr tma` cdpjnyg`b tmc g`hgvghuaj nr aktnr as a` aàjytgkaj u`gt, usg`b a eg`h ni

dctmnhnjnbgkaj g`hgvghuajgsd (a tcrd first kng`ch ly ckn`ndgst Onscpm [kmudpctcr). G`

ahhgtgn`, tmc tmcnry ni strukturatgn`‗s inu`hcr, A`tmn`y Bghhc`s, was qugkejy krgtgkgsch

inr nlstruktg`b tmc aseg`b ni cdpgrgkaj rcscarkm qucstgn`s. Xmc ainrcdc`tgn`ch

snkgnjnby ni praktgkc ni Vgcrrc Lnurhgcu was jcss prnljcdatgk, cspckgajjy g` tmc way gt




kn`tcxtuajgsch aktgn` a`h avnghch knb`gtgvc prnkcsscs ni g`tc`tgn` wgtmg` mgs aktnrs.

G` mgs vgcw, malgtuaj praktgkcs hn `nt `cch g`tc`tgn` (Lnurhgcu 1722). Hctakmch

irnd g`vgsgljc dc`taj prnkcsscs yct niicrg`b kn`tcxtuajgsatgn` was a lcttcr datkm inr

arkmacnjnbgkaj kapalgjgtgcs.

G` bcnbrapmy at first, strukturatgn` was hcfi`gtcjy `nt rckcgvch as a` ajj-c`knd-

passg`b bra`h tmcnry, lut ratmcr as a scrgcs ni knrc alstrakt prnpnsgtgn`s tmat wcrc

gìnrdch a`h rcinrdujatch ly dnrc spckgfik g`qugrgcs. Xmgs jch tn kn`sghcraljc hgiicr-

c`kcs g` strukturatgn`gst tmnubmt (Kjnec c.a. 1771). Bghhc`s, mnwcvcr, prcsc`tch mgs

wnre n` strukturatgn` as a` n`tnjnby ni muda` snkgcty, kn`kc`tratg`b arnu`h gssucs

ni tmc rcjatgn` lctwcc` aktnrs a`h snkgaj g`stgtutgn`s. [ukm huajgsd (nrgbgàtg`b irnd

strukturajgsd) pcrdcatch mgs wnre, cxpjgkgtjy g` tmc pnsgtgn`g`b ni lntm tgdc a`h spakc,

a`h strukturc a`h abc`ky, wmnsc g`tcrhcpc`hc`t rcjatgn`smgps smnujh tra`skc`h tmc

rgses ni cgtmcr sg`bjc gssuc apprnakm, hciyg`b hctcrdg`gsd g` tmc prnpnsaj ni huajgstgkprnkcsscs. Mgs abc`ts wcrc e`nwjchbcaljc a`h kapaljc sulockts (`nt tmc prcvgnusjy

`n`-rccxgvc spckgdc`s ni strukturajgsd) a`h mc saw kma`bcs g` snkgaj jgic as tmcgr ak-

kndpjgsmdc`ts (Bghhc`s 17=8).

Rgtm Bghhc`s‗ strukturatgn` a`h Lnurhgcu‗s praktgkc, tmc u`knrruptch kn`kcpt ni

purpnsciuj aktgn` ni Juhwgb vn` Dgscs (177=) gs hgiicrc`tgatch g`tn dnrc rcajgstgkajjy

lnu`h kn`kcpts ni akts, aktgn`s, praktgkc a`h abc`ky. Inr Bghhc`s, akts arc hgskrctc

scbdc`ts ni g`hgvghuaj pcrinrda`kc a`h aktgn` rcprcsc`ts a kn`tgùnus nw ni g`hg-

vghuaj g`vnjvcdc`t. Abc`ky, n` tmc ntmcr ma`h, gs `nt oust purpnsciuj, lut purpnsgvc,

wmgkm rcqugrcs scji-rccxgvc dn`gtnrg`b (Kjnec c.a. 1771). [cji-rcicrc`tgaj u`hcrsta`h-g`b ni tmc wnrjh was ajrcahy part ni vn` Dgscs‗ a`h [kmútz‗s tmcnrgcs, yct g` strukturaj-

gsd a`h inr c.b. Lnurhgcu, aktnrs wcrc `n`-rccxgvc. Bghhc`s‗ asscrtgn`s tmus partgajjy

kn`kur wgtm [kmútz‗s kn`stgtutgvc pmc`ndc`njnby, ajtmnubm Bghhc`s ahhs tmc pns-

sglgjgty inr sulkn`skgnus a`h u`kn`skgnus dntgvatgn`s inr purpnsgvc aktgn`s. \atgnàjg-

satgn` a`h akknu`tg`b inr aktgn`s gs a kn`skgnus prnkcss. Xmcrcinrc, sulkn`skgnus nr

u`kn`skgnus dntgvatgn`s ka` n`jy lckndc g`tcjjgbgljc tmrnubm scji-rccktgn` gi tmc u`-

kn`skgnus gs dahc kn`skgnus (Bghhc`s 17=8, Kjnec c.a. 1771). [cji-rccktgn` gs lasch

n` e`nwjchbc a`h dcdnry, sn, oust as inr [kmútz, tmc cxpcrgc`kc ni tmc kn`scquc`kcs

ni aktgn`s aiickt tmc rccxgvc prnkcss (Kadplcjj 17=1). [tgjj, hcspgtc mgs g`tcrcst g` c.b.

tgdc-bcnbrapmy, Bghhc`s‗ apprnakm hgh `nt iujjy taec g`tn akknu`t tmc cxpcrgc`tgaj

a`h cxgstc`tgaj aspckts ni abc`ky a`h pnjargsch g`tc`tgnàj a`h u`g`tc`tgnàj typcs ni

aktgn` (Kjnec c.a. 1771).

Xmc way Bghhc`s cstaljgsmch tmc g`tcrkn``cktgvgty ni abc`ky a`h strukturc, wmgjc

càljg`b tmc kmaraktcrgsatgn` ni strukturc gtscji, gs mgs brcatcst assct. Dnvg`b g`tn tmc

rcajd ni Inukaujt‗s pmgjnsnpmy, mc dag`jy ghc`tgfics strukturcs ly tmcgr rujcs a`h pnwcr

rcjatgn`s, rcstrgktch ly a`h rcprnhukg`b hgstrglutgn` ni rcsnurkcs. \ujcs cxgst g` tmc

càktdc`t ni snkgaj praktgkc, kn`trary tn inrdajjy inrdujatch rujcs tmat arc knhgfich




g`tcrprctatgn`s ni rujcs. [ukm snkgaj rujcs strukturc g`tcraktgn`, lut arc ajsn dnhgfich

ly gt (Kjnec c.a. 1771, Bghhc`s 17=8). Muda` aktgn` g` tmc praktgkc ni cvcryhay jgic

gs g`tcrprctch as rcsgsta`kc abag`st pnwcr kn`strag`ts nr rujcs ly Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau.

Gt lasgkajjy c`tagjs tmat g` cakm aktgn` a rcsgsta`kc gs taeg`b pjakc (hc Kcrtcau 17==).

Xmgs knujh akknu`t inr tmc pjuraj inrds ni snkgaj rujcs as nppnsch tn inrdujatch rujcs.

Xmc strukturaj prnpcrtgcs ni snkgaj systcds (rujcs a`h rcsnurkcs) arc lntm a dchgud

inr snkgaj praktgkc a`h tmc c`h rcsujt ni snkgaj praktgkc, mc`kc tmc huajgty ni strukturc.

G`stcah ni snkgaj g`tcraktgn`, Bghhc`s pjakcs tmc rujcs a`h rcsnurkcs ni strukturc g` snkgaj

g`stgtutgn`s, bgvg`b snjghgty akrnss tgdc a`h spakc. Xmc huajgty ni strukturc gs kn`tag`ch

g` rcbujargsg`b g`stgtutgn`s prnhukg`b a`h rcprnhukg`b aktgn` (Bghhc`s 17=8).

Bghhc`s‗ hgajcktgk systcds ni g`tcraktgn` arc ni hcfi`gtc vajuc. Mnwcvcr, hc Kcr-

tcau‗s rcsgsta`kc day kmajjc`bc tmc ̀ ntgn` ni rcprnhuktgn` tmat gdpjgkgtjy asscrts a rcp-

ctgtgn` ni tmc sadc. Ajsn, tmc hgiicrc`kc lctwcc` snkgaj rujcs (as a prnkcss ni càktchpraktgkc) a`h inrdujatch rujcs g` snkgcty, ly wmgkm tmcy wnujh typgkajjy lc ghc`tgfich,

gs prn`c tn kma`bc lckausc tmc càktdc`t ni praktgkc pjays a kn`stgtutgvc rnjc. Cvc`tu-

ajjy, inrdujatch rujcs brnw nut ni muda` aktgn`5 muda` aktgn` kn`stgtutcs tmc systcds

ni g`tcraktgn` tmat g` tur` knmcrc`tjy kndprgsc a strukturc. Xmgs strukturc, wmgkm rc-

sujts irnd muda` aktgn`, prnhukcs inrdujatch a`h/nr knhgfich rujcs. N`jy tmc` hncs a

hgajcktgk start, g` wmgkm càktch praktgkc (snkgaj rujcs) ka` lc a prnkcss ni g`tcrprctg`b

inrdujatch rujcs. [nkgaj rujcs arc tmc g`tcraktgn` systcds ni muda` aktgn`, a`h tmus

muda` aktgn` gs iu`hadc`taj tn lntm typcs ni rujcs, wmgjc g` càktdc`t gt day (rc)

g`tcrprct tmc sadc rujcs gt kn`stgtutch gtscji lcinrc. Lntm strukturc a`h inrdujatch rujcsarc tmus tcdpnraj a`h kma`bcaljc.

Kn`stgtutgn` a`h kma`bc appcar tn lc n`jy gdpjgkgtjy prcsc`t g` tmc hgsta`kc taec`

tnwarhs hctcrdg`gsd. Xmc tmcnrgcs hraw` ly cxgstc`tgajgsd, pmc`ndc`njnby a`h a

dnrc spckgfik appjgkatgn` ni hc Kcrtcau g`hgkatc tmat strukturc smnujh lc u`hcrstnnh

ly gts snurkc. Xmat snurkc gs kndprgsch ni aktgn`s ni g`tc`tgnàj abc`ts, aktuajjy cx-

prcssg`b tmc sadc prgdaky Bghhc`s ajjnws mgs sulockts.

Xmc prnljcd wgtm Bghhc`s‗ rujcs a`h rcstrgktgn`s gs tmat tmcy arc `nt wcjj hcfi`ch,

`nr hncs mc prnvghc tmc `ckcssary krgtcrgn` inr gdpnrta`kc, inr wmgkm mc mas lcc`

krgtgkgsch. Ajsn, mgs systcds ni g`tcraktgn` hn `nt taec g`tn akknu`t cxtcràj gùc`kcs,

jgec ntmcr snkgaj kjasscs nr ajgc` inrkcs purpnsciujjy c`tcrg`b tmc snkgaj prnkcss. Hcspgtc

tmc hgiicrc`kc tmcy dust kausc g` tmc rcprnhuktgvc dckma`gsds ni snkgcty, struktura-

tgn` rc`hcrs g`vasgvc hgsruptgn`s g`tn e`nwjchbcaljc akkndpjgsmdc`ts ni snkgaj aktgn`

(Kjnec c.a. 1771).

At a jatcr stabc Bghhc`s kn`tgùch mgs strukturatgn` nr systcds tmcnry wgtm vcry

spckgfik g`tcrcst g` tgdc a`h spakc. Mc rcknb`gsch tmat snkgaj systcds arc `nt n`jy

strukturch ly rujcs a`h rcsnurkcs, lut ajsn sgtuatch g` tgdc a`h spakc. Mgs kn`kcp-

tuajgsatgn` ni tmgs dag`jy injjnwch ahaptatgn`s a`h krgtgqucs n` tgdc-bcnbrapmy a`h




kn`kurs wgtm muda` bcnbrapmgkaj g`tcrcsts. Gt g`trnhukch `ntgn`s ni jnkajgsatgn`, rc-

bgnàjgsatgn` a`h tcdpnrajgtgcs g`tn strukturatgn`. @cvcrtmcjcss, Bghhc`s‗ kn`kcpts

`cvcr brcw kn`krctc c`nubm tn ahhrcss cdpgrgkaj prnljcds. Ajsn, gt gs abag`st tmgs

lakebrnu`h tmat tmc kn`tgùatgn`s ni bcnbrapmcrs jgec @gbcj Xmrgit a`h Ajja` Vrch

smnujh lc pjakch. Lcinrc dnvg`b n` tn Ajja` Vrch‗s wnrhs prnpcr, a smnrt rckapgtuja-

tgn` ni tmgs hcvcjnpdc`t gs bgvc` mcrc.

Bghhc`s rcajgsch tmat snkgaj aàjysgs gs lntm rcstrgktch a`h kn`stgtutch ly tgdc a`h

spakc, wmgjc snkgaj g`tcraktgn` gs kndprgsch ni prcsc`kcs a`h alsc`kcs g` tgdc-spakc.

Xgdc-spakc hgsta`kgatgn ̀nkkurs wmc` spatgaj prcsc`kc gs `n jn`bcr rcqugrch. Abc`ky

a`h strukturc tmus smnujh ajsn lc kn`kcgvch g` tcrds ni hgsta`kgatgn`, tmc cxtc`t tn

wmgkm snkgaj systcds arc g`tcbratch g` tgdc-spakc. [nkgaj g`tcbratgn` a`h systcd g`tc-

bratgn` arc rcknb`gsch as hgstg`kt jcvcjs ni g`tcbratgn`. [trukturatgn` tmcnry tmcrcinrc

lckndcs kn`kcr`ch wgtm mnw prcsc`t snkgaj g`tcraktgn` gs aiicktch ly snkgaj rcjatgn`slcjn`bg`b tn a`ntmcr tgdc a`h/nr spakc. Hgsta`kgatgn` c`tagjs strctkmg`b snkgaj rcja-

tgn`s nvcr tgdc-spakc. [nkgaj g`tcbratgn` (tmrnubm rnutg`gsatgn` ni abc`ts) a`h sys-

tcd g`tcbratgn` (tmrnubm vargaljc tgdc-spakc hgsta`kg`b) jcah tn snkgctaj g`tcbratgn`.

Xmc twn dcct g` dnhcs ni rcbgnàjgsatgn` wmgkm kma``cj a`h arc kma``cjjch ly tmc

tgdc-spakc patmways ni g`hgvghuajs a`h g`stgtutgn`s. \cbgnàjgsatgn` nkkurs n` hgiicr-

c`t skajcs a`h wgtm hgiicrc`t prnpcrtgcs as a` cxprcssgn` ni tmc strukturatgn` ni snkgaj

kn`hukt akrnss tgdc-spakc. G` kjassgiyg`b tcrds ni inrd, huratgn`, spa`, a`h kmaraktcr,

rcbgnàjgsatgn` cjukghatcs mnw tgdc-spakc rnutg`c a`h tgdc-spakc hgsta`kgatgn` kndc

tnbctmcr. \cbgnàjgsatgn` kn`tcxtuajgscs nr kapturcs muda` abc`ky as sgtuatch cvc`tsg` tgdc-spakc. Xmc prnkcsscs ni rnutg`gsatgn` a`h rcbgnàjgsatgn` wcrc usch tn kmarak-

tcrgsc partgkujar pjakcs (Kjnec c.a. 1771, Bghhc`s 17=8).

Nppnsch tn sndc krgtgkgsd, Bghhc`s mnjhs tmat dgkrn a`h dakrn skajc snkgnjnby

arc g`tcrkn``cktch g` strukturatgn`, lasgkajjy rcicrrg`b tn tmc g`tcrkn``cktgvgty ni ircc

abc`ts a`h tmc aàjysgs ni strukturaj kn`strag`ts (Bghhc`s 17=8). G` tmc sadc way,

tmc muda` bcnbrapmgkaj ahaptatgn`s a`h krgtgqucs niicr tmgs va`tabc png`t. Xmrnubm

strukturatgn` prnkcsscs, g`knrpnratg`b g`tcrkn``cktch cjcdc`ts, tmcrc gs `nt `ckcssar-

gjy a rcstrgktgn` tn strctkmg`b tmcd nvcr tgdc a`h spakc. G` tmgs sc`sc Bghhc`s‗ n`tn-

jnbgkaj pnsgtgn` gs rcpcatch, ajtmnubm mc spckgfikajjy arbuch abag`st cvnjutgnàry (as g`

strctkmg`b prnkcsscs nvcr tgdc) appjgkatgn`s. G` kn`trast, tmgs n`tnjnbgkaj pnssglgjgty gs

suldcrsgljy dag`tag`ch g` Vrch‗s tmcnry. Xmc bcnbrapmcrs hrawg`b n` Bghhc`s‗ kn`-

kcpts wcrc ̀ nt cxpjgkgtjy krgtgkaj, lut gdpjgkgtjy dnhgfich, strctkmch, a`h lc`t struktura-

tgn` sn gt wnujh fit tmcgr cdpgrgkgst hgskgpjg`c. Vrch, mnwcvcr, cxpjgkgtjy g`knrpnratcs a

tra`sinrdatgnàj datcrgaj kndpn`c`t g` mgs taec n` strukturatgn`. Xmgs daecs mgs pjakc

as mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t prnkcss spckgfikajjy g`tcrcstg`b inr arkmacnjnbgkaj purpnscs

ajsn.




Vjakc a`h tmc [nkgaj

[g`kc Vrch‗s tmcnry lugjhg`b g` Vjakc, Vraktgkc a`h [trukturc gs vcry kndprcmc`sgvcjy

kn`struktch, G kmnsc tn injjnw gts strukturc tn a jarbc cxtc`t g` tmc kndpc`hgud ni-

icrch lcjnw. Mnwcvcr, inr tmc iujj bcnbrapmgkaj akknu`t n`c gs eg`hjy rchgrcktch tn mgs

lnne, sg`kc tmc jg`c ni rcasn`g`b mcrc injjnws tmc cvc`tuaj arkmacnjnbgkaj nlocktgvcs

pursuch g` tmgs stuhy. As dc`tgn`ch lcinrc, Vrch‗s asscrtgn`s arc hccpjy cdlchhch

g` tmc `cbntgatgn` ni tmc snkgaj tmcnrctgkaj pnsgtgn` lctwcc` abc`ky a`h strukturc. G`

spgtc ni Inukaujt‗s wnre n` pnwcr a`h Lnurhgcu‗s wnre n` praktgkc lcg`b sgb`gfika`t inr

tmc lugjhg`b ni Vrch‗s tmcnry, mc dag`jy agdch inr a` g`tcbratgn` ni strukturatgn` a`h

tgdc-bcnbrapmy. Xmc rcjatgn`smgps lctwcc` strukturc a`h abc`ky wcrc kn`kcptuajgsch

as systcds g` strukturatgn`, mc`kc tmc ajtcràtgvc àdc systcds tmcnry. Xmrnubm mgs

g`tcrcst g` mgstnrgkaj bcnbrapmgcs, Vrch ratmcr sccs systcds as prnkcsscs ni lckndg`brcjatch tn tmc kn`stgtutgn` ni a pjakc. Xmc sc`sc ni pjakc mah ajrcahy lckndc a inkus

g` muda` bcnbrapmy a`h tmgs was snn` sckn`hch ly a`tmrnpnjnby.

Wu-Ig Xua` gs dag`jy rcspn`sgljc inr tmc kn`kcr` ni a sc`sc ni pjakc g` bcnbrapmy.

Mc was gùc`kch ly cxgstc`tgaj pmgjnsnpmgcs a`h Vauj Yghaj hc ja Ljakmc (Xua`

1722). [ukm a kn`kcpt ni pjakc hncs `nt injjnw tmc datcrgajjy lnu`h hcsgbàtgn`

ni pjakcs nr arcas akknrhg`b tn tmc rcscarkm n` arkmacnjnbgkaj sgtcs. Vjakcs a`h arcas

g` lntm arkmacnjnby a`h bcnbrapmy wcrc usuajjy arlgtrargjy hcdarkatch ly datcrgaj

nr bcnbrapmgkaj (ja`hskapc) icaturcs, kndprgsg`b statgk spakcs tmat arc prcicraljy

dcasuraljc ly dca`s ni vgsglgjgty. Vcnpjc wcrc tmnubmt tn rcsghc tmcrc, nr at jcastkn`sgstc`tjy daec usc ni sukm icaturcs nvcr tgdc. Xua` attrglutch tmc pcrkcptgn` ni

spakc tn tmc kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni pjakc, suppnsg`b (g`vgsgljc, gddatcrgaj) dca`g`b

tn lc askrglch tn gts kndpnsgtc icaturcs (ghcd). Kn`scquc`tjy cgtmcr kn`sgstg`b ni

cjcdc`ts, artciakts asscdljabcs, nr jnkajgsatgn`s, pjakcs hcvcjnpch g`tn statgk skc`cs

inr muda` aktgn` (Vrch 17=9). Hcspgtc tmgs stgjj u`satgsiaktnry kn`kcpt ni pjakc g`

Yghaj‗s a`h Xua`‗s `ntgn`s, `ntaljy bc`rc hc vgc a`h cxpcrgc`tgaj pjakc, part ni Vrch‗s

lasgk prg`kgpjcs arc prcsc`t.

Jnneg`b at pjakc tmrnubm tmc fijtcr ni aktgn` tmcnry, sukm hcjgdgtch spakcs smnujh lc

kn`stgtutch ly tmc kn`kcpt ni muda` aktgn`. Xmcy wnujh lc lnu`h tn tmc iu`ktgn`g`b

a`h kma`bg`b ni snkgcty g` tgdc a`h spakc, ly tmc praktgkc ni gts g`malgta`ts nr uscrs.

G` sn hng`b, tmc hcfi`gtgn` ni pjakc wnujh rcjatc tn da`y hgiicrc`t skajcs, lasgkajjy

rcprcsc`tg`b wmat spatgajjy nkkurs tmrnubm muda` aktgvgty, ratmcr tma` pmysgkaj jnkajgtgcs

g` tmc ja`hskapc. Gt wnujh `n jn`bcr lc kndprgsch ni tmc bcnbrapmgkaj icaturcs tmat

arc suppnsch tn lc kn`kcgvch g` a kcrtag` way ly gts g`malgta`ts. Vjakc lckndcs tgch tn

a rgkm kn`kcpt ni tmc aktgvgtgcs taeg`b pjakc g`stcah ni a rchuktgn` tn askrglch dca`g`b

g` statgk prc-bgvc` prnpcrtgcs. (Ki. tmc @cw Kujturaj Bcnbrapmy ni Knsbrnvc, Ha`gcjs,

Brcbnry c.a. wgtm gts kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni ja`hskapc rcscdljg`b tmgs strubbjc wgtm



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs=6

pjakc. G` @cw Kujturaj Bcnbrapmy cvc`tuajjy tmcrc gs `n truc datcrgaj ja`hskapc, lut

ja`hskapcs n`jy hcfi`ch ly tmc pcnpjc, mgstnry nr kujturc lcmg`h gt (Knsbrnvc 17=3,

Enjc` <663).) Xmc taeg`b pjakc ni pjakc, nr kn`sta`t lckndg`b ni pjakc, dnvcs away

irnd tmc statgk kn`kcpts prcvgnusjy ahmcrg`b tn gt.

Xmc g`tcrprctatgn` ni pjakc mas tn lc rcjatch tn tmc snkgcty g`malgtg`b gt a`h gts

dcdlcrs‗ g`hgvghuaj lgnbrapmgcs. Xmcsc arc, as Vrch wnujh mavc gt, ‚`cvcr g` irnzc`

statcs ni lcg`b, lut ajways a`h cvcrywmcrc g` tmc prnkcss ni ”lckndg`b‗.— (Vrch 17=9?

3) ‚Xmc asscdljabcs ni lugjhg`bs, ja`h-usc pattcr`s a`h artcrgcs ni knddu`gkatgn`

tmat kn`stgtutc pjakc as a vgsgljc skc`c ka``nt cdcrbc iujjy inrdch nut ni `ntmg`b`css

a`h stnp, brnw rgbgh, g`hcjgljy ctkmch g` tmc n`kc àturaj ja`hskapc.— (ghcd? 9) Xmgs

ajsn gdpjgcs tmat cssc`tgajjy tmcrc gs `n fixch jgdgt tn tmc bcnbrapmgkaj cxtc`t ni pjakc.

Vjakc ka` rcicr tn vgjjabcs nr dctrnpnjgscs, g`hustrgaj kndpjcxcs a`h abrgkujturaj arcas,

lut gt gs ajways a muda` prnhukt. Xmus tmc kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni pjakc gs oust as dukmtmc kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni arca nr rcbgn`, cgtmcr cxpcrgc`kch nr u`cxpcrgc`kch as a`

c`tgty ly gts g`malgta`ts (ghcd).

At tmgs stabc arkmacnjnby gs put g` a` cquajjy prnljcdatgk pnsgtgn` inr tmc rcicrc`kc

ni sgtcs tn arcas a`h pjakcs as inr tmc hcfi`gtgn` ni knddu`gty nr snkgcty. N`c ni tmc

kjcarcst pnsgtgn`s n` tmc hcsgbàtgn` ni snkgctgcs gs Varsn`s‗ prnpnsgtgn`. Mc kndlg`ch

tmc aktgn` tmcnry ni Rclcr wgtm Huremcgdga` iu`ktgnàjgsd, utgjgsg`b tmc `ntgn`s ni

snkgaj aktgn` a`h snkgaj rnjc (status). Mgs tmcnry ni snkgcty hcjgdgtch snkgcty ly tmc iu`k-

tgnàj rcjatgn`s lctwcc` gts kndpn`c`ts g` a twg` ghca ni snkgaj strukturc a`h snkgaj

iu`ktgn`. Rgtmg` Rclcr‗s snkgaj aktgn` systcds tmcrc wcrc staljc pattcr`s huc tn tmcsnkgaj rnjcs ni tmc aktnrs pcrinrdg`b g` tmcd. @nrdatgvc rujcs cdcrbch irnd tmc snkgaj

systcd ni snkgaj rnjcs, irnd wmgkm aktnrs hcvgatch g` vargnus hcbrccs. N`jy wmc` tmcrc

gs suifikgc`t kn`sc`sus n` tmc `nrdatgvc rujcs tmcrc gs a snkgaj systcd. Gi g`tcrjnkeg`b

snkgaj systcds rcakm a png`t ni snkgaj scji-suifikgc`ky, tmcy kndpnsc a snkgcty. [ukm tntaj

snkgaj systcds `cch tn mnjh ajj snkgaj aktgn` `ckcssary tn pcrsgst g`tcràjjy (Kadplcjj

17=1). Xmcrcinrc a snkgcty gs n`jy rcknb`gsch at a skajc jarbc c`nubm tn g`knrpnratc ajj

snkgaj aktgn`s ̀ ckcssary inr sustagàlgjgty. Arkmacnjnbgkajjy tmgs gs prnljcdatgk tn arbuc

inr, sg`kc snkgaj systcds aàjysch g` tcrds ni snkgaj aktgn`s `cch tn lc datcrgajgsch

tn c`h up as hgskcràljc hatascts. Xmcsc hatascts wgjj `nt smnw wmgkm cxtcràj snkgaj

rcjatgn`smgps arc `ckcssary inr tmcd tn lc snkgajjy scji-suifikgc`t. N`jy kcrtag` typcs ni

hata arc sn g`tcrprctaljc tmat tmcy dgbmt smch jgbmt n` rcjatgn`smgps lctwcc` arcas

kn`tag`g`b snkgaj systcds.

Varsn`s snubmt tn cxpjag` tmc kapakgty ni a snkgcty tn sustag` gtscji g` tcrds ni

g`tcràj lnu`hargcs, wmgkm càljc tmc cxkma`bcs `ckcssary inr pcrsgstc`kc tmrnubm

Huremcgdga` iu`ktgnàjgty (ghcd). @nt n`jy arkmacnjnbgkajjy, lut g` bc`craj gs a

snkgcty tmus rchukch tn a iu`ktgnàj nr datcrgaj jcvcj. Vnsgtg`b prgdargjy iu`ktgnàj

rcqugrcdc`ts inr scji-suifikgc`ky rcsujts g` a kmaraktcrgsatgn` ni snkgcty ly skajc ratmcr



Vrnkcsscs ni Lckndg`b =1

tma` snkgaj aspckts. Wct pcrsgstg`b snkgaj hyàdgks day ajrcahy nkkur at sdajj-skajc

bcnbrapmgkaj arcas. G` a bcnbrapmgkajjy hcjgdgtch arca a systcd day ajrcahy nkkur at

a vcry sdajj skajc.

G` kn`trast, Vrch arbucs tmat tmc partgkgpatg`b aktnrs g` tmc lckndg`b ni pjakc ka`-

`nt lc vgcwch g` gsnjatch rnjcs a`h g`sta`kcs. \atmcr, tmcy arc g`tcbratch muda` lcg`bs

tmat arc nlockts a`h sulockts at n`kc. Xmus tmcy arc `nt rchukch tmrnubm status a`h

iu`ktgnàjgsd. Xmnubmts, aktgn`s a`h cxpcrgc`kcs arc ajj sgdujta`cnus, as wcjj as tmcgr

rcjatgn` tn tmcgr nw` datcrgaj kn`tgùgty g` ahhgtgn` tn tmc àturaj a`h muda`-dahc

nlockts tmat arc usch g` tgdc-spakc spckgfik praktgkcs. Mgs abc`ts arc pjuraj tgdc-spakc

spckgfik prnkcss partgkgpa`ts (Vrch 17=9). G` Vrch‗s kn`kcpt ni pjakc tmc pnssglgjgty ni

tmc g`tcrkn``cktgvgty ni systcds at lntm sdajj a`h jarbc skajcs gs dag`tag`ch. @cvcrtmc-

jcss, huc tn tmc g`cvgtaljc scjcktgvc àturc ni nur rcscarkm, tmc snkgaj systcds tmcnrgsch

at arkmacnjnbgkaj sgtcs wgjj dnrc rcahgjy ajjnw gìcrc`kc ni a knddu`gty tma` snkgctywmgkm gs tgch tn a spakc. Xmc typc ni spakc u`hcr g`vcstgbatgn` wgjj dnrc casgjy pcrtag`

tn vgjjabcs nr prnhuktgn` arcas tma` rcbgn`s. Wct tmc tmcnrctgkaj npc`-c`hch`css, lntm

tcdpnrajjy a`h bcnbrapmgkajjy, ajjnws dnrc tmnrnubm kn`tcxtuajgsatgn` g` tmcgr g`tcr-

kn``cktch prnkcssgvc c`vgrn`dc`ts. G` ahhgtgn`, as sagh lcinrc, Vrch g`knrpnratcs a

inrdatgvc g`tcraktgn` wgtm nur pmysgkaj surrnu`hg`bs. Xmgs g`tcraktgn` gs `nt sg`bujar

jgec Varsn`s‗ iu`ktgnàjgsd, lut pjuraj a`h aktgn`-spckgfik g`stcah. Xn iujjy brasp tmcsc

bjgdpscs g`tn tmc tmcnrctgkaj gdpjgkatgn`s ni Vrch‗s arbudc`ts, wc ̀ cch tn first bn lake

tn asscss gts kn`stgtutgvc cjcdc`ts.

Vjakc lcyn`h [trukturatgn`

At tmc lasgs Vrch tmcnrgscs a` g`tcrwnvc` rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` tmc g`hgvghuaj a`h

snkgcty wmgkm jca`s mcavgjy n` tmc cdlrakc ni strukturatgn` g` tmc snkgaj skgc`kcs. Gt

iu`hadc`tajjy kn`kcr`s tmc u`g`tcrruptch hgajcktgk rcprnhuktgn` a`h tra`sinrdatgn` nr

dnhgfikatgn` ni icaturcs jgec abc`ky a`h strukturc, tmrnubm tmc npcratgn` ni (mgstnrgkaj)

strukturatgn` prnkcsscs. G` strukturatgn`, Vrch mnjhs, strukturc usuajjy cxgsts n`jy as

strukturaj prnpcrtgcs wmgkm cxprcss tmcdscjvcs tmrnubm tmc npcratgn` ni rnutg`c a`h

`n`-rnutg`c hagjy praktgkcs, sgdujta`cnusjy bc`cratg`b, rcprnhukg`b a`h tra`sinrdg`b

tmnsc strukturaj prnpcrtgcs ni tmc snkgaj systcd (Vrch 17=9, ki. Bghhc`s 17=8). G` nrhcr

tn kjcarjy statc mgs pcrspcktgvc n` tmgs, Vrch prnvghcs us wgtm mgs nw` hcfi`gtgn` ni snkgaj

strukturc . Mc strcsscs tmat snkgaj strukturc gs kndprgsch ni bc`cratgvc rujcs a`h pnwcr

rcjatgn`s wmgkm arc ajrcahy lugjt g`tn a spckgfik mgstnrgkaj a`h muda` bcnbrapmgkaj

sgtuatgn` nr snkgaj systcd. \ujcs a`h pnwcr hn `nt n`jy kn`strag` a`h càljc, lut

ajsn cdcrbc nut ni muda` abc`ky a`h praktgkc. \ujcs arc jcar`ch a`h muda`jy

prnhukch, sn kn`tcxts hctcrdg`c aktgvgty a`h lcmavgnur g` partgkujar. Hcpc`hg`b n`

tmcgr tcdpnraj a`h spatgaj cxtc`ts, strukturatgn` prnkcsscs day sgdujta`cnusjy nkkur



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs=<

n` dujtgpjc (spatgaj) jcvcjs (Vrch 17=9).

Vrch‗s hcfi`gtgn` ni snkgaj strukturc ajrcahy rcvcajs mgs spckgfik kn`kcr` wgtm tmc

lckndg`b ni strukturc a`h tmc mgstnrgk bcnbrapmgkaj sgtuatgn`s gt gs kn`tag`ch g`. Mc

g`kjuhcs kn`kcpts ni tra`sinrdatgn` a`h kma`bc, kausch ly abc`ky a`h praktgkc tmat

bc`cratc sukm strukturcs. Cxgstg`b snkgaj a`h bcnbrapmgkaj sgtuatgn`s arc g`trg`sgkaj-

jy kn``cktch tn inrdatgvc prnkcsscs. Xmgs rcpcats a bcnbrapmgkaj nr spatgaj jgè tn

tmc snkgaj tmat ajrcahy ruhgdc`targjy mah lcc` dahc ly tmc stuhy ni a`tmrnpnjnbgkaj

prnxcdgks a`h tmc scttg`b ni tcrrgtnrgcs (C. X. Majj 1737, 179=, <669). Vrnxcdgks hgh

`nt typgkajjy inkus n` tmc prnkcssgvc rcjatgn`s tmat bc`cratc tcrrgtnrgajgty, lut sgdgjarjy

snubmt a` cxpjaàtgn` hcpartg`b irnd tmc g`hgvghuaj g` a snkgaj kn`tcxt. Rmgjc a`tmrn-

pnjnby nlscrvch rcaj tgdc (dgkrn jcvcj) aktgn`s wgtm prnxcdgks, Vrch‗s strukturatgn`

hgrcktjy kn``ckts tmnsc tn tmcgr càljg`b a`h rcstrgktg`b kn`hgtgn`s, puttg`b sukm aktgv-

gty g` a tcdpnrajjy strctkmch mgstnrgkaj sgtuatgn` g` wmgkm tmcy mavc lckndc praktgkcs(dakrn jcvcj). Xmc mgstnrgk bcnbrapmgkaj sgtuatgn`s kn`tag`g`b strukturcs tgc tmc rcaj

(snkgaj) tgdc tn c`jarbch tcdpnrajgtgcs ni alstrakt tgdc. Lntm aktgn`s as cvc`ts a`h cx-

gstg`b snkgaj nr bcnbrapmgkaj sgtuatgn`s arc g`hgvgsgljc parts ni bc`cratgvc prnkcsscs (ki.

G`bnjh 17=9, <666 n` taseskapcs a`h tcdpnrajgtgcs, a`h tmc A`àjcs [kmnnj).

Vrch rcknb`gscs tmat tmc rcjatgnàj cjcdc`ts npcratg`b g` strukturatgn` prnkcsscs

arc pnsg`b a hgifikujty tn snkgaj skgc`tgsts lckausc tmcy arc tmcnrgsch g` a kn`kcptuaj

da``cr tmat ka``nt lc tcstch injjnwg`b tmc bc`crajjy cdpgrgkgst dctmnhnjnby

ni wcstcr` skgc`kc. Xmcsc prnkcssgvc rcjatgnàj cjcdc`ts arc `cgtmcr vgsgljc `nr

dcasuraljc. Mnwcvcr, dnst strukturatgn`gsts hn apprckgatc tmat snkgaj aktgvgtgcs a`hpraktgkcs lckndc kn`krctc as tgdc-spakc g`tcraktgn`s. Xmus tmc strukturatgn` ni snkgaj

systcds nkkurs g` tgdc-spakc. Xmrnubm rcknb`gsg`b tmc tgdc-spakc rcjatgnàj kmaraktcr

ni muda` g`tcraktgn`, sndc ni tmc prnkcssgvc rcjatgn`s day lckndc apparc`t ly

aàjysgs n` a snkgajjy tntajgsg`b jcvcj. [trukturatgn`gsts arbug`b inr tmgs rcajgsatgn` ni

strukturatgn` prnkcsscs g` tgdc-spakc spckgfik praktgkcs arc nitc` krgtgkgsch inr `nt

lcg`b aljc tn ghc`tgiy cxaktjy mnw tmcsc praktgkcs arc sgdujta`cnusjy rnntch g` tmc

past a`h a pntc`tgaj lasgs inr iuturc tgdc-spakc sgtuatgn`s. Xmcy hn `nt hcdn`stratc

mnw tmc iu`ktgn`g`b a`h rcprnhuktgn` ni snkgaj systcds gs kn``cktch tn tmc tgdc-

spakc spckgfik aktgn`s a`h lgnbrapmgcs ni g`hgvghuajs, `nr tn tmc tgdc-spakc nw ni

strukturatgn` prnkcsscs. As subbcstch, tmcsc prnljcds ka` lc pjakch g` tmc kn`tcxt ni

hcajg`bs wgtm snkgaj a`h sulocktgvc tgdc as hgskussch g` tmc first kmaptcr. Vrch kn`tc`hs

tmat tgdc-bcnbrapmy g`knrpnratcs iu`hadc`tajs tmat day nvcrkndc tmcsc prnljcds

ni strukturatgn` tmcnry (ki. Bghhc`s 17=8), cspckgajjy ly g`tcbratg`b mgs nw` ahaptch

kn`kcpts ni patm a`h prnockt tmat wcrc nrgbgàjjy g`trnhukch ly Mèbcrstra`h (Vrch

17=9).

G` tgdc-bcnbrapmy tmc kn`kcpt ni patm gs hcfi`ch as tmc kn`sckutgvc aktgn`s a`h

cvc`ts daeg`b up a` g`hgvghuaj‗s cxgstc`kc g` tgdc a`h spakc. Xmcrcinrc tmc lgnbrapmy



Vrnkcsscs ni Lckndg`b =;

ni a` g`hgvghuaj ka` lc kn`kcptuajgsch as a kn`tgùnus jgic-patm tmrnubm tgdc-spakc

nvcr a`y huratgn` skajc, sulockt tn vargnus kn`strag`ts. @aturaj pmc`ndcà, artciakts

a`h ntmcr jgvg`b krcaturcs ka` lc sgdgjarjy kn`kcptuajgsch. Xmc kn`kcpt ni prnockt gs

hcfi`ch as tmc scrgcs ni tases ̀ ckcssary tn g`tc`tgnàjjy rcakm a bnaj. Cakm ni tmcsc tases

gs cquaj tn a knupjg`b ni patms ni twn nr dnrc pcnpjc nr ni n`c nr dnrc pcrsn`s, a`h

n`c nr dnrc rcsnurkcs nr ta`bgljc g`puts g` tgdc a`h spakc. Vrnockts ka` lc g`hgvghuaj

nr g`stgtutgnàj, tmc jattcr g`vnjvg`b dnrc pcnpjc partgkgpatg`b tn akmgcvc a` c`h. Xmc

praktgkc ni tgdc-bcnbrapmy mas prnhukch vargnus typcs ni tgdc-spakc hgabrads wmgkm

hcpgkt tmc npcratgn` ni patms a`h prnockts (ghcd). Vrch‗s kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni par-

tgkgpatnry sulockts ka` lc kn``cktch tn tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj lg-gdpjgkatgn` (da` gs

tcdpnraj a`h spatgaj). G`bnjh ajsn cdpjnych a rcfi`ch ghca ni partgkgpatgn` g` wmgkm mc

saw jcar`g`b a`h akkujturatgn` as a partgkgpatnry prnkcss. Xmgs gdpjgcs tmat lntm tmc

sulockt a`h tmc prnkcss (mcrc tmc prnockt mc partgkgpatcs g`) arc dutuajjy aiicktch lypartgkgpatgn` (G`bnjh <666).

BC@\C[ HC YGC A@H [NKGAJ\CV\NHSKXGN@• [patgaj a`h snkgaj hgvgsgn`

ni jalnur (prnhuktgn` a`hhgstrglutgn`)

• [chgdc`tatgn` ni ntmcrkujturaj a`h snkgaj inrds

LGNB\AVMW IN\DAXGN@ A@H[NKGAJG[AXGN@• Ja`buabc akqugsgtgn`• Vcrsnàjgty hcvcjnpdc`t• Hcvcjnpdc`t ni

kn`skgnus`css

X\A@[IN\DAXGN@ NI @AXS\C

L c k n d c n ` c a ` n t m c r

G@XC\[CKXGN@ NI G@HGYGHSAJVAXM[ A@H G@[XGXSXGN@AJV\NOCKX[ (V\AKXGKC)

C[XALJG[MDC@X,\CV\NHSKXGN@ A@HX\A@[IN\DAXGN@ NI VNRC\\CJAXGN@[ ([X\SKXS\C)

L c k n d c n ` c a ` n t m c r

Nkkur sgdujta`cnusjy

Xaljc 1, rcprnhukch aitcr Vrch 17=9? 11

G` nrhcr tn càljc tmc g`tcbratgn` ni patms a`h prnockts g`tn strukturatgn` tmcnry, Vrch

rcbarhs tmc assudptgn` tmat cakm kn`stgtutgvc g`stgtutgn` ni snkgcty hncs ̀ nt cxgst apart

irnd tmc jn`b nr smnrt tcrd prnockts gt bc`cratcs as g`hgspc`saljc. Xmus, lckausc g`-

stgtutgn`s arc prnockt lnu`h, a`h prnockts rcqugrc muda` partgkgpatgn`, ‚tmc hctagjch

sgtuatgn`s a`h datcrgaj kn`tgùgty ni g`tcrpc`ctratg`b strukturatgn` prnkcsscs arc pcr-

pctuajjy spcjjch nut ly tmc g`tcrscktgn` ni partgkujar g`hgvghuaj patms wgtm partgkujar g`-




stgtutgnàj prnockts nkkurrg`b at spckgfik tcdpnraj a`h spatgaj jnkatgn`s. U…T Xmc` pjakc

as mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t prnkcss gs g`scparaljc irnd tmc cvcryhay uìnjhg`b a`h g`-

tcrpc`ctratgn` ni strukturatgn` prnkcsscs g` pjakc. Vjakc gs tmcrcinrc sy`n`ydnus wgtm

strukturatgn` U…T prnkcsscs wmcrcly tmc rcprnhuktgn` ni snkgaj a`h kujturaj inrds,

tmc inrdatgn` ni lgnbrapmgcs a`h tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc kcascjcssjy lckndc

n`c a`ntmcr. [gdujta`cnusjy, pjakc gs sy`n`ydnus wgtm strukturg`b prnkcsscs wmcrcly

tgdc-spakc spckgfik aktgvgtgcs a`h pnwcr rcjatgn`s kcascjcssjy lckndc n`c a`ntmcr.—

(Vrch 17=9? 16-11) Xmgs kndpjcx tmcnrctgkaj inu`hatgn` gs suddargsch g` Vrch‗s knd-

prcmc`sgvc skmcda (taljc 1, `ntc tmc usc ni bc`rcs hc vgc mcrc), wmgkm g` gtscji gs a

vajualjc kn`trglutgn` tn lntm tgdc-bcnbrapmy a`h strukturatgn` tmcnry.

Xmc vgsuajgsatgn` mas tmc ciickt tmat ajj sgdujta`cnus rcjatgn`smgps ni pcrpctuaj lc-

kndg`b arc kjcarjy vgsgljc at n`kc, wmcrcas hcskrgptgn`s wnujh strubbjc tn kapturc gts

iujj kndpjcxgty. Xmc (vargaljc) kndpn`c`ts a`h (akknrhg`b) prnkcsscs ni tmc tmcn-rctgkaj skmcda arc jarbcjy u`gvcrsaj inr a`y scttjch pjakc, lut tmcgr g`tcrkn``cktch`css

hgiicrs akknrhg`b tn tmcgr (u`gquc) mgstnrgkaj sgtuatgn`s. Xmc prnkcsscs a`h prnpcrtgcs

g`vnjvch arc hcrgvch irnd strukturatgn`, wmgjc tmc patms a`h (g`stgtutgnàj) prnockts

nrgbgàtch g` tgdc-bcnbrapmy a`h arc kndprgsch ni kn`sckutgvc tgdc-spakc spckgfik

aktgvgtgcs a`h praktgkcs. Xmc jnkajjy prcsc`t tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs arc kn`strag`g`b a`h

càljg`b pnssgljc aktgvgtgcs. Mc strn`bjy strcsscs tmat tmcsc iu`hadc`ts ni tmc tmcnry

smnujh `nt lc scc` as partgkujargst nr cdpgrgkgst, lut ratmcr gìnrd rcscarkm qucstgn`s

inr g`qugrgcs g`tn rcaj sgtuatgn`s g` aktuaj scttjch pjakcs a`h rcbgn`s (ki. Rclcr‗s ap-

prnakm kn`trastg`b ghcaj typcs abag`st aktuaj sgtuatgn`s) (ghcd). Vrch‗s asscrtgn`s arca` aprgnrgstgk way ni skgc`tgfik rcasn`g`b, dukm jgec vn` Dgscs‗ Muda` Aktgn`.

Xnwarhs Vjakc as Mgstnrgkajjy Kn`tg`bc`t Vrnkcss

G`stgtutgnàj prnockts hndgàtc tmcgr partgkgpa`ts g` a kcrtag` pjakc g` twn ways. Igrstjy

ly tmc hcda`hs tmcy daec nvcr tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs, a`h tmcrcinrc wmat gs hnaljc

a`h e`nwaljc inr tmc partgkgpa`ts. [ckn`hjy, tmcy aiickt tmc hagjy a`h jgic-patms ni

spckgfik pcnpjc, gùc`kg`b g`hgvghuaj kn`skgnus hcvcjnpdc`t. Ly lcg`b hndgà`t

tmcy strukturc hagjy patms tmrnubm tmc prgnrgty tmcy mavc nvcr ntmcr g`stgtutgnàj a`h

g`hcpc`hc`t prnockts. Inr gts partgkgpa`ts sgdpjy appjgcs tmat ly knddgttg`b tn a`

g`stgtutgnàj prnockt tmcy ka``nt partgkgpatc g` a`y ntmcr aktgvgty at tmc sadc tgdc g`

a`ntmcr spakc, `cgtmcr ka` tmcy hn a`ytmg`b lcinrc nr aitcr tmat prnockt, wmgkm gs nut

ni tmc rcakm g` travcj tgdc, `nr partgkgpatc g` a`y prnockt tmat (partgajjy) kn`kurs wgtm

tmat prnockt. G`stgtutgnàj prnkcsscs ajsn akknu`t inr tmc dnst gdpnrta`t patm-prnockt

g`tcrscktgn`s wgtmg` jnkaj strukturatgn` prnkcsscs. Xmcy arc tmc nutkndc a`h snurkc ni

tmc dnst sgb`gfika`t jnkaj strukturaj prnpcrtgcs a`h snkgaj rcjatgn`s huc tn tmcgr pnsgtgn`

g` tmnsc strukturatgn` prnkcsscs. Nitc`tgdcs tmc hndgà`t g`stgtutgnàj prnockts arc




rcjatch tn jnkaj datcrgaj prnhuktgn` a`h hgstrglutgn`, as `ckcssary kn`hgtgn`s inr snkgaj

a`h ckn`ndgk jgic. @cvcrtmcjcss, `nt g` ajj kujturcs hn prnhuktgn` a`h hgstrglutgn`

partgkujarjy hctcrdg`c snkgaj jgic nr mgstnry (Vrch 17=9).

Vrnhuktgn` a`h hgstrglutgn` prnockts arc tmc rcsujt ni tmc tgdc-spakc nw ni struk-

turatgn` prnkcsscs at vargnus skajcs. Ajsn, tmcy g`vnjvc a spatgaj a`h snkgaj hgvgsgn` ni

jalnur, wmgkm gs usuajjy knnrhgàtch ly a jnkaj hckgsgn`-daecr nr a`y autmnrgty fiburc

mnjhg`b sndc pnwcr rcjatgn` tn tmc jnkajgty ni jalnur (usuajjy pjakc-spckgfik). Xmc hc-

kgsgn`s ni sukm pnwcr mnjhcrs arc `nt c`tgrcjy spn`ta`cnus, lut abag` hcpc`hc`t n`

tmcgr nw` tgdc-spakc spckgfik lgnbrapmgcs (jgic-patms). Xmcy arc kn``cktch tn tcdpnraj

a`h spatgaj hctagjs ni tmcgr nw` partgkgpatgn` g` jnkaj strukturatgn` prnkcsscs. Xmc snkgaj

hgvgsgn` ni jalnur da`gicstch g` tmc spatgaj hgvgsgn` ni jalnur gs hccpjy rnntch g` tmc mgs-

tnrgkaj spckgfik brnups wgtmg` a pjakc wmgkm mavc càktch tmc praktgkc-snkgaj strukturc

hgajcktgk. Xmc way prnockt partgkgpa`ts wgjj karry nut sukm prnockts hcpc`hs n` tmcgrpraktgkaj e`nwjchbc, pmysgkaj segjj a`h rccxgvc rcasn`g`b upn` partgkgpatgn` g` ntmcr

g`stgtutgnàj prnockts. Cvc`tuajjy appjgcs tmat ‚jnkatgnàj hckgsgn`s arc tra`sinrdch g`tn

spatgaj hgstrglutgn`s, wmgjc spatgaj hgstrglutgn`s arc tra`sinrdch g`tn jnkatgnàj hckg-

sgn`s.— (Vrch 17=9? 18) G` dnst dnhcr` nr jarbc skajc ckn`ndgcs, jnkaj prnhuktgn` a`h

hgstrglutgn` prnockts arc kn``cktch tn tmc hgajcktgk ni dakrn-jcvcj strukturatgn` prnk-

csscs. Xmgs dakrn-jcvcj ka` gùc`kc tmc jnkaj sgtuatgn`s ly daeg`b g`vcstdc`ts, wmgkm

arc ajsn hcpc`hc`t n` tmc lgnbrapmgcs a`h past partgkgpatgn` ni hckgsgn`-daecrs. Hc-

spgtc hgiicrc`t skajar gùc`kcs g` tmc hgvgsgn` ni jalnur, gt gs ajways pnssgljc tmat tmcrc

arc g`cxgljc jgdgts tn tmc adnu`t ni prnockt partgkgpa`ts a` arca ka` suppnrt. Xmgslasgkajjy dca`s tmat tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs rcstrgkt nr c`jarbc tmc ùdlcr ni jgvcjgmnnh

pnsgtgn`s wgtmg` a` arca, wmgkm ka` kausc cgtmcr gddgbratgn` nr cdgbratgn` (ghcd).

Vrnhuktgn` a`h hgstrglutgn` prnockts, g` ahhgtgn` tn tmc jgdgtatgn`s gdpnsch ly àturaj

tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs rcsujtg`b irnd lgnjnbgkaj ̀ cchs, a`h hcspgtc tmcgr vargalgjgty g` ajj

pjakcs, arc a u`gvcrsaj kn`hgtgn`g`b at tmcgr cjcdc`tary jcvcj. [ukm hndgà`t prnockts

arc a rcqugrcdc`t inr lgnjnbgkaj a`h pjakc spckgfik snkgaj sustagàlgjgty.

Xmc lrag` a`h lnhy ajjnw c`nrdnus vargcty g` tmc aktgvgtgcs pnssgljc wgtmg` a pjakc,

kausg`b kjcar hgstg`ktgn`s cvc` wgtmg` tmc sadc kujturc nr knu`try. [tgjj tmcrc arc ajways

oust a icw hndgà`t (prnhuktgn` a`h hgstrglutgn`) prnockts nr hcvga`t kujturaj a`h

snkgaj inrds inu`h wgtmg` a`y arca. G`cvgtaljy, cvcryhay praktgkcs arc kn`strag`ch a`h

càljch ly tmc pcrpctuaj hgajcktgk lctwcc` tmnsc praktgkcs a`h strukturaj prnpcrtgcs.

Xmcrc gs a kndparatgvcjy sdajj scjcktgn` ni ntmcr aktgvgtgcs karrgch nut adn`b pjakc

g`malgta`ts, wmgkm ka` lc rcbarhch as a kndpjcx schgdc`tatgn` ni ntmcr strukturatgn`

prnkcsscs. Xmcsc aktgvgtgcs smnujh ̀ nt lc scc` as mgstnrgkajjy a`h kujturajjy hctcrdg`ch,

nr inrkch ly tmc `cchs ni a snkgaj systcd. Xmcrc arc da`y, yct darbgàj, ways g` wmgkm

sukm strukturg`b prnkcsscs kn`strag` a`h càljc partgkujar kujturaj a`h snkgaj inrds

cxprcssch g` a pjakc (ghcd).




Xmc first gdpnrta`t kn`strag`t kn`sgsts ni tmc tcdpnraj rcsnurkcs avagjaljc tn cgtmcr

g`hgvghuajs nr knjjcktgvcs at a pjakc nvcr a`y huratgn` ni tgdc. N`kc tmc tgdc spc`t

n` pmysgnjnbgkajjy g`cvgtaljc aktgvgtgcs a`h n` hndgà`t prnockts gs sultraktch, n`jy

a jgdgtch ùdlcr ni ntmcr typcs ni snkgaj g`tcraktgn` nr kujturaj praktgkcs tmat ka` lc

karrgch nut ly tmc pnpujatgn` ni a pjakc rcdag`. Xmc hcda`h n` tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs

ni ntmcr aktgvgtgcs rcsujts g` cgtmcr tmc dnhgfikatgn` nr hgskarhg`b ni cxgstg`b aktgvgtgcs,

nr tmc daeg`b ni dnrc tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs gi pnssgljc. Xmc sckn`h kn`strag`t gs ja`-

buabc. Ja`buabc gs kujturajjy arlgtrary a`h kn`strag`s a`h càljcs tmc aktgvgtgcs wgtmg`

a pjakc, prnvghg`b a inu`hatgn` inr patm-prnockt g`tcrscktgn`s nr e`nwjchbc-hcpc`h-

c`t g`hgvghuaj partgkgpatgn`, g.c. gt kn`hgtgn`s tmc knddu`gkatgn` ni aktgvgtgcs. Ajsn, gt

gs tmc dca`s inr g`tc`tgn`, aiicktg`b ghcnjnbgcs a`h snkgaj hndgàtgn`. Gts akqugsgtgn`

gs hcpc`hc`t n` tgdc-spakc spckgfik prnockt partgkgpatgn`s. ‚Xmus U…T tmc jgdgts ni a

pnpujatgn`‗s ja`buabc dca` tmc jgdgts ni tmcgr pjakc (nr tmc prnockts tmcy ka` hcfi`ca`h partgkgpatc g`) at tmc sadc tgdc as tmc jgdgts ni tmcgr pjakc dca` tmc jgdgts ni tmcgr

ja`buabc (nr tmc wnrhs a`h ntmcr jg`bugstgk cjcdc`ts tmcy ka` akqugrc).— (Vrch 17=9?

12) Xmc kn`strag`ts ja`buabc mnjhs nvcr pjakc arc `nt statgk, `nr gs tmc kn`strag`t ni

pjakc nvcr ja`buabc, lckausc ja`buabc gs g` tmc kn`sta`t prnkcss ni lckndg`b, oust

jgec tmc g`hgvghuaj (ghcd). N`c ka` gdabg`c ntmcr ways ni knddu`gkatg`b lcsghcs

ja`buabc. Xmc eg`hs ni muda` knddu`gkatgvc aktgvgty (nr Vrgdary Dcssabc [ystcds)

hcvcjnpch ly C. X. Majj inr prnxcdgks day lc mcjpiuj mcrc (C. X. Majj 1737). Vcrmaps gt

wnujh lc lcttcr tn say tmat tmc kn`strag`t gs n` tmc algjgty tn knddu`gkatc aktgvgtgcs

ratmcr tma` tn àrrnw gt hnw` tn ja`buabc, wmgkm ajsn npc`s up dnrc pjakc spckgfikskc`cs inr g`tcraktgn`.

Xmc kn`strag`t ni e`nwjchbc akqugsgtgn` gs hcpc`hc`t n` tmc schgdc`tch array ni

kujturaj nr snkgaj praktgkcs wmgkm hctcrdg`c wmat e`nwjchbc gs avagjaljc a`h usaljc

jnkajjy a`h `n`jnkajjy. Ni knursc, tmat avagjalgjgty ni e`nwjchbc ajsn kn`strag`s a`h

càljcs ̀ cw praktgkcs mcrc. ”@nt e`nwg`b‗ wgjj kn`strag` kujturaj a`h snkgaj prnockts at

a pjakc. [gdpjy put, hng`b a`h e`nwg`b arc hgajcktgkajjy g`tcrtwg`ch (Vrch 17=9). As

wgjj lc hgskussch lcjnw, tmgs gs a ratmcr àrrnw kn`kcpt ni e`nwjchbc. Gt knujh lc c`-

rgkmch ly g`knrpnratg`b tmc dnrc tmnrnubm ghcas kn`tag`ch g` pmc`ndc`njnby. Vrch

bncs n` wgtm tmc ckn`ndgkajjy a`h snkgajjy kn`strag`g`b a`h càljg`b pnsgtgn` tmat

cvcry rcsghc`t fijjs g` rcjatgn` tn rcsnurkcs. Xmgs ajjnws nr g`mglgts partgkgpatgn` g` assnkg-

atch prnockts lcsghcs prnhuktgn` a`h hgstrglutgn`. Ckn`ndgk a`h snkgaj pnsgtgn`s arc

hgajcktgkajjy g`tcrtwg`ch wgtm spckgfik hndgà`t g`stgtutgnàj knddgtdc`ts, ja`buabc

kapalgjgtgcs a`h e`nwjchbc5 g` ntmcr wnrhs, wgtm tmc ntmcr kn`strag`ts (ghcd).

Mavg`b hgskussch ajj tmcsc typcs ni kn`strag`ts, Vrch says tmat gt wnujh aktuajjy

lc dnrc knrrckt tn spcae ni bcnbrapmgkajjy a`h mgstnrgkajjy spckgfik pnwcr rcjatgn`s

lctwcc` g`hgvghuajs, knjjcktgvcs a`h g`stgtutgn`s wmc` kn`kcr`ch wgtm rcsnurkc lasch

kn`strag`ts a`h càljg`b kn`hgtgn`s. Kn`kcptuajgsch as strukturaj pnwcr rcjatgn`s,




tmcy wgjj stgjj lc sgb`gfika`tjy gùc`kch ly praktgkc, wmgjst gùc`kg`b praktgkc gtscji

(ghcd).

A iurtmcr cssc`tgaj kndpn`c`t smapg`b pjakc as a mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t prnkcss

gs tmc inrdatgn` ni lgnbrapmgcs. Xmrnubm tmc jcvcj ni g`hgvghuaj lgnbrapmy inrdatgn`

tmc datcrgaj kn`tgùgty ni strukturatgn` prnkcsscs lckndcs dnst apparc`t. A pcrsn`‗s

lgnbrapmy gs wmcrc tmg`bs jgec tmc akqugsgtgn` ni ja`buabc, hcvcjnpdc`t ni pcrsnàjgty,

a pnssgljy artgkujatch ghcnjnby (ghcnjnby g` Vrch‗s sc`sc appcars pcrsnàjgsch a`h ghc-

ajgsch), a`h kn`skgnus`css hcvcjnp. ‚Xmc inrdatgn` ni g`hgvghuaj lgnbrapmgcs lcstnws

kn`tgùgty upn` strukturatgn` lckausc g` trakg`b nut mgs nr mcr u`lrnec` patm a pcr-

sn` `cgtmcr c`knu`tcrs scparatc g`stgtutgnàj prnockts `nr ”g`hcpc`hc`tjy‗ u`hcrtaecs

prnockts nutsghc ni a` g`stgtutgnàj kn`tcxt g` a hgsong`tch nr u`kn``cktch da``cr.—

(Vrch 17=9? 1=-17) Xmc inrdatgn` ni g`hgvghuaj lgnbrapmgcs npcratcs a`h prnbrcsscs

tmrnubm tgdc-spakc irnd prnockt tn prnockt ly twn hgajcktgks (ghcd).Igrstjy ly tmc hgajcktgk lctwcc` g`tcràj dc`taj aktgvgty a`h cxtcràj pmysgkaj ak-

tgn`? `n cxtcràj pmysgkaj aktgn` gs pnssgljc wgtmnut rcqugrg`b g`tcràj dc`taj aktgvgty

first. @cxt, cxtcràj aktgn` rcsujts g` g`tcràj dc`taj aktgvgty. [ulscquc`tjy, g`tcràj

dc`taj aktgvgty gs g`trgkatcjy lasch n` past cxpcrgc`kc, e`nwjchbc akqugrch tmrnubm

prcvgnus prnockt partgkgpatgn`. ‚Cxtcràj pmysgkaj aktgn` ajways g`vnjvcs knìrn`tatgn`

wgtm spckgfik c`vgrn`dc`taj cjcdc`ts, pcrsnàj kn`takts, gùc`kcs nr gìnrdatgn` g`

bc`craj, as wcjj as cdntgn` tmat ntmcrwgsc wnujh `nt mavc lcc` pcrsnàjjy nr knjjck-

tgvcjy cxpcrgc`kch. Wct, tmc ahhgtgn` ni cxtcràj pmysgkaj aktgn`s tn a` g`hgvghuaj‗s patm

rcqugrcs g`tcràj dc`taj aktgvgty? scji-rccktgn`, tmc rcknb`gtgn` ni dca`g`biuj nlockt-cdlchhch knhcs, tmc pcrinrda`kc ni praktgkaj rcasn`g`b, tmc inrdatgn`s ni g`tc`tgn`s

nr u`kn`skgnus bnajs, tmc gdabgàtgvc krcatgn` ni `cw prnockt pnssglgjgtgcs nr tmc dae-

g`b ni kmngkcs lctwcc` `cw nr ajrcahy cxgstg`b prnockt ajtcràtgvcs tmat hn `nt vgnjatc

lasgk tgdc-spakc kn`strag`ts.— (Vrch 17=9? 17) Xmgs cxtc`sgvc rcdare g`kjuhcs da`y

kndpjcx aspckts ni g`hgvghuaj hckgsgn`-daeg`b a`h cxpcrgc`kc. Wct gt gs gdpnrta`t tn

`ntc tmat Vrch hgrckts mgs attc`tgn` dag`jy tn a pcrsn`‗s mgstnry (ni tgdc-spakc spckgfik

prnockt partgkgpatgn`), wmgkm scrvcs as a lasgs inr ajj kn`scquc`tgaj pnssglgjgtgcs. Abag` gt

hcdn`stratcs a àrrnw kn`kcptgn` ni tmc muda` dg`h a`h cxpcrgc`kc g` kndpargsn`

tn pmc`ndc`njnby, ̀ ntaljy [kmútz‗s kn`stgtutgvc kn`kcpts (Kadplcjj 17=1, Kjnec c.a.

1771). Hcspgtc tmgs jake ni pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj ahva`kcs, mc hcfi`gtcjy gìcrs dnrc tma`

prnxcdgks knujh dcrcjy n` tmc lasgs ni nlscrvatgn`. Ajtmnubm tmcrc dust lc tmc sadc

hgajcktgk wg`hnw lctwcc` pmysgkajgty a`h snkgajgty, n`jy tmc cxtcràj aktgvgty ka` lc

nlscrvch. Mnwcvcr, prnxcdgks prcsuppnscs tmat tcrrgtnrgajgty nkkurs tmrnubm a kausaj

rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` aktnrs‗ aktgn`s, wmgkm rcqugrcs sndc dc`taj asscssdc`t ni tmc

prcvgnus rcsujtg`b g` hgsta`kc scttg`b (C. X. Majj 179=, <669). Vrch ajsn kn`tgùcs mgs

arbudc`ts g`tn tmc rcajd ni ”g`hcpc`hc`t‗ pcrsnàj prnockts, wmgkm satgsiy tmc wa`ts

a`h `cchs tmat ka` lc aiicktch ly kujturaj hgspnsgtgn` a`h snkgajgsatgn` (Vrch 17=9).






ni g`hgvghuajs tmat lnrhcrs pmc`ndc`njnby, lut hncs `nt qugtc kapturc ajj tmc np-

pnrtu`gtgcs a`h kndpjcxgty niicrch ly sukm pmgjnsnpmgcs. Xmc `ntgn` tmat wgjj lc dnst

sgb`gfika`t g` tmc kn`tgùatgn` ni Vrch‗s tmcnry a`h cvc`tuajjy arkmacnjnby gs lasch

n` mgs prg`kgpaj ni cxtcràj pmysgkaj aktgn` a`h tmc way gt kauscs g`tcraktgn` wgtm tmc

g`hgvghuaj‗s c`vgrn`dc`t. N` tmgs lasgs tmc kn`kcpt ni tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc gs

hcvcjnpch.

‚As pjakc-spckgfik lgnbrapmgcs arc inrdch tmrnubm snkgaj rcprnhuktgn` a`h as pjakc-

spckgfik snkgaj rcprnhuktgn` nkkurs tmrnubm tmc inrdatgn` ni lgnbrapmgcs, tmc pmysgkaj

c`vgrn`dc`t gs pcrpctuajjy tra`sinrdch.U…T Xmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni tmc pmysgkaj wnrjh

gs g`scparaljc irnd tmc lckndg`b ni pjakc.— (Vrch 17=9? <<) Xmgs `ntgn` gs cxtrcdcjy

gdpnrta`t inr hgskgpjg`cs sukm as bcnbrapmy a`h arkmacnjnby, as gt hgrcktjy g`hgkatcs

tmat tmc lckndg`b ni a pjakc gs g`cvgtaljy kn``cktch tn kma`bcs g` tmc pmysgkaj c`-

vgrn`dc`t. Vrch asscrts spakc gs kma`bch tmrnubm pjakc-lnu`h ghcnjnby, e`nwjchbcappjgkatgn` a`h aktgn`. As hcdn`stratch alnvc, pjakc-lnu`h ghcnjnby gs mgstnrgkajjy

kn`struktch tmrnubm prnockt partgkgpatgn` a`h pcrsnàj lgnbrapmgcs ni prnockt partgkg-

pa`ts a`h pjakc g`malgta`ts. Xmgs gdpjgcs tmat tmc ghcnjnby ni a pjakc gùc`kg`b tmc

way tmc iakc ni tmc cartm gs tra`sinrdch, gs g` iakt a knddn` brnu`h ni tmc struktur-

g`b snkgaj g`tcraktgn`s. Xmgs wnujh lc sgdgjar tn tmc hctcrdgàtgn` ni tmc kujturajjy sct

hgsta`kcs nlscrvch ly prnxcdgks (C. X. Majj 179=, <669).

Kma`bg`b tmc àturaj c`vgrn`dc`t gs `nt kn`fi`ch tn (prnhuktgn` a`h hgstrglu-

tgn`) prnockts wmgkm krcatc tmc vgsgljc cjcdc`ts ni pjakc. Mnwcvcr, tmc nutcr àturc gs

tra`sinrdch ly a`y prnockt wmgkm uscs muda`-dahc nr àturaj nlockts (tmcsc arc ajsnrcsnurkcs). Xmgs c`tagjs vgrtuajjy a`y tmgèaljc prnockt, kausch ly tmcgr g`tcràj pmysg-

kaj jnbgk nr, sndctgdcs, arlgtrary kujturaj kn`vc`tgn`s. G` g`hustrgajgsch snkgcty tmgs

kn``cktgn` lctwcc` nlockts a`h tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc gs usuajjy jcss apparc`t.

Dnst ni nur dnhcr` nlockts arc `n`jnkajjy prnhukch at ntmcr hgstg`kt tgdcs, ratmcr

tma` tmc tgdc a`h/nr pjakc ni usc. Xmc lgnjnbgkaj kn`hgtgn` ni tmc muda` lnhy daecs

g`hgvghuaj‗s part ni ̀ aturc ajsn. Xmrnubm tmc lckndg`b ni tmc pjakc g`hgvghuajs g`malgt,

tmcy arc `nt n`jy g`tcràjjy smapch ly tmcgr cxpcrgc`kcs, lut ajsn pmysgkajjy tra`sinrd

as tmcgr patms irnd lgrtm tn hcatm u`wg`h (Vrch 17=9). Dnrcnvcr, n`c ka` ahh mcrc

tmat tmrnubm tmc prg`kgpajs ni cdlnhgdc`t a`h patms (da` gs spatgaj a`h tcdpnraj),

tmc pmysgkajgty ni tmc lnhy càljcs pmysgkaj g`tcraktgn` wgtm tmcgr c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmgs

day cssc`tgajjy rc`hcr tmc muda` lnhy a typc ni nlockt usch inr a`h kn`hgtgn`g`b

prnockt praktgkcs.

Xmc hgajcktgk prnkcsscs wmgkm kausc àturaj a`h knrpnrcaj tra`sinrdatgn` npcratc

lctwcc` patm-kn`vcrbc`kc a`h patm-hgvcrbc`kc, nr krcatgn` a`h hcstruktgn`, nr prcs-

c`kc a`h alsc`kc, ajj ni wmgkm hccpjy rnntch g` tgdc-bcnbrapmy. Vcnpjc‗s patms arc

uàljc tn dnvc g` gsnjatgn` tmrnubm pcrsnàj a`h g`stgtutgnàj prnockts, wgtmnut tnukm-

g`b, krnssg`b nr kn``cktg`b wgtm tmc tgdc-spakc patms ni nlockts (ki. tmc lgnbrapmgcs




ni tmg`bs) nr àturaj icaturcs. @n aktgvgty ka` lc rcajgsch tmrnubm tmc kn`vcrbc`kc ni

ntmcr patms (tmc krcatgn` ni a knupjc), wgtmnut ̀ ckcssgtatg`b tmc hgvcrbc`kc ni prcvgnus

knupjcs (g.c. hcstruktg`b a prgnr prcsc`kc, krcatg`b a` alsc`kc). Ygkc vcrsa, `n aktgv-

gty tcrdgàtcs tmrnubm patm-hgvcrbc`kc wgtmnut `ckcssgtatg`b `cw patm-kn`vcrbc`kc,

krcatg`b a ̀ cw knupjc. Xmc scquc`kc tmat injjnws irnd tmgs gs ajsn rcajgsch g` g`hgvghuaj

dnvcdc`ts tmrnubm tgdc-spakc kn`stgtutg`b snkgaj kn`hukt, nrba`gsatgn` a`h g`tcrak-

tgn`, wmgkm tmcrcinrc ajways kn`trglutcs tn tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc g` vargaljc

hcbrccs. Xmgs hgajcktgk hcdn`stratcs tmat ajj muda`-smapch ja`hskapc cjcdc`ts a`h

nlockts mavc lgnbrapmgcs ni tmcgr nw` tmat kn`stgtutc tmc pcrpctuaj tra`sinrdatgn` ni

àturc hcpc`hg`b n` tmc mgstnry ni tmc prnockts, nr kn`vcrbc`kcs a`h hgvcrbc`kcs,

tmcy wcrc g`vnjvch g`. Rmgjc àturc gs tra`sinrdch, gdpjyg`b tmc strukturg`b ni jnkaj

spakc a`h tmc attrglutgn` ni `cw dca`g`b, tmc pmysgkaj hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc c`vgrn`-

dc`t ni a pjakc gs càljch a`h kn`strag`ch ly tmc skarkgty ni spakc, tmc jgdgtch pake-g`b kapakgty ni spatgaj u`gts a`h tmc tgdc g`vcstdc`ts rcqugrch inr dnvg`b irnd sgtc tn

sgtc. [gdpjy put, tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc gs kn`hgtgn`ch ly tmc kn`strag`g`b a`h

càljg`b kapakgty ni tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs (ghcd).

G`gtgatg`b `cw prnockts gs n`jy pnssgljc wgtmg` tmc iradcwnre ni tra`sinrdch à-

turc a`h tmc hndgà`t g`stgtutgnàj hcda`hs. Xmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc ka` n`jy

trujy lc u`hcrstnnh wgtm tmc ghc`tgfikatgn` ni sukm gdpnrta`t pnwcr rcjatgn`s. Xmcsc

pnwcr rcjatgn`s hn `nt n`jy spckgfikajjy nrgbgàtc g` tmc jnkaj snkgaj strukturc, rcjatgn`s

lctwcc` g`hgvghuajs, knjjcktgvcs a`h g`stgtutgn`s, lut arc prnhukch g`sniar a`y rcsnurkc

kn`trnj nr rujcs a`h `nrds ni lcmavgnur jnkajjy arc pjayg`b a rnjc. Vnwcr rcjatgn`shgktatc tn a jarbc cxtc`t tmc way àturc gs tra`sinrdch. Xmcy arc sagh tn mnjh tmc g`hg-

vghuaj, snkgcty a`h àturc tnbctmcr g` tgdc-spakc spckgfik praktgkcs tmat kn`stgtutc tmc

lckndg`b ni pjakc (ghcd).

Vrch‗s hcajg`b wgtm pnwcr rcjatgn`s gs strn`bjy gùc`kch ly Inukaujt‗s pmgjnsn-

pmgcs ni pnwcr a`h hgskgpjg`c irnd tmc pcrspcktgvc ni tmc sulockt. G` tmc kn`tcxt ni

pjakc, pnwcr rcjatgn`s arc tmc kapakgty tn pcrdgt nr rcstrgkt g` a`y way tgdc-spakc

spckgfik knupjg`bs ni patms ni pnssgljc partgkgpa`ts g`tn prnockts. Xmcy kn`trnj wmn

hncs wmat, wmcrc a`h wmc`, a`h g` tcrds ni prnockts tmcy kn`trnj tmcgr kn`tc`t nr

kndpn`c`t tases. Ajsn tmcy day prcvc`t pntc`tgaj partgkgpa`ts irnd partaeg`b g` a

prnockt (ghcd).

Xmc dujtgpjc jcvcjs ni prnkcsscs cxcrkgsg`b pnwcr knujh lc kndparch wgtm Inukaujt‗s

pa`nptgsd, wmgkm gs a` c`scdljc ni dckma`gsds usch g` ajj prnkchurcs ni pnwcr a`h

taecs gt away irnd a àrrnw bnvcr`dc`taj kn`kcptuajgsatgn` (Inukaujt 17=6). Dnrc

spckgfikajjy, Vrch hraws n` Inukaujt‗s asscrtgn` n` strukturg`b tmc ficjh ni aktgn` ni ntm-

crs. Inr Inukaujt cxcrkgsg`b pnwcr gs a way g` wmgkm aktgn`s dnhgiy ntmcrs, tmcrcinrc

pnwcr n`jy cxgsts wmc` put g`tn aktgn` (Inukaujt 17=<). Mcrc n`c smnujh ̀ ntc tmc cd-

pmasgs n` aktgn` a`h pcrinrda`kc, wmgkm gs ni paradnu`t gdpnrta`kc inr ajj prnkcsscs




hgskussch up tn tmgs png`t. Inukaujt kn`tgùcs tmat pnwcr ka` lc tmc rcsujt ni prgnr nr

pcrda`c`t kn`sc`t, lut ly ̀ aturc gs ̀ nt tmc da`gicstatgn` ni kn`sc`sus. A rcjatgn`smgp

ni pnwcr gs a dnhc ni aktgn` tmat hncs `nt akt hgrcktjy n` ntmcrs, lut akts upn` tmcgr

aktgn`s. Gts nppnsgtgn` gs passgvgty a`h as a` nlocktgvc gt dust try tn dg`gdgsc rcsgsta`kc.

Vnwcr iu`ktgn`s n` tmc lasgs ni twn prg`kgpajs? gt prcsuppnscs a` aktg`b ntmcr, a`h a

rcjatgn`smgp ni pnwcr wgjj npc` a pjctmnra ni rcspn`scs. Gt ka` rcsujt g` cgtmcr vgnjc`kc,

kn`sc`t nr lntm (ghcd).

Ircchnd gs a sulsudch aspckt g` tmgs kmaraktcrgsatgn` ni pnwcr. Vnwcr as a dnhc

ni aktgn` upn` aktgn`s ni ntmcrs assudcs tmc sulockts tn lc ircc a`h ka` n`jy cxtc`h

g`sniar tmcy arc ircc. Vnwcr a`h ircchnd‗s rciusaj tn suldgt, tmcrcinrc ka``nt lc scpa-

ratch. Inukaujt subbcsts tmat ratmcr tma` aàjysg`b pnwcr rcjatgn`s irnd tmc sta`h-

png`t ni g`stgtutgn`s (wmn mavc brcat gùc`kc g` kn`struktg`b tmcd), wc smnujh aà-

jysc g`stgtutgn`s irnd tmc sta`hpng`t ni pnwcr rcjatgn`s. Xmc iu`hadc`t ni tmc rcjatgn`-smgp gs tn lc inu`h nutsghc tmc g`stgtutgn`. Xn jgvc g` snkgcty gs tn jgvc g` sukm a way tmat

aktgn` upn` ntmcr aktgn`s gs n`bng`b. Xmc stuhy ni pnwcr g` snkgcty gs `nt tmc stuhy ni

g`stgtutgn`s, lut gs rnntch g` tmc systcd ni snkgaj ̀ ctwnres (ghcd). ‚Xmc g`hgvghuaj gs ̀ nt

a prc-bgvc` c`tgty wmgkm gs scgzch n` ly tmc cxcrkgsc ni pnwcr. Xmc g`hgvghuaj, wgtm mgs

ghc`tgty a`h kmaraktcrgstgks, gs tmc prnhukt ni a rcjatgn` ni pnwcr cxcrkgsch nvcr lnhgcs,

dujtgpjgkgtgcs, dnvcdc`ts, hcsgrcs, inrkcs.— (Inukaujt 17=6? 28) G` kn`trast, n`c knujh

ahh tmc asscrtgn`s ni Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau, wmn mnjhs tmat g` partgkgpatgn`, g`hgvghuajs

arc daxgdgsg`b tmcgr rcsgsta`kc tn tmc systcd. Rmat gs nlscrvch as a knìnrdatgn` tn

pnwcr rcstrag`ts gs g`stcah a inrd ni rcsgsta`kc cxcrkgsch g` nrhcr tn lcttcr knpc wgtmtmc systcd, ratmcr tma` sustag`g`b pnwcr‗s ciicktgvc`css (hc Kcrtcau 17==).

Rgtm tmgs lrgci lakebrnu`h n` pnwcr g` dg`h, wc rctur` tn Vrch‗s tmcnry lugjhg`b.

Oust as g` tmc ntmcr aspckts ni pjakc-lnu`h strukturg`b prnkcsscs, pnwcr rcjatgn`s arc

inu`hch, rcprnhukch a`h tra`sinrdch ly praktgkc. Xmgs prnkcss ni pnwcr rcjatgn`s

hcpc`hs n` tmrcc iaktnrs. Igrst, gt gs akmgcvch ly tmc cstaljgsmdc`t a`h gdpjcdc`-

tatgn` ni rujcs `ckcssary inr prnockt cxckutgn`. [ckn`h, pnwcr rcjatgn`s rcst n` tmc

akkudujatgn` ni dca`g`b-fijjch (cgtmcr datcrgajjy nr snkgajjy rcknb`gsch) rcsnurkcs ni

g`stgtutgn` as a wmnjc nr past a`h prcsc`t pnwcr wgcjhcrs. Xmgrhjy, gt hcpc`hs n` tmc

prchgspnsgtgn` ni pnwcr sulockts irnd ntmcr prnockts akkcptg`b tmc rujcs a`h hcfi`g-

tgn`s ni tmc `cw prnockt, g`scparaljc irnd tmcgr nw` lgnbrapmy inrdatgn`. Xmcsc tmrcc

iaktnrs arc ajj hcpc`hc`t n` prcvgnus patm-prnockt g`tcrscktgn`s nr tgdc-spakc spckgfik

praktgkcs. G` ntmcr wnrhs? tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc lgnbrapmgcs ni tmnsc pnwcr wgcjh-

crs. Gt gs tmgs praktgkaj e`nwjchbc tmat wgjj tra`sjatc g`tn g`stgtutgnàj rujcs. A`y typc

ni kndpctgtgn` cxprcssch g` aktgvgtgcs nr jgic-patm ‛ hagjy-patm hgajcktgks kn`trglutcs tn

tmc sckurg`b ni datcrgaj a`h ntmcr rcsnurkcs inr g`hgvghuajs wgtm kcrtag` lakebrnu`hs

ratmcr tma` ntmcrs. Ajsn, tmc sadc hgajcktgk strukturatgn` prnkcss mnjhs mcrc. Rmc` tmc

iaktnrs hcpc`h n` prcvgnus tgdc-spakc spckgfik praktgkcs, tmcsc praktgkcs g` tur` arc




kn``cktch tn prcvgnus pnwcr rcjatgn`s, tmus praktgkc a`h snkgaj strukturc lckndc n`c

a`ntmcr (Vrch 17=9).

Xmgs ajsn g`hgkatcs tmat pnwcr rcjatgn`s arc `nt a statgk kn`kcpt, lut prn`c tn

kma`bc. Jnkaj tra`sinrdatgn` ni g`stgtutgnàj pnwcr usuajjy appcars as a rcspn`sc tn

jnkaj nr dnrc bc`craj kn`gkts, rcsujtg`b irnd a`y ckn`ndgk, pnjgtgkaj nr snkgaj kndpc-

tgtgn`, nr g`kndpatglgjgty ni tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs nr g`stgtutgnàj prgnrgty kjagds. Ntm-

crwgsc tmcy day lc kausch ly kn`scquc`tgaj krgsgs sgtuatgn`s ni g`stgtutgnàj prnockts

tmat arc kn`trary tn tmc agds ni tmcgr u`hcrjyg`b rujcs a`h hcfi`gtgn`s. @aturajjy, dnrc

”strukturaj hgsou`kturcs‗ ka` lc gdabg`ch, jgec kn`sc`sus nr cxtcràj hgsruptgn` tn kcr-

tag` cxtc`ts rcjatch tn kn`gkt nr kn`trahgktgn`. Mnwcvcr, as Vrch cdpmasgscs? ‚pnwcr

rcjatgn`s ka``nt lc tra`sinrdch wgtmnut cgtmcr tmc dnhgfikatgn` ni ajrcahy cdpjnych

prnockt hcfi`gtgn`s a`h rujcs, nr tmc tntaj cjgdgàtgn` ni a prnockt a`h gts assnkgatch

kn`tc`t hcfi`gtgn` a`h rujcs.— (Vrch 17=9? <=) Cvc`tuajjy gt smnujh lc rcknb`gsch tmatg` tmc lckndg`b ni pjakc tmc dnst apparc`t ciickt ni pnwcr rcjatgn`s jgcs g` hgrcktjy

nr g`hgrcktjy kn`trnjjg`b wmat pcnpjc hn, say, e`nw, a`h tmgè. [gdpjy put, wmc` g`hg-

vghuajs partgkgpatc g` n`c prnockt tmcy ka``nt, huc tn tmcgr g`hgvgsglgjgty, e`nw hgrcktjy

wmat mappc`ch cjscwmcrc at tmc sadc tgdc, `nr e`nw a`ytmg`b tmat jgcs lcyn`h tmcgr

tgdc-spakc rcakm assnkgatch wgtm tmcgr partgkgpatgn`. Xmrnubm tmc usc ni uàrtgkujatch

rujcs a`h malgtuaj ja`buabc g` g`stgtutgnàj prnockts, prcvgnus snkgaj aktgvgtgcs wgtm tmc

rcsnurkcs iakgjgtatg`b tmnsc prnockts arc nlskurch. Xmcrcinrc, hcpc`hg`b n` wmctmcr

tmgs nkkurs a`h g`hgvghuajs arc uàwarc ni gt, g`hgvghuajs wgjj tmgè ni hctagjch prnockt

sgtuatgn`s as àturaj ratmcr tma` krcatch ly muda`s. [ukm gdabg`ch prnockt sgtuatgn`stmus lckndc part ni a àturaj, jnkajjy prcsc`t ghcnjnby. Xmgs knujh daec pnwcr sul-

ockts ljg`h tn tmc ujtgdatc pnwcr lcg`b cxcrkgsch nvcr tmcd, cvc` wmc` tmc datcrgaj

darecrs ni tmgs arc rcknb`gsch. Xmgs usuajjy g`kjuhcs tmc alsnrptgn` ni tmc ghcnjnby ni

pnwcr wgcjhcrs g` rcbarh tn wmat gs nut ni tmc nrhgàry, nr inrlghhc` tn taec pjakc a`h

lckndc part ni a` g`hgvghuaj‗s patm (ki. Inukaujt 17=6). Injjnwg`b Vrch gt dust lc cd-

pmasgsch tmat tmc mgstnrgkajjy spckgfik way pnwcr rcjatgn`s kn`trglutc tn tmc lckndg`b

ni pjakc gs kn`tg`bc`t upn` tmc g`tcrpc`ctratgn` ni strukturatgn` prnkcsscs ni a hgiicr-

c`t sknpc, nr tmc cxtc`t tn wmgkm jnkaj g`stgtutgn`s a`h tmcgr sydlnj systcds arc lasch

n` `n`jnkaj kn`trnj a`h tra`saktgn`s (ghcd).

Rmat alnut tmc Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`t>

Vrch hncs `nt cxpjgkgtjy dc`tgn` tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t as a prg`kgpaj cjcdc`t ni mgs

tmcnry. @cvcrtmcjcss, n`c hncs `nt `cch dukm gdabgàtgn` tn scc mnw tmc lugjt c`-

vgrn`dc`t day hgrcktjy rcsujt irnd tmc kn`kcpt ni tra`sinrdg`b àturc, pcrinrdch

tmrnubm g`hgvghuajjy a`h snkgajjy lasch strukturatgn` prnkcsscs. Vut g` a kn`kgsc inr-

dujatgn`, tmc kn`sta`t jnkaj tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc tmrnubm tmc strukturatgn` prnk-



Vrnkcsscs ni Lckndg`b 7;

csscs kn`hgtgn`ch ly tgdc-spakc kn`strag`ts, gùc`kch ly pcrsnàj a`h dnrc bc`craj

mgstnrgcs nr lgnbrapmgcs a`h ly tmc pnwcr cxcrkgsch g` tgdc-spakc pnssglgjgtgcs, tmc

lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t knujh lc kn`kcptuajgsch as a datcrgajgsatgn` ni Vrch‗s pjakc. Wct tmgs

smnujh `nt lc appjgch tn tmc ghcatgnàj sgb`gfika`kc ni kn`struktgn`. Vmc`ndc`njnbg-

kajjy cvcrytmg`b gs kn`struktch (ki. G`bnjh <666), wmgkm g`kjuhcs tmc sc`sc ni àturc

nr tmc ̀ aturaj c`vgrn`dc`t. Mc`kc, tmcrc gs ̀ n prgdnrhgaj ̀ aturc. G` kn`trast, tmc lugjt

c`vgrn`dc`t n`jy lcbg`s at tmc dndc`t kn`struktch ghcas arc datcrgajgsch ly lugjh-

g`b aktgvgtgcs, g.c. pmysgkaj ajtcratgn` ni wmat was ajrcahy tmcrc ly muda` prnhuktgn`.

G` tmc kasc ni tmc àturaj c`vgrn`dc`t, cvc` tmnubm ghcas alnut gt dgbmt mavc lcc`

kn`struktch lcinrc, gts pmysgkajgty jgtcrajjy smnujh `nt mavc lcc` tnukmch ly muda`

lcg`bs carjgcr. Datcrgajgsatgn` gs pmysgkaj dnhgfikatgn` nr tra`sinrdatgn`, smapg`b tmc

ghcatgnàjjy kn`struktch wnrjh tmrnubm aktgn`.

Bgvc` tmc hctagjs ni Vrch‗s tmcnry, g` a way `nw wc mavc arrgvch at tmc ntmcr sghc.Xmc ntmcr sghc ni tmc spatgaj datcrgaj rcknrh, tmat gs. Xmrnubm mgs tgdc-spakc ahapta-

tgn` ni strukturatgn` tmcnry, Vrch g`hgrcktjy prnvghcs us a strn`b arbudc`tatgn` inr

g`hgvghuajs as lugjhcrs. Xmc kn`hgtgn`ch prnkcsscs tmat ajjnw tmcd tn lugjh arc gìusch

wgtm g`hgvghuaj a`h snkgaj dca`g`b. G` dnst kascs tmc way sukm dca`g`b gs prcsc`t g`

tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t prgnr mah tn lc assudch ratmcr tma` rcasn`ch. Vrch mgdscji mas

arbuch tn usc mgs tmcnry as a dnhcj a`h tmat gs prckgscjy tmc vajuc gt mnjhs. G` a sgdgjar

da``cr tn tmc aprgnrgstgk tmcnrgsg`b ni a` ghcaj snkgcty as vn` Dgscs hgh g` Muda` Ak-

tgn`, Vrch‗s prnkcsscs ni lckndg`b bgvc us a` aprgnrgstgk va`tabc png`t tn u`hcrsta`h

mnw tmc àturaj c`vgrn`dc`t lckndcs kn`struktch ajn`b tmc pcrinrda`kc ni ajj g`hg-vghuaj aktgn`s bc`cratg`b prnkcsscs.

A`ntmcr gdpnrta`t cjcdc`t g` Vrch‗s tmcnry gs mgs hgsbugsch hgstg`ktgn` lctwcc`

lgnjnbgkaj aspckts a`h snkgaj a`h kujturaj aspckts. @cxt tn tmc nlvgnus rcqugrcdc`ts

inr tmc pcrsgstc`kc nr survgvaj ni cakm g`hgvghuaj a`h tmc jnkaj snkgaj strukturc mc gs part

ni, tmcrc arc tmc hndgà`t prnockts. As Vrch kn`vg`kg`bjy arbucs, tmcsc prnockts jcavc

n`jy a sdajj pnrtgn` ni tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs tmat ka` lc usch hctakmch irnd cssc`tgaj

rcqugrcdc`ts. Vjakc dag`jy kndprgscs kcrtag` hndgà`t prnockts g` mgstnrgkajjy spckgfik

kgrkudsta`kcs. Xmc ircchnd tmat gs jcit gs stgjj mgstnrgkajjy spckgfik, lut ka` hcvgatc dnrc

irccjy irnd lgnjnbgkaj a`h snkgnjnbgkaj rcqugrcdc`ts. Xmat g`hgkatcs tmat tmc dca`g`b

ni a pjakc gs kndpnsch ni a way tn hcaj wgtm lgnjnby, a kcrtag` snkgnjnbgkaj nrhcrg`b ni

tmc ̀ ckcssary prnockts a`h dnrc g`hgvghuajgsch prnockts tmat ka``nt lc scc` scparatcjy

irnd tmcd.

Wct tmcrc arc sndc aspckts tmat rcdag` u`hgskussch, nvcrtjy bc`craj nr pnnrjy kn`-

kcptuajgsch g` Vrch‗s tmcnry ni pjakc as mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t prnkcss. \ckapgtujatg`b,

tmc dnst sgb`gfika`t asscrtgn`s dahc arc tmnsc tmat inkus arnu`h tmc bc`cratgn` ni

prnkcsscs, pjakg`b tmc g`hgvghuaj at tmcgr lcbg``g`b. Xaeg`b g`tn akknu`t tmc kn`kcpt

ni cdlnhgdc`t, tmc spatgaj cxpcrgc`kc ni muda` lcg`bs mcrc lckndcs cxtc`hch, `nt




n`jy tnwarhs u`hcrsta`hg`b tmc wnrjh arnu`h tmcd (as g` pmc`ndc`njnby), lut qugtc

hgrcktjy g`tn gts krcatgn`. [tgjj, gt gs prckgscjy g` tmgs kn`kcpt ni tmc g`hgvghuaj a`h mgs

hckgsgn`-daeg`b (u`hcrsta`hg`b tmrnubm akqugsgtgn` ni e`nwjchbc a`h kn`struktg`b

dca`g`b) tmat Vrch rcdag`s vabuc. Xmc ircchnd ni mgs g`hgvghuajs gs ratmcr jgdgtch,

lckausc tmcy arc c`vgsgn`ch tn stcp g`tn ajrcahy cxgstg`b strukturch sgtuatgn`s. Hc-

kgsgn`-daeg`b gs prgdargjy kn`kcptuajgsch at tmc jcvcj ni pnwcr strukturcs g` kcrtag`

g`stgtutgnàj prnockts, `nt at tmc jcvcj ni tmc g`hgvghuaj kmnnsg`b tn partgkgpatc nr `nt.

Ajtmnubm tmcy day rcckt upn` tmcgr nw` lgnbrapmgcs, tmc way tmcy akqugrc e`nwj-

chbc ni cxgstg`b sgtuatgn`s a`h cvc`tuajjy kn`strukt tmcd gs lcttcr u`hcrstnnh tmrnubm

tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj sulockt ni [kmútz (Kadplcjj 17=1, ki. kmaptcr n`c). G`hgvghu-

ajs arc strn`bjy tgch tn tmcgr mgstnry (kn`sgstg`b ni cxpcrgc`kcs kn`trastch abag`st tmc

stnke ni e`nwjchbc), lut dcdnry gs awch a`h akqugsgtgn` ni e`nwjchbc gs scjcktgvc.

Ajj tmgs gùc`kcs tmc way g`hgvghuajs arrgvc at a` aktgn`, lut gs n`jy partgajjy prcsc`tg` Vrch‗s wnre.

Mnwcvcr, g` tmc cdpjnydc`t ni aktgn` g`tcraktg`b wgtm tmc c`vgrn`dc`t,

tmc prnkcsscs kn`kcptuajgsch ly Vrch ajjnw aàjysgs tn stcp away irnd g`hgvghuaj

partgkujargsd. Dag`tag`g`b tmc way sulockts u`hcrsta`h tmc (snkgaj a`h àturaj) wnrjh

tmrnubm scji-rcicrc`kc, cxtcràj pmysgkaj aktgn`s injjnwg`b g`tcràj dc`taj aktgvgty,

g`mcrc`tjy arc g`tcraktg`b wgtm tmc c`vgrn`dc`t. (@cvcrtmcjcss, inr tmgs prnkcss ni

ghcatgnàj u`hcrsta`hg`b wc arc inrkch tn rcicr tn vn` Dgscs a`h pmc`ndc`njnby,

sg`kc Vrch aiinrhs a ratmcr karcjcss usc ni tmc tcrd ”àturc‗.) Dnrcnvcr, ajj cjcdc`ts

g` tmat c`vgrn`dc`t arc kn`sta`tjy part ni hgajcktgk strukturatgn` prnkcsscs g` wmgkmajj lckndc n`c a`ntmcr. Xmc dca`g`b ni g`hgvghuaj aktgn`s gs tmus u`hcrstnnh ly scji-

rcicrc`kc, lut `n jn`bcr tn lc scc` g` gsnjatgn`. Xmgs ajjnws inr skajc adpjgfikatgn`.

Arkmacnjnby, aiicktch a`h jgdgtch ly awch hatascts, hcstruktgn` a`h jnneg`b at

tmg`bs past ratmcr tma` kurrc`t, gs rcstrgktch tn g`qugrc upn` a` c`jarbch skajc ni

muda` aktgn`. G` Vrch‗s tmcnry tmc sulockt ka` lc sustag`ch as a` aàjytgkaj u`gt,

pjakch g` ajj-c`kndpassg`b prnkcsscs ni lckndg`b. Ajj spatgaj u`gts arc tmc rcsujt ni

g`hgvghuaj aktgn`s, a`h tmus rcicr tn u`hcrjyg`b g`hgvghuaj dca`g`b, yct `n spatgaj u`gt

ka` lc scc` gsnjatch irnd ntmcr aktgn`s a`h spatgajgtgcs. Dnrcnvcr, tmcy wgjj ajways lc

kapturch g` n`bng`b prnkcsscs.

Xmc dnrc g`hgvghuajs partgkgpatc g` knddn` (lugjhg`b) prnockts, tmc dnrc tmcgr

cxpcrgc`kc lckndcs ajgec a`h tmc vajucs ni tmcgr lgnbrapmgcs, jcahg`b tn tmc hckgsgn`

tn partgkgpatc, arc g`tcrtwg`ch g` tmc dca`g`b lugjhg`bs mavc. Nvcr tgdc, sukm

strukturatgn` prnkcsscs lckndc kn`snjghatch g` a lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t, kn`struktch ly

g`hgvghuaj aktgn`s, gìusch wgtm tmc da`y g`hgvghuaj dca`g`bs ni tmc pcnpjc pcrinrdg`b

lugjhg`b aktgvgtgcs g` tmc sadc prnockt (ki. G`bnjh‗s taseskapcs). Xmgs gs vcry sgdgjar tn

tmc way jnkaj snkgaj strukturcs kndc alnut. Cvc` wmc` inrkch tn lugjh, tmc kmngkc gs

tmcgrs, wmgkm gs `nt tn say tmat cxcrkgsg`b pnwcr hncs `nt kndpjgkatc dattcrs. Xmat




gs, tmc pcrsnàj lgnbrapmgcs ni tmc n`cs hgrcktjy nr g`hgrcktjy cxcrkgsg`b tmc pnwcr gs

gìusch g` tmc prnockt ajsn. Gt gs inr sukm pnwcr rcjatgn`s tmat sndc fiàj knddc`ts arc

dahc.

Vnwcr rcjatgn`s arc `nt tmc dag` kn`kcr` mcrc, mnwcvcr gt gs gdpnrta`t tn strcss

tmat pnwcr gs `nt n`jy kn`tag`ch g` tmc kc`trajgsch pnwcr wgcjhcrs. Xgdc-spakc kn`-

strag`ts a`h assnkgatch hckgsgn`-daeg`b arc ajrcahy eg`hs ni pnwcr rcjatgn`s. Xmcsc arc

prn`c tn kma`bc as tmcy arc cjcdc`ts g` vargnus strukturatgn` prnkcsscs. Xmgs kma`bc

gs `nt oust tmc rcsujt ni g`hgvghuaj lgnbrapmgcs gùc`kg`b g`hgvghuaj aktgn`s. Kma`bc

day nkkur tmrnubm gdabg`g`b `cw prnockts (irnd nrgbgàj tmnubmt) nr tmc kn`sgstc`t

rcsgsta`kc abag`st tmc strukturcs a`h pnwcr rcjatgn`s jnkajjy prcsc`t. Dgkmcj hc Kcr-

tcau (17==) arbucs tmat sukm rcsgsta`kc gs prcsc`t g` cakm muda` aktgn`, lut gt day

lc knìusch wgtm sukkudlch knìnrdatgn` ni tmc sulockt. N`kc, tmrnubm tmc nrhgàj

vajuatgn` ni kn`scquc`kcs prckchg`b tmc kmngkc ni aktgn` (vn` Dgscs 177=), a sulocktwnujh gdabg`c gt lcttcr tn cxpjgkgtjy akt nut mgs rcsgsta`kc, tmgs knujh jcah tn a knd-

pjctcjy hgiicrc`t sgtuatgn`. Ajtcràtgvcjy, tmc kn`scquc`kc ni wgtmsta`hg`b knìnrdgst

aktgn` nr kmnnsg`b a` ajtcràtgvc day mavc c`vgsgn`ch lcttcr rcsujts, tmus kausg`b

alstg`c`kc ni aktgn` as dca`g`biuj aktgn`. Inr ntmcrs tmgs gs a` (snkgaj) c`vgrn`dc`taj

kma`bc, wmgkm aiickts tmcgr hckgsgn`-daeg`b a`h day ajtcr sulscquc`t aktgn`s. Mc`kc,

tmrnubm tmc g`hgvghuaj hckgsgn` tn akt g` a kcrtag` way, kma`bc gs kndg`b.

G` kma`bc, tmc dgkrn jcvcj ni g`hgvghuaj lgnbrapmgcs a`h aktgn`s lckndcs hgrcktjy

tgch tn a dakrn jcvcj tc`hc`ky as wcjj. Gi Vrch‗s tmcnry gs taec` as hcskrglg`b dag`jy

hcvcjnpdc`taj prnkcsscs, mgs strukturatgnàj ahaptatgn` ka` lc put g` a` cvnjutgnàrypcrspcktgvc. Xmc g`tcrkn``cktch prnkcsscs ajjnw inr sccdg`bjy u`rcstrgktch strctkmg`b

nvcr tgdc a`h spakc. G` tmc jgbmt ni pnwcr rcjatgn`s a`h tmc kn`snjghatgn` ni (snkgaj)

strukturcs g` a pjakc, kma`bc lckndcs tmc dnst dca`g`biuj vargaljc g` tmnsc prnk-

csscs. Xmgs ajj ka` lc uìnjhch nvcr a` gìnrdg`b kn`kcptuaj lakebrnu`h g` wmgkm

pjakc ‚gs a prnkcss wmcrcly tmc rcprnhuktgn` ni snkgaj a`h kujturaj inrds, tmc inrda-

tgn` ni lgnbrapmgcs a`h tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc kcascjcssjy lckndc n`c a`ntmcr.

[gdujta`cnusjy, gt gs a prnkcss wmcrcly tgdc-spakc spckgfik patm-prnockt g`tcrscktgn`s

a`h pnwcr rcjatgn`s kn`tgùnusjy lckndc n`c a`ntmcr.— (Vrch 17=9? ;1) Vjakc mas

lckndc a` aàjytgkaj lakebrnu`h wmgkm gìnrds iu`hadc`taj inrdatgvc prnkcsscs

tmrnubm wmgkm cdpgrgkaj g`qugrgcs g`tn spckgfiks bct dca`g`b. Nur attc`tgn` gs hraw`

tn tmc way sukm cjcdc`ts arc part ni a` g`tcrkn``cktch snkgaj tntajgty. Gt ka``nt lc

cdpgrgkajjy rcpjgkatch g` gts c`tgrcty, lut gt wgjj mcjp bgvc gìcrc`tgaj hgrcktgn`.

G` nrhcr tn dnvc irnd mcrc tn tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj rcknrh a`h tmc assnkgatch g`-

tcrprctgvc agd ni tmgs stuhy, wc `cch tn part wgtm tmc snkgajjy tntajgsg`b bc`crajgtgcs

asscssch g` Vrch‗s prnkcsscs ni lckndg`b tn ghcas tmat ka` ajsn hgrckt nur inkus ni

aàjysgs tnwarhs spckgfik icaturcs prcsc`t g` spatgaj hatascts. Cvc`tuajjy tmnsc icaturcs

arc tmc lugjhg`b ljnkes upn` wmgkm g`tcrprctatgnàj aàjysgs ka` lc lasch. Rgtm mgs




tmcnrctgkaj nutjg`c, Vrch‗s tmcnry ajjnws us tmc kndinrt ni jnneg`b at tmc prnhuktgn`

ni sukm hatascts, tmc inrdatgvc prnkcsscs ni wmgkm hcdn`stratc mnw snkgaj dca`g`b

lckndcs g`vcstch g` tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. Mavg`b rcasscssch nur pnsgtgn` a`h lcc`

bgvc` gìcrc`tgaj rcasn`, mnw ka` wc bct dca`g`b nut ni gts kn`stgtutgvc cjcdc`ts

a`h, cvc` dnrc kmajjc`bg`b, tmc awch rccktgn` ni tmgs wc arc knìrn`tch wgtm g`

arkmacnjnby>

Xmcrc arc twn dag` hgrcktgn`s ni g`tcrcst tmat arc pursuch g` tmc injjnwg`b. N` tmc

n`c ma`h G inkus n` tmc snkgajjy dca`g`biuj pnsgtgn` ni spatgaj spckgfiks g` tmc hatasct.

N` tmc ntmcr tmcrc gs tmc jarbcr spatgaj gssuc ni hgstg`bugsmg`b arkmacnjnbgkaj (kujturc)

arcas. [mgitg`b tn prcsc`t kn`trglutgn`s tn snkgaj bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnry lasch n` muda`

aktgn`, twn rckc`t tmcscs wgjj lc cxpjnrch inr tmcgr pntc`tgaj tn iurtmcr hgstg`bugsm spa-

tgaj icaturcs ni snkgajjy gìcrc`tgaj vajuc. @cgtmcr n`c mas partgkujarjy trgch tn arrgvc at

lcttcr u`hcrsta`hg`b ni (pmysgkaj) spckgfiks, ratmcr tmcy arc rcfi`cdc`ts ni tmc alnvctmat sgb`gfika`tjy kn`tgùc tmc cquaj ou`ktgn` ni tgdc a`h spakc g` prnkcsscs. A` at-

tcdpt wgjj lc dahc tn kn``ckt tmcgr tmcnrctgkaj hctagjs tn icaturcs ni spatgaj hatascts

tmat dgbmt càljc nppnrtu`gtgcs inr tmcnrctgkaj trcatdc`t ni datcrgajjy spckgfik gssucs g`

a snkgajjy dca`g`biuj way wgtmnut jnsg`b tnukm wgtm tmc brcatcr skajc ni tmg`bs.



Kmaptcr 8 Xmcnrgsg`b tnwarhs Hatascts





Xmcnrgsg`b tnwarhs Hatascts 77

Irnd \cbgnàjgsatgn` a`h Kujturc Arcas

Aitcr tmc jcvcj ni hctagj g`vnjvch g` tmc hgskussgn` ni Ajja` Vrch‗s kn`kcpt ni pjakc as

mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t prnkcss, wc nubmt tn taec a stcp lake a`h daec a` attcdpt

tn pnsgt gt g` akknrha`kc tn tmc jarbcr kn`tcxt ni cxtc`hch pjakc as a rcbgn`. Vrch

mgdscji ajrcahy cdpmasgsch tmat mgs tmcnry gs `n`-cdpgrgkgst a`h snkgajjy tntajgsg`b.

Dnrcnvcr, mc asscrtch tmat g` mgs apprnakm tn pjakc, pjakc knujh oust as casgjy appcaj

tn rcbgn`s a`h jarbcr arcas. Xmgs daecs pjakc a wghcjy appjgkaljc `ntgn`. [trctkmg`b

mgs rcasn`g`b tcdpnrajjy, tmc kn`tg`bc`t prnkcss ni lckndg`b gs a bc`cratgvc prnkcss.

Huc tn gts àturc a kn`tgùnus bc`cratgvc prnkcss ka` lc pjakch g` a` cvnjutgnàry

pcrspcktgvc, wmgkm G arbuc inr as a pnssgljc ahaptatgn` ni Vrch‗s ghcas. [n, hcspgtc

tmc nlvgnus pnssglgjgty inr tmc usc g` wmat Vrch mas ajtcràtgvcjy kajjch tmc dgkrn-

bcnbrapmgcs ni cvcryhay jgic (Vrch 17=8, Jnw a`h Jawrc`kc <669), n`c knujh taecmgs tmcnry tn gìnrd asscrtgn`s at lntm tcdpnrajjy a`h spatgajjy a dukm jarbcr skajc.

As wc startch irnd tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj g`qugry tn tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni snkgcty a`h gts

dnst rcahgjy avagjaljc datcrgaj cxprcssgn` g` spakc, tmrnubm Vrch wc day alstraktjy

injjnw tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni snkgcty ajn`bsghc tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni a spatgaj hatasct.

Xmc vajuc ni sukm bc`crajgsg`b aprgnrgstgk tmcnry g` hgskgpjg`cs wmgkm krcatch a prgdary

kn`kcr` wgtm cdpgrgkaj nlocktgvcs mas lcc` rcknb`gsch ly skmnjars jgec Juhwgb vn`

Dgscs (177=, scc kmaptcr n`c). G` tmc kn`tcxt ni rcbgn`s a`h tmcgr kn``cktgn` tn tmc

snkgaj, Bcrda` bcnbrapmcr Lc``n Rcrjc` taecs a sgdgjar va`tabc png`t, g`vcrtg`b

prcvgnus hgskgpjgàry aàjysgs irnd spakc. G` jgbmt ni tmc qucstgn`s wc sct nut wgtma`h tmc aàjytgkaj gìnrdg`b ni arkmacnjnbgkaj g`qugrgcs, tmgs stuhy stgjj scces tn krcatc

a kndparaljc g`vcrsgn` (nppnsg`b hgskursgvc gùc`kcs irnd \apnpnrt a`h spakc

sy`tax) inr arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc kn`kcr`ch wgtm spakc tmat trahgtgnàjjy starts irnd

tmc datcrgaj rcknrh.

Ajtmnubm G dc`tgn`ch Lc``n Rcrjc`‗s asscrtgn` lcinrc, tn apprckgatc gt iujjy tmgs

kmaptcr g`gtgajjy gs lugjt arnu`h sndc ni mgs prg`kgpaj ghcas. Mgs bcnbrapmgkaj g`tcrcst gs

dag`jy kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc kn`struktgn` ni rcbgn`s g` tmc cvcryhay. As wgtm ajj tmcnrgcs

dc`tgn`ch sn iar, tmc inu`hatgn` ni mgs `ntgn`s hcparts irnd aktg`b da`, lut mgs aà-

jytgkaj wmcrcalnuts arc spckgfikajjy sgtuatch g` dakrn jcvcj kn`sghcratgn`s. Xmc jarbcr

skajc ni mgs pcrspcktgvc kn``ckts a bc`cratgvc dgkrn skajc tn gssucs ni lnrhcrg`b, wmgkm

daecs sukm prnkcssgvc tmnubmt appjgkaljc tn kujturc arcas as wcjj. Mc rcknb`gscs tmat

da`y snkgaj prnkcsscs g`vnjvc a spatgaj kndpn`c`t wgtm `ntaljc cxadpjcs g` lnrhcr-

g`b a`h rcbgnàjgsatgn` prnkcsscs. Xn u`hcrsta`h tmcsc prnkcsscs a`h snkgn-spatgaj

rcjatgn`s dnrc kjcarjy, Rcrjc` says wc smnujh `nt inkus n` tmc spatgaj aspckts ni snkgaj

kn`hgtgn`s, lut n` tmc aktgvgtgcs wmgkm kn`stgtutc tmnsc snkgn-spatgaj rcjatgn`s, smgitg`b

irnd a bcnbrapmy ni spakc tn aktgn`, nr irnd a bcnbrapmy ni tmg`bs tn sulockts. Mc

strctkmcs g`tcrcst irnd hcskrglg`b rcbgn`s tn tmc rcbgnàjgsg`b gdpjgkatgn`s ni aktgvgtgcs.




Xmgs gs `nt tmc sadc as rcbgnàj aàjysgs, lut strcsscs cvcryhay rcbgnàjgsatgn`s (Rcr-

jc` <663, Rcrjc` 177=). Mc hgrcktjy arbucs tn kma`bc bcnbrapmgkaj hgsknursc ‚irnd

spatgaj hcskrgptgn` tn sulocktgvc u`hcrsta`hg`b a`h a snkgaj cxpjaàtgn` ni cvcryhay

bcnbrapmy-daeg`b.— (Rcrjc` <663? 82) Xmgs gs cvghc`tjy kndparaljc tn Vrch‗s kn`-

kcpt ni tmc lckndg`b ni pjakc a`h tmc dgkrn-bcnbrapmgcs ni cvcryhay jgic. Lut Rcrjc`

spckgajgscs g` rcbgnàj bcnbrapmy, wmcrcas Vrch rcdag`s at tmc g`tcriakc ni snkgaj a`h

mgstnrgkaj bcnbrapmy, dcrcjy mg`tg`b at gts pntc`tgaj inr rcbgn`s.

Rcrjc` hcvcjnps mgs tmcnrctgkaj sta`kc upn` tmc bcnbrapmgkaj prnbrcss irnd spatgaj

skgc`kc tn lcmavgnurgst a`h lcmavgnuraj bcnbrapmgcs g` nrhcr tn arrgvc at a muda`

bcnbrapmy inu`hch n` tmc nlocktgvcs ni Musscrj‗s a`h [kmútz‗s pmc`ndc`njnby.

As bc`crajjy hcskrglch g` kmaptcr n`c, tmc lcmavgnuraj apprnakm bavc way tn

pmc`ndc`njnby rcfi`cdc`t, sn Rcrjc`‗s aktgn` tmcnrctgkaj apprnakm smnujh `nt lc

knìusch wgtm gts prchckcssnrs. Vmc`ndc`njnby dahc muda` bcnbrapmy inkus n`knb`gtgvc prnkcsscs a`h tmc sulocktgvc u`hcrsta`hg`b ni pcnpjc‗s lcmavgnur. Xmgs gs

mnw pmc`ndc`njnby càljcs tmc ahhrcssg`b ni a sc`sc (dca`g`b) ni spakc tmat wnres

tnwarhs a` cxpcrgc`tgaj pjakc. Rcrjc` mnjhs tmat g` nrhcr tn aàjysc snkgcty g` gts spatgaj

hgdc`sgn`s spckgfikajjy, snkgcty smnujh `nt lc lasch n` a tmcnry ni lcmavgnur wgtmnut

g`knrpnratg`b a tmnrnubm aktgn` tmcnry (Rcrjc` 177=). Ly g`kjuhg`b a tcdpnraj

cjcdc`t g` tmc aàjysgs ni snkgaj spakc a`h ja`hskapc, Xgd G`bnjh (17=9) ajsn strcssch

tmat a tmcnry ni aktgn` smnujh lc at tmc lasgs ni cvnjutgnàry tmgèg`b. Mgs taec n`

tgdc was mcavgjy gùc`kch ly pmc`ndc`njnby as wcjj, cspckgajjy ly tmc iu`hadc`taj

vgcws ni Musscrj, DkXabbart (scc Jukas <663) a`h Dcrjcau-Vn`ty, wmn mcjh tmattmc passabc ni tgdc was aiicktch ly pcnpjc tmcdscjvcs tmrnubm tmcgr cdlnhgdc`t.

Dcrjcau-Vn`ty hgstg`bugsmch tmc passabc ni tgdc irnd tmc tgdc c`tagjch g` muda`

aktgn` gtscji. Inr lntm G`bnjh a`h Rcrjc` tmc pcrsn` gs tmc partgkgpa`t ni tgdc a`h

spakc, a hgrckt kn`scquc`kc ni tmc kn`kcptgn` ni sulockts as tcdpnraj a`h spatgaj

(scc G`bnjh <666). Xmcy g`tc`h tn kn``ckt a dgkrn skajc tn a dakrn skajc a`h kmnnsc

tmcgr pcrspcktgvc irnd tmc sulockt injjnwg`b pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj ghcas, hcspgtc tmc iakt

tmcy pursuc hgiicrc`t rcscarkm bnajs. Xn ahh tn tmgs, Chwarh Majj sgdgjarjy cdpmasgsch

tmc g`hgvghuaj (pnsgtgn`g`b tmc kn`kcpt as axgndatgk tn tcrrgtnrgajgty), g`hgkatg`b mnw

prnxcdgks knujh kn`trglutc tn tmc brcatcr u`hcrsta`hg`b ni snkgcty. Mc rcicrrch tn

a quntc irnd znnjnbgst En`rah Jnrc`z? ‚S`jcss n`c u`hcrsta`hs tmc cjcdc`ts ni a

kndpjctc systcd as a wmnjc, n`c ka``nt u`hcrsta`h tmcd at ajj.— (C. X. Majj 179=?

163) Xmgs asscrtgn` knujh ajsn lc pjakch g` tmc rcjatgnàj `ckcssgty ni a` aktgn` tmcnry

inr lcmavgnur cxprcssch ly Lc``n Rcrjc`. Rgtm pmc`ndc`njnby sulocktgvgty, g` tcrds

ni nrgc`tatg`b rccktgn` a`h g`tc`tgn`, gs g`kjuhch g` muda` aktgn`. Xmrnubm pcrsnàj

g`tc`tgn` tmc kn`skgnus hckgsgn`s ni ntmcr dcdlcrs ni snkgcty arc u`hcrstnnh. Aktgn`

gs, as gt wcrc, tmc atnd ni tmc snkgaj u`gvcrsc, lckausc gt kn`stgtutcs snkgcty as prgdary

dca`g`biuj rcajgty. Rgtm a lcttcr u`hcrsta`hg`b ni hckgsgn`-daeg`b, snkgaj bcnbrapmy




ka` pursuc lgbbcr a`h dnrc irugtiuj rcscarkm nlocktgvcs. [ukm a` aktgn` tmcnrctgkaj

apprnakm gddchgatcjy rcsujts g` tmc tmcnrctgkaj hcvgatgn` ni bcnbrapmy irnd tmc

nlocktgiyg`b praktgkcs ni spatgaj skgc`kc (Rcrjc` 177=).

N` tmc lasgs ni tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj ”wnrjh lg`hg`b‗ ni sulockts, Rcrjc` pnsgts

tmc cstaljgsmdc`t, tra`sinrdatgn` nr alnjgsmdc`t ni spatgaj hcdarkatgn`s as a dca`s

ni cvcryhay aktgvgtgcs, g`stcah ni tmcgr agd. Xmc prnkcsscs ni lnrhcrg`b spakcs arc tmc

hgrckt rcsujt ni wnrjh lg`hg`b. Vrcvgnus bcnbrapmgkaj hgsknursc wnujh gtscji kn`stg-

tutc rcbgn`s a`h spatgaj rcjatgn`s as c`tgtgcs ly kjassgfikatgn`, aktg`b as a` nlscrvatnry

skgc`kc (ki. kujturc mgstnry a`h snkgaj cvnjutgn`). Rgtm tmc asscrtgn`s alnvc, Rcrjc`

knu`tcrs tmgs praktgkc. Ajsn mc nppnscs startg`b bcnbrapmgkaj aàjysgs irnd spatgaj pmc-

`ndcà tn kndc tn snkgaj pmc`ndcà, lut ratmcr wnres tmc ntmcr way arnu`h (Rcrjc`

<663). Xmgs kn`kurs wgtm ̀ ntgn`s hcrgvch irnd pnstknjn`gaj a`h bjnlajgsatgn` tmcnrgcs.

Vnstknjn`gajgsd kmajjc`bcs tmc ways g` wmgkm knjn`gaj pnwcr a`h wcstcr` e`nwjchbclckndc taec` inr bra`tch ly qucstgn`g`b gts e`nwjchbc katcbnrgcs a`h assudptgn`s

(Lju`t a`h Rgjjs <666). [gdgjarjy, Rcrjc` arbucs abag`st tmc lnrhcrch spakcs gdpnsch

ly nlscrvatnry skgc`tgfik hgsknursc. [ukm hgsknursc gs wmat dag`jy hcfi`ch tmc prg`kgpaj

kujturc arcas g` arkmacnjnby. Xmgs mas prnhukch pcrsgstc`t iaujty jalcjs, vgsuajgsatgn`s

a`h daps tmat arc stgjj g` usc a`h stgjj hgrckt rcscarkm nlocktgvcs. Daps, mnwcvcr, smnujh

`cvcr lc taec` as u`dchgatch rcprcsc`tatgn`s ni tmc wnrjh, lut ratmcr arc snkgajjy,

pnjgtgkajjy nr skgc`tgfikajjy kn`struktch dca`g`biuj rcajgtgcs (ghcd). Xmgs nlscrvatgn`

ajsn bncs inr spatgaj skgc`kc a`h da`y typcs ni statgstgkaj ”trutms‗ lcg`b prnhukch g`

akahcdga g` bc`craj. G` arkmacnjnby tmc kujturc arcas wcrc nitc` hcjgdgtch ly bcn-brapmgkaj a`h jg`bugstgk nlscrvatgn`s g`stcah ni tmc snkgaj aspckts cdpjnych ly tmc

snkgcty suppnsch tn g`malgt tmnsc arcas. \ckc`tjy tmc `ntgn`s ni tra`sàtgnàjgsd a`h

g`tcràtgnàjgsd, dukm huc tn tckm`njnbgkaj ahva`kcdc`t, mavc npc`ch ntmcr jg`cs

ni kujturajjy kndparatgvc g`qugry (Kmcam <66;). Xmgs smnujh lc `n rcasn` tn rcirag`

irnd usg`b tmnsc g`sgbmts g` g`qugrgcs n` tmc past. [nkgctgcs a`h snkgajgty wnujh `nt

mavc taec` g`tn akknu`t akahcdgkajjy assudch lnrhcrs lcinrc tmcsc tckm`njnbgkaj

ahva`kcdc`ts, wmgkm ajjnws kujturaj kndparatgvc aàjysgs g` arkmacnjnby tn injjnw

vcry sgdgjar jg`cs ni rcasn`g`b jgec tmnsc rckc`t stuhgcs gùc`kch ly tra`sàtgnàjgsd

a`h g`tcràtgnàjgsd. As Kmcam rgbmtiujjy ases? ‚Gi kndpargsn` mas ajways prcsuppnsch

bcnbrapmgkaj nr kujturaj arcas tmat arc a prgnrg hgstg`kt a`h tn lc kndparch, mnw dust

tmc brnu`hs ni kndpargsn` lc rc-c`vgsgn`ch>— (ghcd? <)

Xur`g`b kndparatgvc a`h kjassgfikatnry hgsknursc arnu`h, Kmcam ahhrcsscs Lc`-

chgkt A`hcrsn`‗s kn`kcpt ni gdabg`ch knddu`gtgcs (Kmcam <66;, A`hcrsn` <669). Xmgs

ghca ka` lc tra`sicrrch tn tmc akahcdgk praktgkcs tmat Rcrjc` a`h G nppnsc. Da`y

kujturc arcas arc gdabg`ch n` tmc lasgs ni àturaj c`vgrn`dc`taj, jg`bugstgk nr styjgs-

tgk assnkgatgn`s `nt cstaljgsmch ly rcscarkm n` tmc snkgcty rcsghg`b tmcrc. A`hcrsn`‗s

`ntgn`s arc ni partgkujar g`tcrcst lckausc gi àtgn`s arc gdabg`ch, tmus daeg`b tmcd




gàhcquatc lascs inr g`tcrprctgvc hgsknursc (ghcd), tmc kujturc arca hcfi`ch ly as-

snkgatgnàj gdpnsgtgn` sgdgjarjy wgjj lc `n bnnh as aàjytgkaj u`gts. Kmcam bncs n` tn

hgskuss A`hcrsn`‗s dag` arbudc`ts abag`st tmc hcdarkatgn` ni arcas? tmc fiktgnàj à-

turc ni daps, tmc g`vcstdc`t ni dca`g`b rcsujtg`b irnd gdpcrgaj g`tcrvc`tgn` a`h tmc

way vgrtuajjy ajj knu`trgcs g` ckn`ndy a`h pnjgtgks `nw arc part ni, gùc`kch ly, a`h

gdpakt bjnlaj prnkcsscs (Kmcam <66;). G` arkmacnjnby tmc hclatc n` knddu`gtgcs gs

stgjj n`bng`b, cxcdpjgfich ly as da`y ahvcrsargcs as ahvnkatcs inr lntm tmc gdabg`ch

knddu`gty a`h àturaj (statgkajjy lnu`hch) knddu`gty. Xmgs dca`s a` cxpjgkgt hcaj-

g`b wgtm tmc tnpgk gs stgjj dukm g` hcda`h (Gslcjj <666). Nur kn`kcr` mcrc hncs `nt

jgc wgtm hckn`struktg`b arcas pcr sc, lut tmc way arcas nr rcbgn`s arc kn`struktch g`

cvcryhay praktgkc, aktuajjy partaeg`b ni tmc abc`ha g`kjuhg`b A`hcrsn`‗s gdabg`ch

knddu`gtgcs. Gt gs gdpnrta`t tn ̀ ntc tmat tmc arcas kurrc`tjy hgvghg`b spakc arc usuajjy

ni skgc`tgfikajjy gdpnsch àturc. Rcrjc`‗s aktgn` tmcnrctgkaj apprnakm tn rcbgnàjgsa-tgn` day gìnrd us mnw arcas nkkur g` a snkgajjy dca`g`biuj way. Mgs pmrasc ”spakc

gs a` cjcdc`t ni aktgn`, aktgn` gs `nt a` cjcdc`t ni spakc‗ mas gdpjgkatgn`s inr tmc

stuhy ni rcbgnàjgsatgn` a`h lnrhcrg`b prnkcsscs a`h tmc wghcr kn`kcpt ni cvcryhay

bcnbrapmy-daeg`b (Rcrjc` <663).

Xnwarhs \cbgnàjgsatgn` a`h Kujturc Arcas

[mgitg`b irnd spakc tn aktgn` g` bcnbrapmy g`vnjvcs lntm a` n`tnjnbgkaj `ckcssgty a`h

a dctmnhnjnbgkaj gdpjgkatgn`. Rcrjc` mnjhs tmat a`swcrs tn qucstgn`s n` tmc n`tnjnbyni rcscarkm nlockts a`h n` tmc aàjytgkaj dctmnhnjnbgcs arc rcjcva`t tn n`c a`ntmcr

(Rcrjc` <663). G` kn`trast, tmc hgstg`ktgn` ni tmc bcnbrapmgkaj hgskgpjg`c n` tmc lasgs

ni ”spakc‗ gs ajsn appjgkaljc tn ”datcrgaj rcdag`s‗ as tmc hcdarkatgn` ni arkmacnjnby.

[gdgjar tn tmc way tmc status ni spakc `cchs tn lc cxpjag`ch g` gts snkgaj n`tnjnbgkaj

kn`tcxt g` nrhcr tn g`tcbratc sukm kn`kcpt g` bcnbrapmgkaj rcscarkm, tmc sadc ̀ cchs tn

lc hn`c inr datcrgaj rcdag`s sn tmcy trujy day lckndc tmc kn`kcr` ni arkmacnjnbgkaj

g`vcstgbatgn`. Xmgs ajsn dca`s tmat g` inrdujatg`b a tmcnry inr sukm rcscarkm nlocktgvcs

n`c smnujh taec g`tn akknu`t tmc pnssglgjgty tn inrdujatc a dctmnhnjnby g` wmgkm tmc

rcscarkmaljc nlockts rcicr tn lntm tmcnry a`h dctmnhnjnby. G` bcnbrapmy spakc mas

lcc` kn`kcptuajgsch as a kausc inr snkgaj aktgn`, as a kn`tag`cr ni tmc snkgaj wnrjh,

a`h as nlocktgfich snkgn-kujturaj dca`g`b, Rcrjc` suddargscs. Xmcsc mavc g` knddn`

tmat spakc gs a prc-bgvc` tn muda` aktgn`, daeg`b tmc aàjysgs ni spakc a kcrtag`

eg`h ni snkgn-kujturaj rcscarkm. Xmgs rcjatcs tn a supcrfikgaj vgcw ni tmc snkgn-kujturaj,

nlstruktg`b hccpcr u`hcrsta`hg`b ni wrgtg`b a`h spcckm, pcrtag`g`b tn a` nutsghc

vgcw g` tmc datcrgaj sc`sc. Hgiicrg`b snkgaj n`tnjnbgcs gdpjy nr cxprcss spckgfik dnhcs

ni bcnbrapmy-daeg`b. Rmat gs u`hcrstnnh ly tmc ”spatgaj‗ hcpc`hs n` (kma`bcs

ajn`b) spckgfik dnhg npcra`hg ni bcnbrapmy-daeg`b u`hcrjyg`b tmc vargnus snkgaj



Xmcnrgsg`b tnwarhs Hatascts 16;

n`tnjnbgcs (c.b. tmc kma`bc irnd a trahgtgnàj dnhus npcra`hg ni bcnbrapmy-daeg`b

tn bcnbrapmy-daeg`b g` tmc kn`hgtgn` ni jnkaj cvcryhay jgic) (ghcd).

Rmgjc tmc trahgtgnàj dnhus npcra`hg ni bcnbrapmy g`vnjvcs tmc rcstrag`t ni snkgaj

g`tcraktgn`s tgch tn datcrgajgty, tmc dnhus npcra`hg ni tmc ainrcdc`tgn`ch bjnlajgsa-

tgn` prnkcss npc`s `cw nppnrtu`gtgcs hgssnjvg`b tmgs rcstrag`t (ghcd). As ajsn subbcst-

ch g` Bghhc`s‗ hgsta`kgatgn`, aktnrs `n jn`bcr `cch tn lc pmysgkajjy prcsc`t (Bghhc`s

17=8). Dnrcnvcr, Vrch‗s mgbmcr jcvcj ni jnkajjy gùc`tgaj pnwcr rcjatgn`s agds at tmc

sadc (Vrch 17=9). Kausch ly tmc kn``cktgn` lctwcc` tmc datcrgajgty ni tmc abc`ts‗

lnhgcs a`h dca`g`b, Rcrjc` kn`tgùcs mgs akknu`t ni bcnbrapmgkaj hcvcjnpdc`t. Xra-

hgtgnàjjy, bcnbrapmgkaj aàjysgs inkusch n` tmc stuhy ni spakcs a`h gts kausaj pnwcr.

Hcspgtc tmc cdpgrgkaj cvghc`kc, gt knìusch (knddu`gkatgvc) kn`stcjjatgn`s a`h tmcgr

hcskrgptgn` as spatgaj katcbnrgcs. Xmgs gs mnw ajj aktgn`s rckcgvch a` nlocktgfich prc-bgv-

c` spakc. Gt jcbgtgdgsch tmc kn`tag`crgsatgn` ni snkgctgcs a`h rcbgnàjgsatgn` ni kujturcs.[tgjj tmc inkus rcdag`ch n` spakc a`h cxpjaàtnry hgsta`kc (abc`ts‗ rcakm ni kn`trnj

g` tmcgr aktgvgtgcs) as tmc nlockt ni stuhy. Xmc jatcst smgit tn bcnbrapmgkaj kn`stcjjatgn`s

a`h snkgaj n`tnjnbgcs hcdn`stratcs tmat a spakc-kc`trch vgcw ni cvcryhay jgic ka`-

`nt lc suifikgc`t. Xmc rcjatgn` lctwcc` dca`g`b a`h dattcr was `cvcr fixch, lut a

kma`bg`b rcprcsc`tatgn` ni snkgn-kujturaj praktgkcs (Rcrjc` <663). Dca`g`b dgbmt

ajsn g`kjuhc sydlnjgsd wmgkm hncs `nt kng`kghc wgtm tmc u`hcrjyg`b ratgnàjgty ni gts

kn`struktgn`. Xmgs pcrdgts a hgrckt tra`sicrc`kc n` arkmgtckturaj nlockts, wmnsc mgstnry

nitc` hgskjnscs mnw tmcgr dca`g`bs mavc u`hcrbn`c rcvgsgn`s a`h rcg`tcrprctatgn`s

(aitcr Rcrjc`? Azaryamu <661). A rcjatgn` tn Vrch‗s (17=8, 17=9) mgstnrgkaj kn`tg`bc`tprnkcsscs gs casgjy dahc, a`h n`c ka` gdabg`c tmc dca`g`b scarkmch inr ly \apnpnrt

(17=<) lcg`b part ni gt, tmnubm hcpartg`b irnd a spatgaj vgcwpng`t. Bjnlajgsatgn` a`h

tckm`njnbgkaj hcvcjnpdc`ts càljch abc`ts, cdpmasgsg`b jnkaj kn`hgtgn`s a`h tmc

scparatgn` ni dca`g`b, lnhy, a`h datcrgaj. ‚S`hcr tmcsc kn`hgtgn`s tmc ”rcaj‗, `n`-

sulsta`tgaj n`tnjnby ni spakc lckndcs nlvgnus.— (Rcrjc` <663? 87) Xmcrc gs `n rnnd

inr kn`tgùg`b tmc vgcw tmat spakc cxgsts g` sndc g`hcpc`hc`t way as a kn`tag`cr nr

sndctmg`b tmat (sulsta`tgajjy) cxgstch lcinrc snkgaj praktgkcs (ghcd) (ki. G`bnjh <666

n` tmc c`vgrn`dc`t). [n wmgjc pmc`ndc`njnby, pnstknjn`gajgsd a`h bjnlajgsatgn`

dahc Rcrjc` rcajgsc tmgs, snkgaj praktgkcs as tmc prnhukcrs ni spakc wcrc oust as dukm

part a`h parkcj ni tmc past. G`tcrprctatgn` ni spakc `cchs tn taec tmgs g`tn akknu`t.

Inr arkmacnjnby nltag`s, oust as dukm as inr bcnbrapmy, tmat inr a dnrc ciicktgvc

dctmnhnjnby ni cvcryhay bcnbrapmy-daeg`b wc smnujh jcavc tmc parahgbdatgk pn-

sgtgn`g`b ni spakc (nr datcrgajgty) at tmc kc`trc ni g`qugry. [patgaj prnljcds lckndc

prnljcds ni kcrtag` typcs ni aktgn`, g`vnjvg`b lnhgcs a`h tmg`bs, knrpnrcajgty, datcrgaj-

gty a`h pmysgkajgty. G` fijjg`b g` a` ‚”aktgn`-kc`trch pcrspcktgvc‗, a`h hgskarh spakc as a

startg`b png`t g` gtscji, wc inkus n` tmc cdlnhgch sulockt, tmc knrpnrcajgty ni tmc aktnr,

g` tmc kn`tcxt ni spckgfik sulocktgvc, snkgnkujturaj a`h datcrgaj kn`hgtgn`s. Rc ahnpt




tmc` a pcrspcktgvc tmat cdpmasgscs sulocktgvc abc`ky as tmc hrgvg`b snurkc ni aktgn`

a`h mc`kc ni snkgaj kma`bc, wmgjc gt ajsn strcsscs tmat kn`hgtgn`s ni tmc snkgaj a`h da-

tcrgaj wnrjh ”smapc‗ snkgaj aktgn`s, wmgjc tmc jattcr prnhukc a`h rcprnhukc snkgaj a`h

pmysgkaj kn`hgtgn`s.— (Rcrjc` <663? 87-36) [ukm prnkcsscs arc inu`h g` Vrch‗s tmcnry

as wcjj, ajtmnubm jcss kncrkgvcjy kn`kcptuajgsch. Rcrjc`‗s vgcw g`mglgts tn scc spakc

as kn`stgtutg`b tmc snkgaj wnrjh. Mnwcvcr, lckausc tmc sulockt gs cdlnhgch, pmysgkaj

kn`hgtgn`s rcdag` rcjcva`t tn aktgn`s, lut aktgn`s ka``nt cxkjusgvcjy lc cxpjag`ch ly

tmcd. Xmcrcinrc, g` nrhcr tn cxpjag` aktgn`s a`h g`tcraktgn`s, pmysgkaj kn`hgtgn`s ̀ cch

tn lc systcdatgkajjy akknu`tch inr. Nlocktgfich spakc (tmc pmysgkaj c`vgrn`dc`t ni tmc

lnhy) ka``nt hctcrdg`c aktgn`s nr tmc aktnrs‗ iradc ni rcicrc`kc. [pakc as a iradc ni

rcicrc`kc gs gtscji tmc prnhukt ni aktgn`s. [pakc a`h datcrgajgty hn `nt mavc a dca`g`b

g` tmcdscjvcs, lut n`jy bct dca`g`b tmrnubm g`tcrprctatgn`s g` tmc knursc ni g`tcrak-

tgn`s, g` tmc kn`tcxt ni g`tc`tgn`s a`h snkgaj a`h sulocktgvc kn`hgtgn`s (ghcd).Dnst `ntgn`s ni spakc g` bcnbrapmy arc artgkujatgn`s ni bcndnrpmnjnby, wmgkm

tmcnrctgkajjy kjagd a eg`h ni g`hcpc`hc`t status rcjatch tn aktgn`s. Xmgs ajjnws tmc

`ntgn` tmat snkgcty fi`hs gts cxprcssgn` g` spakc a`h tmat bcnbrapmgkaj spakc ka` lc

u`hcrstnnh as a inntprg`t ni past snkgaj prnkcsscs. Xmc adlgvajc`kc g` tmgs rcscarkm

nlocktgvc, hcspgtc snkgaj tmcnrctgkaj ciinrts g` tmcnrgsg`b spakc, kn`sgsts ni taeg`b sndc

inrd ni rcprcsc`tatgn` ni nlockts as wmat ka` lc tmcnrgsch. Gt icchs tmc ratmcr ckjcktgk

hclatc n` spakc, usg`b kn`stcjjatgn`s ni cjcdc`ts ni bc`craj snkgaj tmcnrgcs. Rcrjc`

kajjs Jciclvrc‗s (1771) ”prnhuktgn` ni spakc‗ tn tmc attc`tgn` a`h kn`tc`hs tmat Jcic-

lvrc mas `nt rcken`ch wgtm tmc lasgk assudptgn`s ni mgs tmcnry. N`c smnujh lc awarctmat Jciclvrc‗s spakc gs vcry kn`kcptuaj a`h mgstnrgkaj5 gt gs ̀ nt datcrgajgstgkajjy rcaj a`h

hncs `nt cxgst g`hcpc`hc`tjy ni snkgaj praxgs. Xmgs dca`s tmat tmc sgb`gfika`kc ni spa-

tgajgtgcs inr snkgaj praktgkcs ka` n`jy lc kndprcmc`hch tmrnubm u`hcrsta`hg`b nlockts

as kn`stgtutgvc cjcdc`ts ni snkgaj aktgn` (Rcrjc` <663). Xmc assudptgn`s Rcrjc` wrgtcs

alnut ka` abag` lc inu`h dag`jy g` pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj jgtcraturc. Kndparaljc snurkcs

ni g`spgratgn`, sukm as tmnsc G`bnjh uscs inr mgs pnsgtgn`g`b ni da` g` tgdc a`h spakc,

arc paradnu`t mcrc, jgec Mcghcbbcr‗s cxgstc`tgajgsd a`h Dcrjcau-Vn`ty‗s vgcw n` tmc

g`trg`sgkajjy tcdpnraj a`h spatgaj sulockt (G`bnjh <666). Ajsn, tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj

lg-gdpjgkatgn` a`h tmc dutuaj pcrkcptgn` ni cdlnhgdc`t a`h tmc (spatgaj) c`vgrn`-

dc`t appcar gdpjgkgtjy prcsc`t. Xmc ckjcktgk usc ni snkgaj tmcnrctgkaj spakc g` bcnb-

rapmy ajjnwch a pnsgtgn` g` wmgkm snkgcty gs tmcnrctgkajjy kn`kcptuajgsch a`h spakc gs

`nt. Xmcrcinrc spakc `cchs tn lc kn`kcptuajgsch n` tmc lasgs ni a` abc`ky-kc`trch

aàjysgs ni snkgcty (Rcrjc` <663).

[g`kc arkmacnjnby hcda`hs tn aàjysc tmc snkgn-kujturaj aspckts ni muda` aktgvg-

tgcs startg`b irnd a kn`kcptgn` ni spakc, gt akts cxaktjy tmc sadc as snkgaj bcnbrapmy.

Xmcrcinrc wc ka` injjnw Rcrjc` g` sayg`b tmat a`y ahcquatc kn`kcptgn` ni spakc rc-

qugrcs rcicrc`kc tn tmc lasgk prg`kgpjcs ni appjgch snkgaj tmcnry. Vraktgkc gs `nt g`hc-




pc`hc`t irnd spakc, `nr hncs spakc cxgst g`hcpc`hc`tjy. ‚”[pakc‗ hncs `nt cxgst nut-

sghc a spckgfik tmcnrctgkaj iradcwnre.— (Rcrjc` <663? 31) [ukm kn`struktgn` ni g`tcr-

àj trutm ajjnws inr pjuraj kn`kcptgn`s a`h kn`scquc`t nutkndcs g` tmc trcatdc`t ni

spakc. Dukm jgec tmc kn`kcptuaj rcjatgvgsd ni Mgjjary Vutàd‗s (17=1) g`tcràj rcajgsd.

G` hcvcjnpg`b a dctmnhnjnby inr spatgaj gìcrc`kc g` arkmacnjnby wc ̀ cch tn avngh tmc

pgtiajjs hcdn`stratch ly bcnbrapmy. Xmc dctmnhnjnbgkaj prnljcd gs tmat nlocktgfich

spakc gs ajjnwch a` cxpjaàtnry iu`ktgn` g` aktgn`s a`h snkgaj strukturc wgtmnut dae-

g`b gts kausaj rnjc a`h pntc`tgaj cxpjgkgt. Ajsn, spakc tmc` usuajjy g`knrpnratcs scvcraj

kndpjcdc`tg`b kn`kcpts ni spakcs (ki. Jciclvrc 1771), wmgkm kndpjgkatcs knmcrc`t

krgtgqucs (Rcrjc` <663).

Rcrjc` àdcs Rnjiba`b _gcrmnicr as n`c ni tmc icw cxkcptgn`s, taeg`b spakc as

tmc iradc ni rcicrc`kc ni aktnrs (ghcd). Xn a` cxtc`t tnbctmcr wgtm A`hrcas Enkm, tn

wmnd wc wgjj tur` jatcr g` tmgs kmaptcr, Lc``n Rcrjc` a`h Rnjiba`b _gcrmnicr inrd adnvcdc`t tmat bncs abag`st ”spakc ictgsmgsd‗ g` bcnbrapmy. \cscarkmcrs jgec _gcrmnicr

a`h Rcrjc` asscrt tmat a`y scdgntgks ni spakc gs dca`g`bjcss lckausc gt knujh lc rc-

pjakch ly jnkatgn`, hgsta`kc, arca, dnvcdc`t, ctk. (Enkm <663). _gcrmnicr kn`kcptu-

ajgscs spcckm akts as tmc iradcwnre inr tmc aàjysgs ni bc`craj g`tcraktgn`s. _gcrmnicr

cxpjag`s tmat tmc snkgnjnbgkaj trahgtgn` ni aktgn` tmcnrgcs rcbarhs tmc snkgaj as kn`stg-

tutch ly g`tcraktgn`s, a`h tmc kn`kcpt ni ”aktgn`‗ rcprcsc`ts kcrtag` aktgvgtgcs as g`tc`-

tgnàjjy strukturch cvc`ts. A` aktgvgty gs a` aktgn` gi gt injjnws a purpnsc a`h strgvcs tn

akmgcvc a bnaj. Xmc agd gs tn kma`bc a sgtuatgn` ly usg`b a partgkujar dca`s tn a` c`h.

Aktgn`s arc g`tc`tgnàjjy strukturch5 mnwcvcr, tmcy prnhukc g`tc`hch a`h u`g`tc`hchkn`scquc`kcs (_gcrmnicr <66<). _gcrmnicr‗s kn`sgstc`t kn`kcpt ni aktgn` kn`kurs wgtm

Juhwgb vn` Dgscs‗ (177=) muda` aktgn`. Aktgn`s ka``nt lckndc tra`skc`hc`taj wgtm

`n`cssc`tgajgst pcrspcktgvcs, sn aktgn`s arc scc` as a rmctnrgkaj skmcdc appjgch ly ak-

tnrs, daeg`b tmcd dutuajjy akkcssgljc nr kndprcmc`sgljc. _gcrmnicr, mnwcvcr, sccs

a iurtmcr hgstg`ktgn`. Mc arbucs a hgiicrc`kc g` aktgn`s wc ka` pcrinrd ajn`c a`h ak-

tgn`s wmgkm, jgec tmc spcckm akt, rcqugrc a part`cr. Xmc jattcr hcpc`h n` a sc`hcr a`h

rckcgvcr tn lc sukkcssiuj. Xmc rcaktgn` gs a `ckcssary aspckt ni tmc ciicktgvc`css ni tmc

g`tc`tgn` ni tmc spcckm akt. G`tc`tgn` g`kjuhcs ntmcr aktgn`s, smapg`b u`gts ni g`tcrak-

tgn`, tmus mavg`b snkgaj aktgvgty as a rcsujt. Aktgn`s agdch at nurscjvcs arc a hgiicrc`t

kjass ni aktgn`s tma` tmnsc wmnsc sukkcss hcpc`hs n` ntmcr aktnrs. Rgtmg` spcckm akts

tmcrc gs a vgrtuajjy u`jgdgtch hgvcrsgty ni aktgn`s, a`h `cw n`cs arc ajsn lcg`b hcvcj-

npch (_gcrmnicr <66<).

Hcspgtc tmc usciuj`css ni ja`buabc prabdatgks tn gjjudgàtc sukm hgiicrc`tgatgn`,

G scc jgttjc prnbrcssgvc ahva`tabc g` gt. Xmc hgiicrc`tgatgn` hncs `nt taec g`tn akknu`t

tmc scji-rcicrc`tgaj u`hcrsta`hg`b sulockts mavc ni ntmcrs a`h nlockts. Cvc` g` aktgn`s

wmgkm wc pcrinrd ajn`c a`h inr wmgkm wc hn `nt `cch a rckcgvcr, tmc kn`scquc`kc

ka` stgjj lc(kndc) snkgaj. Xmc kma`bcs gt dgbmt kausc g` tmc c`vgrn`dc`t arc g`vcstch




wgtm muda` dca`g`b, c.b. g` tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc, tmc akt lcg`b wgt`cssch

nr tmc nlscrvch kn`scquc`kc. Xmgs gs pnssgljc g` cgtmcr g`tc`hch nr u`g`tc`hch kascs.

G` cxckutg`b a` aktgn`, tmc g`tcraktgn` wgtm tmc `n`-snkgaj c`vgrn`dc`t kn`trglutcs

tn tmc u`hcrsta`hg`b ni nurscjvcs. [ukm cxpcrgc`tgaj e`nwjchbc wgjj lc karrgch g`tn

sulscquc`t snkgaj g`tcraktgn`s, wmgkm hgrcktjy g`vnjvc scji-rcicrc`tgaj ghc`tgfikatgn` ap-

pjgch tn nur prnspcktgvc part`crs (ki. [kmútz‗s stnke ni e`nwjchbc (Kadplcjj 17=1,

Clcrjc 17=8). Lckausc ajj aktgn`s (g`kjuhg`b g`tcraktgn`) arc dca`g`biujjy u`hcrstnnh

tmrnubm scji-rcicrc`tgaj prnkcsscs, ajj aktgn`s n`c mas pcrinrdch ajn`c (nr ajj wgt`cssch

aktgn`s ni ntmcrs a`h kn`scquc`kcs ni aktgn`s pcrinrdch ajn`c ly ntmcrs) wgjj rcckt

g` snkgaj g`tcraktgn`. Cvc` tmnubm n`c dgbmt hgstg`bugsm kcrtag` typcs ni aktgn`s lasch

n` tmcgr kmaraktcrgstgks, lcg`b muda` aktgn` pcrinrdch g` a wnrjh wgtm ntmcrs, aktgn`s

`cvcr trujy sta`h ajn`c. Vcrkcgvg`b a`h aktg`b g` a wnrjh gìusch wgtm tmc rcsujts ni

muda` aktgn`s pcrinrdch (ajn`c) ly ntmcrs, mnwcvcr pntc`tgajjy rcstrgktch, gs g`hgrcktsnkgaj g`tcraktgn`. Oust as wgtm ja`buabc, aktgn`s wgtm snkgaj g`tc`tgn`s arc g`tcjjgbgljc

tmrnubm tmc assudptgn` tmat tmcy ka` lc u`hcrstnnh scji-rcicrc`tgajjy. Xmgs prnkcss gs

stgjj npcratg`b g` nlscrvg`b tmc pcrinrda`kc nr kn`scquc`kc ni gsnjatch aktgn`s. G` a

way, n`c knujh arbuc tmat, wgtmnut tmgs pnssglgjgty, arkmacnjnby as a snkgaj skgc`kc mas

`n brnu`h.

_gcrmnicr hncs ake`nwjchbc tmat snkgcty gs `nt lugjt up nut ni spcckm akts ajn`c.

Mc mnjhs tmat tmcy strukturc tmc dctalnjgsd ni snkgcty, tmnubm tmc lgnpmysgkaj wnre

ka``nt lc hn`c wgtm wnrhs. As bcnbrapmy hcajs wgtm dca`g`b a`h dattcr, aktgn`

tmcnry `cchs tn taec lntm spcckm akts a`h nrhgàry akts g`tn akknu`t. _gcrmnicr ahhstn tmgs tmc gdpnrta`t ̀ ntgn` tmat knddu`gkatgn` hcpc`hs n` pmysgkaj dchgatnrs. Xmus

g`tcraktgn` (knddu`gkatgn`) prnvghcs tmc pntc`tgaj tn nrba`gsc nr strukturc pmysgkaj

kn`hgtgn`s, lut ̀ nt vgkc vcrsa. Ja`buabc càljcs cvcrytmg`b tn lc rcprcsc`tch a`h tmc

arbudc`tatgn` tmat injjnws day rcbujatc rcjcva`t aktgvgtgcs. ‚Rc day rcbarh ja`buabc

as a dctajcvcj (nr a rccxgvc spmcrc) ni snkgaj rcajgty, a`h wc day taec spcckm akts as

tmc ecy tn tmc strukturatgn` ni snkgcty.— (_gcrmnicr <66<? 1;9<)

_gcrmnicr arbucs mgs spcckm akts bn lcyn`h g`tcrsulocktgvgty. Bghhc`s, pmc`nd-

c`njnby, a`h Rcrjc` taec g`tcrsulocktgvgty as lg`hg`b tmc aktgn`s ni hgiicrc`t aktnrs

tnbctmcr. G` tmcgr vgcw tmc knnrhgàtgn` ni aktgn`s gs tmc nutkndc ni kndpatgljc sul-

ocktgvc pcrspcktgvcs. Gt gs `nt knddu`gkatgn`, lut tmc cxpcrgc`kcs ni g`tcraktgn` tmat

strukturcs dca`g`b a`h snkgaj nrhcr (_gcrmnicr <66<, Rcrjc` 177=, <663, Bghhc`s

17=8). Xmc kmaraktcrgstgk ni spcckm akts wmgkm ly tmcgr g`tc`tgn` g`kjuhc ntmcr aktgn`s,

gs inr _gcrmnicr tmc n`jy truc lg`hg`b ni aktgn`s, mc`kc snkgaj. Ja`buabc gs oust a dca`s

inr dca`g`b tn lc tra`spnrtch irnd n`c pcrsn` tn tmc ntmcr, ratmcr tma` bc`cratg`b

dca`g`b a`h knnrhgàtg`b g`tcraktgn` rccxgvcjy. [pcckm akts arc lg`hg`b g` tmcgr hc-

da`h ni spckgfik rcaktgn`s. Xmcy arc sukkcssiuj gi tmat rcaktgn` gs pcrinrdch, lasch n`

a dutuaj akkcptaljc g`tcrprctatgn` ni aktgn`s a`h a` abrccdc`t n` tmc g`tc`tgn` ni




tmc aktgn`. Xmus spcckm akts arc kn`stgtutgvc ni snkgaj nrhcr a`h, g` lcg`b dchgatch ly

a pmysgkaj dca`s, tmgs mas a hgrckt spatgaj gdpjgkatgn`. Inr _gcrmnicr, g`tcrsulocktgvgty gs

dcrcjy a prckn`hgtgn` inr snkgaj nrhcr, tmc kn`tag`cr ni dca`g`b vcrsus tmc dca`g`b

ni knnrhgàtgn` (_gcrmnicr <66<).

Ajtmnubm G apprckgatc tmc g`tc`tgnàj lg`hg`b inrkc ni spcckm akts, tn dc tmc hgi-

icrc`tgatgn` passcs n` tmc g`sgbmt tmat tmc pcrinrda`kc ni knddu`gkatgn` hcpc`hs n`

tmc sulocktgvgty ni tmc sc`hcr g` gts inrdujatgn` ni tmc dcssabc, a`h n` tmc sulocktgvgty

ni tmc rckcgvcr tn hcknhc tmat dcssabc. G` iakt, as statch lcinrc, tmc u`hcrsta`h-

g`b inrkc ni ja`buabc gs ajsn a` assudptgn` n` tmc lasgs ni g`tcrsulocktgvgty. Rmat

appcars as nrhcr gs `n jcss kmantgk tma` tmc g`hgrckt knddu`gkatgn` cstaljgsmch ly

tmc pcrinrda`kc ni ntmcr akts. Wct tmrnubm tmc rcpctgtgvc partgkgpatgn` g` knjjcktgvc

prnockts tgch tn spckgfik tgdc-spakc sgtuatgn`s a`h tmc cxpcrgc`kch knddu`gkatgn`

g`vnjvch tmcrc, tmc lgnbrapmgcs ni sulockts brnw dnrc ajgec a`h ja`buabc lckndcsdnrc kn`sgstc`tjy kn`snjghatch (ki. tgdc-bcnbrapmy a`h Ajja` Vrch). [tgjj, lntm tmc

jcar`g`b a`h utgjgsg`b prnkcsscs cdpjnych arc `n jcss sulocktgvc at a`y stabc. Gt sccds

tmat _gcrmnicr‗s asscrtgn`s rc`hcr sulockts as dukm lake g`tn passgvgty as pnststrukturaj-

gsd hgh lcinrc, hcspgtc g`knrpnratg`b rccxgvgty. Gt jca`s tnn dukm n` assudptgn`s ni

a` u`knrruptch (`n`-g`hgvghuaj) passgvc jcar`g`b prnkcss, jgec [kmútz‗s knddn` stnke

ni e`nwjchbc nr c.b. Varsn`s `nrdatgvc tntaj snkgaj systcd. G` tmgs jattcr cxadpjc, a`

aktnr smnujh daec knìnrdg`b kmngkcs ni aktgn` inr tmc rcqugrch kn`sc`sus tn arrgvc

at a`h kn`tgùc a snkgcty (Kadlcjj 17=1). Xmc knddn` nr ̀ nrdatgvc nrhcr knujh vcry

wcjj lc hnkudc`tch a`h inrdajgsch, nr ajtcràtgvcjy lc nlscrvch ly skgc`tgsts, ycte`nwjchbc a`h kn`scquc`t dca`g`biuj aktgn`s arc g`hgvghuajjy sulocktgvc. Kn`kcptu-

ajgsg`b a rcqugrcdc`t ni sukm ahnptch passgvgty ly sulockts rchukcs tmc bcùg`c`css ni

kmngkc nr ircchnd tn tmc sukkcss ni snkgaj nrhcr. Apprnakmcs ni vn` Dgscs, aspckts ni

[kmútz, ntmcr pmc`ndc`njnbgsts, Rcrjc` a`h cvc` Rclcr, fi`h tmgs ratmcr pnsgtgvgstgk

rchuktgn` u``ckcssary.

Xmc strc`btms ni _gcrmnicr arc prcsc`t g` mgs hcparturc irnd spakc as a kc`trcinjh

png`t ni hcparturc inr bcnbrapmgkaj gìcrc`kc a`h mgs tmnrnubm kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni

spcckm akts as a typc ly ja`buabc prabdatgks, wmgkm dgbmt mcjp kcrtag` spckgajgsch

aàjytgkaj inkg. @cvcrtmcjcss, tmc mazarh ni da`y jg`bugstgk tmcnry apprnakmcs gs tmat

tmcy tc`h tn prgnrgtgsc ja`buabc prabdatgks as a paradnu`t way ni kn`huktg`b aàjy-

sgs, `nt ajjnwg`b jatcraj aàjytgkaj ajtcràtgvcs. Ajj gs rcicrrch tn as ja`buabc. [pcckm

akts arc `nt a sgb`gfika`tjy strn`bcr lg`hg`b inrkc, lckausc cquaj tra`spnrtatgn` ni

dca`g`b hncs `nt cxgst. Xmc g`tcrsulocktgvc lg`hg`b g` snkgaj jgic gs ajsn a inu`hatgn`

inr tmc snkgaj gìcrc`tgaj kapakgty ni arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc, g` wmgkm G fi`h tmat g`tcr-

prctatgn` gs pnssgljc n` tmc lasgs ni rcscarkmcrs stuhyg`b tmcgr nw` spckgcs, ajtmnubm

tmcy mavc lcc` hgsta`kch g` tgdc-spakc. Hcspgtc tmc appcajg`b ajtcràtgvc, G tc`h tn

abrcc wgtm tmc kn`tgùa`kc ni g`tcrsulocktgvgsd as kn`tag`ch g` Rcrjc`‗s apprnakm.




@nw kn`tgùg`b n` Rcrjc`‗s pcrspcktgvc, G wgjj prnkcch wgtm twn dgsu`hcrsta`h-

g`bs g` tmc bcnbrapmgkaj kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni spakc. Lasch n` tmc g`gtgaj Kartcsga`

knìusgn` ni cxtc`sgn` a`h knrpnrcajgty, tmc spatgaj rcprcsc`tatgn` ni pmysgkaj-datcrgaj

c`tgtgcs mas lcc` knìusch wgtm tmc ghca ni pmysgkaj datcrgaj spakc. [ckn`hjy, tmc

sgb`gfika`kc ni tmc spatgaj nrhcrg`b ni pmysgkaj-datcrgaj tmg`bs as snkgaj praktgkcs mas

lcc` ljc`hch wgtm tmc ghca ni tmc spatgaj cxgstc`kc ni snkgn-kujturaj iakts. Xn avngh tmc

kn`scquc`kcs ni tyg`b snkgaj pmc`ndcà tn pmysgkaj kn`hgtgn`s, tmc n`tnjnbgkaj sta-

tus ni spakc `cchs cxpjgkatgn`, spakcs rcqugrc hgiicrc`tgatgn` irnd ntmcr spakcs, a`h,

akkudujatgvcjy, spakc smnujh lc pjakch g` tmc kn`tcxt ni hgiicrc`t dca`g`biuj snkgaj

pcrinrda`kcs. ‚Gi ”spakc‗ wcrc cquaj tn cxtc`sgvc datcrgajgty UHcskartcsT gt wnujh mavc

tmc status ni a` nlockt.— (Rcrjc` <663? 3<) ([ndc rcjatch Kartcsga` arbudc`ts rcicr-

rg`b tn abc`ky ka` lc inu`h g` a`ntmcr inrd g` _gcrmnicr <66<.) Xmgs gdpjgcs tmat gt gs

pnssgljc tn hgstg`bugsm tmc tntajgty ni ajj datcrgaj nlockts a`h spakc as a` nlockt lcyn`htmat tntajgty, wmgkm gs `nt tmc kasc. Lut inr Rcrjc`, spakc gs `cgtmcr a datcrgaj nlockt,

`nr a kn`sgstc`t tmcnrctgkaj nlockt. G`stcah, gt gs a inrdaj kn`kcpt? a iradc ni rcicrc`kc

inr tmc pmysgkaj kndpn`c`ts ni aktgn`s a`h tmc càljg`b a`h hgsaljg`b pmysgkaj kn`hg-

tgn`s ni pcrinrdg`b aktgn`s. Gt gs inrdaj lckausc gt gs hctakmch irnd tnpgkaj aspckts ni

nlockts5 gt gs ”kjassgfikatnry‗ g` tmc sc`sc tmat gt hcskrglcs a` nrhcr ni nlockts rcjatch tn

tmcgr hgdc`sgn`s. G` tmgs way, spakc ka` lc usch as da`ginjh hgiicrc`t sgb`gfikatgn`s g`

cvcryhay aktgn`s, tmc dca`g`b ni wmgkm ka` n`jy lc kndprcmc`hch g` gts rcjatgn` tn

muda` aktgvgty a`h gts lnhgjy karrgcr. As sukm spakc lckndcs twninjh, gt lntm prckchcs

a`h kn`stgtutcs aktgn` a`h gt gs a snkgn-kujturaj kn`struktgn`, inrdg`b a tnnj inr tmcstrukturaj rcjatgn` lctwcc` dca`g`b a`h dattcr a`h a startg`b png`t inr tmc snkgaj

tmcnrgsatgn` ni spakc (Rcrjc` <663). Xmc gssucs rcbarhg`b spakc as a` nlockt nr tntajgty

mavc ajsn lcc` ahhrcssch ly pmgjnsnpmgk snkgnjnbgst @gejas Jumda`` (Ar`njhg <661),

g` wmgkm autnpngctgk tmcnry pjays a jarbc rnjc. [ndc attc`tgn` wgjj lc bgvc` tn tmgs jatcr

n`, aitcr mavg`b hgskussch sndc systcdgk `ntgn`s ni Enkm (<663).

Rcrjc` hncs apprckgatc Jciclvrc‗s ahva`kcdc`t g` hgskcr`g`b tmrcc hgiicrc`t eg`hs

ni kn``cktgn`s lctwcc` praktgkc a`h spakc g` snkgaj tmcnrctgkaj kn`kcptuajgsatgn`? first,

spatgaj praktgkc a`h pcrkcgvch spakc5 sckn`h, rcprcsc`tatgn` ni spakc a`h kn`kcgvch

spakc5 tmgrh, spakc ni rcprcsc`tatgn` a`h jgvch spakc (Rcrjc` <663, Jciclvrc 1771).

Mnwcvcr, Rcrjc` strcsscs gt gs gdpnrta`t tn rcknb`gsc tmat tmc snkgaj a`h spatgaj arc

kndpatgljc n` tmc n`tnjnbgkaj a`h kn`kcptuaj jcvcj. Rgtmnut tmgs `ntgn`, aàjysgs wgjj

inkus n` tmcnrctgkaj rcasn`g`b g`stcah ni tmc prnhuktgn` ni cvcryhay snkgaj praktgkcs

u`hcr rcscarkm. Gt dca`s tmat aktgn` ajn`c mas tmc kapakgty tn kn`stgtutc snkgaj rcajgty,

a`h tmat spakc gs n`jy a kn`kcptuaj dchgud ni aktgn`. Hcpc`hg`b n` tmc kmaraktcr

ni aktgn`, spakc gs kn`kcptuajgsch akknrhg`bjy, wmgkm `ckcssgtatcs tmat gts katcbnrg-

kaj hgdc`sgn`s rcqugrc kndpatglgjgty wgtm aktgn`s‗ snkgaj iradc ni rcicrc`kc (Rcrjc`

<663). [ukm kndpatglgjgty ajsn `cchs tn lc akkcptch inr arkmacnjnby, sg`kc wgtmnut gt




n`c ka` stgjj inkus n` spakc hgvnrkch irnd snkgajgty, wmgkm knìuscs tmc snkgaj rcscarkm

abc`ha. [cparatg`b tmcd wnujh `nt taec g`tn akknu`t tmc g`trg`sgk muda` kn`hgtgn`

ni da`‗s spatgajgty a`h tcdpnrajgty, wmgkm g`mglgts a` aàjytgkaj inkus n` sulockts. Xmc

kn`kcptuaj kndpatglgjgty daecs tmc cvcryhay snkgaj prnkcsscs g`scparaljc irnd tmc

prnhuktgn` ni pmysgkaj cxprcssgn`s (spatgajgtgcs). @cvcrtmcjcss, n`c smnujh taec karc

`nt tn knìusc tmnsc tmcnrctgkaj aspckts wmgkm ahmcrc tn tmc sulockts u`hcr stuhy wgtm

a prcnkkupatgn` ni tmnsc tmat pcrtag` tn skgc`tgfik hgsknursc (ghcd), as lntm g`tcrcsts sn

pcrdcatc tmc arbudc`ts dahc alnvc.

Xmc hgdc`sgnàj hgiicrc`kcs ni inrdaj a`h kjassgfikatnry g`tcrprctatgn`s ni spakc rc-

sujt g` akknrhg`b hgiicrc`kcs g` tmc (aktgn`-lasch) kn`stgtutgn` ni spakc (cxprcssg`b tmc

g`tcrprctatgn`). Xmgs kn`stgtutgn` hcpc`hs n` tmc spckgfik g`tcrkn``cktgn`s lctwcc`

tmc lnhy a`h ntmcr sgtuatgnàj datcrgaj aspckts. G` taljc <, Rcrjc` rcknb`gscs a tmrcc-

way hgvgsgn`?

Aktgn` Inrdaj Hgdc`sgn` Kjassgfikatnry Hgdc`sgn` Cxadpjcs

\atgnàj Dctrgk

Alsnjutc

Kjassgfikatnry

Kajkujatgn`

Ja`h darect (kapgtajgst)

Jnkatgn` tmcnry

@nrdatgvc Dctrgk

Lnhy-kc`trch

Kjassgfikatnry-rcjatgnàj

@nrdatgvc

Vrcskrgptgvc

Xcrrgtnrgaj statc

Lake-/irn`t-rcbgn`

Knddu`gkatgvc Lnhy-kc`trch \cjatgnàj

[gb`gfikatgn`

\cbgnàj/àtgnàj ghc`tgty

\cbgnàj sydlnjs

Xaljc <, rcprnhukch aitcr Rcrjc` <663? 3; (Ki. Enkm <663 stabcs ni tra`sjatgn` nr struk-

turaj jgèabcs lcjnw )

\atgnàjgty, nr bcndctry, gs kndparaljc tn Rclcr‗s hcdystgfikatgn` ni tmc wnrjh? kar-

tnbrapmgk rcprcsc`tatgn`s, kapgtajgst ja`h darects a`h kjnkech jalnur darects arc ajj

dahc pnssgljc tmrnubm inrdajgsch spakcs. N` tmc ̀ nrdatgvc jcvcj, tcrrgtnrgajgsatgn`s arc

prnhukch (ki. C. X. Majj‗s (179=, <669) prnxcdgks). Xmc inrdaj aspckt gs tmc bcndctrgk

apprnprgatgn` ni cxtc`sgn`s g` a lnhy-kc`trch way. Gt gs kjassgfikatnry g` tmc rcjatgn`

lctwcc` lnhy a`h datcrgaj kn`tcxt, a`h tmc `nrdatgvc prcskrgptgn` (”wmcrc n`c ka`

hn wmat‗, ly autmnrgtatgvc kn`trnj ajsn). Xmcsc rcbujatc prcskrgptgvc rcbgnàjgsatgn` ly

tmc g`- a`h cxkjusgn` ni aktnrs a`h utgjgtgcs. Xmc knddu`gkatgvc nrgc`tatgn` ni aktgn`

gs ajsn lnhy-kc`trch, g` wmgkm tmc lnhy gs jgèch tn cxpcrgc`kc (stnke ni e`nwjchbc)

a`h tmc dca`g`biuj a`h npcratgnàj lasgs ni sulocktgvc aktgn`. Xmc dca`g`b ni nlockts

hcpc`hs n` tmc e`nwjchbc a`h usc wc mavc inr tmcd. [ydlnjgk dca`g`b gs tmus kn`-

stgtutch ly tmc rcjatgn` lctwcc` e`nwjchbc a`h g`tc`tgn`, tmc ecy icaturc ni cvcryhay

bcnbrapmy-daeg`b (Rcrjc` <663). G wnujh jgec tn strcss tmat g` tmc apprnprgatgn` ni




pcrsnàj tcrrgtnrgajgtgcs, cxpcrgc`kc gs a` gdpnrta`t aspckt ajsn. Xmc cxpcrgc`kc ni tmc

lnhy g` rcjatgn` tn gts pmysgkaj c`vgrn`dc`t a`h tn ntmcr aktnrs as pmysgkaj prcsc`kcs,

gs cxprcssch g` hgsta`kcs (tmat ka` lc dctrgkajjy rcprcsc`tch) injjnwg`b upn` aktgn`s

aiicktch ly tmat cxpcrgc`kc. G` kn`trast tn _gcrmnicr‗s (<66<) jgecjy prcnkkupatgn` wgtm

tmc knddn` stnke ni e`nwjchbc, Rcrjc` mcrc tajes ni a` cxpcrgc`tgaj stnke ni e`nwj-

chbc tmat g`kjuhcs ircchnd ni kmngkc, scjcktgn` a`h g`tcrprctatgn` kn`tag`ch g` gts

pcrsnàj akqugsgtgn`.

Rgtm Rcrjc`‗s apprnakm tmc praxgs ni cvcryhay bcnbrapmy-daeg`b a`h gts n`tn-

jnbgkaj a`h kn`kcptuaj kn``cktgn` tn spakc lckndcs tmc inkus, wgtm spckgaj attc`tgn`

tn tmc usc ni spatgaj kn`kcpts g` tmnsc cvcryhay prnkcsscs. Gt injjnws tmc tc`hc`ky ni

muda` bcnbrapmy tn kn`kc`tratc n` cvcryhay praktgkcs, lut akknrhg`b tn Rcrjc`

dnst pcrspcktgvcs hn `nt daec kn`scquc`tgaj gdpjgkatgn`s cxpjgkgt (c.b. bcnbrapmcrs

sukm as Vrch, Brcbnry, Xmrgit). \cbgnàj bcnbrapmy mas lckndc dnrc snpmgstgkatch, yct tmc png`t ni hcparturc gs stgjj tmc rcbgn`, ratmcr tma` tmc daeg`b ni a`h kn`stgtutgvc

prnkcsscs ni rcbgnàjgsatgn`. Xrahgtgnàjjy, rcbgnàjgsatgn` gs tmc bcnbrapmgkaj praxgs ni

spatgaj kjassgfikatgn`, wmgjc at tmc cvcryhay jcvcj gt gs tmc prnkcss ni apprnprgatgn` a`h

hcjgdgtatgn`. Vmysgkaj darecrs arc `n dnrc tma` datcrgaj rcprcsc`tatgn`s ni sydlnjgk

hcjgdgtatgn` ni `nrdatgvc sta`harhs. Datcrgaj kn`hgtgn`s arc `nt snkgaj kn`strag`ts?

n`jy snkgaj `nrds arc. Xmcrcinrc spatgajgtgcs `cgtmcr kausc `nr arc rcasn`s inr aktgn` g`

a`h ni tmcdscjvcs. Xmcy cxgst snkgajjy tn tmc cxtc`t tmat tmcy arc usch as a dca`s inr

katcbnrgsatgn` a`h sydlnjgk rcprcsc`tatgn` ni aktgn`s. \cbgnàjgsatgn` gs firstjy a (`n`-

spatgajjy hcjgdgtch) scjcktgvc apprnprgatgn` ni tmc wnrjh. Rcrjc`‗s cvcryhay rcbgnàjgsa-tgn` gs a inrd a`h a prnkcss ni wnrjh-lg`hg`b, tmc praxgs ni ajjnkatgvc apprnprgatgn` ni

datcrgaj nlockts a`h sulockts. \cbgnàjgsatgn` gs a praxgs ni rc-cdlchdc`t, tn lrg`b

tmc wnrjh (g` spatgn-tcdpnraj rcicrc`kcs) u`hcr tmc kn`trnj ni aktnrs. Xmgs kn`trnj

càljcs tmc hgrcktgn` ni sulockts‗ nw` aktgn` nr ntmcrs‗ pnsscssgvc praktgkcs. Gt gs tmcrc-

inrc ‚`nt tmc prnhuktgn` ni ”spakcs‗ tmat gs ni kc`traj g`tcrcst, lut tmc usc ni spatgaj

a`h tcdpnraj hgdc`sgn`s (iradcs ni rcicrc`kc) inr hgiicrc`t typcs ni apprnprgatgn`.—

(Rcrjc` <663? 39)

Inr Rcrjc` da`y ni tmcsc `ntgn`s mavc hgrckt gdpjgkatgn`s inr tmc way wc scc tmc

dnhcr` hay wnrjh. Ajtmnubm nur kn`kcr` hncs `nt prgdargjy jgc wgtm kurrc`t sgtua-

tgn`s, ajdnst ajj ni tmc alnvc ka` lc appjgch qugtc hgrcktjy g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc.

Gt jcts us apprckgatc tmc pjuraj kmaraktcr ni a`y snkgaj lnrhcrg`b prnkcss wmgkm mas jch

tn datcrgaj cxprcssgn`s. Gt hcda`hs tmat wc rcasscss nur daps a`h tmc skgc`tgfikajjy

hraw` lnrhcrs. Huc tn rcbgnàjgsatgn`, tmc rcbgn` gs `n jn`bcr a statgk kn`kcpt, lut

ratmcr kn`tgùajjy kma`bg`b a`h lcg`b prnhukch. Jgec kndduàj dcdlcrsmgps, spa-

tgaj cxprcssgn`s dgbmt ahmcrc tn vargnus apprnprgatg`b prnkcsscs. Dnrcnvcr, rcbgn`s

ka` aktuajjy nvcrjap tn vargnus hcbrccs. Irnd tmgs knujh injjnw tmat a kujturc arca, gi

pmysgkajjy cxprcssch, smnujh pcrtag` tn da`y snkgaj prnkcsscs ni rcbgnàjgsatgn` tmat






ni muda`s a`h tmcgr jgic-wnrjh, Enkm‗s tmcsgs tmat tmc rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` tmc snkgaj

kn`struktgn` ni spatgajgty a`h tmc spatgaj kn`struktgn` ni snkgajgty gs dutuajjy hcpc`hc`t

a`h syddctrgkaj sccds appcajg`b (ki. Jciclvrc 1771). Enkm fi`hs mgdscji g`spgrch ly

tmc ghca ni Jumda``‗s autnpngctgk systcds , systcds tmcnry a`h Aktnr @ctwnre Xmcnry

(A@X). G` tmgs mc strcsscs tmat systcds tmcnry rcpjakcs tmc snkgaj kausatgn` ni spakc

wgtm a rckgprnkaj rcjatgn`smgp ni snkgajgty a`h spatgajgty, a`h dnst systcd tmcnrctgkaj

apprnakmcs mavc iagjch tn hcaj wgtm spakc ahcquatcjy (ghcd). Mnwcvcr, mc hcvgatcs

irnd dy nw` kn`vgktgn`, ajsn prcsc`t g` Rcrjc` (<663), g` bgvg`b cquaj prgdaky tn

spakc as tn tmc snkgaj. Cvc` tmnubm Rcrjc` a`h ntmcrs apprckgatc tmc gùc`kc ni spakc

n` nur lcg`b, tmgs gùc`kc ajsn wnujh n`jy lckndc sgb`gfika`t tmrnubm g`hgvghuaj a`h

snkgaj tcrds ni cxpcrgc`kc. Enkm tmus scts nut tn cquajgsc tmc pnsgtgn`s ni spakc a`h

tmc snkgaj. Hcspgtc nur ùa`kch hgsabrccdc`ts, mc prnpnscs g`tcrcstg`b ghcas wmgkm

day wnre as a` g`kgtcdc`t tn bughc nur attc`tgn` tn kcrtag` icaturcs g` spatgaj hatasctswmgkm ka` lc rcscarkmch wgtm arkmacnjnby‗s cdpgrgkaj dctmnhs.

Gt smnujh ajsn lc `ntch tmat wmgjc G pnsgtch Enkm g`gtgajjy ajn`bsghc Rcrjc` a`h

_gcrmnicr, mc da`ncuvrcs mgdscji g` a pnsgtgn` as dchgatnr. Mc hncs `nt lcjn`b g` tmc

kadp ni ”spakc ictgsmgsts‗, lut bncs n` wgtm tmc `ntgn` tmat cvc` ”spakc cxnrkgsts‗ aj-

jnw a hasm ni dca`g`b g` tmcgr kn`kcpts ni spakc (g` tcrds ni sulsta`kc) (Enkm <663).

G` ntmcr wnrhs, mc gs prcparch tn taec tmc lgttcr wgtm tmc swcct. Xmrnubm tmgs mc ap-

prnakmcs pmc`ndc`njnby dnrc tma` tmc ratmcr kn`struktgvgst vgcwpng`ts ni Rcrjc`

a`h _gcrmnicr. Abag`st tmat lakebrnu`h wc ka` cvajuatc mgs ciinrts. G` a kndparatgvc

da``cr, mc hncs tn `ntgn`s ni spakc g` bcnbrapmy wmat G`bnjh hncs tn tmc `ntgn`ni ja`hskapc g` a`tmrnpnjnby a`h arkmacnjnby. G`bnjh subbcsts tmat a inkus n` tmc

tcdpnrajgty ni ja`hskapc ‚dgbmt càljc us tn dnvc lcyn`h tmc stcrgjc nppnsgtgn`

lctwcc` tmc àturajgstgk vgcw ni tmc ja`hskapc as a `cutraj, cxtcràj lakehrnp tn mu-

da` aktgvgtgcs, a`h tmc kujturajgstgk tmat cvcry ja`hskapc gs a partgkujar knb`gtgvc nr

sydlnjgk nrhcrg`b ni spakc.— (G`bnjh <666? 1=7) Enkm mnjhs tmat kn`tag`cr spakc mas

lcc` tnn casgjy assnkgatch wgtm datcrgaj `ntgn`s ni wnrjh, trutm nr rcajgty, wmgjc g` iakt

gt smnujh lc scc` as a rcprcsc`tatgn`. Mc prnpnscs tn rcpjakc tmc jgè ni kn`tag`cr

spakc as tmc `n`-datcrgaj lakebrnu`h wgtm stabcs ni tra`sjatgn`. Rnrjh as a hcjglcr-

atc alstrakt (dctapmysgkaj) `ntgn`, g`kjuhg`b lntm tmc spatgaj kn`struktgn` ni snkgcty

a`h tmc snkgaj kn`struktgn` ni spakc, rcdag`s u`rcakmaljc g` cakm stabc. Ajj cjcdc`ts

rcdag` g`hcpc`hc`t (autn`ndnus) a`h dutuajjy kn`stgtutgvc inr a rcprcsc`tatgn` ni

wnrjh. Xra`sjatgn`s gdpjy tmat cquatg`b tmc (rcprcsc`tatgvc) gdabc a`h tmc sgb`gfich gs

gàpprnprgatc inr tmc snkgaj prnkcss ni kn`struktgn`, lut at tmc sadc tgdc subbcst tmat

tra`sjatgn`s arc `ckcssary tn daec tmc rcjatgn`smgp ni spatgaj a`h snkgaj kn`struktgn`s

laja`kch. ‚Ajj scdgntgks ni spakc gs cdlchhch g` a kndpjcdc`tary kgrkjc ni rcicrc`kcs

tn dnhcj tmc ”wnrjh‗.— (Enkm <663? 9) Kn`tag`cr spakc gs as rcaj as a`y `ntgn` (nr

alstrakt spckgfikatgn`) ni spakc. Irnd tmgs injjnws tmat g` tmc spatgaj kn`kcpt ni wnrjh,



Xmcnrgsg`b tnwarhs Hatascts 11;

spakc akmgcvcs a hyàdgk a`h g`hcpc`hc`t quajgty. Xmc rujcs hcfi`g`b spatgajgty arc

hgiicrc`t irnd tmnsc hcfi`g`b snkgajgty. Inr tmc cdcrbc`kc ni a mylrgh wnrjh, g`hcpc`h-

c`t prnpcrtgcs arc uàvnghaljc. Rgtm tmc assudptgn` ni dn`gst n`tnjnbgkaj hgiicrc`kcs

ni pcrkcptgn`, `n mylrgh knddu`gtgcs nr spatgajgtgcs ka` lc gdabg`ch. Xn krcatc a

syddctry, Enkm prnpnscs tmc usc ni systcds tmcnry g` kn`sghcrg`b spatgaj systcds as

systcds g` tmc c`vgrn`dc`t ni snkgaj systcds (ghcd).

Xmc prnljcd wgtm tmcsc lasgk assudptgn`s gs tmat kn`tag`cr spakc gs a snkgaj ̀ ntgn`

ajsn, sg`kc sukm lakebrnu`h gs a pcrkcptuaj kn`kcptuajgsatgn`. Xmat dca`s tmat tmc

spatgaj systcds g` tmc (lakebrnu`h) c`vgrn`dc`t dust ajsn lc a snkgaj kn`struktgn`.

Xra`sjatgn`s arc u``ckcssary, sg`kc tmrnubm cdlnhgdc`t muda` lcg`bs arc hgrcktjy

spatgaj, oust as tmcy arc hgrcktjy tcdpnraj tmrnubm tmcgr pmysgnjnbgkaj fiàjgty. Xmcgr ak-

tgn`s as g`tcraktgn`s arc hgrcktjy c`vgrn`dc`taj, lc tmcy snkgaj nr pmysgkaj, a`h g`mcr-

c`tjy tcdpnraj as wcjj. Ajj gs u`hcrstnnh tmrnubm prnkcsscs ni pcrkcptgn`, nitc` injjnw-g`b a`h hgrcktch ly aktgn`. Mc`kc tmcrc gs ̀ n ̀ cch inr syddctry as sukm. Eccpg`b tmgs

g` dg`h, a kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni spatgaj systcds g` tmc pcrkcptuaj c`vgrn`dc`t ni snkgaj

systcds knujh stgjj lc irugtiuj.

Enkm‗s ghca ni a systcd gs mcavgjy gùc`kch ly @gejas Jumda``, wmn g` tmc wnre

ni Musscrj a`h Varsn`s inu`h mgs g`spgratgn`, g` spgtc ni tmcgr usuajjy nppnsch pnsgtgn`s.

Inr mgd tmc snkgaj systcd gs a` nrba`gk systcd kapaljc ni scji-rcbujatgn`, dukm tmc

sadc as inr Varsn`s, lut mc tnne tmc ̀ ntgn` ni autnpngcsgs irnd lgnjnby (tmc prnhuktgn`

a`h rcprnhuktgn` ni sg`bjc kcjjs ly tmcdscjvcs) a`h kn`tgùch gt g`tn tmc snkgaj systcd.

Autnpngcsgs, nr autn scji-krcatgn`, mcrc g`knrpnratcs a iu`hadc`taj hgajcktgk lctwccìu`ktgn` a`h strukturc. Mnwcvcr, Jumda`` dnvch away irnd Varsn`s‗s strukturaj

iu`ktgnàjgsd g` prnpnsg`b tmat snkgaj systcds arc systcds ni knddu`gkatgn`, `nt

aktgn`. Xmgs sydlnjgk knddu`gkatgn` gs nlscrvg`b nr dca`g`b-kn`stgtutg`b g` snkgaj

systcds, a way ni daeg`b sc`sc ni tmc c`vgrn`dc`t (Ar`njhg <661). [ukm prgdaky ni

knddu`gkatgn` ajsn ajjnws inr tmc àrrnw inkus n` spcckm akts as prnpnsch ly _g-

crmnicr (<66<), lut g` Enkm‗s tmcnry gt lckndcs ni gdpnrta`kc ly kjagdg`b tmat spakcs

ka` knddu`gkatc (Enkm <663). Jumda`` kmnsc a dghhjc brnu`h lctwcc` tmc cxtcr-

àjjy pjakch aktgn` ni Varsn`s a`h tmc g`tcràjjy pjakch aktgn` ni pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj

cxpcrgc`kc. Aktgn`s arc cxtcràj tn aktnrs, lckausc aktnrs arc rchukch tn psykmgk sys-

tcds, wmgjc aktgn`s arc kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc snkgaj systcd as daeg`b sc`sc (nlscrvg`b)

g` pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj tcrds. Jumda`` hncs `nt stuhy mnw aktgn`s arc knnrhgàtch

g`tn aktgn` systcds, `nr hncs mc hcskrglc snkgaj nrhcr tmrnubm aktnrs‗ cxpcrgc`kcs. Mc

inkuscs n` dca`g`b-prnkcssg`b snkgaj systcds, hrgvc` ly a knddu`gkatgvc prnkcss ni

daeg`b sc`sc, g.c. mnw a systcd daecs tmc c`vgrn`dc`t g`tcjjgbgljc (Ar`njhg <661).

Jumda`` appjgch autnpngcsgs as a `ntgn` ni kn`stgtutgn` irnd wgtmg` gtscji, tn tmc

kn`tcxt ni snkgaj systcds jgèch tn scji-rcicrc`kc. Injjnwg`b Musscrj, mc asscrts tmat tmc

Lnnjca` jnbgk ni hgiicrc`tgatgn` gs tmc dnst lasgk npcratgn` tmrnubm wmgkm a`ytmg`b




dca`g`biuj nr g`tcjjgbgljc da`gicsts gtscji inr tmc nlscrvcr. Xmgs jnbgk gs kn`kcr`ch wgtm

hgstg`ktgn`s (c.b. tmgs vs. tmc ntmcr, g`sghc vs. nutsghc), wmgkm arc tmc inu`hatgn` ni

nlscrvg`b a`h dca`g`b. Xmcrcinrc, tmg`bs lckndc g`tcjjgbgljc. [ndctmg`b gs hgstg`kt

irnd sndctmg`b cjsc. [ukm hgstg`ktgn`-inrds arc kc`trcinjh tn Jumda``‗s dca`g`b. G`

knddu`gkatgn` gt gs cxaktjy tmgs dca`g`b (hgstg`ktgn`, sn `ntmg`b cjsc) tmat gs knddu-

`gkatch. Xmgs dca`g`b kn`stgtutgn` gs ̀ nt kn`kcr`ch wgtm nppnsgtcs (ki. strukturajgsd),

lut kn`tag`s gts nw` nutsghc (scji-rcicrc`kc). G` tmc cvc`t ni hgstg`ktgn`, tmc systcd

gtscji gs kn`stgtutch ajsn, mc`kc autnpngcsgs. Nlscrvatgn` kn`stgtutcs tmc nlscrvcr. [n

tmc hgstg`ktgn` gs twninjh? gt hgstg`bugsmcs tmgs irnd tmc ntmcr, a`h tmc nlscrvcr (sys-

tcd) irnd gts c`vgrn`dc`t (Ar`njhg <661). Xmc strc`btm ni tmc autnpngctgk apprnakm

gs tmc inkus gt jays n` tmc kn`stgtutgvc prnkcss ni a systcd wgtmg` gtscji. G` lgnjnby gt

mas lcc` krgtgkgsch inr ru``g`b tmc rgse ni hgkmntndgsg`b pnsgtgn`s tn a` ajj-nr-`ntmg`b

prg`kgpaj ni jgic inrds (Lruu` a`h Ja`bjags <66;). Wct g` Jumda``‗s sc`sc, autnpngctgksystcds hgiicrc`tgatc tmcdscjvcs irnd ntmcrs, a`h tmat gs ajsn kjcarjy rcknb`gsaljc g`

Enkm‗s usc ni gt.

Lruu` a`h Ja`bjags, mnwcvcr, try tn cstaljgsm a lgnjnbgkaj lasgs inr aktgn` tmcnry,

wgtmnut rcicrrg`b tn snkgn-lgnjnby nr cvnjutgnàry psykmnjnby. Xmcy ajsn wnre tnwarhs

Aktnr @ctwnre Xmcnry as a pjausgljc rcasn`g`b lcmg`h tmgs. Xmc lgnjnbgkaj tmcnry ni

autnpngcsgs knujh prnvghc a lcttcr tmcnrctgkaj inu`hatgn` inr tcjcnjnbgkaj cxpjaàtgn`s

ni aktgn`. Inr tmgs tmcy hgskcr` twn jcvcjs ni abc`ky. Xmc first gs lcst u`hcrstnnh g`

tcrds ni a` autnpngctgk prnkcss ni sta`harhgsch c`vgrn`dc`taj hgstg`ktgn`s. Xmrnubm

strukturaj knupjg`b (a mgstnry ni rckurrc`t g`tcraktgn` jcahg`b tn strukturaj kn`bru-c`kc) ni twn nr dnrc systcds, kcrtag` icaturcs ni tmc c`vgrn`dc`t arc kn`stgtutgvc inr

tmc autnpngctgk prnkcss, mc`kc tmc g`trnhuktgn` ni tmc tcrd kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`ts .

Xmgs daecs tmc ghc`tgfikatgn` ni tmc lnu`hargcs ni a` autnpngctgk systcd prnljcdatgk,

lckausc sndc parts ni tmc c`vgrn`dc`t arc g`tcràj tn tmc systcd, g.c. tmc systcd gs

partgajjy cxtc`hch g`tn tmc c`vgrn`dc`t. Lruu` a`h Ja`bjags‗ sckn`h jcvcj ni abc`ky gs

u`hcrstnnh g` tcrds ni aktgn` jgec pcrkcptgn`, g`tc`tgn`, purpnsc, dntgvc a`h ghc`tgty.

Aktgn`s arc kn`tcxt-hcpc`hc`t, sn tmcy mavc tmcgr kn`stgtutgvc kn`tcxts, wmgkm gs `nt

tmc sadc as kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`ts. Xmgs hgvgsgn` ni abc`ky smnujh `nt lc scc` as

tmc trahgtgnàj nppnsgtgn` ni lnhy a`h dg`h, lut as a` ajtcràtgvc g` wmgkm tmcrc gs g`-

tcraktgn` lctwcc` tmc jcvcjs. S`hcrsta`hg`b tmc (sul-pcrsnàj) first jcvcj mcjps u`hcr-

sta`h tmc pcrsnàj sckn`h jcvcj. ‚Lnhy a`h aktgn` arc g`tcrhcpc`hc`t g` ways tmat arc

sgb`gfika`t inr u`hcrsta`hg`b tmc kn`hgtgn`s u`hcr wmgkm muda` aktgn` gs pcrinrdch.

Rc subbcst tmat aktgn` gs cdlnhgch g` tmc sc`sc tmat kcrtag` pmysgnjnbgkaj prnkcsscs

arc g`tcràj g` rcjatgn` tn gt, tmcy pjay a kn`stgtutgvc rnjc inr gts pcrinrda`kc.— (Lruu`

a`h Ja`bjags <66;? 83) N`c smnujh apprckgatc tmat Lruu` a`h Ja`bjags‗ rcscarkm abc`-

ha gs ratmcr hgiicrc`t irnd Enkm‗s, lut tmgs lgt ni lakebrnu`h day scrvc as a lrghbc

irnd tmc lgnjnbgkaj a`h pmgjnsnpmgkaj autnpngcsgs tn Enkm‗s snkgn-spatgaj systcds.




Xn cxpjag` mgs sc`sc ni systcd, Enkm rcicrs tn Jumda``‗s iadgjy as a snkgaj systcd

a`h mndc as a spatgaj systcd (Enkm <663). Xmgs daecs tmc alstrakt tmcnry dnrc ta`bg-

ljc, mc`kc tmc kn`kgsc rcprnhuktgn` mcrc. G` Jumda``‗s snkgaj systcd, iadgjy gs ni tmc

g`tcraktgn` typc wmgkm kn`sgsts ni knddu`gkatgn` (`nt g`hgvghuajs). Xmc rcjatgn` ni sys-

tcd cjcdc`ts rcsujts irnd jgèg`b knddu`gkatgn`s. Knddu`gkatgn` gs a sy`tmcsgs ni

gìnrdatgn`, dcssabc a`h u`hcrsta`hg`b. G`hgvghuajs arc jgèch tn tmc knddu`gkatgn`

systcd (iadgjy) ly psykmgk a`h nrba`gk systcds, systcds g` tmcgr c`vgrn`dc`t scrvg`b

as ahhrcsscs tn cxckutc knddu`gkatgn`. Gt gs a` npcratgnàjjy kjnsch systcd (mavg`b a

lnu`hary wgtm tmc nutsghc), wmgkm gs autnpngctgk. Xmc knddu`gkatgn` systcd hcpc`hs

n` tmc ong`g`b ni knddu`gkatgn`. Rmc` knddu`gkatgn` gs `nt pcrinrdch, tmc systcd

tcdpnrargjy kcascs tn cxgst. Iadgjy smnujh `nt lc rcbarhch as oust a snkgaj systcd,

lckausc gt cxgsts lcyn`h tmat hcfi`gtgn`. Inr Jumda`` gt ajsn c`tagjs tmc psykmgk (Ar-

`njhg <661) a`h inr Enkm tmc spatgaj systcds. Xmcsc arc `ckcssary inr tmc cdcrbc`kca`h cxgstc`kc ni tmc autnpngctgk snkgaj systcd (ki. kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`ts Lruu`

a`h Ja`bjags <66;) (Enkm <663). Dnst iadgjgcs arc spatgajjy tgch tn a mndc, tmc spa-

tgaj systcd. Xmc rcqugrch knddu`gkatgn` g` spatgaj systcds mas a hgiicrc`t kn`tcxtuaj

dca`g`b. Gt gs a sy`tmcsgs ni bcndctry, tnpnjnby, a`h iuzzg`css. Xmc rcicrc`kc ni spatgaj

systcds gs kn`bruc`ky, wmgjc inr snkgaj systcds gt gs dca`g`b. Akknrhg`b tn tmc inrdaj

strukturc ni systcds tmcnry, Enkm daecs a` aàjnby ni spatgaj a`h snkgaj systcds.

Xmc spatgaj systcd gs dahc up ni tmc kn`bruc`t g`tcrpjay ni bcndctry, tnpnjnby

a`h iuzzg`css as nppnsch tn datcrgaj kndpn`c`ts. Rgtmnut strukturaj (datcrgaj) kn`-

`cktgn`s, a spatgaj systcd ka``nt cdcrbc a`h cxgst, tmus tmc spatgaj systcd gs tgch tntmc strukturaj systcd, kajjch arkmgtckturaj systcd. Gt gs g`suifikgc`t tn rcbarh tmc spatgaj

systcd as sukm, sg`kc gt `cchs tmc arkmgtckturaj systcd tn hctcrdg`c gts kn`bruc`ky,

lut ajsn tmc strukturaj kn``cktgn`s tn tmc snkgaj systcd (iadgjy) càljcs e`nwjchbc

tmat ka``nt lc akqugrch wgtmnut gt (ki. mcrc tnn tmc kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`t ni Lruu`

a`h Ja`bjags (<66;) gs at pjay). Xmc scparatc pcrspcktgvc gs scktnraj, wmgjc kndlg`g`b

tmcd gs mylrgh (wmgkm gs Enkm‗s bnaj). [ystcds tmcnry rcpjakcs kausaj tmgèg`b wgtm a

rckgprnkaj rcjatgn`smgp lctwcc` snkgajgty a`h spatgajgty. Enkm mnjhs tmat Jumda``‗s at-

tcdpt tn g`tcbratc spakc g` systcds tmcnry mas lcc` u`kn`vg`kg`b (Enkm <663).

Xmc ghca ni dutuajgty kn`tag`ch g` tmc rckgprnkaj rcjatgn`smgps kndpnsg`b a mylrgh

systcd nrgbgàtcs qugtc hgrcktjy g` Aktnr @ctwnre Xmcnry (A@X). A@X cdcrbch irnd

tmc snkgnjnbgkaj stuhy ni skgc`kcs a`h tckm`njnby, lut gs dnst iadnus inr g`sgstg`b n`

tmc abc`ky ni ̀ n`-muda` cjcdc`ts. Gt was prgdargjy inu`hch ly tmc tmnubmt ni Lru`n

Jatnur a`h Dgkmcj Kajjn`, wmn krgtgkgsch snkgnjnby inr n`jy g`kjuhg`b muda`s g` tmcgr

vgcw ni `ctwnres. Ajtmnubm gt mas lcc` krgtgkgsch gtscji inr a pnnr aàjysgs ni tmc aktnr,

tmc strc`btm gs tmat gt taecs g`tn akknu`t tmc g`hctcrdgàky ni tmc aktnr. Xmc rciusaj ni

hcfi`g`b aktnrs aprgnrgstgkajjy a`h tmc g`trnhuktgn` ni `n`-muda`s ircch snkgaj skgc`kc

irnd tmc g`hgvghuajgst vcrsus mnjgst hgkmntndy. Mnwcvcr, tmgs `ntgn` daecs tmc aktnr






lckausc wc jgvc a`h akt g` a datcrgajjy mctcrnbc`cnus wnrjh. Xmgs cìnrkcs tmat ̀ cgtmcr

nlockts, `nr spakcs a`h knddu`gtgcs ka` lc rchukch tn sndctmg`b n`c-hgdc`sgnàj.

Mylrghgty prcsuppnscs tmat tmc kndpn`c`ts rcdag` hgstg`bugsmaljc (ghcd).

G`krcasg`b tmc kndpjcxgty ni mgs tmcnry, Enkm dnvcs n`tn tmc spatgaj gdpjgkatgn`

ni nlockts, wmgkm kn`sgsts ni tmcgr pcrinrda`kc a`h g`malgtatgn` ni kn`hgtgn`s ni (gd)

pnssglgjgty. G` tmgs mc stgjj injjnws asscrtgn`s dahc ly Jaw. [patgajgtgcs a`h nlockts wmgkm

pcrinrd tmnsc kn`hgtgn`s arc u`knìnrdaljc lckausc tmcy arc ntmcr tn n`c a`ntmcr.

Xmgs prnhukcs a`ntmcr kndpjcdc`tary kgrkjc ni rcicrc`kcs. ‚Lckausc nlockts arc aljc

tn pcrinrd spatgaj kn`hgtgn`s, nlockts a`h spakcs rcdag` dutuajjy g`hcpc`hc`t a`h

tmgs gs cxprcssch g` dujtgpjc inrds. UXnpnjnby spckgfics tmc iakt tmat rcjatgn`s lctwcc`

nlockts arc `nt u`gvcrsaj.T @nt cvcrytmg`b gs kn``cktch tn cvcrytmg`b. Hgiicrc`t nl-

ockts, spakcs a`h knddu`gtgcs arc rcjatch tn n`c a`ntmcr tn hgiicrc`t hcbrccs a`h

tmrnubm hgiicrc`t quajgtgcs, tmcy arc ”partgajjy kn``cktch‗. G` tmgs sc`sc mylrghgty wgjj lckn`krctc.— (ghcd? =) Xmc wnrjh gs `nt sg`bujar, `nr gs gt dujtgpjc5 gt gs iraktgnàj, knd-

prgsch ni kndpjcx a`h partgajjy kn``cktch spakcs a`h/nr tgdcs. Abag` G ka` rcicr tn

Xgd G`bnjh, wmn jcts tmc tcdpnrajgty ni aktgvgtgcs g`knrpnratch g` tmc taseskapc hgssnjvc

g` tmc ̀ ntgn` ni ja`hskapc, g` sn hng`b cdpnwcrg`b tmc rcscarkmcr tn rcknvcr tmc tcd-

pnrajgty ni tmc ja`hskapc gtscji (G`bnjh <666). Xmgs cssc`tgajjy prnhukcs a sgdujta`cnus,

twninjh u`hcrsta`hg`b wmgkm knujh lc kndparch tn mylrghgty.

Rgtm tmgs g` pjakc tmc `ntgn` ni pcrinrdatgvgty g` A@X bag`s gdpnrta`kc. Gi nlockts

pcrinrd spatgaj kn`hgtgn`s tmcrc dust lc `nhcs wgtm a dg`gdud ni kn`bruc`ky a`h

kndpatglgjgty, sn tmat c`tgtgcs akmgcvc tmcgr inrd as a kn`scquc`kc ni tmc rcjatgn`sg` wmgkm tmcy arc jnkatch. Ygkc vcrsa, spakcs ajsn pcrinrd a` nlockt‗s kn`hgtgn`s ni

(gd)pnssglgjgty. Xmcrc arc inur kndpjcdc`tary typcs ni pcrinrda`kc? 1) Nlockts pcr-

inrd spatgaj kn`hgtgn`s ni (gd)pnssglgjgty, <) nlockts pcrinrd nlockts‗ kn`hgtgn`s ni (gd)

pnssglgjgty, ;) spakcs pcrinrd nlockts‗ kn`hgtgn`s ni (gd)pnssglgjgty, 8) spakcs pcrinrd

spatgaj kn`hgtgn`s ni (gd)pnssglgjgty. Xmcsc ka` lc gjjustratch ly? 1) tmc bcndctry a`h

tnpnjnby ni rnnds g` a mnusc, gùc`kch ly tmc nlockts g`malgtg`b tmcd (iu`ktgn`

hcpc`hs n` sgzc a`h c.b. iur`gturc), <) gt gs gdpnssgljc tn crckt a mnusc wmcrc a mnusc

ajrcahy cxgsts, ;) tmc bcndctry a`h rcjatgvc jnkatgn` tn ahoakc`t pjnts gùc`kc tmc sgzc

smapc a`h iu`ktgn` ni a mnusc, 8) tmc rcjatgn`smgp ni tmc rnnds g` a mnusc gùc`kc gts

spatgaj iu`ktgn` (c.b. lchrnnd upstagrs, egtkmc` hnw`stagrs). [g`kc tmcsc arc dutuajjy

hcpc`hc`t, nvcrjap nkkurs. Vcrinrdatgvgty knvcrs tmc dutuaj rcjatgn`smgp ni prnkcss

a`h statc, ni tcdpnrajgty a`h stalgjgty, nr pcrinrdg`b a`h lcg`b pcrinrdch, spakg`b

a`h tgdg`b, spakc g` prnkcss a`h spakc as prnkcss (Enkm <663). Enkm hcdn`stratcs

tmat a snkgaj bcnbrapmgkaj kn`kcpt ni spakc apprnakmch irnd A@X suppnrts tmc ghca

tmat spakc gs dahc, lut hgiicrs irnd ntmcr prnpnsajs (ki. Rcrjc` 177=, <663, _gcrmnicr

<66<) g` gts hcajg`b wgtm tmc datcrgaj aspckt a`h tmc prnkcss ni dutuajgty. Krcatg`b

spatgajgty aiickts nlockts a`h tmc snkgaj (Enkm <663).




Dy pcrsnàj kn`kcr` jgcs wgtm a hnult rcbarhg`b tmc usc ni pcrinrdatgvgty. Xmc

tmcnry knujh suifikc tn say tmat nlockts a`h spakc qugtc sgdpjy kn`hgtgn` (gd)pnssg-

lgjgtgcs rcjatgnàjjy. Xmcy arc tmcgr nw` kn`tgùaj dchgud tmrnubm tmcgr datcrgaj cxgst-

c`kc. Gi pcrinrdatgvgty gs kn`kcptuajgsch as a` abc`ky ni nlockts a`h spakcs, tmcy dust

lc ni muda` nr snkgaj daeg`b. Dukm jgec Enkm says, spakc gs dahc, sn a`y abc`ky

kn`kcr`ch wgtm (gd)pnssglgjgtgcs gs dahc, nr, lcttcr put, dca`g`biujjy kn`struktch. Xmgs

wnujh injjnw Jatnur‗s nrgbgàj `ntgn` tmat tmc abc`ky ni nlockts gs muda`jy g`vcstch

(Dartg` <663).

@nw wc arrgvc at Enkm‗s ̀ ntgn` ni mylrghgty prnpcr, firstjy hgskussg`b mylrgh spatgaj-

gtgcs. Xmcrc arc inur A@X spakcs g` wmgkm tmc cdcrbc`kc, (tcdpnraj) kn`snjghatgn` a`h

hgsappcara`kc ni mylrgh spatgajgtgcs knujh lc u`hcrstnnh. 1) \cbgn`s wgtm kjustcrch

nlockts a`h a kgrkudskrglch lnu`hary arnu`h tmc kjustcrs (gddutaljc gddnlgjc). <)

@ctwnres wmcrc hgsta`kc gs a iu`ktgnàj rcjatgn` lctwcc` cjcdc`ts, a`h hgiicrc`kc gs arcjatgnàj vargcty (gddutaljc dnlgjc). Xmcsc tnpnjnbgcs arc e`nw` tn snkgaj tmcnry. ;)

Gi ̀ cgtmcr lnu`hargcs ̀ nr rcjatgn`s dare spatgaj hgiicrc`kcs, snkgaj spakc ka` lcmavc jgec

a ugh, mc`kc ugh spakc (dutaljc dnlgjc). 8) Igrc spakc ? wgtm ugh kn`sta`ky, dnvc-

dc`t gs dnrc sgb`gfika`t tma` stasgs. Kma`bcs a`h rcsgsta`kc tmat arc part ni ugh a`h

firc spakc knujh lc kndparch tn tmc rcspcktgvc hgstg`ktgn`s ni hc Kcrtcau‗s (17==) tak-

tgks a`h stratcby, tmc first lcg`b kn`tgùnus wmgjc tmc jattcr gs inrkciujjy hctakmch irnd

gts inrdcr c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmc hgiicrc`kc lctwcc` ugh kn`sta`ky a`h firc kn`sta`ky c`-

tagjs tmat ughgty gs brahuaj a`h firc gs prnhukch alruptjy g` hgskn`tgùnus dnvcdc`ts,

g.c. g`tcrvc`tgn`s nr cvc`ts aiicktg`b tnpnjnbgkaj rcjatgn`s (c.b. kma`bg`b tmc ̀ ctwnre),hcspgtc tmcgr g`tcràj gddutalgjgty (dutaljc gddnlgjc). Xmcsc inur typcs ni spakc mavc

spckgfik rcjatgn`s tn cakm ntmcr, lasch n` tmcgr iu`hadc`taj nlockt-spakc rcjatgn`smgp.

Xmgs A@X typgiyg`b ni spakc daecs gt `cgtmcr cxkjusgvcjy sulsta`tgaj (a hcfi`gtgn`), `nr

a` cxkjusgvc snkgaj kn`struktgn`. [patgajgty gùc`kcs tmc kn`struktgn` ni nlockts a`h

knddu`gtgcs. Xmc rcjatgnàj (tnpnjnby) gs hndgà`t, lut tmc bcndctrgkaj hgdc`sgn` gs

`nt cxkjuhch. Kn`stgtutg`b mylrgh spatgajgtgcs injjnws a pattcr` ni dutuajgty g` tcrds ni

(gd)dutalgjgty a`h (gd)dnlgjgty (Enkm <663).

G` dy npg`gn`, n`c smnujh u`hcrsta`h (gd)dutalgjgty g` tcrds ni pmysgkajjy kn`-

struktch spakcs. Xmcsc ka` lc lugjt ja`h hgvgsgn`s, c.b. lnrhcrs, mnuscs, rnnds nr g`-

irastrukturc. [g`kc tmcy arc lugjt tmcy mavc a hcfi`gtc datcrgajgsch smapc wmgkm g` gtscji

ka``nt pmysgkajjy kma`bc. Xmc (gd)dnlgjc rcicrs tn hcbrccs ni dnvcdc`t tmat ka` g`

a way ajsn lc cquajjch wgtm tcdpnrajgty. Ajtmnubm G wnujh say tmat tmc alrupt`css

ni a dndc`t nr dnvcdc`t g` firc spakc gs stgjj tcdpnraj, n`c day gdabg`c mnw tmgs

hgiicrs irnd tmc g`tcràj tcdpnraj rmytmds a`h tcdpns ni ugh spakc. Kndparatgvcjy,

hc Kcrtcau‗s stratcby gs jcss aiicktch ly tcdpnrajgty, wmgjc mgs taktgks arc `nt tgch tn

spckgfik spakc yct arc kn`sta`t g` tgdc. Dnvcdc`t g` `ctwnres tmc` kn`sgsts ni tmc

aktgn`s cstaljgsmg`b tmcgr rcjatgn`s tgch tn fixch `nhcs (pmysgkajjy kn`struktch spakcs),




lut dag`tag`g`b a tcdpnrajgty g` tmcgr pcrinrda`kc. G` Enkm‗s tcrds? as jn`b as pcnpjc

knddutc lctwcc` twn kn`struktch spakcs a tnpnjnbgkaj rcjatgn`smgp cxgsts, inrdg`b a

`ctwnre (gddutaljc dnlgjc) (ghcd).

Gt sccds tmat mcrc tmc A@X apprnakm hncs taec g`tn akknu`t bcndctry a`h datc-

rgajgty. [tgjj, ajj ni tmgs bcndctry a`h datcrgajgty gs snkgajjy kn`struktch? tmc gddutaljc

`nhcs ni tmc dnlgjc `ctwnre, tmc rnnds, lcg`b gts gddutaljc gddnlgjcs as wcjj as

tmcgr spatgaj tcdpnraj kma`bcs, lc tmcy alrupt nr brahuaj. Xmc sulsta`tgajgty ni spakc

gs tmus a snkgaj kn`kcptgn`. Dnrcnvcr, n`c knujh hnult ajj tmc `cbatg`b inrds (gd-

dnlgjgty a`h gddutalgjgty), sg`kc tmcy ka` stgjj kma`bc ly cgtmcr firc nr ugh spakc.

Abag`, tmgs gs ̀ nt surprgsg`b wmc` n`c taecs g`tn akknu`t tmc kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`ts

g` autnpngcsgs, daeg`b tmc hcfi`gtgn` ni cakm systcd g` gtscji hcpc`haljc n` nutjyg`b

icaturcs.

As arbuch inr pcrinrdatgvgty lcinrc, tnpnjnby gs `nt rcajjy aktgn`, lut ratmcr rc-dag`s kn`hgtgn`g`b (g.c. pmysgkaj (gd)pnssglgjgtgcs). Gt daecs tmc rcjatgn`s lctwcc` nl-

ockts, spakcs a`h knddu`gtgcs ̀ nt u`gvcrsaj. Wct mylrghgty gs ̀ nt sn dukm kndpnsch ni

twn scparatch cjcdc`tary vajucs? g`stcah gt kn`sgsts ni quajgtatgvcjy hgiicrg`b hcbrccs.

Hcpc`hg`b n` kn`stgtutgvc icaturcs a`h datcrgajgty tmc cssc`tgajjy snkgaj rcjatgn`s lc-

twcc` nlockts arc dchgatch, aiicktg`b tmcgr kmaraktcr g` aspckts as rcjatgvc hgsta`kcs.

@cvcrtmcjcss, mylrghgty g` gts c`tgrcty rcdag`s g`hgvghuaj a`h, tmrnubm pcrkcptgn` a`h

aktgn`s, kn`scquc`tgajjy snkgaj. Xmgs rcg`statcs tmc ̀ ntgn` tmat n`c ka``nt lc hctakmch

irnd n`c‗s nw` kn`stgtutgn` ni tmc wnrjh. Iurtmcrdnrc, tmc bcndctrgkaj hgdc`sgn` gs

gtscji a snkgaj kn`struktgn`. Hgsrcbarhg`b tmc pmgjnsnpmgkaj a`h pmysgks hclatcs tmatka` lc mcjh n` tmgs tnpgk, wmctmcr nr `nt sulsta`tgajgty cxgsts wgtmnut muda` lcg`bs

g`malgtg`b tmc wnrjh, tmgs rcdag`s cgtmcr way a pnssglgjgty kaubmt g` a snkgaj kn`kcp-

tgn`. N` tmc ntmcr ma`h, tmc strc`btm ni tmgs prnpnsch mylrghgty gs cxaktjy tmc strc`btm

ni A@X g` tmc first pjakc. Gt ajjnws datcrgajgty tn lc part ni snkgaj `ctwnres a`h, g` tmc

rcjatgn`s gt aàjyscs, gt ajjnws datcrgajgty tn lc tgch tn a`h kn`struktch ly snkgajgty.

Xmcrcinrc spakc ka``nt lc rcbarhch as scparatc irnd tmc snkgaj, a`h gs g`trg`sgkajjy

a vargaljc tcdpnraj aiiagr g` tmc kn`tgùgty ni gts kn`stgtutgn`. Xmc kmaraktcrgsatgn` ni

spakcs gs `nw tgch tn tmcgr rcjatgn`s, daeg`b gt gdpnssgljc tn g`tcrprct gsnjatch spakcs.

Vjakg`b A@X spakcs g` tmc pcrspcktgvc ni tmc tmcnrctgkaj ghcas hgskussch lcinrc, gt kn`-

krctgscs a`h spckgfics tmc lg-gdpjgkatgn` ni pmc`ndc`njnby a`h tmrnubm gts datcrgajgty

day niicr pntc`tgaj inr cdpgrgkaj arkmacnjnby.

Mylrghgty, mnwcvcr, gs ̀ nt jgdgtch tn spakcs, lut ajsn c`tcrs tmc snkgaj rcajd g` knd-

du`gtgcs, hcskrglch dag`jy ly tmc `ntgn` ni iradch g`tcraktgn .̀ Rgtm tmgs kn`kcpt, tmc

hgkmntndy ni datcrgajgty a`h snkgajgty ka` lc surdnu`tch. Oust jgec spatgajgtgcs `cch

tn lc krcatch, tmc snkgaj gs `nt rcahgjy prcsc`t. [nkgajgty gs ajsn krcatch, ‚kn`tgùnusjy

cdcrbcs, tcdpnrargjy cxgsts a`h hgsappcars abag`. Xmgs prnkcss taecs pjakc rcpcatchjy

at hgiicrc`t pjakcs. G` nrhcr inr snkgaj knddu`gtgcs tn lc aljc tn cxgst, prnkcsscs ni



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs1<6

jnkajgsatgn` arc `ckcssary. Inr tmgs, tmc spatgaj kn`tcxt prnvghcs tmc iradc, gt gs a kn`-

hgtgn` ni pnssglgjgty tn bc`cratc g`tcraktgn`s. Vrnkcsscs ni bjnlajgsatgn` arc `ckcssary

sn tmat snkgaj knddu`gtgcs arc aljc tn pcrsgst. Abag`, tmcrc arc datcrgaj kndpn`c`ts

tmat arc `ckcssary tn daec gt pnssgljc, at jcast pntc`tgajjy, tn jgè g`tcraktgn`s. Iradch

g`tcraktgn`s arc, tmcrcinrc, ̀ nt statgk a`h `nt pcrsgstc`t, tmcy wgjj lc krcatch rckursgvcjy

tmrnubm g`tcraktgn`s a`h wgtmg` g`tcraktgn`s. Mcrcwgtm, tmcy prnvghc a spatgn-tcdpnraj

strukturg`b wmgkm ajjnws inr kn`tcxts wgtmg` a`h lctwcc` g`tcraktgn`s.— (Enkm <663?

16) Xmgs asscrtgn` injjnws Jatnur‗s kn`kcpts ni jnkaj a`h bjnlaj (wmgkm gs tmus `nt bcn-

brapmgkaj), kndpjcx a`h kndpjgkatch.

G` a kndpjcx sgtuatgn` ajj vargaljcs nkkur sgdujta`cnusjy, wmcrcas g` a kndpjgkatch

sgtuatgn` vargaljcs nkkur sukkcssgvcjy. Bjnlajgsatgn` rcicrs tn sukkcssgvc g`tcraktgn`s aj-

jnwg`b kndpjgkatch g`tcraktgn`s tn lc kn``cktch. Xmc iradc ni g`tcraktgn` ka` lc

scc` as a jnkajgty, jgec inr g`sta`kc a rnnd g` a mnusc. Ajtmnubm Ajja` Vrch hncs ̀ nt usctmc kn`kcpt ni iradc, tmc tgdc-spakc spckgfik jnkajgtgcs g` wmgkm mc sgtuatcs tmc (g`tcr)

aktgn`s ni a`y prnockt appcar tn pcrtag` tn a sgdgjar ghca (Vrch 17=9). Injjnwg`b a`

g`hgvghuaj‗s patm, tmc g`hgvghuaj dnvcs irnd iradc tn iradc (c.b. rnnd tn rnnd, ctk.)

wmgkm ajj kn`tcxtuajgsc g`hgvghuajs. Xmcsc iradcs arc jnkajgsatgn`s g` a spatgaj systcd

(c.b. a mndc nr lugjhg`b). Càljch ly tmcsc iradcs, g`tcraktgn` krcatcs snkgajgty lc-

twcc` g`hgvghuajs, lut n`jy inr tmc tgdc g`tcraktgn` gs pcrinrdch nr g`hgvghuajs dnvc.

Bjnlajgsatgn` ni iradcs gs tmc arra`bcdc`t ni wmcrc a`h wmc` g`hgvghuajs g`tcrakt.

Xmcsc sukkcssgvc kn`tcxts lckndc g`tcbratch g` a jarbc-skajc g`tcrrcjatgn` (irccjy aitcr

Enkm <663).Mavg`b kn`stgtutch mylrgh knddu`gtgcs g` tmgs way, ajjnwg`b a knddu`gty (jgec

a iadgjy) tn pcrsgst, g` dy vgcw, stgjj rcqugrcs a snkgaj sc`sc ni lcjn`bg`b a`h tmc

datcrgaj kn`tgùgty ni tmc kn`scquc`kcs ni aktgn`s (jgec pmysgkaj kn`struktgn`s), wmgkm

gs prgdargjy lasch n` a pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj rcasn`g`b. Gt g`vnjvcs prnkcsscs ni jcar`g`b

tmrnubm pcrkcptgn` a`h cxpcrgc`kc ecpt g` dcdnry. Knddu`gtgcs arc dag`tag`ch ly

tmc g`hgvghuajs wmn arc gts dcdlcrs, buarhg`b e`nwjchbc alnut tmcd, rcknb`gsg`b

dca`g`b g`vcstch kn`scquc`kcs ni aktgn`s lntm datcrgajjy a`h snkgajjy. Kn`kcptuajgsg`b

a knddu`gty as a iadgjy g` tcrds ni a prnockt, a iadgjy jgtcrajjy gs a prnockt tmat gs upmcjh

g` tmat spckgfik inrd as gts bnaj, u`tgj sndcn`c hcjglcratcjy lrcaes wgtm snkgaj knhcs

nr hgcs. [pckgfikajjy, tmc `ckcssargjy spatgajjy iradch g`tcraktgn`s daec tmat snkgajgty

kn`stgtutcs tmc knddu`gty a`h tmat a knddu`gty gs spatgaj tnn. Enkm suppnrts a`

g`trgkatc cxpjgkatgn` inr snkgaj g`tcraktgn` lcg`b g`trg`sgkajjy spatgaj. Xmrnubm jnkajgsg`b

a`h bjnlajgsg`b prnkcsscs lntm tmc spatgaj a`h tmc snkgaj lckndc ljurrch (ghcd).

G` mgs jast stcp Enkm daecs a` attcdpt at appjyg`b systcds tmcnry tn spatgajgtgcs. Mc

iccjs tmat tmc sgdujta`cgty ni g`hcpc`hc`kc ni tmc snkgaj a`h spatgaj (u`knìnrdaljc

tn n`c a`ntmcr) a`h mylrghgty (partgaj kn``cktgn`s tn n`c a`ntmcr) ka` lc kn`kcptu-

ajgsch. Mc bgvcs tmc injjnwg`b hcfi`gtgn` ni mgs systcd apprnakm? ‚A spatgaj systcd gs



Xmcnrgsg`b tnwarhs Hatascts 1<1

a` autnpngctgk, scji-rcicrc`tgaj systcd tmat kn`stgtutcs gtscji ly lcg`b hgiicrc`t irnd a`

c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmc kn`stgtutgn` gs lasch n` kn`bruc`ky. Gts cjcdc`ts arc knddu`gka-

tgn`s.— (Enkm <663? 11) Cxprcssch g` autnpngcsgs, Lruu` a`h Ja`bjags (<66;) ajrcahy

prnvghch us wgtm a brcat tnnj inr tmc sgdujta`cnus g`hcpc`hc`kc a`h mylrghgty prc-

sc`tch ly tmc kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`t. A systcd ni spatgajgtgcs gs tgch tn a systcd ni

snkgajgtgcs n` tmc lasgs ni a icw kn`stgtutgvc icaturcs kn`tag`ch g` tmc ntmcr systcd,

wmgkm gs part ni gts c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmc sadc bncs tmc ntmcr way arnu`h. G` spgtc ni tmcgr

partgaj hcpc`hc`kc tmcy rcdag` u`knìnrdaljc, tmus g`hcpc`hc`tjy rcknb`gsaljc. Xmc

kn`hgtgn`g`b ni (gd)pnssglgjgtgcs npcratcs g` tmc spatgaj a`h nlockts, hgstg`bugsmg`b spa-

tgajgtgcs a`h nlockts as prnpcrtgcs ni tmc systcd. Mcrc spatgajgtgcs arc stgjj g`tcrrcjatgnàj

(a`h ajsn pmc`ndc`njnbgkajjy hgiicrc`tgatch). Xmc g`tcraktgn`s ̀ ckcssary inr snkgaj sys-

tcds arc g` iakt spatgajjy iradch, daeg`b tmc kmaraktcrgstgks ni knddu`gtgcs partgajjy

spatgaj. G` nrhcr tn kn`stgtutc a spatgaj systcd, kn`bruc`ky ni spatgajgtgcs gs `cchch.Xmgs gs pnssgljc tmrnubm iradch snkgaj g`tcraktgn` a`h bjnlajgsatgn`. Enkm wnujh arbuc

inr knddu`gkatgn`, gdpjyg`b g` a` A@X iasmgn` tmat spatgajgtgcs ka` knddu`gkatc. G

lcjgcvc gt wnujh lc dnrc usciuj tn rchgrckt tmc kn`bruc`ky, daeg`b spatgaj systcds tn

tmc dca`g`biuj snkgaj pcrkcptgn`, sulscquc`t (rc)kn`struktgn` a`h usc ni spatgajgtgcs.

Cvc`tuajjy lntm Enkm a`h G asscrt tmat tmc snkgaj a`h spatgaj arc dahc.

Irnd Enkm‗s hcfi`gtgn` injjnws tmc rcocktgn` ni a scrgcs ni systcd tmcnrctgkaj ap-

prnakmcs daeg`b spatgaj systcds? ‚1) ghc`tgkaj wgtm a snkgaj systcd, <) ghc`tgkaj wgtm

tmc c`vgrn`dc`t ni a snkgaj systcd, ;) a iurtmcr hgdc`sgn` ni rcasn`, lcyn`h tmc sul-

ockt, tgdc a`h snkgaj hgdc`sgn`s, 8) snjcjy a tmcdc g` tmc knddu`gkatgn` wgtmg` snkgajsystcds, 3) tmc jgdgts ni a snkgaj systcd.— (Enkm <663? 11) G` dy rcahg`b ni mgs tmcnry

a kjnsc kn``cktgn` wgtm tmc tmgrh nptgn` gs icjt, ajtmnubm tmcrc gs `n jn`bcr n`c hgdc`-

sgn` g` gts hgrcktgn`. Hcvgatg`b irnd systcds tmcnry, Enkm‗s c`vgrn`dc`t lckndcs kn`-

krctc g`stcah ni a` alstrakt `ntgn`. Autnpngcsgs krcatcs gts nw` c`vgrn`dc`t, g` wmgkm

tmc c`vgrn`dc`t gs dnrc kndpjcx tma` tmc systcd. [pakcs smnujh lc kn`struktch as

systcds g` tmc c`vgrn`dc`t ni snkgaj systcds a`h vgkc vcrsa. Knddu`gkatgn` gs twn-

injh, daeg`b sc`sc g` snkgaj systcds a`h kn`bruc`ky g` spatgaj systcds. (Xmc dag` hgi-

icrc`kc wgtm dy krgtgquc alnvc gs tmat kn`bruc`ky gs pjakch g` tmc spatgaj systcd gtscji,

ratmcr tma` gts systcdgk àturc lcg`b hcpc`hc`t n` snkgaj g`tcraktgn`.) Xmgs gìcrs tmat

snkgaj systcds arc n`tnjnbgkajjy hgiicrc`t irnd spatgaj systcds, wmgjc tmc pnssglgjgty ni a

strukturaj kn``cktgn` lctwcc` tmc twn rcdag`s (ghcd). Gt gs g` tmc smarch lasgs ni tmgs

strukturaj kn``cktgn` tmat G wgjj arbuc a pntc`tgaj inr cdpgrgkaj g`tcrprctatgn`.

Xmc n`tnjnbgkaj hgiicrc`kc rcicrs tn tmc autnpngctgk status ni spatgaj systcds. Enkm

mnjhs tmat spatgaj systcds bc`cratc tmcgr nw` cjcdc`ts (pcrinrdatgvgty ni (gd)pns-

sglgjgty), ong`g`b tmc cjcdc`ts akknrhg`b tn tmc systcd‗s status c`tgrcjy. Autnpngcsgs gs

rcjatch tn tmc npcratgnàj jcvcj ni systcds, hcda`hg`b tmat tmcy arc sgdujta`cnusjy

npcratgnàjjy kjnsch a`h strukturajjy npc`ch (ghcd). Xmgs nlvgnusjy hgiicrs irnd rchg-



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs1<<

rcktg`b tmc spatgaj systcd tn tmc snkgaj, g` wmgkm tmc bc`cratgn` ni cjcdc`ts gs càljch

a`h rcstrgktch ly kn`hgtgn`g`b (gd)pnssglgjgtgcs, a`h wmcrc ong`g`b tmcd gs hcpc`hc`t

n` snkgaj g`tcraktgn` nr knddu`gkatgn`. G` kn`trast, Enkm bgvcs lntm systcds tmcgr

nw` prnpcr knddu`gkatgn`? tmc snkgaj systcd akknrhg`b tn gìnrdatgn`, dcssabc a`h

u`hcrsta`hg`b, a`h tmc spatgaj systcd akknrhg`b tn `ctwnres, pjakcs a`h jnkatgn`s.

Wct inr Enkm tmcsc knddu`gkatgvc kndpn`c`ts arc `nt n`jy pmysgkaj, lut ajsn snkgaj.

[patgaj systcds kndc g`tn lcg`b (g.c. krcatc tmcdscjvcs) as c`tgtgcs cdcrbg`b irnd

tmc tntaj stnke ni knddu`gkatgn`. Xmc spatgaj systcd tmus pcrtag`s tn tmc kndpjctc

rcjatgn`smgp g` tmc knddu`gkatgn` prnkcss (ghcd). Rmgjc lcinrc wc saw tmat Vrch

(17=9) sgtuatch g`tcraktgn` as patm krnssg`bs, krcatg`b (part ni) a pjakc irnd a jnkatgn`

g` tgdc-spakc, Enkm aktuajjy g`vcrts tmc wnrhs a`h jcts pjakcs lc scjcktch inr g`tcrak-

tgn`s, wmgkm daecs tmcd jnkajgsch, mc`kc tmc tcrd jnkatgn`s. Kn``cktg`b jnkatgn`s

g` tmc stnke ni spatgaj knddu`gkatgn` kn`stgtutcs a spatgaj systcd (Enkm <663). Xnavngh knìusgn`, G prnpnsc tn usc iradcs ratmcr tma` jnkatgn`s g` Enkm‗s tmcnry, sn tmc

hcfi`gtgn` ni jnkatgn` ka` cgtmcr lc bcndctrgkaj nr dag`tag`ch as tgdc-spakc spckgfik

patm krnssg`bs.

Xmc pnssglgjgty inr strukturaj jgèabcs , Enkm arbucs, arc dckma`gsds ni tra`sjatgn`,

wmgkm smnujh prnhukc a dg`gdaj hcbrcc ni ”u`hcrsta`hg`b‗ lctwcc` tmc systcds. Xmc

jcvcjs ni kndpatglgjgty rcjatch tn tmc stabcs ni tra`sjatgn` lctwcc` mgs twninjh knd-

du`gkatgn`, Enkm kapturch g` taljc ;?

sy`tax

hgdc`sgn`jcssknnrhgàtcs, ̀ nhcs

kndpn`c`ts ni spatgajknddu`gkatgn`

jcttcrs, fiburcs

kndpn`c`ts ni snkgajknddu`gkatgn`

scda`tgks

rujc-laschg`tcrvajs, chbcs`ntgn`s

prabdatgks

kn`bruc`ky/sc`sc`ctwnres, gdabcssc`tc`kcs

kndpatglgjgty

Xaljc ;, rcprnhukch aitcr Enkm <663? 1<

Xmc gssuc tmat ̀ cchs tn lc rcsnjvch gs kn`kcajch g` tmc kn`kcptuajgsg`b ni tmc strukturaj

jgèabcs (nr tra`sjatgn`s) as rckursgvc prnkcsscs kndpjctcjy nvcr ajj jcvcjs, jcahg`b tn



Xmcnrgsg`b tnwarhs Hatascts 1<;

mylrgh kndpnsgtgn`s ni snkgaj a`h spatgaj kndpn`c`ts. Inr tmgs tn mappc` gt gs rcqugrch

tmat snkgaj icaturcs ka` lc tra`sjatch tn spatgaj icaturcs a`h vgkc vcrsa. Cvc`tuajjy knd-

du`gtgcs a`h spatgajgtgcs arc g` tmgs way jgèch as mylrgh kndpjcxcs. Enkm suddargscs,

‚iradch g`tcraktgn`s arc cxckutch g` hgiicrc`t spatgaj kn`tcxts a`h pcrinrd g` tmgs way

tmc spatgaj kn`hgtgn`s ni (gd)pnssglgjgty ly spckgiyg`b tmc dutuaj rcjatgn`smgps ni (gd)

dutaljc a`h (gd)dnlgjc.— (Enkm <663? 1<)

Hcspgtc tmc brcat jcvcj ni kndpjcxgty a`h kjcvcr snjutgn`s prnvghch ly Enkm‗s tmc-

nry ni autnpngctgk spatgaj systcds, taljc ; inr ainrcdc`tgn`ch rcasn`s hncs `nt rcp-

rcsc`t dy nw` vgcws ni daeg`b spatgaj systcds part a`h parkcj ni snkgajgty. [nkgajgty

kndpnscs a snkgaj systcd wmgkm mas a systcdgk spatgaj knu`tcrpart. As arbuch lcinrc,

tmgs hncs `nt g`mglgt tmc partgaj kn``cktch`css a`h g`hcpc`hc`kc ni lntm systcds,

wmgjst ajsn taeg`b g`tn akknu`t tmc cxgstc`kc a`h kn`tgùgty ni datcrgajgty. Enkm hc-

fics tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj kn`kcpt ni lg-gdpjgkatgn`, a`h tmcrcinrc hcparts irnd tmcsulockt. Xmcrcinrc, taljc ; smnujh lc dnhgfich tn akknddnhatc lntm systcds, wgtm

strukturaj jgèabcs lasch n` pmc`ndc`njnby a`h assnkgatch pcrkcptgn` a`h (g`tcr)

aktgn`. Xaljc 8 gjjustratcs a pnssgljc ajtcràtgvc inr tmc jcvcjs ni kndpatglgjgty càljg`b

strukturaj jgèabcs?

nppnrtu`gtgcs

alsnjutc(gd)pnssglgjgtgcs

kndpn`c`ts ni spatgajsystcds

spatgn-tcdpnrajrcsnurkcs, kn`hgtgn`g`balgjgtgcs

kndpn`c`ts ni snkgajsystcds

cdlnhgdc`t,pcrkcptgn`, kmngkcs

inrdajgsatgn`

`nrdatgvc rujcs,jcar`g`b

tgdc-spakc krnssg`bs,lnrhcrs, hgiicrc`tgatgn`

muda` aktgn`, dca`g`b

kn`tgùgty

kn`bruc`t dca`g`b,kma`bc

lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t,`ctwnres, sydlnjs

scquc`kcs ni g`tcraktgn`

kndpatglgjgty

Xaljc 8, dnhgfikatgn` ni Enkm‗s tra`sjatgnàj stabcs

G` taljc 8 gt gs pnssgljc tn apprckgatc tmc sgdujta`cgty ni lntm systcds g` tmc aktg`b

sulockt. Xgdc, spakc a`h snkgajgty arc tgch tnbctmcr a`h mavc tmcgr rcspcktgvc inrds a`h




c`vgrn`dc`ts. Xmc spatgaj systcd npcratcs ly brakc ni tmc snkgaj systcd a`h vgkc vcrsa.

Xmgs gs `ckcssary, sg`kc G hn `nt lcjgcvc tmat spatgajgtgcs tmcdscjvcs ka` trujy pcrinrd

a`ytmg`b5 ratmcr, tmcy gdpnsc (gd)pnssglgjgtgcs, càljc, rcstrgkt, bct dca`g`b attakmch

tn tmcd a`h fiàjjy, tmrnubm g`mcrc`t tcdpnrajgtgcs, arc g`tcrkn``cktch g` gtscji (g.c.

datcrgaj kn`tgùgty a`h assnkgatch hgiicrc`tgatgn`) a`h tn tmc (pcrinrdg`b) knddu-

`gty. G`stcah ni ”kn`tgùgty‗, inr tmc spatgaj systcd n`c knujh ajsn statc kn`snjghatgn` n`

tmc lasgs ni tmc pmysgkaj kn`struktgn` ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. Kma`bc wnujh ajtcr tmc

àturc ni lntm systcds, wmgkm `ntgn`s ni A@X firc spakc a`h ugh spakc day akknu`t

inr. Kma`bc gs kn`tgùnusjy prcsc`t g` tmc pcrinrda`kc ni aktgn`s (ki. hc Kcrtcau

17==), wmgkm g` tur` rcicrs tn tmc tcdpnrajgty ni tmc cvc`t a`h kn`sta`t prcsc`t. Xmc

knìusg`b kn`kurrc`t àrrnw a`h twninjh kn`kcptgn` ni knddu`gkatgn` gs `n jn`bcr

`ckcssary. Xmc tmgrh jcvcj rcjatcs wcjj tn Rcrjc`‗s skmcdc g` taljc < a`h tmc kn``cktgn`

ni pcrsnàj lgnbrapmgcs g` prnockts wmgkm tra`sinrd àturc (scc Vrch 17=9). [pakc gs`nt hctcrdg`gst, lut ratmcr a iradc ni rcicrc`kc (ki. Rcrjc` <663), wmgkm gs rcjatch tn

Enkm‗s iradch g`tcraktgn`. Vmc`ndc`njnby a`h tgdc-bcnbrapmy lntm niicr brcat scts

ni `ntgn`s wmgkm ajjnw tmcsc kn`stgtutgnàj jcvcjs ni kndpatglgjgty tn rcdag` alstrakt.

Autnpngcsgs gs dnrc rcscrvch inr snkgajgty (kn`stgtutch ly iradch g`tcraktgn`), wmgkm gs

a mylrgh kndpjcx.

Daeg`b tmgs tmcnry sjgbmtjy dnrc kn`krctc, a scjcktgn` ni mylrgh kndpjcxcs wnujh

kndpnsc a pjakc (g` Vrch‗s (17=9) sc`sc). Xmat pjakc wnujh mavc a` ghc`tgty wmgkm

gs sgdujta`cnusjy snkgaj a`h spatgaj, gdpnrta`t parts ni wmgkm knujh lc cxpcktch

tn lc datcrgajjy kn`snjghatch tmrnubm tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc. Jgec Enkm ajsn`ntcs, hgstg`bugsmg`b snkgaj systcds a`h spatgaj systcds gs n`tnjnbgkajjy pnssgljc, yct

g` hcskrglg`b snkgn-spatgaj pmc`ndcà kndpjctcjy iutgjc. Mylrghgty tmus bgvcs us tmc

nppnrtu`gty tn surdnu`t tmc hgstg`ktgn` wgtmnut jnsg`b hctagj (Enkm <663). Ajtmnubm

A@X niicrs tmc pnssglgjgty ni g`hcpc`hc`kc tn spatgajgtgcs, G tmgè inr tmc rcasn`s statch

alnvc tmat tmgs bncs tnn iar. G hn abrcc wgtm Enkm tmat spakc ka``nt c`tgrcjy lc assudch

tn lc a snkgaj kn`struktgn` as lntm arc partgajjy kn``cktch. Xmcrcinrc G ajsn abrcc wgtm

mgd tmat mylrghgty gs `nt a syddctrgkaj laja`kc, lut ratmcr mas dujtgpjc kndpnsgtgn`s

(ghcd).

Rmat gs appjgkaljc tn tmc skajc ni tmc spatgaj systcd prnhukg`b rcbgn`s inr Rcrjc`,

gs ajsn appjgkaljc tn tmc dnrc spckgfik dgkrn skajc ni rnnds a`h lugjhg`bs inr Enkm,

wmgjc Vrch ajrcahy rcknb`gsch g` mgs tmcnry ni pjakc tmat tmc `ntgn` ni pjakc knujh lc

cxtc`hch tn rcbgn`s a`h knu`trgcs oust as wcjj. Xmrnubm prnkcsscs ni kn`stgtutgn` a`h

kn`struktgn`, wmgkm appjy lntm tn tmc snkgaj a`h spatgaj, tmc gssuc ni tcdpnraj skajc

ajsn hgssnjvcs. G` a` alstrakt a`h ruhgdc`tary way, tmgs càljcs us tn npcratc n` a`h

u`hcrsta`h irnd tmc dgkrn skajc, wmgjc ahhrcssg`b tmc lgb gssucs a`h tmcdcs ni tmc

dakrn skajc (jgec kujturc arcas). As statch hgiicrc`tjy cjscwmcrc, a` g`tcrrcjatgnàj scjck-

tgn` ni dutuajjy hcpc`hc`t snkgaj a`h spatgaj systcds tmrnubm iradch g`tcraktgn`s arc






aj kn`tgùgty a`h kn`snjghatgn` taec pjakc g` tgdc-spakc spckgfik inrds. Kn`trastg`b

adn`bst tmc jcvcjs ni kndpatglgjgty day prnhukc vargnus spatgaj icaturcs sugtaljc inr

snkgaj gìcrc`kc hcpc`hg`b n` tmc rcscarkm qucstgn`s.

G`tcrprctg`b spatgaj hatascts g` snkgaj tcrds wnujh arbualjy lc lcst n` tmc lasgs

ni icaturcs attakmch tn aspckts jgec puljgk a`h prgvatc hndag`s, akkcssglgjgty, g`tcrrcja-

tgnàj hgsta`kc, g` ahhgtgn` tn wmgkm a`h tmc adnu`t ni spatgajgtgcs krnssch g` g`tcrkn`-

`cktgn`s (ki. spakc sy`tax). Xmcnrgsatgn` mas bgvc` us a snkgajjy sgb`gfika`t inu`hatgn`

inr inkusg`b n` sukm spatgaj icaturcs ni tmc hatasct, a`h sgdujta`cnusjy inrkcs gìcrc`kc

tn lc rcjatgnàj sg`kc ajj snkgajgty a`h spatgajgty arc partgajjy g`tcrkn``cktch. Lnu`hargcs

a`h hgiicrc`tgatgn` ni nlockts a`h spatgajgtgcs mavc lckndc snkgajjy gìnrdch, aktgn`s

a`h g`tcraktgn` arc hgrcktjy rcspn`sgljc inr tmcgr dca`g`b a`h nitc` spckgfik smapcs.

Wct g`tcrkn``cktch`css hncs `nt n`jy appjy tn tmc snkgaj a`h spatgaj? gt ajsn appjgcs tn

tcdpnrajgtgcs. Ajj spatgajgtgcs arc tgdc-spakc spckgfikajjy sgtuatch a`h akknrhg`bjy karryspckgfik snkgaj dca`g`b.

Xmc ̀ cxt kmaptcr wgjj lrgcy rckapgtujatc tmc tmcnrctgkaj ̀ ntgn`s ni pntc`tgaj gdpnr-

ta`kc inr arkmacnjnbgkaj kn`hukt, inkusg`b n` tmc kn`kcpts ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t,

rcbgn`, kujturc arca a`h lnrhcr. Gt wgjj ahh tn tmat a scrgcs ni arkmacnjnbgkaj gìcrc`tgaj

gssucs wgtm spatgaj hatascts, cspckgajjy tmc lugjt a`h urla` c`vgrn`dc`t, wmgkm arc

tnukmch upn` a`h aiicktch ly tmcsc ghcas.



Kmaptcr 3 Xmcnrctgkaj G`tcbratgn` inr Hatascts





Xmcnrctgkaj G`tcbratgn` inr Hatascts 1<7

[ndc Iu`hadc`tajs

Xmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t mas `nw lcc` cstaljgsmch as tmc tgdc-spakc spckgfik pmysgkaj

(datcrgajgsch) kn`struktgn`s ni pcrkcgvg`b a`h aktg`b da`, sgdujta`cnusjy kn`stgtut-

g`b snkgcty. G mavc prcsc`tch a scjcktgn` ni tmcnrgcs cstaljgsmg`b tmc kn`stgtutgvc axcs

càljg`b da` tn hn sn? tgdc, muda` aktgn`, a`h muda` spakc. Iurtmcrdnrc, G mavc

prcsc`tch tmcnrgcs `nt n`jy hcskrglg`b tmc prnkcsscs hcvcjnpg`b snkgcty, lut daeg`b

tmcd g`cxtrgkaljc irnd spakc. Xmcsc tmcnrgcs, cspckgajjy tmnsc nrgbgàtg`b g` muda`

nr snkgaj bcnbrapmy, day ahva`kc arkmacnjnbgkaj aàjysgs ni spatgaj hatascts rcbarhg`b

kn`kcpts ni pjakc, rcbgn`s, kujturc arcas a`h lnrhcrs. Gts hgskgpjgàry dctmnhnjnbgcs

wgjj lc prnpcr, yct gts gìnrdg`b a`h bughg`b tmcnrgcs arc cpgstcdnjnbgkajjy c`ta`bjch

wgtm bc`craj g`tcrcsts hgspcrschjy prcsc`t g` vargnus hgskgpjg`cs, prnhukg`b e`nwjchbc

gt ka``nt hn wgtmnut. Lcinrc dnvg`b n` tn sndc ni tmc spckgfik gssucs arkmacnjnby gsknìrn`tch wgtm g` tmc aàjysgs ni spatgaj hatascts a`h tmc way nur akqugrch tmcnrctgkaj

g`sgbmts day lc ni agh, a lrgci g`tcbratg`b rckapgtujatgn` ni tmc dnst sgb`gfika`t ̀ ntgn`s

sccds g` nrhcr. G wgjj hn sn ly inrdujatg`b a scrgcs ni lasgk rcasn`g`bs, spckgfiks ni

wmgkm ka` lc inu`h g` tmc rcspcktgvc hgskussgn`s ni tmcnrgcs g` prcvgnus kmaptcrs.

Arkmacnjnby gs a hgskgpjg`c tmat gtscji cxgsts ly brakc ni tgdc. Mnwcvcr, as wc mavc

scc` g` kmaptcr n`c, inr g`tcrprctgvc gssucs gt gs `nt tmc bgvc` ni tmc passabc ni tgdc

gtscji tmat gs ni gdpnrta`kc. [pckgfikajjy wmc` tmc snkgaj aspckt ni arkmacnjnbgkaj stuhgcs

gs kn`kcr`ch, ̀ ntgn`s ni snkgaj tgdc, sulocktgvc tgdc, partgkujarjy kapturch g` tcdpnraj-

gtgcs, arc ni paradnu`t g`tcrcst. Xaeg`b g`tn akknu`t tmc passabc ni tgdc wmgkm ka` lcqua`tgfich a`h tmus kjassgfich, a`h ajsn Musscrj‗s ”strcad ni g`tcràj tgdc-kn`skgnus`css‗

(a prc-rccxgvc `ntgn` ni tgdc hcrgvch irnd a` ghca ni tmc mctcrnbc`cnus kn`tgùud

ni tgdc, kmajjc`bg`b a` cxpcrgc`tgaj hcfi`gtgn` ni tgdc) cxprcssch as tmc tcdpnraj ux

(Jukas <663), tmc cxakt pnsgtgn` ni sukm kn`kcptgn`s ni tgdc mas jgttjc sgb`gfika`kc.

G` rcpjakg`b tgdc wgtm tcdpnrajgtgcs gt gs tmc rcjatgvc pnsgtgn` ni tmcsc g`tcrkn``cktch

tcdpnraj `ntgn`s tmat karrgcs dca`g`b. Dy c`babcdc`ts wgtm tgdc rcbarh tmc u`-

hcrcxpnsch ùa`kcs ni Lrauhcj‗s rcahg`b ni tmc A`àjcs [kmnnj ni strukturaj mgstnry,

g` arbug`b tmat tmc g`trg`sgk tcdpns a`h rmytmds ni cakm tgdcskajc as wcjj as tmcgr

g`trgkatc rcjatgn`smgps arc prgdargjy dca`g`biuj (O. \. Majj 17=6). Cvc`tuajjy, usciuj `n-

tgn`s da`gicstg`b tmcsc dca`g`biuj rcjatgn`smgps arc inu`h g` Xgd G`bnjh‗s hgskussgn`

ni tgdc (G`bnjh 17=9, <666). Injjnwg`b tmc wcjj-e`nw` A a`h L-scrgcs ni tgdc irnd

DkXabbart a`h Musscrj, G`bnjh prnpnsch tn apprnakm tgdc g` tcrds ni tmc rcaj (snkgaj)

tgdc ni snkgaj jgic a`h alstrakt tgdc ni snkgaj cvnjutgn`, nr, cssc`tgajjy, tcdpnrajgtgcs

kapturch g` taseskapcs. Mcrc muda` aktgvgty kn``ckts tmc tgdc ni snkgaj jgic wgtm tmc

hcvcjnpdc`t ni snkgcty as a jn`b tcrd prnkcss g` wmgkm lntm arc snkgajjy dca`g`biuj.

Xmc tgdcskajc ni cvc`ts akqugrcs a iu`hadc`taj pnsgtgn` as gt lckndcs kn`kcptuajgsch

as kn`tgùnus stabcs ni tmc prcsc`t wgtm a rctc`tgn` irnd tmc past a`h a prntc`tgn` inr



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs1;6

tmc iuturc (G`bnjh <666). Xmgs sta`kc gs kndparaljc tn tmc a-mgstnrgkgty ni pmc`ndc`nj-

nby. G` tmgs kn`kcptuaj sgtuatgn` ni tmc cvc`t, lntm tmc kn`hukt ni tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj

hgskgpjg`c a`h muda` aktgn` arc cdlchhch.

Jgec muda` jgic gs fiàj, tmc pcrinrda`kc ni aktgn` gs tcdpnraj. Nut ni tmc abc`ha

ni muda`gstgk skgc`kcs cdcrbch a scrgcs ni parahgbds a`h rcscarkmcrs pjakg`b muda`

lcg`bs kc`trcinjh g` tmcgr g`qugrgcs. Inr bcnbrapmy tmgs g`tcrcst mas lckndc g`knrpn-

ratch g` tmc lrnah ficjh ni muda` bcnbrapmy. Xmc lgb gssuc ni snkgctaj hcvcjnpdc`t

g` arkmacnjnby gs hgrcktjy tgch tn muda`gsd as wcjj. G` tmc g`tcbratgvc kn`struktgn` ni

tmcnry, gt gs tmc rnah cstaljgsmch ly aktgn` tmcnrgcs tmat appcajs tn tmgs stuhy. Oudpg`b

irnd tmc \càgssa`kc tn tmc c`h ni tmc 17tm kc`tury, wc bct tn tmc ratgnàjgty ni mu-

da` aktgn` kn`kcptuajgsch ly Dax Rclcr (Kadplcjj 17=1). Rmat stays wgtm dc dnst

irnd mgs gùc`tgaj wrgtg`bs gs mgs karciuj usc ni kjassgfikatgn`s g` tmc `ntgn` ni ghcaj

typcs. Ajtmnubm mc mas rgbmtiujjy lcc` krgtgkgsch inr tmc gdpurc usc ni tmcsc ghcaj typcsa`h tmc da`y jcvcjs mc arra`bch tmcd g` tn lugjh up mgs vgsgn` ni snkgcty, g`hgrcktjy

tmc ghcaj typcs bavc way tn aprgnrgstgk jg`cs ni arbudc`ts kn`kcr`ch wgtm snkgcty.

Xmcrcinrc gt gs marhjy surprgsg`b tmat Juhwgb vn` Dgscs, g` lugjhg`b mgs nw` tmcnry n`

tmc lasgs ni aktgn`, lntm krgtgkgsch Rclcr, wmgjst cxkjusgvcjy tur`g`b tn aprgnrgstgk tmcn-

rctgkaj arbudc`ts inr mgs pcrspcktgvc n` tmc ghcaj snkgcty (vn` Dgscs 177=). Mgs u`knr-

ruptch stcahiast injjnwg`b ni mgs nw` tmcnry ni muda` aktgn` kn`stgtutg`b snkgcty gs

lntm gdprcssgvc a`h pcrsuasgvc. Ajtmnubm cvc`tuajjy mgs praxcnjnby dag`jy staych n`

a` ckn`ndgk tragj, tmc purgty ni mgs hcfi`gtgn` ni muda` aktgn` as purpnsciuj lcmavgnur

gs taec` mcrc as a inu`hatgn` tn lugjh n`. Cvc` tmnubm g` jatcr tmcnrgcs tmc rcajd ni tmcdg`h bag`s sgb`gfika`kc, knb`gtgn` n`jy jcahs tn tmc irccjy dahc hckgsgn` tn pcrinrd nr

alstag` irnd aktg`b, wmgkm tmc` dca`g`biujjy aiickts c`vgrn`dc`ts. Yn` Dgscs‗ u`gvcr-

sajgstgk tc`hc`ky g` sukm prnkcsscs gs ni vajuc inr tmcgr bc`craj appjgkalgjgty. Ircchnd

ni kmngkc a`h a scji-rcicrc`tgaj u`hcrsta`hg`b ni tmc wnrjh arc tmc cjcdc`ts tmat arc

cxpjgkgtjy kn`tgùch g` pmc`ndc`njnby.

Vmc`ndc`njnby cvc`tuajjy jays vargnus inu`hatgn`s inr tmc g`tcrprctgvc tc`hc`kgcs

g` tmc sulscquc`t tmcnrgcs. Ajtmnubm tmc mn`nur ni lcg`b a iatmcr tn pmc`ndc`njnby

gs huc tn Chdu`h Musscrj, G mavc kmnsc` tn rcpjakc mgs ratmcr dctapmysgkaj pmc`nd-

c`njnby wgtm tmc kn`stgtutgvc pmc`ndc`njnby ni vn` Dgscs‗ pupgj Ajirch [kmútz. Xmgs

ka` lc pnsgtgn`ch jatcrajjy tn Dcrjcau-Vn`ty‗s cxgstc`tgaj pmc`ndc`njnby, gùc`kch

ly Mcghcbbcr‗s lcg`b-g`-tmc-wnrjh (Kadplcjj 17=1). Xmrnubm sukm cxgstc`tgajgsd tmc

knbc`t lg-gdpjgkatgn` ni pmc`ndc`njnby gs cstaljgsmch? tmc dutuajjy gùc`kg`b rcja-

tgn`smgp lctwcc` da` a`h wnrjh. Ajsn, da` gs kn`sghcrch tn lc hgrcktjy pmysgkaj a`h

tcdpnraj ly tmc `ntgn` ni cdlnhgdc`t, wmgkm mas brnw` tn lc a iavnurch tmcdc g`

snkgaj skgc`kc. [kmútz ahhch tn tmat tmc paradnu`t rcajgty ni tmc g`hgvghuaj jgic-wnrjh g`

wmgkm muda`s akt. Xmc tcdpnraj strukturcs g` tmc jgic-wnrjh arc g`varga`t a`h cssc`tgaj

(ki. Lrauhcj‗s trgpartgtc hgvgsgn`) (O. \. Majj 17=6). G` [kmútz‗s wnre, tmc aktnr lckndcs a



Xmcnrctgkaj G`tcbratgn` inr Hatascts 1;1

snkgaj sulockt a`h mgs snkgaj cxpcrgc`kc gs aàjysch. Cxpcrgc`kc, mnwcvcr, gs ̀ nt a bgvc`,

lut g`tc`tgnàj g` tmc way a sulockt hgrckts mgs attc`tgn` tn mgs c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmc c`vg-

rn`dc`t gs kndpnsch ni nlockts a`h nlscrvch nlockts arc u`hcrstnnh ly kn`trastg`b

tmcd abag`st past cxpcrgc`kcs a`h akqugrch e`nwjchbc, wmgkm kndprgsc cxpcrgc`kc.

Xmc attrglutgn` ni dca`g`b tn nlockts gs spn`ta`cnus, a prnkcss kajjch appcrkcptgn`.

Ajj kn`skgnus`css gs kn`skgnus`css ni nlockts, tmus g`hgvghuaj kn`strukts.

Xmc cxpcrgc`kc a`h dca`g`b ni tmcsc nlockts kndpnsc tmc stnke ni e`nwjchbc.

Wct [kmútz ajsn kn`kcptuajgscs a knddu`gty nr snkgcty tn mavc a knddn` stnke ni

e`nwjchbc wmgkm gs g`mcrgtch a`h jcar`ch ly sulockts (Kadplcjj 17=1). As G mavc

arbuch, tmgs knddn` stnke ni e`nwjchbc smnujh lc apprnakmch krgtgkajjy, as jcar`g`b

gs g`hgvghuaj a`h scjcktgvc, a`h partgkgpatgn` gs a dutuajjy gùc`kg`b prnkcss (G`bnjh

<666). [kmútz was ̀ n jn`bcr jnneg`b inr tmc cssc`kcs ni pmc`ndcà, lut g`stcah kn`-

kc`tratch n` tmc prnkcsscs ni pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj rchuktgn`. G` nrhcr tn gìcr dca`g`bg` sndcn`c‗s aktgn`s, tmc cdpgrgkaj jcvcj ni tmc sulockt‗s nw` cxpcrgc`kc `cchs tn lc

dag`tag`ch, tmnubm aàjysgs ka` lc gìnrdch ly bc`craj tmcnrctgkaj prckn`kcptgn`s

(Kadplcjj 17=1, Clcrjc 17=8). [kmútz was g`tcrcstch g` hgsknvcrg`b tmc cjcdc`ts ni

snkgaj jgic rccktg`b n` snkgaj cxpcrgc`kc as g`tcraktg`b g`hgvghuajs, nr as tmc g`tc`tgn`

ni snkgaj jgic (Kadplcjj 17=1). [kmútz kn`tgùch vn` Dgscs‗ ghca ni a scji-rcicrc`tgaj

u`hcrsta`hg`b ni tmc c`vgrn`dc`t, lntm snkgajjy a`h datcrgajjy. Xmgs dca`s tmat snkgaj

g`tcraktgn` c`tagjs a` g`tcr-sulocktgvc u`hcrsta`hg`b, g`hgkatg`b snkgcty ka` lckndc

g`tcjjgbgljc ly tmc aàjysgs ni vargnus typcs ni muda` aktgn`. Mgs sc`sc ni ratgnàj aktgv-

gty was lasch n` dntgvatch jgvch cxpcrgc`kc. Xmc dntgvatgn` inr aktgn` was kn`kcp-tuajgsch as ”g` nrhcr tn‗ (inr sulockt‗s prnockts), wmgjst g`kjuhg`b ghcas ni g`mcrgta`kc,

g`hgvghuaj lgnbrapmgcs, g`tc`tgnàjgty a`h hckgsgn`s dahc n` tmc lasgs ni pcrsnàj rcj-

cva`kc (ghcd).

Inr tmc snkgaj skgc`kcs g` bc`craj, a`h ajsn inr tmc hgskussgn` mcrc, tmc ntmcr pntc`t

inrkc g` tmnubmt n` tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni snkgctgcs gs strukturatgn` tmcnry. Gts rcjcva`kc gs

ajrcahy cxprcssch wcjj ly tmc tgtjc ni Bghhc`s‗ dnst gùc`tgaj wnre? Xmc Kn`stgtutgn` ni

[nkgcty (17=8). Rgtm a lakebrnu`h g` pmc`ndc`njnby a`h strukturatgn`, dag`tag`g`b

a inkus n` aktgn`, tmc bcnbrapmy ni Ajja` Vrch scrvcs as lrghbc tnwarhs spakc irnd

a snkgaj a`bjc. @ntwgtmsta`hg`b tmc fi`c kn`trglutgn`s dahc ly ntmcr hgskgpjg`cs a`h

tmcnrgsts n` tmc g`tcrprctatgn` ni spakc hgskussch prcvgnusjy, as sagh g` dy knddc`tar-

gcs, tmcy kn`trargjy jch tn gìcrc`kc aàjysg`b tmc ajrcahy cxgstg`b spatgaj prnhukt. Vrnx-

cdgks, lcg`b jarbcjy nvcrjnnech g` arkmacnjnby, tc`tatgvcjy nkkupgch a dghhjc brnu`h,

lut was `nt inu`h suifikgc`tjy krgtgkaj inr nur purpnscs mcrc. Vrch, n` tmc ntmcr ma`h,

wc`t iurtmcr tma` prnxcdgks ly ̀ nt n`jy tyg`b tmc kn`struktgn` ni spakc hgrcktjy tn tmc

snkgaj, lut cjalnratg`b n` tmc cstaljgsmg`b prnkcsscs. Xmcsc prnkcsscs wcrc kn`kcptu-

ajgsch g` strukturatgnàj tcrds, `nt n`jy taeg`b g`tn akknu`t tmc kn`stgtutgn` ni snkgcty

ly dca`s ni tmcd, lut ajsn tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc.



Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`ts, Kn`struktch [nkgctgcs1;<

Vrch saw tmat pcnpjc nrba`gsch tmcdscjvcs g` cxckutg`b prnockts inr tmcdscjvcs

nr wgtm ntmcrs (g` g`stgtutgn`s), a`h tmat tmcy wcrc lntm càljch a`h rcstrgktch tn hn

sn ly tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs. Inr tmgs mc ahaptch `ntgn`s wmgkm mah lcc` hcvcjnpch

g` Mèbcrstra`h‗s tgdc-bcnbrapmy. Cvcry prnockt partgkgpa`t wnujh karry mgs nw` lgnb-

rapmy g`tn a prnockt, a dutuajjy gùc`kg`b rcjatgn`smgp. Nrhcr a`h strukturc knujh

cdcrbc tmrnubm pcnpjc rcpctgtgvcjy partgkgpatg`b g` kjnscjy rcjatch prnockts nvcr tgdc,

krcatg`b lgnbrapmgcs ni cxpcrgc`kc tmat partgajjy kn`kur. Nut ni tmgs pnwcr rcjatgn`s

day cdcrbc. Wct ajj cjcdc`ts arc kn``cktch g` hgajcktgk prnkcsscs ni lckndg`b cakm

ntmcr, sn tmgs gs ajsn appjgkaljc tn kn`stgtutch pnwcr rcjatgn`s. Xmcrcinrc Vrch dahc

g`hgvghuajs, tmc snkgaj a`h spakc, snkgaj rcprnhuktgn`, lgnbrapmgcs a`h tmc tra`sinrda-

tgn` ni àturc ajj g`scparaljc cjcdc`ts ni pcrpctuaj strukturg`b prnkcsscs.

Mgs prnkcsscs ka` lc strctkmch nvcr jarbc pcrgnhs ni tgdc as wcjj as vast arcas,

daeg`b gt appjgkaljc tn lntm dgkrn a`h dakrn skajc g`qugrgcs. Vjakc as mgstnrgkajjy kn`-tg`bc`t prnkcss bcts gts dca`g`b irnd g`hgvghuaj prnockt partgkgpa`ts a`h tmcgr lgnbra-

pmgcs. Xmnsc prnockts g`vnjvg`b tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc ka` lc scc` as prnhukg`b

tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t, wmgkm wgjj karry dca`g`b akknrhg`bjy (Vrch 17=8, 17=9). Vrch

karciujjy lugjt a wnrjh ni bc`crajjy appjgkaljc prnkcsscs, payg`b attc`tgn` tn pmysgkaj

kn`strag`ts a`h càljg`b kn`hgtgn`s, cstaljgsmg`b tmc lrghbc tmat daecs gt pnssgljc tn

rcbarh kn`struktch spakcs hcpartg`b irnd tmc snkgaj. Gt gs dy rcahg`b ni gt wmgkm puts

mgs hgajcktgks g`tn a` cvnjutgnàry pcrspcktgvc, dahc pnssgljc ly tmc g`trg`sgk kn`-

`cktgn` ni tgdc a`h spakc. Arkmacnjnby g` partgkujar mnjhs tmc tnnjs inr stuhyg`b tmc

cvnjutgn` ni tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc, wmcrcas pmc`ndc`njnby niicrs cxpjgkatnrynppnrtu`gtgcs tn sukm prnkcsscs.

Gt gs wgtm tmc pntc`tgaj pnwcr kn`tag`ch g` tmc ircchnd ni sulockts tmat Dgkmcj hc

Kcrtcau (17==) daecs mgs dnst gdpnrta`t kn`trglutgn` tn tmgs hclatc. Vrch dahc us

u`hcrsta`h tmc cdcrbc`kc ni nrhcr, kn`tg`bc`ky a`h kn`snjghatgn`, ly dca`s ni hc

Kcrtcau wc day rcakm a lcttcr apprckgatgn` ni kma`bc wgtmnut rcvnjutgn`gsg`b gt. Mc

c`hnwch tmc kn`sudptgvc praktgkcs ni cvcryhay jgic wgtm tmc pnwcr ni rcsgsta`kc. Xmgs

daecs us rctmgè nur casgjy assudch pnsgtgn` rcbarhg`b knìnrdgst aktgn`s, as tmcsc

arc `n jn`bcr `ckcssargjy tmat. Aktg`b gs a kn`sta`t rcapprnprgatgn` ni tmc bnnhs usch

(snkgctaj tragts g`kjuhch), a eg`h ni sckn`hary prnhuktgn`. Xmnubm dukm ni tmgs rcsgst-

a`kc gs sulkn`skgnus a`h sgjc`t gt ka` ajsn lc usch stratcbgkajjy a`h taktgkajjy, ways

inr tmc wcae tn daec usc ni tmc strn`b. Cxpjgkgtjy pcrinrdg`b rcsgsta`kc day kausc

”g`kndprcmc`sgljc‗ statgstgkaj nutjgcrs as wcjj as akknu`t inr kma`bc a`h pcrgnhgk hcvcj-

npdc`ts. Kma`bc tmus lckndcs part ni cvcryhay jgic, g`stcah ni tmc cxtranrhgàry.

[n iar G mavc tmcnrctgkajjy ahhrcssch lntm tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc snkgaj a`h gts

g`tcrkn``cktch`css wgtm tmc kn`struktgn` ni spakc n`jy irnd bc`craj prg`kgpjcs. Aj-

tmnubm sukm a tmcnry, as Vrch (17=9) mgdscji dc`tgn`s, knujh lc usciuj inr gìnrdg`b

a`h hgrcktg`b cdpgrgkaj g`qugrgcs, gt wgjj ̀ cvcr fit cdpgrgkajjy inu`h sgtuatgn`s c`tgrcjy. Gt



Xmcnrctgkaj G`tcbratgn` inr Hatascts 1;;

smnujh ratmcr lc usch as a iradcwnre. Ly kn`kc`tratg`b n` a partgkujar vgsta ni snkgcty,

kn`stgtutch ly tmrcc dag` axcs, G mavc arrgvch at a png`t wmgkm ajjnws us tn put tmc

kn`struktgn` ni spakc (nr tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t) g` a snkgaj pcrspcktgvc. [tgjj, arkmacnj-

nby as a hgskgpjg`c hcvcjnps gts dctmnhnjnbgcs arnu`h tmc prcsc`kc, akqugsgtgn` a`h

algjgty tn cxtrakt gìnrdatgn` irnd datcrgaj rcdag`s. Vmysgkajjy kn`struktch spakc, nr

tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t (g` Jawrc`kc a`h Jnw‗s (1776) lrnah hcfi`gtgn`), gs n`c ni tmc

dnst rcahgjy avagjaljc snurkcs ni gìnrdatgn` g` arkmacnjnbgkaj rcknrhs. As a dchgatnr

ni pcrkcptgn` a`h aktgn`, kn`sta`tjy lcg`b rcapprnprgatch a`h kn`struktch ajn`b-

sghc tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni snkgcty, wc smnujh lc aljc tn cxtrakt snkgaj, ghc`tgty karryg`b

dca`g`b irnd gt. Ly dca`s ni g`tcrprctg`b tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t g` vargnus tcdpnrajg-

tgcs, tmc spatgaj kmaraktcrgstgks ni hcvcjnpg`b snkgctgcs smnujh lc dahc g`tcjjgbgljc.

[nkgaj Vnsgtgn`g`b ni [patgajgtgcs

Sìnrtuàtcjy, tmc passabc ni tgdc gs as dukm hcbc`cratgvc as prnbrcssgvc as iar as tmc

pmysgkaj gs kn`kcr`ch. G` dnst kascs arkmacnjnby gs knìrn`tch wgtm tmc datcrgaj rc-

dag`s ni snkgctgcs tmat sgdpjy ̀ n jn`bcr cxgst. Vcnpjc mavc hgch, artciakts mavc lrnec`,

lugjhg`bs mavc knjjapsch nr wcrc hcdnjgsmch. Xmgs rcsujts g` a scvcrc kjnuhg`b ni nur

inkus, kausg`b a jnss ni hctagj a`h a prnkcss ni scjcktgn` lnu`h tn datcrgaj huralgjgty.

Kn`kc`tratg`b n` spatgaj hata, wc arc autndatgkajjy rcicrrch tn aspckts ni tmc lugjt c`-

vgrn`dc`t. Lcg`b a` g`trg`sgk part ni snkgaj inrdatgn` prnkcsscs gt karrgcs kn`sghcraljc

snkgaj dca`g`b, yct rcknvcrg`b spatgaj hata n` tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t c`tagjs a` ad-pjgfikatgn` ni skajc. Dnst prnockts ni kn`struktgn` nr huraljc tra`sinrdatgn`s ni àturc

arc `nt rcajgsch ly sg`bjc g`hgvghuajs. Dnrcnvcr, `nt ajj sultjctgcs ni snkgcty lckndc

kn`struktch as spatgajgtgcs. Vrnxcdgks mas hcdn`stratch tmat a sc`sc ni tcrrgtnrgajgty g`

hgsta`kc scttg`b gs tmc dnst hgrckt inrd ni cstaljgsmg`b a spatgaj ghc`tgty. [ukm kndinrt

zn`cs arc lntm pcrsnàj a`h sgtuatgnàj, a`h day rcjatc tn tmc vargnus snkgn-spatgaj

systcds a sulockt partgkgpatcs g`. Gi tmc prnockts cxckutch g` sukm systcds g`vnjvc tmc

tra`sinrdatgn` ni ̀ aturc, tmgs wgjj rcckt a kndpnsgtgn` ni tmc irccjy dahc hckgsgn`s tn

partgkgpatc a`h akt ni tmc sulockts g`kjuhch g` tmc prnockt.

G` tcrds ni tmc hgdc`sgn`s kndprgsg`b spatgaj hata, wc ka` prnhukc dcasuraljc

rcprcsc`tatgn`s ni tmc kn`struktch spatgajgtgcs5 at tmgs stabc prcicraljy g` tmc rcjatgvc

`cutrajgty ni hata akqugsgtgn`, n`jy aiicktch ly akqugsgtgn` nlocktgvcs. Xmgs spatgaj hata

tmc` rcprcsc`ts tmc kndpjgkatch kn`snjghatgn` ni hgiicrc`tgatgn` a`h lnrhcrg`b prnk-

csscs (ki. Rcrjc` <663), tn lc taec` cgtmcr g` tmc jarbc kndpnsgtcs ni tmc dakrn skajc

nr tmc dnrc rcahgjy hgskcràljc ”g`hgvghuajgty‗ ni tmc dgkrn skajc, hcpc`hg`b n` tmc al-

snjutc cxpa`sgn` ni tmc rcscarkm sknpc. [patgaj ghc`tgty darecrs g` tmc spatgaj hata arc

a` gìcrc`tgaj adpjgfikatgn` ni tmc g`hgvghuaj wmc` g`kjuhch g` a snkgn-spatgaj systcd.

@ntwgtmsta`hg`b tmc uàssagjaljc u`gquc pnsgtgn` ni tmc g`hgvghuaj, wmgkm rcdag`s




kc`trcinjh g` aàjysgs, tmcrc gs `n g`tcrprctgvc rcqugrcdc`t tn hckn`tcxtuajgsc sg`bjc

gsnjatch sulockts. Xmc tmcnrctgkajjy hcfi`ch sulockt gs cssc`tgaj inr tmc snkgaj aàjysgs ni

spatgaj hata. G`tcrprctatgn` gs g`hgvghuajjy muda`gsch, wmgjst g`cxtrgkaljy kn`tcxtuaj-

gsch. Xmc dca`g`b arkmacnjnbgsts ka` gìcr irnd tmc spatgaj hatasct gs a rcprcsc`tatgn`

ni spatgaj ghc`tgty `ntgn`s ni a snkgn-spatgaj systcd rcprcsc`tg`b a knddu`gty kn`-

struktch ly g`hgvghuaj sulocktgvc akts, g` vargnus hcbrccs mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t wgtm

sulockts‗ pcrkcptgn` ni lcjn`bg`b. Xmus tmgs skajc adpjgfikatgn` gs `nt sayg`b tmat tmc

sud ni parts gs dnrc tma` tmc wmnjc.

@nw a iccjg`b stcajs nvcr us as akahcdgks tmat tmgs g`cvgtaljc arkmacnjnbgkaj skajc

adpjgfikatgn` hgdg`gsmcs tmc sgb`gfika`kc ni tmc g`hgvghuaj a`h mgs aktgn`s pcr sc.

Xmnubm u`hcrsta`haljc, tmgs gs ̀ nt c`tgrcjy truc. Xmc way aktgn` mas lcc` kn`kcptuaj-

gsch tmrnubmnut tmgs stuhy, hcspgtc gts kndpjctcjy g`hgvghuaj g`tc`tgnàj pcrinrda`kc,

iu`hadc`tajjy surpasscs n`c-hgrcktgnàj g`hgvghuaj dca`g`b ly lcg`b g`tcraktgn`. Ak-tgn` as a lnhgjy pcrinrda`kc gs g`tcraktgn` wgtm gts c`vgrn`dc`t, lc gt snkgaj nr datcrgaj.

Cvc` wmc` pcrinrdch wgtmnut tmc g`tc`tgn` ni g`kjuhg`b a`ntmcr g`hgvghuaj‗s rcaktgn`

(ki. dy krgtgquc n` _gcrmnicr‗s (<66<) spcckm akts as g`tcraktgn`), aktgn`s arc snkgajjy

gìnrdatgvc lckausc ni tmc scji-rcicrc`tgaj u`hcrsta`hg`b sulockts mavc ni tmcgr jgic-

wnrjhs. A`y aktgn` mavg`b a hgrckt nr g`hgrckt jastg`b kn`scquc`kc g` tmc pmysgkaj nr

snkgaj c`vgrn`dc`t gs pntc`tgajjy (g`)hgrckt snkgaj g`tcraktgn`. Cvc` gi tmc kn`scquc`kcs

ni tmc aktgn`s wgjj `cvcr lc pcrkcgvch ly a`ntmcr sulockt, gt stgjj was a kn`stgtutgvc

g`tcraktgn` wgtm tmc c`vgrn`dc`t, a` cxpcrgc`kc g` tmc lgnbrapmy inrdatgn` ni a`

g`hgvghuaj. G` tmgs way, cakm g`tcraktgn` g` a systcd karrgcs a` cxpcrgc`kc ni ajj tmg`bspast. [n, wmgjc aktgn`s arc g`hgvghuajjy dca`g`biuj n` lntm tmc sghc ni tmc sc`hcr a`h

tmc rckcgvcr(s), tmc dca`g`b tmcgr c`vgrn`dc`taj kn`scquc`kcs karry g` tmc pntc`tgaj

datcrgaj kn`snjghatgn` ni npcratg`b systcds gs `nt ni tmc g`hgvghuaj‗s g`tc`tgnàj pcr-

inrda`kc ajn`c. Datcrgaj kn`snjghatgn`s arc cxprcssgn`s ni akkudujatch dca`g`b, lut

tmc` lckndc part ni tmc sadc stgjj kn`tgùg`b prnkcsscs hcvcjnpg`b, rcapprnprgatg`b

a`h kma`bg`b tmcgr g`gtgaj dca`g`b. Aktgn`s hn `nt surdnu`t tmc g`hgvghuaj, lut kausc

tmc g`hgvghuaj tn dca`g`biujjy tgc mgdscji tn tmc c`vgrn`dc`t mc pcrkcgvcs a`h tmc

cxpcrgc`kc mc tmus akqugrcs.

C`vgrn`dc`tajjy sgtuatch, aktgn` as g`tcraktgn` gs a hgajcktgkaj prnkcss, jgec tmc snkgaj

akts ni prnockt partgkgpatgn` (ki. Vrch 17=9). Xmc dutuajjy aiicktg`b àturc ni aktgn`s

npcratg`b snkgn-spatgaj systcds g`tcrkn``ckts ajj kn`stgtutgvc cjcdc`ts. Xmcy arc g`-

scparaljc a`h scji prnhukch (ki. autnpngcsgs ni Enkm <663, Lruu` a`h Ja`bjags <66;,

Ar`njhg <661). Dnrcnvcr, npcratg`b systcds arc g` a kn`sta`t statc ni lckndg`b (ki.

Vrch 17=9). G` a pcrspcktgvc pcrtag`g`b tn tgdc, aktgn`s as cvc`ts arc a-mgstnrgkaj (ki.

pmc`ndc`njnby a`h G`bnjh 17=9, <666), irccjy pnsgtgn`ch g` tmc tcdpnraj ux (ki.

Jukas <663 n` Musscrj), yct dag`tag`g`b a rgkm`css ni tcdpns a`h rmytmds g` tmcgr

pcrinrda`kc. [gdujta`cnusjy tmcy arc mgstnrgkajjy dca`g`biuj, lckausc ni tmc mgstnrgk-




gty ni lgnbrapmgcs a`h tmc cxkma`bcaljc nvcrjap jgèg`b sulockts‗ lgnbrapmgcs g` tmc

g`tcraktgn`s rcqugrch tn cxckutc (g`stgtutgnàj) prnockts (ki. Vrch 17=9 n` tgdc-bcnb-

rapmy). Xmc tcdpnraj dca`g`b tmcy karry gs kn`stgtutch ly tmc pa`npjy ni rcjatgnàj

tcdpnrajgtgcs kn`tag`ch g` snkgaj jgic (ki. G`bnjh‗s (<666) taseskapcs), ratmcr tma` tmcgr

kmrn`njnbgkaj pnsgtgn`. Xmc adpjgfikatgn` ni sgb`gfika`kc tmus appcars g` tmc snkgaj a`h

datcrgaj c`vgrn`dc`t a`h g` tgdc.

Xcdpnraj adpjgfikatgn` gs hgrcktjy rcspn`sgljc inr tmc strukturcs a`h nrhcr pcrkcgvch

ly partgkgpatg`b sulockts iurtmcr aiicktg`b tmc systcdgk npcratgn`s, as wcjj as gìcrrch

ly akahcdgk aàjysgs. Xmc kjnscr (g` bcndctrgk spakc a`h snkgajgty) a`h dnrc rcpctg-

tgvc prnockt partgkgpatgn` gs nvcr tgdc, tmc dnrc aifi`gty cdcrbcs g` tmc cxpcrgc`kc ni

cakm sulockt g`vnjvch. @cvcrtmcjcss, tmgs kn`kurrg`b aifi`gty gs partgaj at lcst. Rmat wc

g`tcrprct as nrhcr gs aktuajjy a kjnscjy rcjatch g`trgkatc kmantgk kndpjcx ni systcds lugjt

ni iradch g`tcraktgn`s (ki. Enkm <663). Ircchnd ni kmngkc gs c`tgrcjy sustag`ch a`hg`hgvghuaj, lut as gt lckndcs g`krcasg`bjy sgdgjarjy gùc`kch ly akqugrch e`nwjchbc

ni kndparaljc cxpcrgc`kcs, tmc prnkcss ni hckgsgn`-daeg`b gs prn`c tn jcah tn cquajjy

sgdgjar kmngkcs g` dnst kascs. As a sghc ciickt, g` ahdg`gstratgvcjy ahva`kch snkgctgcs

sukm cquajgsatgn` ni cxpcrgc`tgajjy gùc`kch prnkcsscs day lc assgb`ch alstraktch

dca`g`bs tmat ka` lc inrdajjy da`gicstch as `nrds, rujcs a`h jaws, wmgkm arc g` tur`

nitc` inrkciujjy c`hnwch ly pnwcr rcjatgn`s (ki. Vrch 17=9, Inukaujt 17=<). Arkmacnj-

nby, n` tmc ntmcr ma`h, typgkajjy hc`gcs tmat knddn` pcnpjc g` tmcgr cvcryhay aktgn`s

day ajsn cstaljgsm a rujg`b nrhcr. Wct as Vauectat tc`tatgvcjy arbucs, tmc inrdatgn`

ni rujcs gs `nt tmc kn`scquc`kc ni pnjgtgkaj cvnjutgn`, lut ratmcr a prnhukt ni tmcstrukturg`b prnkcsscs ni snkgaj kma`bc (Vauectat <666a). Inrdajgsatgn` smnujh `nt lc

knìusch wgtm tmc prnkcsscs taeg`b pjakc g` cakm sulockt nr cvc` tmc da`y npcratg`b

systcds g` a snkgcty. @n-n`c wgjj akt akknrhg`b tn a` cxakt knpy ni inrdajgsch rujcs,

ajtmnubm sulscquc`tjy tmc stgjj irccjy dahc hckgsgn`s wgjj lc aiicktch ly cxgstg`b pnwcr

rcjatgn`s. N` tmc ntmcr ma`h, tmc g`krcasg`b (tgdc-spakc) knddnàjgty g` bc`cratgvc

kn`stgtutg`b prnkcsscs càljcs us tn spcae ni a kcrtag` snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty jnkatch g`

tmc datcrgaj da`gicstatgn` ni mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t snkgn-spatgaj systcds ni a rcsghg`b

nr scttjch snkgcty. Xmgs ghc`tgty gs cssc`tgajjy a kndpnsgtgn` ni tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni

tmc spatgajgtgcs (g.c. a eg`h ni spatgaj sgbàturc ) prnhukch ly tmc prnkcsscs at wnre.

Abag`, sukm snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty smnujh `nt lc rcbarhch g` a` gsnjatch way as a

status qun. [nkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty gs a` g`tcjjgbgljc statc ni kn`snjghatgn` wmgkm, huc

tn tmc àturc ni gts kn`stgtutgn`, hgrcktjy fi`hs gtscji as a kn`stgtutgvc cjcdc`t g` tmc

kn`tgùnusjy npcratg`b snkgn-spatgaj prnkcsscs. [nkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty gs kn`tag`ch g`

tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t wmgkm gs gddchgatcjy pcrkcgvch, usch a`h rcapprnprgatch, a`h

kn`scquc`tgajjy kma`bcs gts dca`g`b a`h pntc`tgajjy gts spckgfik pmysgkaj smapc `cxt.

G`trg`sgkajjy gt gs a stabc (tcdpnrary spatgajgty ni tcdpnrajgtgcs) lctwcc` tmc da`gicst-

ch kn`snjghatgn` prnhukch ly tmc prckchg`b prnkcsscs a`h tmc kn`tg`bc`t prnkcsscs




kma`bg`b gt, pntc`tgajjy jcahg`b tn a sukkcssgvc statc ni kn`snjghatgn`. [n wmat G ad ni-

icrg`b `nw pcrtag`s tn a` adpjgfikatgn` ni a` cvc`t, c`tagjg`b a u`gquc rctc`tgn` irnd

tmc past a`h a prntc`tgn` inr tmc iuturc (ki. G`bnjh <666). Rgtmnut taeg`b g`tn akknu`t

tmc jarbcr tcdpnraj wg`hnw g`tcràj tn tmc snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty kn`tag`ch g` tmc lugjt

c`vgrn`dc`t, gt ka``nt lc ahcquatcjy g`tcrprctch snkgajjy. [patgaj kn`bruc`ky nr kn`-

snjghatgn` gs tmus tcdpnraj a`h gs spckgfikajjy gìnrdch ly tmc kma`bc gt cdlnhgcs a`h

tmc kma`bc gt g`vnju`targjy iakgjgtatcs.

Xmc `ntgn` ni kma`bc lrg`bs us rgbmt lake tn tmc g`hgvghuaj‗s aktgn`s. Oust as ak-

tgn`s prnhukc kmantgk nrhcr, tmc cvcryhay kmans lcars wgtmg` tmc pntc`tgaj ni kma`bc.

Kma`bc starts wgtm tmc pcrinrda`kc ni a` aktgn` wmgkm gs sn rahgkajjy hgiicrc`t irnd

tmc aktgn`s npcratg`b tmc systcds g` gts c`vgrn`dc`t tmat tmcy arc aiicktch ly gt. G`

ntmcr wnrhs, a` aktgn` wmgkm mas katajytgk kn`scquc`kcs, wmctmcr g`tc`hch nr `nt.

As gs tn lc cxpcktch, dnst cxtranrhgàry cvcryhay aktgn`s arc `nt rahgkaj c`nubm tnkausc sukm prnkcss ni kma`bc sg`bjc-ma`hchjy. Vcrmaps tmc kn`scquc`kcs arc ajsn

supprcssch inr a pcrgnh. \ahgkaj aktgn`s ka` lc kausch ly nrgbgàj tmnubmt (krcatgn`)

a`h tmc assnkgatch wgsm tn da`gicst n`c‗s g`sgbmts. Ajtcràtgvcjy a`h dnrc knddn`jy,

a sulockt wgjj mavc arrgvch at a hgiicrc`t vajuatgn` ni tmc pntc`tgaj kn`scquc`kcs ni

mgs aktgn`s, tmus c`vgsgn`g`b a hgiicrc`t bnaj tmrnubm tmc kmngkc ni tmcgr g`tc`tgnàj

pcrinrda`kc (ki. vn` Dgscs 177=). Wct cvc` dnrc nrhgàry gs Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau‗s

(17==) rcsgsta`kc g` cvcryhay (kn`sudptgvc) praktgkcs. Ajtmnubm ajways prcsc`t g`

a`y aktgn`, a strn`b taktgk nr stratcbgk da`gicstatgn` ni sukm rcsgsta`kc rcahgjy ak-

knu`ts inr kma`bc. Dnrcnvcr, gt daecs kma`bc kn`tg`bc`t. G`tcraktgn` c`tagjs tmc uscni dchgatgn` ly tmc c`vgrn`dc`t. Ssc g` hc Kcrtcau‗s tcrds gs a sckn`h prnhuktgn`,

g.c. rcapprnprgatgn`. Mcrc gt gs n`kc abag` hcdn`stratch tmat g`hgvghuaj dca`g`b gs tmc

dag` aàjytgkaj u`gt g` tmc prnkcsscs ni snkgajgty. Gt gs gdpnrta`t tn `ntc tmat tmc rahgkaj

aktgn`s ni kma`bc arc cvc`ts wgtm tmcgr assnkgatch u`gquc rctc`tgn` irnd tmc past a`h

prntc`tgn` inr tmc iuturc.

Rgtm kma`bc wc kndpjctc tmc tmcnrctgkaj spgraj kn`krctgsg`b tmc hgajcktgkaj prnk-

csscs ni lckndg`b (ki. Vrch 17=9). Xmc sulockt, snkgajgty, tcdpnrajgty a`h (datcrgaj)

spatgajgty arc ajj iujjy-chbch cjcdc`ts ni tmcsc prnkcsscs. Xmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t rcp-

rcsc`tch ly spatgaj hata gs nur dnst rcahgjy avagjaljc snurkc ni gìnrdatgn` wmgkm kar-

rgcs ajj tmgs dca`g`b. @nw wc `cch tn bct gt nut g` sukm a way tmat a` u`hcrsta`hg`b

ni snkgaj ghc`tgty kndcs wgtmg` rcakm. Xmc tmcnry mcrc càljcs us tn snkgajjy gìnrd a`h

hgrckt nur aàjysgs ni tmnsc spckgfik spatgaj icaturcs kndprgsg`b tmc dnst dca`g`biuj

aspckts ni tmc snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty ni a knddu`gty nr snkgcty. Gt wgjj `nt hn sn n` tmc

lasgs ni artciakt asscdljabcs nr kndpjcxcs ni hcknratgvc styjcs, ratmcr gt hncs sn n` tmc

lasgs ni spatgaj icaturcs iakgjgtatg`b kndpatglgjgty lctwcc` hgiicrc`t snkgn-spatgaj sys-

tcds ni iradch g`tcraktgn`. Xmgs prnhukcs a pcrspcktgvc n` tmc partgkujar ghc`tgfialjc

kndpnsgtgn` ni kn`struktch spatgajgtgcs, g.c. a snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs . \atmcr




tma` ajjnwg`b us tn e`nw iu`ktgnàj nr kujturaj spckgfiks alnut spatgajgtgcs, gt smchs jgbmt

n` wmat eg`h ni snkgaj pnsgtgn` a spatgajgty nkkupgcs rcjatch tn tmc kn`struktgn` ni tmc

jnkaj knddu`gty nr snkgcty g` a tgdc-spakc spckgfik way. A spatgajgty gs `cvcr gsnjatch

irnd gts snkgajgty, tcdpnrajgtgcs a`h g`tcrkn``cktch`css wgtm ntmcr spatgajgtgcs. G` gtscji

gt mnjhs jgttjc gìnrdatgn` n` snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty.

Xmgs tmcnry day npcratc n` lntm tmc dgkrn a`h tmc dakrn skajc sg`kc, spatgajjy a`h

tcdpnrajjy, g`tcraktgn` tgcs cvcrytmg`b tnbctmcr, pnssgljy g`tn g`fi`gty. Daeg`b a scjcktgn`

ni tmgs ajj-c`kndpassg`b g`tcrrcjatgnàj `ntgn`, wmgkm gs g`cvgtaljy sn g` cdpgrgkaj

arkmacnjnbgkaj rcscarkm, wc `cch tn strgvc inr g`kjusgn` ni ajj iradch g`tcraktgn`s ni

snkgajgty wgtmg` tmc bcndctrgkaj sknpc ni g`qugrgcs. [ukm a scjcktgn` ka` lc snkgajjy

dca`g`biuj cvc` gi gt hncs `nt knrrcspn`h wgtm cxpcrgc`kc ni sulockts g` tmc past (ki.

knddc`tary n` Jumda``‗s tntajgty (g` Ar`njhg <661) g` kmaptcr inur n` dca`g`biuj

sjcktgn`s). As jn`b as tmgs gs datcrgajjy da`gicstch g` a spatgaj hatasct (nr tmc rcdag`sni a lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t), vgjjabcs, kgtgcs, arcas, a`h rcbgn`s ka` ajj lc ghc`tgty karrgcrs.

Bcndctrgkaj a`h bcnbrapmgkaj spatgaj strctkmcs ka` sn lckndc dca`g`biuj ratmcr tma`

oust dcasuraljc. Mnwcvcr, tmgs c`tagjs a scvcrc dc`tajgty smgit irnd tmgèg`b irnd tmc

spatgaj tn tmgèg`b irnd tmc snkgaj. A smgit wmgkm gs gdpjgkgtjy prcsc`t g` Ajja` Vrch‗s

wnre, sndcwmat strn`bcr a`h dnrc spckgfik g` Xgd G`bnjh‗s wrgtg`b a`h vcry cxpjgkgt

g` Lc``n Rcrjc`‗s asscrtgn`s. A smgit wmgkm c`tagjs a` g`vcrsgn` ni aàjysgs ajrcahy

gdpjgch a`h càljch ly Musscrj‗s rcdare tmat tmc g``cr wnrjh ni muda` lcg`b smnujh

`nt lc stuhgch wgtm tmc sadc dctmnhs as tmc àturaj skgc`kcs (Kjnec c.a. 1771), a

praktgkc tmat wc mavc brnw` akkustndch tn. G` nrhcr tn sct nut sndc iuturc patms,tmc injjnwg`b wgjj hgskuss wmat eg`h ni dctmnhnjnbgkaj nppnrtu`gtgcs tmgs tmcnry bgvcs

us inr hata aàjysgs, ajn`bsghc sndc gìcrc`tgaj arkmacnjnbgkaj gssucs tmat arc hgrcktjy

aiicktch ly gt.

[patgaj Hatascts, G`tcrprctgvc Gssucs

Xmc tmcnrctgkaj g`tcbratgn` prcsc`tch alnvc c`tagjs scvcraj hcda`hs. @nt cvcry ha-

tasct wgjj hn cquajjy wcjj g` prnvghg`b tmc spckgfik cjcdc`ts tmat ka` lc g`scrtch g`

tmc hcskrglch bc`craj prnkcsscs as tmc gìnrdatgvc appjgkatgn` ni tmc tmcnry. As sagh

lcinrc, hcpc`hg`b n` tmc cjcdc`ts, tmc nutkndcs nr stabcs ni kn`snjghatgn` prnhukch

ly tmcsc kn`tg`bc`t prnkcsscs wgjj hgiicr akknrhg`bjy, g.c. ̀ nt ajj ghc`tgtgcs hcrgvch irnd

spatgaj hatascts wgjj lc tmc sadc. Mnwcvcr, gt upmnjhs tmat nur dag` prnljcd gs tmc

quajgty ni tmc hatasct. G` nrhcr tn gìcr dca`g`b n` snkgaj ghc`tgty irnd lugjt c`vgrn`-

dc`ts, a mgbm hcbrcc ni snkgaj rcjatgn`s `cch tn mavc lcc` pmysgkajjy kn`struktch g`

a kcrtag` way at sndc png`t g` tgdc. G` ntmcr wnrhs, g` Vrch‗s tcrds wc `cch as dukm

tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc as pnssgljc. Inr tmat rcasn` a`y usc ni tmc tmcnry alnvc, G

tmgè, wnujh lc dnst icrtgjc g` tmc spatgaj hatasct ni a` urla` c`vgrn`dc`t. Xmc kmngkc






qugrc cxpjaàtgn`s g` hgakmrn`gk a`h mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t tcrds.— (Vauectat <666l?

19) G` tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs tmc sulockt nr g`hgvghuaj stays rcspn`sgljc at

ajj jcvcjs, sg`kc mgs aktgn`s kn`stgtutc a`y snkgn-spatgaj systcd. Aktgn`s kn`stgtutc tmc

mnuscmnjhs a`h knddu`gtgcs kndpnsg`b snkgctgcs, wmgkm, as a` n`bng`b tcdpnraj

strctkm, ajsn daecs sagh aktgn`s rcspn`sgljc inr tmc cvc`tuaj snkgaj cvnjutgn`. [gdgjarjy,

urla`gsatgn` day cdcrbc nut ni tmcsc hyàdgk prnkcsscs.

Vauectat `ntaljy arbucs ajn`b a kndparaljc jg`c, ouhbg`b ly mgs wnrhs kajjg`b inr

hgakmrn`gk a`h mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t cxpjaàtgn`s. Xmnubm `nt at tmc sadc jcvcj as

tmc hgskussgn` ni tmc sdajjcst u`gt ni snkgaj nrba`gsatgn`, mc kn`tgùcs a tmcnrctgkaj

arbudc`t sgdgjar tn dg`c at tmc jcvcj ni knddu`gtgcs, wmgkm mc u`hcrsta`hs as part ni

a` ghc`tgty-inrdatgn` prnkcss at jnkaj a`h rcbgnàj skajcs. G` nrhcr tn cxpjag` tmc rgsc

ni a`y inrd ni snkgaj kndpjcxgty wgtmnut tcjcnjnby, mc fi`hs tmgs pnsgtgn`g`b ni knd-

du`gty cssc`tgaj. At tmc jcvcj ni knddu`gty Vauectat cdpmasgscs tn akmgcvc tmc sadchctagjch u`hcrsta`hg`b ni ajj snkgaj a`h spatgaj hgdc`sgn`s ni a knddu`gty g` nrhcr

tn u`knvcr tmc dckma`gsds (prnkcsscs) ly wmgkm tmc inrdatgn` ni snkgaj nrba`gsatgn`

taecs pjakc (ghcd). Xaeg`b urla`gsd as tra`sgtnry stabcs g` tmc inrdatgn` ni spatgaj

nrba`gsatgn` a`h tmc g`scparaljc c`ta`bjcdc`t ni tmc snkgaj a`h spatgaj, Vauectat‗s

arbudc`ts arc wcjj taec` karc ni g` tmc g`tcbratgvc tmcnry alnvc.

As Ljaec oustjy rcdares? ‚hrawg`b tnbctmcr tmc irabdc`tch pgckcdcaj cjcdc`ts

tmat kn`stgtutc a kgty g`tn a sg`bjc knmcrc`t wmnjc dgbmt lc a` nvcrsgdpjgfikatgn`. G`

tmc iradcwnre ni a kgty, mnw hncs tmc arkmacnjnbgst hgstg`bugsm tmc kausatgvc gù-

c`kcs ni g`tc`tgnàjgty nr akkghc`t> Arc tmc lugjt icaturcs tmc ly-prnhukts ni knjjcktgvcaktgn` nr g`hgvghuaj abc`ky> At tmc sdajjcr skajc ni pnrtaljc nlockts nr sg`bjc-pcrgnh

sgtcs, tmcsc qucstgn`s arc taec` inr bra`tch, wmgjc tmc dujtgvajc`t spakcs ni tmc kgty

hcda`h dnrc tmcnrgzg`b, at tmc sadc tgdc niicrg`b brcat nppnrtu`gtgcs inr g`tcrprc-

tatgn`.— (Ljaec <662? <;7) G` jg`c wgtm tmc statcdc`ts alnvc G àturajjy abrcc wgtm

mcr jast png`t, lut mcr g`gtgaj hgssatgsiaktgn` wgtm tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj trcatdc`t ni tmc

urla` c`vgrn`dc`t ka` ajsn lc partgajjy rcpjgch tn. Injjnwg`b tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni

spatgajgtgcs, a pcrspcktgvc ni tmc kgty as a sg`bjc knmcrc`t wmnjc ka` `n jn`bcr prcvagj.

Xmc spatgajgtgcs ni a kgty inrd lntm a kndpjcx a`h a kndpjgkatch (ki. Enkm <663)

kndpnsgtgn` tmat gs kn`tgùajjy hcvcjnpg`b. Xmc tmcnry ajsn kjcarjy hcdn`stratcs tmc

g`tcrkn``cktch`css ni dgkrn jcvcj g`tcrcsts a`h prnkcsscs wgtm tmc jarbcr skajc, sukm as

g` kgtgcs. Sìnrtuàtcjy, tmc qucstgn` ni kausajgty nr akkghc`t rcdag`s stuke g` tmc dgh-

hjc. Hcspgtc tmc bgvc` snkgajjy kmajjc`bg`b sgtuatgn` ni lugjhg`b g` a kgty, gt ka``nt lc

prcsudch tmat kn`struktgnàj akkghc`ts arc `n`-cxgstc`t, jcavg`b tmc prnljcd ni tmcgr

hgstg`ktgn`. Ljaec‗s sckn`h qucstgn` first `cchs rcktgfikatgn` ni tmc tcrd ly-prnhukt.

Lugjhg`b aktgvgtgcs as tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni ̀ aturc arc part a`h parkcj ni tmc g`tc`tgnàj

aktgn`s kn`stgtutg`b snkgajgty, sn ly `n dca`s a ly-prnhukt. Ajsn, tmc tcrd ”knjjcktgvc

aktgn`s‗ gs gjj-kmnsc` g` tmc jgbmt ni ircc sulockts kmnnsg`b tn partgkgpatc g` (kn`struk-




tgn`) prnockts. Xmc rcst ni tmgs qucstgn` ka` g` dnst kascs lc a`swcrch ly tmc prcvgnus

rcpjgcs a`h assnkgatch tckm`njnbgkaj g`mglgtgn`s.

Ahhrcssg`b sukm g`tcrprctgvc gssucs g` tmc urla` c`vgrn`dc`t, tmc pcrvahg`b hg-

kmntndy ni nrba`gk a`h pja``ch brnwtm gs vgrtuajjy uàvnghaljc. Dgkmacj [dgtm ̀ gkcjy

suddargscs hgiicrc`t trcatdc`ts ni tmgs hgkmntndy wmgkm gs usuajjy cdpjnych as a

dcasurc inr kjassgfikatgn` g` carjy kgtgcs, g` wmgkm pja``g`b typgkajjy rcicrs tn brgh jay-

nut nr nrtmnbnàj knnrhgàtgn` ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. [dgtm rgbmtjy `ntcs tmat icw

mavc dahc c`hcavnurs lcyn`h tmgs rgbnrnus nppnsgtgn` a`h prnkjagds tmat tmc hgkmnt-

ndy ka``nt lc dag`tag`ch. Xmcrc gs a ̀ cch inr a dnrc ̀ ua`kch a`h hctagjch apprnakm

tn tmc pja``g`b ni carjy kgtgcs ([dgtm <662). Mc sulscquc`tjy cxpjnrcs tmrcc hcfi`g`b

jg`cs ni arbudc`ts tnwarhs kgty pja``g`b. Xmc first hcfi`gtgn` inkuscs n` tmc hcjglcratc

aktgn`s ni tmc lugjhcrs, jcahg`b tn tmc arbudc`t tmat ajj lugjhg`bs arc scji-kn`skgnus

g` àturc. Xmgs ajjnws inr prcdchgtatch pja``g`b injjnwg`b mgcrarkmgkaj pnwcr rcja-tgn`s. Mnwcvcr, [dgtm says gt wnujh lc dnrc usciuj tn c`jarbc tmc spatgaj sknpc ni

tmgs hcfi`gtgn` tnwarhs kn`struktch arcas, sg`kc wc jake gìnrdatgn` n` tmnubmts a`h

g`tc`tgn`s ni (pnwcriuj) pja``crs a`h lugjhcrs. \atmcr, wc smnujh stgke tn tmc cdpgrg-

kaj hata wc mavc avagjaljc. Xmc sckn`h a`h tmgrh hcfi`gtgn`s wnre wgtm cdpgrgkaj hata,

usg`b tmc inrdaj jay-nuts tmat injjnw irnd lugjhcrs‗ aktgvgtgcs. Xmc sckn`h inkuscs n`

tmc rcbujargty ni tmc kgty pja`, `nt `ckcssargjy g`hgkatg`b prc-dchgtatgn`, lut kn`struk-

tgn` akknrhg`b tn spckgfik hcsgb`s. Xmc rcbujargty ni a kgty pja` dust lc hgskcr`ch irnd

kndpargsn`s wgtm ntmcr kgtgcs. Xmcrcinrc gt gs `nt pnssgljc tn aàjysc gsnjatch urla`

kascs. Xmc tmgrh cdpmasgscs tmc knnrhgàtgn` adn`b lugjhg`bs. Vja``g`b gs a `ntaljcinrdaj nrba`gsatgn` ni spakc nr brnup hcsgb`, pjakg`b n`c nr dnrc lugjhg`bs g` rcjatgn`

tn tmcgr surrnu`hg`bs (ghcd).

Xn sndc hcbrcc wnreg`b irnd ainrcdc`tgn`ch apprnakmcs [dgtm hckghcs tn knd-

prgsc mgs nw` apprnakm ajn`b scvcraj kndpn`c`ts. Xmc knnrhgàtgn` adn`bst lugjh-

g`bs, arra`bcdc`t, inrdajgty, dnùdc`tajgty ni jay-nut, nrtmnbnàjgty a`h bcndctrgk

nrhcr mc puts first rcspcktgvcjy. [ckn`hjy, mc cdpjnys tmc sta`harhgsatgn` adn`b kgtgcs

g` tcrds ni arkmgtckturaj g`vc`tnrgcs, spatgaj jay-nuts, nrgc`tatgn` a`h dctrnjnby. [dgtm

sulscquc`tjy prnpnscs tn nrba`gsc kascs ajn`b a` nrhgàj skajc, rctag`g`b tmat tmcrc

arc hcbrccs ni pja``g`b. Xmc appjgkatgn` ni tmgs skajc ka` rcicr tn tmc hcbrcc ni sta`h-

arhgsatgn`? nrtmnbnàjgty g`vnjvcs dnrc pja``g`b tma` knnrhgàtgn`, lut ajsn ka` rcicr

tn tmc ciinrt put g`tn pja``g`b, c.b. tmc inrdaj pjakcdc`t ni dnùdc`ts. Iurtmcr-

dnrc, gt day rcicr tn tmc cxtc`t ni tmc kgty wmgkm gs pja``ch (g` alsnjutc a`h rcjatgvc

tcrds), c.b. pja``ch kc`trcs a`h ircc rcsghc`tgaj arcas (ghcd).

Hcspgtc tmc hcjgkatc laja`kc ni [dgtm‗s apprnakm, mc hncs ̀ nt qugtc dnvc lcyn`h a

kjassgfikatnry dctmnh rcpjakg`b tmc hgkmntndy. Mgs apprnakm gs usciuj inr tmc kndpara-

tgvc nrhcrg`b ni lugjt smapcs, yct aktuajjy mnjhs jgttjc gìnrdatgn` n` tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`

ni sukm spatgajgtgcs. Cssc`tgajjy, tmc hclatc n` pja``ch nr nrba`gk brnwtm mcrc gs ̀ nt sn



Xmcnrctgkaj G`tcbratgn` inr Hatascts 181

dukm alnut cdcrbc`kc nr brnwtm, lut ratmcr alnut `ntgkg`b dcasuraljc hgiicrc`kcs

g` pmysgkaj smapcs tmat arc assudch tn rcckt hcbrccs ni pja``g`b. Xmc g`tc`tgnàjgty ni

lugjhg`b aktgvgty (dc`tgn`ch g` tmc first hcfi`gtgn`) gs nvcrjnnech. Dnrcnvcr, as [dgtm

mgdscji ajsn rcajgscs, tgdc gs jarbcjy nvcrjnnech g` tmc hgskussgn` n` kgty pja``g`b, nl-

struktg`b kndprcmc`sgn` ni scquc`tgaj kma`bcs g` urla` inrds (ghcd).

Xmc skajc c`jarbcdc`t [dgtm gs jnneg`b inr g` tmc apprnakm cdpmasgsg`b hcjglcratc

aktgn`s knujh lc sgtuatch g` tgdc nr tcdpnrajgtgcs g`stcah ni spakc. A` cdpmasgs n`

tgdc wnujh ajsn jcah tn a lcttcr laja`kch g`tcrprctatgn` injjnwg`b sukm a` apprnakm.

Inr snkgn-kujturaj nr ghcatgnàj dca`g`b [dgtm stgjj rcicrs tn tmc mgbm, dghhjc a`h jnw

jcvcjs ni dca`g`b ni Adns \apnpnrt (17=<). Ajtmnubm [dgtm gs ̀ nt u`krgtgkaj ni mgd, g`

tcrds ni dca`g`b apprnakmcs jgec \apnpnrt‗s arc scvcrcjy rcstrgktch (scc ajsn kmaptcr

n`c). Gi n`c gs g`tcrcstch g` u`knvcrg`b tmc snkgaj dca`g`b ni (hcbrccs ni) kgty pja`-

`g`b, n`c smnujh apprckgatc tmat g` tmc hgajcktgkaj prnkcsscs ni lckndg`b g` npcratg`bsnkgn-spatgaj systcds, lugjhcrs a`h sulscquc`t uscrs lckndc pja``crs, wmgjc pja``crs

lckndc uscrs a`h lugjhcrs. N` tmc spatgaj jcvcj, tmat dca`s tmat tmc nrba`gk lckndcs

tmc pja``ch, wmgjc tmc pja``ch lckndcs tmc nrba`gk (ki. Vrch 17=9). Irnd tmgs inj-

jnws tmc alrnbatgn` ni tmc hgkmntndy lctwcc` pja``ch a`h nrba`gk brnwtm. G` tmc

prnkcsscs hcskrglch g` tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs tmcrc gs `n hgstg`ktgn` tn

wmctmcr a part ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t gs nrba`gkajjy smapch nr pja``ch. Wct ajj lugjh-

g`b aktgvgty gs g`tc`tgnàj, as pcnpjc irccjy kmnnsc tn partgkgpatc g` a lugjhg`b prnockt. G`

ahhgtgn`, mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t prnockt partgkgpatgn` gs rcspn`sgljc inr tmc cdcrbc`kc

ni spckgfik snkgaj nrhcr tmrnubm knddnàjgty brnw` g`tn cxpcrgc`kc. Nut ni tmgs nrhcrrujcs day lc inrdajgsch, wmgkm g` tur` day prnhukc mgcrarkmgcs ni pnwcr rcjatgn`s (ki.

Vauectat <666a alnvc).

Mc`kc, tmrnubm tmc usc ni tmcnrctgkajjy hcfi`ch systcds tmc hcjglcratc lugjhg`b ak-

tgvgtgcs prnhukg`b scji-kn`skgnus kn`struktgn`s arc dca`g`biujjy gìnrdch. Xmnsc sadc

snkgn-spatgaj systcds kn`tag` tmc tcdpnrajgtgcs ni aktgn` ly wmgkm tmcy arc dahc npcr-

aljc. As hcsgrch ly [dgtm a`h hgskussch lcinrc, prnkcsscs npcratg`b g` systcds càljc

skajc c`jarbcdc`t `nt n`jy g` spakc, lut ajsn g` tgdc. Xmrnubm tmgs, lntm nrba`gk a`h

pja``ch brnwtm arc hraw` g`tn tmc kn`kcr` wgtm tmc cdcrbc`kc ni lugjt spatgajgtgcs

pcr sc. Xmc rcjatgnàj snkgaj dca`g`b ni tmc cdcrbc`kc a`h sulscquc`t mgstnrgkajjy

kn`tg`bc`t kma`bc ni lugjt spatgajgtgcs g` tmc urla` c`vgrn`dc`t gs dahc g`tcjjgbgljc. Gt

gs tmc rcjatgvc tcdpnraj pnsgtgn` ni tmc npcratgn`s ni snkgn-spatgaj systcds tmat ajjnws

inr a` gìnrdatgvc aktgn`-lasch apprnakm tn urla` pja``g`b.

Irnd tmgs ajsn injjnws tmat nur urla` hatasct prcicraljy kn`sgsts ni scvcraj tcdpnraj

jaycrs ni kn`sghcraljc hctagj, g.c. a bnnh stratgbrapmy. Xaeg`b cakm jaycr as a tgdc-spakc

spckgfik kndpnsgtgn` ni kn`snjghatch spatgajgtgcs, tmcnry hcda`hs tmat wc ̀ nt n`jy jnne

at cakm jaycr scparatcjy? wc smnujh scjckt tmc dnst sgb`gfika`t dca`g`b karryg`b spatgaj

icaturcs ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t irnd lntm tmc prckchg`b a`h, gi avagjaljc, sukkcssgvc




jaycr. As sagh lcinrc, as snn` as a` c`vgrn`dc`t gs lugjt, gt gs rcapprnprgatch tmrnubm

gts usc. Rmc` tmgs rcapprnprgatgn` gs kn`krctgsch tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t day lc ajtcrch,

hcvcjnpch nr hcdnjgsmch, bgvg`b way tn a `cw kn`struktgn`. Xmat g`hgkatcs tmat g` nur

ghcaj hatasct wc rcqugrc rcasnàljy hctagjch hatg`b gìnrdatgn` n` lntm tmc jaycr kn`-

tag`g`b tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t g` bc`craj a`h spckgfik spatgaj icaturcs g` partgkujar. Rgtm

suifikgc`tjy akkuratc a`h alu`ha`t hatcs nr hctagjch rcjatgvc kmrn`njnbgcs stratgfikatgn`

dgbmt `nt n`jy lc cjukghatch n` tmc lasgs ni supcrpnsgtgn`, lut knujh nkkur mnrg-

zn`tajjy ajsn (g` sgtuatgn`s wgtm pajgdpscsts tmc prcvgnus smnujh stgjj lc hgskcràljc).

Gi alsnjutc nr rcjatgvc hatcs n` spatgajjy hgspcrsch prckg`kts (arbualjy kjnscjy rcjatch

tn spckgfik spatgaj systcds) arc avagjaljc, sgb`gfika`t spatgaj kmaraktcrgstgks ni tmc lugjt

c`vgrn`dc`t knujh lc kndparch hgakmrn`gkajjy. Xmc dutuajjy gùc`kg`b rcjatgn`smgp

lctwcc` hgstg`kt, lut g` iu`ktgn` kndparaljc parts ni tmc sadc pjakc (c.b. cvcryhay

rcsghc`tgaj spatgajgtgcs, prckg`kts) gs a prnkcss wmgkm gs kn`sta`tjy rccktg`b n` a spatgajmgstnry a`h (u`g`tc`tgnàjjy) c`vgsgn`g`b a pnssgljc iuturc.

G` tmc g`tcrprctatgn` ni spatgaj hatascts tmgs sgb`gfics tmat cakm icaturc mas a past

ni rcsgsta`kc, a prcsc`t rcsgsta`kc g` gts kurrc`t usc, wmgjc prcsuppnsg`b tmc pnssglgjgty

tn rcajgsc rcsgsta`kc g` a `cxt stabc ni kn`snjghatgn` ni lugjt spakc. [ukm prnspcktgvc

lugjt spatgajgtgcs wgjj iakgjgtatc `cw aktgn`-lasch rcsgsta`kc tmat hgiicrs irnd gts inrcscc`

iu`ktgnàj purpnsc. G` hc Kcrtcau‗s rcsgsta`kc, tmc usc ni pja``ch a`h sulscquc`tjy

lugjt spatgajgtgcs gs a inrd ni kn`sudptgn` tmat rcsgsts abag`st tmcd as a strukturc ni

kn`strag`ts. Xmgs pcrdgts cxpcrgc`tgaj `cw ghcas tn lc hcvcjnpch alnut spatgajgtgcs,

wmgkm dgbmt aiickt `cw pja``g`b ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t (g.c. tmc uscrs lckndc tmcpja``crs). Gt ka` lc cxpcktch tmat tmc usc a`h cxpcrgc`kc ni spatgajgtgcs wgjj lc lcttcr

artgkujatch g` `cwjy lugjt spatgajgtgcs, tmus mnjhg`b iu`hadc`taj gìnrdatgn` alnut tmc

prcvgnus lugjhg`b pmasc. [gdgjarjy, tmc kurrc`t lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t u`hcr stuhy kn`tag`s

a prcvgnus prnkcss‗ `cwjy lugjt spatgajgtgcs, wmgkm gìnrd cakm ntmcr. [n ratmcr tma`

fixg`b gìcrc`kc ni stratgbrapmy nr tcdpnraj sukkcssgn` g` statgk dndc`ts ni gts status

qun, wc smnujh c`vgsgn` tmc g`tcrprctgvc vajuc ni a stratgbrapmgk jaycr (nr tcdpnrajjy

lnu`h prckg`kt) as a wg`hnw g`kjuhg`b a rctc`tgn` irnd tmc past (prcvgnus jaycr) a`h

prntc`tgn` inr tmc iuturc (sukkcssgvc jaycr). Mcrc tmc dctmnhnjnby ni arkmacnjnby

ahhs a prnpcr a`h vajualjc hgdc`sgn` tn tmc arbudc`ts dahc up tn `nw.

Xmc prnpnsch g`tcrprctgvc dctmnhnjnby inrkcs us g`tn a hcvcjnpdc`taj png`t ni

vgcw. Xmc way brnwtm a`h kma`bc nkkur nvcr tgdc, sgtuatch g` tmcgr tgdc-spakc spckgfik

wg`hnws, gs gìnrdatgvc inr tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc snkgaj ghc`tgty wc arc hcajg`b wgtm.

Lcg`b g`scparaljy jgèch tn tmc snkgaj, tmc kn`struktgn` ni spatgajgtgcs taecs pjakc ajn`b-

sghc snkgctaj hcvcjnpdc`t. Xmcsc prnkcsscs inrbc tmc nrba`gk a`h tmc pja``ch g`tn

a hgajcktgk prnkcss, càljg`b tmc cxgstc`kc ni mylrgh inrds. Aitcr ajj, mnw wnujh n`c

hgskcr` lctwcc` tmnsc hatascts wmgkm appcar tn lc nrba`gk brnwtm, lut g` iakt rcsujt

irnd pja``ch brnwtm, nr tmnsc tmat appcar tn lc pja``ch brnwtm, lut g` iakt rcsujt






(ly iradch g`tcraktgn`), tmc strukturaj jgèabcs lctwcc` systcds day mavc a datcrgaj

knu`tcrpart at spckgfik jnkatgn`s wmc` systcd-cxkcchg`b aktgn`s arc pcrinrdch. [g`kc

lntm tmc spatgaj systcd a`h tmc snkgaj systcd arc, g` iakt, g`cxtrgkaljy snkgn-spatgaj sys-

tcds g` vargnus hcbrccs ni mylrghgty, tmc jnkatgn` ni tmc datcrgajgsch strukturaj jgèabc

smnujh injjnw irnd tmc jcvcjs ni kndpatglgjgty as cxprcssch g` taljc 8.

Xmc cjcvatch jcvcj ni dca`g`b g` strukturaj jgèabcs gs kausch ly tmc iakt tmat at

jcast twn nr dnrc cxpcrgc`tgaj wnrjhs ni systcd partgkgpa`ts dcct a`h arc `cbntg-

atch ly hcfi`g`b tmc lnu`hary (pnssgljy wgtm a` nvcrjap) ni tmcgr rcspcktgvc iradcs

ni g`tcraktgn`. Xmgs daecs tmcd ni partgkujar g`tcrcst tn stuhgcs tryg`b tn cstaljgsm a

spatgaj sgbàturc ni a` g`malgtg`b knddu`gty nr snkgcty. Oust as autnpngcsgs rcqugrcs

kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`taj icaturcs (ki. Lruu` a`h Ja`bjags <66;) a`h gdabg`ch knd-

du`gtgcs hcfi`c tmcdscjvcs partgajjy ly u`hcrsta`hg`b gts nutsghc (ki. A`hcrsn` <669),

tmc g`tcràj strukturaj jgèabcs càljc a dca`g`biuj dutuaj hcfi`gtgn` ni twn nr dnrckn`stgtutgvc systcds g` a jnkaj tntajgty (g.c. a hcjgdgtch scjcktgn` ni iradch snkgaj g`-

tcraktgn`s). At tmc jcvcj ni nppnrtu`gtgcs sukm jgèabcs prnlaljy rcdag` dnstjy g` tmc

dg`h, wmgjc g` inrdajgsatgn` tmcy arc `nrdatgvcjy fixch a`h pnssgljy tgch tn cxgstg`b

spatgaj icaturcs g` tmc c`vgrn`dc`t tmrnubm snkgaj g`tcraktgn`. N`jy at tmc jcvcj ni

kn`tgùgty wgjj sukm iakgjgtatg`b prnpcrtgcs lckndc kn`snjghatch as parts ni nr icaturcs

g` tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t.

Xmc arbudc`ts mcrc ajdnst autndatgkajjy hgrckt us tnwarhs akkcssglgjgty , sg`kc tmc

kndpatglgjgty iakgjgtatg`b strukturaj jgèabcs cstaljgsmcs akkcssglgjgty lctwcc` systcds.

Dnst apparc`t gs tmc cvcr-pnpujar rcjatgn` lctwcc` tmc puljgk a`h prgvatc hndag`. Akkcssglgjgty hcpc`hs n` tmc hgrckt c`vgrn`dc`t ni iradch g`tcraktgn`s a`h spatgajg-

tgcs, pmysgkaj smapc ni spatgajgtgcs a`h dcrc rcjatgvc hgsta`kcs lctwcc` spatgajgtgcs. Xmc

prgvatc a`h puljgk smnujh ̀ nt lc scc` as a rgbnrnus hgkmntndy, ratmcr tmcrc arc braha-

tgn`s lctwcc` tmcd. N`c systcd‗s prgvatc day lc a`ntmcr systcd‗s puljgk. Ajsn, stuh-

gcs n` rnnds g` (rcsghc`tgaj) lugjhg`bs, nitc` g`kjuhg`b sndc typc ni vgcwsmch aàjysgs

as wcjj, appcar tn hcdn`stratc g`krcasg`b jcvcjs ni sckjusgn` ni rnnds tnwarhs c.b. tmc

g`tcrgnr nr sghcs ni lugjhg`bs. Arkmacnjnbgkaj stuhgcs mavc mah hcfi`gtc kn`kcr`s wgtm

tmc rcjatgn` ni tmc twn hndag`s. G` tmc vnjudc ly Varecr Vcarsn` a`h \gkmarhs (1778)

tmcrc was hctcrdg`ch g`tcrcst g` tmc rcjatgn` lctwcc` g`tcrgnr spakc a`h snkgcty5 g`

Bcrstjc‗s (17==) hgskussgn` ni a pnssgljc Jc`ka kndpnu`h g` Knpá`, hcbrccs ni prgvatc

sckjusgn` g` arkmgtckturaj tragts wcrc a` gdpnrta`t iaktnr, wmgjc Lurdcgstcr (<666) ar-

buch tmat dgbra`t pnpujatgn`s wnujh prcscrvc tmcgr nw` kujturaj tragts g` tmc prgvatc

hndag`, mghhc` lcmg`h a puljgkajjy upmcjh iaâahc.

Nlvgnusjy dnst gìrastrukturc knujh lc hctcrdg`ch as strukturaj jgèabcs lctwcc`

systcds, rahgatg`b nut ni spatgajgtgcs as kn``cktg`b knrrghnrs nr axcs jgec a `ctwnre.

Xmcsc gìrastrukturaj kn``cktgn`s càljc a wcgbmch akkcssglgjgty ly kn``cktg`b spa-

tgajgtgcs. Lrgcy rctur`g`b tn [dgtm‗s kn`kcr` wgtm pja``g`b, mc rcknb`gscs tmat ‚knd-




dn` nrgc`tatgn` hncs `nt `ckcssargjy gdpjy kc`traj pja``g`b lckausc ntmcr iaktnrs

sukm as tnpnbrapmy nr jnkatgn` wgtm rcspckt tn a rgvcr nr smnrcjg`c knujh prnhukc tmc

sadc pattcr`. [trn`bcr cvghc`kc ni pja``g`b gs prnvghch wmc` g`hgvghuaj lugjhg`bs

smarc nrgc`tatgn`s a`h/nr arra`bcdc`ts tmrnubm knddn` rcicrc`kc tn icaturcs sukm

as avcùcs, pjazas, kgty wajjs, a rnyaj pajakc, nr ntmcr urla` arkmgtckturc. [ndc ni tmcsc

prg`kgpjcs ni knnrhgàtgn` arc hgskussch ly Chdu`h Lakn`, wmnsc ”dctmnhs ni hcsgb`

brnwtm‗ g`kjuhc ”axcs as kn``cktnrs‗ a`h ”dass as kn``cktnr‗.— ([dgtm <662? =) G` a

snkgaj rcjatgnàj sc`sc, gìrastrukturc as wcgbmch knrrghnrs nr axcs smnujh lc kn`kcp-

tuajgsch g` a sgdgjar way. [dgtm dc`tgn`s spatgajgtgcs as avcùcs, pjazas, kgty wajjs a`h

pajakcs. Xmc hcbrcc ni akkcssglgjgty lctwcc` c.b. a rcsghc`tgaj spatgaj systcd a`h tmc

spatgaj systcd ni a pjaza gs sgb`gfika`tjy da`gicstch g` tmc gìrastrukturc, daeg`b tmcd

kndpatgljc.

Xmgs strukturaj jgèabc scrvcs as a dca`s inr knddu`gkatgn`, kn`trnj, nr akkcss tncknjnbgkaj `ckcssgtgcs a`h bnnhs tn lc akqugrch at hgiicrc`t iradcs ni g`tcraktgn`. G`

Vrch‗s wnrhs, prnhuktgn` a`h hgstrglutgn` arc hndgà`t (g`stgtutgnàj) prnockts (Vrch

17=9). @cxt tn kn`strag`g`b tgdc-spakc rcsnurkcs tmcy hctcrdg`c tmc dg`gdaj rcqugrc-

dc`t inr jnkaj snkgaj sustagàlgjgty, jcavg`b jgdgtch nppnrtu`gtgcs inr partgkgpatgn` g`

ntmcr prnockts. Xmcrcinrc gt ka` lc cxpcktch tmat tmc brcatcst hcbrcc ni akkcssglgjgty g`

prndg`c`t gìrastrukturc wgjj lc assnkgatch wgtm tgdc-spakc kn`strag`ts a`h hndgà`t

prnockts wgtmg` a jnkaj knddu`gty. Rgtm tmgs e`nwjchbc, tmc ahva`kch datmcdatgkaj

dnhcjs ni spakc sy`tax n` dnvcdc`t tmrnubm urla` c`vgrn`dc`ts lckndc snkgajjy

g`tcjjgbgljc. Xmc tmcnry mcrc bgvcs a kjcar-kut rcasn` wmy gìrastrukturc, akkcssglgjgtya`h dnvcdc`t arc gdpnrta`t iaktnrs tn taec g`tn akknu`t g` tmc snkgaj gìcrc`kc ni

spakc. Vurcjy n` tmc lasgs ni spatgaj hata sndc asscrtgn`s ka` ajrcahy lc dahc. Inr a

dnrc hctagjch u`hcrsta`hg`b, mnwcvcr, artciakt asscdljabcs a`h nlockt tnpnjnbgcs

(ki. Enkm <663) hcpnsgtch g` lugjt spatgajgtgcs day g`hgkatc spckgfik iu`ktgn`s, wmgkm

bgvcs nur u`hcrsta`hg`b ni g`tcrkn``cktch spakcs brcatcr hctagj. Gi tmrnubm tmgs aàjy-

sgs a spatgajgty gs snkgajjy pnsgtgn`ch wgtmg` tmc jnkaj tntajgty, gt bcts a rcjatgvc snkgn-

tcdpnraj vajuc. Gìnrdatgn` n` tmc iu`ktgn` ni tmat spatgajgty knujh smch jgbmt n` tmc

gdpnrta`kc ni vargnus (kujturaj) aktgvgtgcs g` jnkaj snkgctaj jgic.

Gt smnujh ajsn lc `ntch tmat gìrastrukturc gtscji gs ajsn tmc datcrgaj prnhukt ni a`

npcratg`b systcd jnkajgsch tmcrc, a`h tmcrcinrc rcprcsc`ts a systcd g` gtscji. Rmc` tmgs

gs rcajgsch wc ka` rcakm dnrc spckgfik jcvcjs ni spatgaj icaturcs g` nur hatasct. Xmc jgtcr-

ajjy kn`struktch strukturaj jgèabcs bgvg`b akkcss tn gìrastrukturc nr càljg`b akkcss

lctwcc` twn spatgaj systcds wgtmnut gìrastrukturc dnvc g`tn inkus. Xmgs pcrtag`s tn

hnnrways, wg`hnws, pnrkmcs, pnrtgkns, barhc`s, batcs, travcrsaljc nr alsnjutc lnu`h-

argcs ctk. a`h wmctmcr tmcsc icaturcs ka` lc kjnsch nii nr `nt. Ajj ni tmcsc spckgfik

cjcdc`ts jnbgkajjy arc dca`g`biuj inr tmc hcbrcc ni akkcssglgjgty tmcy càljc. Chwarh

Majj (179=) ajrcahy `ntgkch tmc kujturaj hgiicrc`kcs pcnpjc icjt lctwcc` tmc akkcssglgj-




gty lctwcc` `nrtmcr` Adcrgka` mndcs a`h Jatg` Adcrgka` mndcs, a`h Adns \ap-

npnrt (17=<) rcdares tmat styjgstgkajjy tmcrc mas ajways lcc` a` g`tcrcst cdpmasgsg`b

c`tra`kcs. Rgtm tmc tmcnrctgkaj rcasn`g`b prcsc`tch g` tmgs stuhy, wc ka` `nw arbuc

wmy tmcsc arc snkgajjy sgb`gfika`t, ajtmnubm sukm a iakt snu`hs apmnrgstgk. Dnrcnvcr, gt

inrkcs us tn inkus n` tmc spatgaj gìnrdatgn` (c.b. dcasuraljc, sgzc, vgsglgjgty, hyàdgk

kma`bcs as npc`g`b a`h kjnsg`b) wc mavc n` tmcsc c`tra`kcs nr icaturcs ni akkcssglgj-

gty. Xmc dcctg`b pjakcs ni systcds arc skc`cs inr snkgaj `cbntgatgn`, kn`tcstatgn` a`h

cstaljgsmdc`t, ajtmnubm tmc lnu`hargcs tmcy rcprcsc`t arc cxgljc, pnssgljy krnssaljc

nr tra`sinrdatgnàj.

Huc tn pnwcr rcjatgn`s, `nt ajj gìrastrukturaj knrrghnrs nr kn`struktch jgèabcs arc

rckgprnkajjy akkcssgljc. Gdabg`c rnyaj spatgajgtgcs, wmcrc tmc eg`b ka` bct nut ni, lut

`nlnhy `nt part ni tmat snkgn-spatgaj systcd ka` bct g`tn. Ajsn, kcrcdn`gaj spatgajgtgcs

wmgkm arc akkcssgljc tn prgcsts, lut `nt tmc knddn`crs ahmcrg`b tn systcds nutsghcni tmat snkgn-spatgaj systcd. Kn`scquc`tgajjy, tmc hcbrcc ni g`tcrrcjatgnàj akkcssglgjgty

wgjj prnlaljy lc jnw a`h gt war`s us `nt tn assudc tmat ajj kn`struktch jgèabcs arc

partgkujarjy dca`g`biuj inr cvcryhay jgic.

Xmc spatgaj gìnrdatgn` hcrgvch irnd kn`struktch jgèabcs a`h partgaj bc`crajgtgcs

ni gìrastrukturc g` rcjatgn` tn tmc scjcktgn` ni spatgajgtgcs tmcy kn``ckt, tnbctmcr knd-

pnsc tmc spatgaj sgbàturc (nr snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty) ni a jnkajjy rcsghg`b knddu`gty nr

(part ni) snkgcty. Xmgs npc`s tmc way tn a pnssgljc ajtcràtgvc inr pattcr` rcknb`gtgn` g`

sgtc jay-nut, wmgkm gs stgjj tmc pnpujar dctmnh inr hgskcr`g`b kujturaj (snkgctaj) hgiicr-

c`kcs g` arkmacnjnby. Xmc ajtcràtgvc, snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs wgtm tmc spckgfikhctagjs prnvghch ly kn`struktch jgèabcs, gs ̀ nt rcstrgktch tn krnss-kujturaj kndpargsn`s

lctwcc` bcnbrapmgkajjy hgstg`kt sgtcs nr scttjcdc`ts. Gt day appjy tn kascs ni hgiicrc`t

kujturaj prcsc`kcs g` a spckgfich scttjcdc`t cquajjy wcjj.

\cicrrg`b tn Bcrstjc (17==), wmn hgh `nt ahcquatcjy sukkcch tn daec sukm gìcr-

c`kc n` tmc lasgs ni tmc prcsudptgn` ni Jc`ka prcsc`kc g` tmc Jas [cpujturas `cgbm-

lnurmnnh ni Daya Knpá`, gt ka` lc suspcktch tmat tmc g`tra-sgtc (kujturaj) hgiicrc`kcs

wgjj lc jcss artgkujatch. Abag`, wgtmg` tmc tmcnry tmgs knujh lc cxpcktch, as a kn`snjg-

hatch part ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t g` a brcatcr urla` c`vgrn`dc`t dust lc a prnockt

u`hcrtaec` aiicktch ly tgdc-spakc, snkgaj a`h pnwcr rcjatgn` kn`strag`ts. Ajsn, tmc

jake ni a suifikgc`tjy bnnh rcicrc`kc knjjcktgn` ni spatgaj hata n` suppnsch Jc`ka scttjc-

dc`ts (tmc Jc`ka snkgcty gs kmgcy jg`bugstgkajjy askrglch tn a bcnbrapmgkaj rcbgn`, scc

kmaptcr n`c) knujh mavc pjaych a part g` mcr darbgàj rcsujts lasch n` a kndpnu`h

jay-nut. [mc was aljc tn cstaljgsm hgiicrc`kcs g` jay-nut a`h akkcssglgjgty rnutcs, lut

cvc`tuajjy rcjgch n` kcradgk a`h styjgstgk aàjysgs inr daeg`b mcr Jc`ka arbudc`ts. A`

aspckt tmat was ̀ nt ahcquatcjy ahhrcssch g` mcr stuhy was tmc brcatcr g`tcrkn``cktch-

`css ni tmc spatgajgtgcs kndprgsg`b tmc kndpnu`h tn (ajj) ntmcr spatgajgtgcs g` Knpá`.

Xmcrcinrc gt wnujh `nt mavc lcc` pnssgljc tn attrglutc sgb`gfika`kc tn tmc spatgaj tragts




Bcrstjc rcknb`gsch a`yway. Dnrcnvcr, a hgakmrn`gk aàjysgs ni spatgaj tragts g` Knpá`

was jakeg`b. As rcpcatchjy `ntch sn iar, a lrnah tgdc-spakc sknpc gs cssc`tgaj inr tmc

gìnrdatgvc tmcnry tn hgrckt dca`g`biuj nutkndcs.

[ndc wnrhs ni war`g`b dust ajsn lc hcvntch tn tmc mgbmcst jcvcjs ni snkgcty, au-

tmnrgty a`h a`y typc ni dnùdc`tajgty. Huc tn tmc huralgjgty ni tmc kn`struktgn` wnres

hgrcktch a`h cxckutch ly cjgtcs a`h pnwcr mnjhcrs, tmnsc lugjhg`bs mavc lcc` at tmc

kc`trc ni arkmacnjnbgkaj g`vcstgbatgn` inr a jn`b tgdc. Kausch ly tmc snkgctaj pnsgtgn`

nkkupgch ly gts prg`kgpaj knddgssgn`crs, sukm kn`struktgn`s arc dnrc prn`c tn hcvgatc

irnd tmc bc`craj spatgaj sgbàturc kn`stgtutch ly tmc daonrgty‗s iradch g`tcraktgn`s

g` cvcryhay jgic. Xmc pnwcr rcjatgn`s (a`h akkcptch jcbgtgdatgn`) tmcy cxcrkgsc kjagd

akkcss tn dnrc datcrgaj dca`s nr snkgaj prcssurc tn inrkc jalnur g` nrhcr tn mavc tmcgr

lugjhg`b prnockts cxckutch. Vrnlaljy tmcy knujh ajsn cdpjny nr pcrdgt tmcdscjvcs

akkcss tn tckm`njnbgkaj e`nwjchbc dnrc casgjy. Xmcgr rcjatgvc g`hcpc`hc`t ircchndirnd knddn`crs‗ cvcryhay jgvcs bgvcs way tn cxtravaba`t pnssglgjgtgcs ni kn`struktgn`

mavg`b a puljgk iakc, wmgjc dnst ni tmgs ircc cxtravaba`kc wgjj typgkajjy taec pjakc g`

tmc prgvatc hndag`, lcmg`h a puljgkajjy abrccaljc iaâahc. [ukm a mgbm snkgaj pnsgtgn`

day kausc cxkcssgvc kn`struktgnàj cxprcssgn`, vgnjatg`b a`y rujc at tmc inrdajgsatgn`

jcvcj ni kndpatglgjgty.

Arkmacnjnbgsts tmcrcinrc smnujh lc cxtrcdcjy karciuj g` usg`b spatgaj gìnrdatgn`

kn`tag`ch g` sukm lugjhg`bs g` nrhcr tn g`tcrprct a spatgaj sgbàturc. Xmcy smnujh lc

awarc tmat tmnsc kn`struktgn`s, lc tmcy autmnrgtatgvc, kcrcdn`gaj, kndduàj, kc`-

trajjy knddgssgn`ch nr prgvatcjy kn`struktch ly cjgtcs, knujh vcry wcjj lc ckkc`trgkgtgcsratmcr tma` rccktgn`s ni cvcryhay jgic. Cvc` g` kascs wmgkm prcsc`t kndpcjjg`b cd-

pgrgkaj g`hgkatgn`s tmat kndduàj nr autmnrgtatgvc lugjhg`bs at sndc jcvcj knpy snkgaj

nrba`gsatgn`, tmcrc gs `n rcasn` tn assudc tmat g` tmcgr kn`struktch jgèabcs tmcy inj-

jnwch cvcryhay pattcr`g`b. A` cxadpjc ni dnùdc`taj arkmgtckturc injjnwg`b snkgaj

nrba`gsatgn` arc tmc kgtgcs ni tmc Vnstkjassgk mgbmja`h E‗gkmc‗ Daya g` Buatcdaja. @nt

n`jy hgh cvcry lgb mnusc (`gdoa ) arnu`h tmc pjaza rcprcsc`t a prg`kgpaj jg`cabc, tmcrc

arc strn`b g`hgkatgn`s tmat wmnjc scrgcs ni E‗gkmc‗ tcrds wcrc hgrcktjy assnkgatch wgtm

mnuscs, pnjgtgkaj lugjhg`bs nr prg`kgpaj scttjcdc`ts (Lraswcjj <66;, Kardake 17=1).

Xmc pnssglgjgty tn g`kjuhc cxtravaba`t kn`struktgn`s g` spatgaj sgbàturcs gs dag`jy sgtu-

atch g` tmc gddchgatc strukturajjy jgèch pnsgtgn` tmnsc lugjhg`bs nkkupy wgtmg` tmc

jnkaj tntajgty ni a pjakc. Dnrcnvcr, tmcy arc oust as dukm a prnhuktgn` ni tmc kn`stgtu-

tgvc prnkcsscs g` tmc systcds kndprgsg`b a snkgcty. Xmc hcvgatg`b kmaraktcrgstgks ni sukm

lugjhg`bs smnujh lckndc apparc`t g` tmcgr g`tcrrcjatgnàj a`h hcvcjnpdc`taj pnsgtgn`,

as wcjj as g` hcsgb` nr jay-nut, injjnwg`b tmc sadc spatgaj icaturcs nr g`hgkatnrs tmat arc

gdpnrta`t inr snkgajjy dnrc kndpctch (`cbntgatch) spatgajgtgcs.

\cbarhg`b tmc hgakmrn`gk usc ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t a`ntmcr gssuc cdcrbcs. As

ka` lc nlscrvch g` prcsc`t hay Curnpc g` partgkujar, a kn`sghcraljc adnu`t ni tmc lugjt




c`vgrn`dc`t nrgbgàtcs irnd c`tgrcjy hgiicrc`t cras. Vcnpjc sndctgdcs jgvc g` lugjhg`bs

tmat hatc wcjj lake g`tn tmc dchgcvaj pcrgnh, kausg`b a eg`h ni aàkmrn`gsd. G` jn`b

tcrd tcdpnraj usc ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t, g.c. nvcr da`y bc`cratgn`s lrg`bg`b inrtm

scrgcs ni nkkupa`ts pcrtag`g`b tn vargnus systcds g` tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni snkgctgcs, tmc

kn`struktgn`s tmcdscjvcs rcdag` tmc sadc. Wct tmc way tmcy arc pcrkcgvch wgjj hgiicr,

oust as tmc way tmcy iakgjgtatc aktgn`s akknrhg`bjy. Ajtmnubm snkgcty mas kma`bch,

gts prnkcsscs mavc `nt kma`bch tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t gt g`malgts g` ajj aspckts.

Mnwcvcr, g`tcrkn``cktch as spatgajgtgcs arc, g` spgtc ni rctag`g`b gts pmysgkaj smapc,

tmcrc wgjj lc hgiicrc`kcs hcdn`stratch g` tmc rcjatgn`s tmcsc rcdà`t parts ni tmc

lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t mavc. Xmcy kausc a pajgdpscst ni sgdujta`cnus nkkurrc`kc wgtm

`cw kn`struktgn` wnres wmgkm mavc taec` pjakc g` gts kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`t. Rgtm

brnwtm a`h c`vgrn`dc`taj kma`bcs tmc njh spatgajgtgcs kma`bc tmcgr snkgaj dca`g`b

as part ni mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t systcds. Xmc kn`tcdpnra`cnus snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b nisukm spatgajgtgcs wgjj hgiicr akknrhg`b tn tmcgr (pcrgnh spckgfik) pnsscssgn` ni kn`struktch

jgèabcs nr gìrastrukturaj hcvcjnpdc`ts. Lckausc tmc wnrjh kma`bcs gts iakc wgtm tgdc,

as snn` as tmc bcnbrapmgkaj sknpc ni tmc stuhy gs suifikgc`tjy adpjgfich, a pajgdpscst

wgjj nkkur, kausg`b dca`g`biujjy kma`bch rcjatgn`smgps.

Lnu`hargcs a`h tmc Dakrn [kajc

Xmc avagjalgjgty ni bnnh spatgaj a`h tcdpnraj hata a`h rcicrc`kc knjjcktgn`s inr `nt-

g`b sgb`gfika`t g`tra-sgtc hgiicrc`kcs gs hcfi`gtcjy rcqugrch inr hgskcr`g`b krnss-kujturaj(nr dnrc apprnprgatcjy krnss-snkgctaj) hgiicrc`kcs. Rgtmnut kn`sghcraljy jarbc lnhgcs

ni spatgaj hata, tmc hcvcjnpdc`t a`h hgiicrc`kcs g` spatgaj sgbàturcs ka``nt lc stuh-

gch. Rmc` sukm hata gs avagjaljc tmc hcvcjnpdc`t a`h hgiicrc`kcs hgskcr`ch n` tmc

lasgs ni tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs arc snkgajjy dca`g`biuj. Rc arc `n jn`bcr

`ntg`b dcrc arkmgtckturaj, tckm`gkaj, nr styjgstgk hgiicrc`kcs, lut ratmcr tmc hgiicrc`kcs

g` snkgajgty rcspn`sgljc inr a`h g`malgtg`b tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t. [gdgjarjy, gi inrcgb`

prcsc`kc gs suspcktch wgtmg` a hcjgdgtch pjakc, rcicrc`kc knjjcktgn`s hcdn`stratg`b

spatgaj sgbàturcs wgjj ajjnw us tn gìcr hgiicrc`kcs g` mgstnrgkaj snkgaj jgic g`stcah ni n`jy

nlscrvg`b hcvgatg`b datcrgaj smapcs. Vut g`tn a hcvcjnpdc`taj pcrspcktgvc gt dgbmt

niicr tmc pnssglgjgty ni hgstg`bugsmg`b tmc usc ni dnvcaljc nlockts (artciakts) nr styjgstgk

tragts wmgkm mavc lcc` gìusch ly a`ntmcr snkgcty nr strn`b jgès lctwcc` pjakcs aktu-

ajjy gùc`kg`b cvcryhay snkgaj jgic at tmat pjakc.

Cvc`tuajjy tmc rcsghg`b sulockts kn`strukt tmcgr hgrckt lugjt c`vgrn`dc`ts, lut tmc

gìcrc`tgaj sgb`gfika`kc dgbmt `cvcr lc iujjy u`hcrstnnh u`jcss tmc hgrcktjy aiicktgvc

dakrn skajc rcjatgn`smgps arc kn`sghcrch. Xmgs day kn`kcr` scparatch pjakcs, snkgaj rc-

jatgn`smgps wgtm inrcgb` sulockts, nr tmc jarbcr snkgctaj rcajd. Xmrnubm tmc lgnbrapmgcs

ni prnockt partgkgpa`ts g`malgtg`b tmc systcds npcratg`b at a pjakc, sukm gùc`kcs ka`




sccp g`tn tmat jnkaj knddu`gty nr snkgcty. Xmc dakrn skajc knujh u`knvcr lntm strn`b

a`h wcae tgcs wgtm ajgc` snkgaj c`tgtgcs. G`sgbmt g` krnss-kujturaj (nr snkgctaj) rcjatgn`-

smgps ka` lc sgb`gfika`tjy ajtcrch ly sukm e`nwjchbc. Mcrc wc arc `n jn`bcr tajeg`b

alnut iakcts ni snkgcty wmgkm ka` lc kma`bch at wgjj, lut prnkcsscs ni hckgsgn`-daeg`b

jcahg`b tn tmc pcrinrda`kc ni g`hgvghuaj aktgn`s g` cvcryhay jgic wmgkm kn`tgùajjy

hcvcjnp a`h kma`bc. Nur inkus oust smgitch irnd tmc gkg`b n` tmc kaec tn tmc iu`ha-

dc`taj kmaraktcr ni tmc kaec gtscji. Xmc spatgaj sgbàturc gs tmc da`gicstatgn` ni tmc

kn`stgtutgvc cvcryhay jgic g` mypntmctgkajjy a`y pmysgkajjy kn`struktch pjakc, yct gt gs

ajsn pjakch g` dakrn skajc rcjatgn`s.

Xmrnubmnut tmgs c`tgrc tmcsgs a`h kn`fi`ch g` tmgs akknu`t n` spatgaj hatascts, tmc

hcfi`gtgn` ni lnu`hargcs mas lcc` dc`tgn`ch scvcraj tgdcs. Irnd a snkgaj pcrspcktgvc

lnu`hargcs mavc lcc` u`hcrcxpnsch g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc. Abag` rcicrrg`b tn

autnpngcsgs a`h gts kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`t as wcjj as tmc g`tcràj hcfi`gtgn` ni gdab-g`ch knddu`gtgcs, ̀ ckcssgtatg`b a` ghca alnut gts nutsghc, tmc qucstgn` argscs wmctmcr

wc smnujh lc spcaeg`b ni lnu`hargcs nr lnrhcrs at ajj. Cdda Ljaec hgskusscs tmc

sadc subbcstgvc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmgs `ntgn`. G` a`tmrnpnjnby rcscarkm lckadc dnrc

g`tcrcstch g` lnrhcr zn`cs as g`tcrstgkcs wmcrc kn`gkts lctwcc` ghc`tgtgcs taec pjakc.

Ljaec `ntgkcs a tc`hc`ky wmcrcg` skmnjars start rcbarhg`b lnrhcrs as rcprcsc`tg`b tmc

way ghc`tgtgcs arc kn`struktch as mylrghs. Lnrhcr zn`c aktgvgty kmajjc`bcs trahgtgnàj

tcrrgtnrgajgty. Xn gjjustratc tmgs smc kn`kgscjy prcsc`ts tmc wnre ni Dary Jnugsc Vratt, wmn

‚cxpa`hch tmc kn`kcpts ni lnrhcr lcyn`h tmc jg`car lnu`hary scparatg`b brnups a`h

tmc ahoakc`t segrt ni lnrhcrja`hs. Xmcsc kn`takt zn`cs U…T rcpjakc tmc jg`cargty ni tmclnrhcr wgtm tmc gdabc ni tmc jgdgàj dnsagk. U…T Rmgjc lnrhcrs rcsnàtc g` kurrc`t

snkgaj tmcnrgzg`b, tmcy rcdag` u`hcr-cxpjnrch g` arkmacnjnby.— (Ljaec <662? <86)

At tmc knrc ni tmgs g`tcrcst g` lnrhcrg`b spakcs wc fi`h Lc``n Rcrjc`‗s tmcnry ni

rcbgnàjgsatgn` g` bcnbrapmy (Rcrjc` <663). [tartg`b irnd tmc snkgaj ratmcr tma` tmc

spatgaj a`h rcbarhg`b rcbgnàjgsatgn` as part a`h parkcj ni cvcryhay jgic, Rcrjc` hcvcj-

nps a snkgaj pcrspcktgvc n` rcbgn`s, rcpjakg`b tmc gdpnsch marh jg`cs n` akahcdgkajjy

prnhukch daps. Vnsgtgn`g`b rcbgnàjgsatgn` g` cvcryhay jgic, as Vrch spcaes ni pjakc

a`h cvcryhay bcnbrapmy daeg`b, g`hgkatcs tmat rcbgnàjgsatgn` gs `nt cxkjusgvcjy pcr-

tag`g`b tn tmc dakrn skajc. @cvcrtmcjcss, tmc dnrc bc`craj àturc ni mgs tmcnrctgkaj

fi`hg`bs daec tmcd dnrc appjgkaljc tn tmc dakrn skajc tma` Enkm‗s, g` kndpargsn`, tn

tmc dgkrn skajc. Wct taeg`b g`tn akknu`t tmc g`tcrpjay ajj tmc prcsc`tch tmcnrgcs mavc,

lnrhcrs lckndc `nt n`jy snkgaj, lut ajsn tcdpnraj. Dca`wmgjc tmcy eccp tmcgr iu`ha-

dc`tajjy spatgaj kmaraktcr. Gi pjakch g` tmc dakrn skajc, tmc tmcnrctgkaj g`tcbratgn` jcah-

g`b tn tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs prnvghcs a kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni lnrhcrs g`

wmgkm, nvcr bcnbrapmgkaj strctkmcs, kjcar kn`trasts g` snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgtgcs ni pjakcs

arc rcknb`gsch. S`hnultchjy tmcsc lnrhcrs wgjj `cvcr lc rcprcsc`tch ly a kjcar-kut

jg`c. Rmctmcr a lnrhcr zn`c nr dnsagk, tmc hgiicrc`kcs kn`stgtutg`b tmc lnrhcr wgjj




mavc a snkgn-tcdpnraj kmaraktcr tmat mas lckndc spatgajjy cxprcssch g` hgstg`kt ways

at lntm gts sghcs. Xmgs daecs tmc lnrhcr `n jn`bcr a tnnj ma`hjch ly a rcscarkmcr, lut

a pmc`ndc`n` cdcrbg`b irnd mgs gìcrc`tgaj aàjysgs5 inrcdnst tmnubmt ni nr cxpcrg-

c`kch ly tmc sulockts u`hcr stuhy.

Qugkejy rctur`g`b tn tmc kasc ni tmc Jc`ka, g`trnhukch wmc` G sct nut tn wrgtc tmgs

tmcsgs a`h kgtch n` scvcraj nkkasgn`s, wmat ka` tmgs tmcnry dca` g` tcrds ni assgb`g`b

tmcd a snkgajjy cxpcrgc`kch tcrrgtnry> Rmat gi wc ka``nt hctcrdg`c a spatgaj sgbà-

turc hgstg`bugsmg`b tmc Jc`ka irnd tmc Daya> Rnujh gt dca` tmat wc mavc iagjch> G`

smnrt? `n, gt oust dca`s tmat tmc snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgtgcs ni tmc Daya a`h Jc`ka wcrc

vcry dukm ajgec. Xmgs knujh g`hgkatc tmat tmcgr pcnpjc wnujh `nt cxpcrgc`kc a spatgajjy

artgkujatch lnrhcr lctwcc` tmc pjakcs a`h arcas tmcy g`malgt. Bgvc` tmc iakt tmat tmc

Jc`ka rckcgvch tmcgr ̀ adc irnd jg`bugstgks, pcrmaps tmgs gs tmc n`jy jcvcj n` wmgkm tmcy

hgiicr irnd tmc Daya. Knddu`gtgcs a`h snkgctgcs npcratc at a brcat array ni strata,lntm snkgajjy a`h datcrgajjy. A snkgcty knujh usc c`tgrcjy tmc sadc artciakt asscdljabcs

as gts `cgbmlnur, wmgjst ahmcrg`b tn a kndpjctcjy hgiicrc`t snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty. Aj-

tcràtgvcjy, stuhyg`b tmc jarbcr spatgaj sgbàturcs ni tmc Jc`ka a`h Daya dgbmt ajsn

kma`bc nur pcrspcktgvc ni tmc cxtc`hch Daya arca, hgskcr`g`b `nt twn, lut ùdcr-

nus rcbgn`s hcjgdgtch ly snkgajjy cxpcrgc`kch lnrhcrs. Ajtmnubm tmc adnu`t ni hata

rcqugrch knujh lc gddc`sc, gt knujh lc wnrtmwmgjc tn try.

Hcspgtc tmc ̀ carjy cxkjusgvc inkus n` snkgajgty mcrc, n`c smnujh ajways lcar g` dg`h

tmat àturc, bcnbrapmy a`h cknjnby sgdpjy kn`hgtgn` tmc kn`struktgn` ni spatgajgtgcs,

cxcrkgsg`b strgkt g`mglgtgn`s hcpc`hg`b n` tckm`njnbgkaj ahva`kcdc`ts dahc ly snkg-cty. Xmcsc hctcrdg`c (gd)pnssglgjgtgcs tmat prnockts tra`sinrdg`b àturc dust injjnw.

Cssc`tgajjy tmgs gs `n hgiicrc`t irnd tmc lgnjnbgkaj a`h sndatgk kn`hgtgn` ni muda`

lcg`bs. Ntmcr hcajg`bs wgtm àturc arc a dattcr ni kmngkc a`h prgnrgty. [nkgaj prgnrgtgcs

dgbmt nvcrrujc apparc`t `ckcssgtgcs irnd tmc sghc ni àturc. Inr tmc rcscarkmcr gt gs

gdpnrta`t tn taec karc `nt tn cxkjusgvcjy npt inr a n`c-hgdc`sgnàj cdpmasgs n` a`y

gìcrc`tgaj aàjysgs wgtmnut kn`sghcrg`b a`h akknu`tg`b inr ajtcràtgvcs g` rcjatgn` tn

gt. G` tmgs kasc tmat dca`s tmat tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni snkgajgtgcs gs partgajjy hcpc`h-

c`t n` àturaj g`mglgtgn`s wmgkm smnujh lc taec` g`tn akknu`t. Xmc ahva`tabc gs tmat

sukm awarc`css a`tgkgpatcs crrn`cnus g`tcrprctatgn`s wmgkm knujh snkgajjy lc pnssgljc,

tmnubm arc àturajjy kn`fi`ch. Xn bgvc a sgdpjc cxadpjc, tmc jay-nut ni a kgrkud-

skrglch kndpnsgtgn` ni spatgajgtgcs knujh strn`bjy rcscdljc a marlnur arca, yct wgtm-

nut tmc `ckcssary àturaj rcsnurkcs tn daec tmat wnre, tmgs wnujh lc mgbmjy u`jgecjy.

[gdgjarjy, wgtmnut tmc `ckcssary rcsnurkcs tn sustag` a pnpujatgn`, a rcsghc`tgaj arca

wnujh prnlaljy `nt nkkur at sukm spckgfik jnkajgty. Gi a scttjcdc`t `cvcrtmcjcss hncs

cxgst, a pgckc ni vgtaj gìnrdatgn` gs prnlaljy stgjj dgssg`b. Xmgs gjjustratcs tmat tmc snkgaj

tmcnrctgkaj a`bjc pursuch mcrc gs dca`t tn c`rgkm a`h gdprnvc gìcrc`tgaj pnssglgjgtgcs

wmgkm bc`cratc lcttcr u`hcrsta`hg`b ni tmc kn`tgùnus hcvcjnpdc`t a`h kma`bc ni






`cchs. Gt gs a dattcr ni bcttg`b tnbctmcr a`h scttg`b tmc abc`ha. Cxpjnratgn`s irnd a

dghhjc brnu`h appcar jukratgvc inr tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc hgskgpjg`c.

Igàjjy gt `cchs tn lc strcssch tmat `n`c ni tmgs stuhy smnujh lc kn`sghcrch tn

prckjuhc cknjnbgkaj nr (lgnjnbgkaj) cvnjutgn`gst arkmacnjnbgcs, `nr hncs gt gb`nrc tmc

strc`btms ni qua`tgtatgvc apprnakmcs jgec spakc sy`tax. \atmcr, gt cxgsts ajn`bsghc a`h

kndpjcdc`tary tn sukm apprnakmcs, daeg`b tmc snkgaj g`tcjjgbgljc a`h tmc qua`tgtatgvc

dca`g`biuj.



Hgsputatgn` ni Vntc`tgajgtgcs





Hgsputatgn` ni Vntc`tgajgtgcs 133

Arc Xmg`bs [tgrrg`b g` Arkmacnjnby>

Inr tmc past knupjc ni ycars tmcrc mas lcc` a kn`vcrbc`kc ni arkmacnjnbgkaj para-

hgbds. Dnst kurrc`t rcscarkm scjckts nr g`tcbratcs, akknrhg`b tn arlgtrargjy kma`bcaljc

g`qugrgcs, tmc usciuj aspckts ni inrdcrjy nppnsg`b parahgbds sukm as prnkcssuajgsd a`h

pnstprnkcssuajgsd. @nw tmc pnjcdgks arc kajdg`b hnw` tmcrc gs adpjc nppnrtu`gty

inr rccktgn`. Xmc kausaj rcjatgn` ni prnkcssuajgsd a`h pnstprnkcssuajgsd mas lcc`

rcknb`gsch, a`h kn`scquc`tgajjy lntm hgsknurscs arc kjnsg`b g` n` cakm ntmcr. Xmgs

rckcptgvc attgtuhc ni skmnjars mas nlvgnus dcrgts. Wct inr tmc typgkaj jn`b tcrd g`tcrcsts

ni arkmacnjnby gt sccds tmcrc gs a rcjukta`kc tn jcavc tmc akkustndch patms sct nut ly

lgnjnby a`h pnsgtgvgst skgc`kc. Gt was rckc`tjy rcknb`gsch tmat ajn`bsghc tmgs àturajgst

vcrsgn` ni tcdpnrajgty a rcstnrch g`tcrcst g` mgstnry gs haw`g`b. Lcarg`b wgtmg` sndc

rcdà`ts ni kujturc mgstnry, tmcsc `cw arrgvajs stuhy tmc prnkcsscs ni mgstnry. G`stcahni pcrscvcrg`b g` tmc hgrcktgn` ni nkkasgnàjjy ckjcktgk asscdljabcs nr vargnusjy g`tc-

bratch sy`tmcscs ni trahgtgnàj aàjyscs, tmgs arkmacnjnby ni mgstnrgkaj prnkcsscs day

prcvc`t arkmacnjnbgkaj tmcnry irnd brnwg`b asu`hcr. Gt prndgscs tn rcu`gtc tmcnrctgkaj

pnsgtgn`s g` arkmacnjnby. ‚A bc`craj wgjjg`b`css tn rckn`kgjc hgsparatc pnsgtgn`s ‛ a

rc`cwch spgrgt ni g`kjusgvc`css ‛ gs arkmacnjnby‗s vcrsgn` ni a lrghbc tn tmc <1st kc`-

tury.— (Vauectat <661? 28) Vauectat mas hullch tmgs pntc`t g`kjgàtgn` tmc parahgbd

ni mgstnrgkaj prnkcssuajgsd (Vauectat <661, <668, Vauectat a`h Ajt <663).

Gts hgstg`ktgn` as a parahgbd gs warra`tch ly ‚gts rcjnkatgn` ni tmc jnkus ni snkgaj

kma`bc a`h, kn`scquc`tjy, U…T wmat kn`stgtutcs a satgsiaktnry cxpjaàtgn`.— (Vauectat<661? 28) Xmc rnah tnwarhs mgstnrgkaj prnkcssuajgsd gs pavch ly a tmcnry ni praktgkc.

Xmgs smarpjy kn`trasts wgtm prnkcssuajgsd a`h sndc ̀ cn-Harwg`gsd wmgkm snubmt aitcr

tmc ”systcd‗ lcmg`h g`hgvghuajs a`h tmcgr datcrgaj kujturc tmrnubm tmc jg`car kausajgty

ni ahaptatgn`s. G` praktgkc tmcnry pcnpjc‗s aktgn`s a`h rcprcsc`tatgn`s arc bc`cra-

tgvc. Mc kn`tgùcs ly krgtgkgsg`b, wmgjst cdpmasgsg`b tmcgr g`trg`sgk cjcdc`ts ni prak-

tgkc, tmrcc kurrc`t tmcnrctgkaj apprnakmcs g` arkmacnjnby? `cn-Harwg`gsd, knb`gtgvc-

prnkcssuajgsd a`h abc`ky tmcnry. Hgvghg`b ̀ cn-Harwg`gsd g` tmrcc lra`kmcs, Vauectat

krgtgkgscs tmc cssc`tgajgst a`h iu`ktgnàjgst cxpjaàtgn`s ni scjcktgn`gsts, tmnubm dareg`b

tmat tmcy cdpmasgsc mgstnrgkaj kn`tg`bc`t prnkcsscs g` a u`gvcrsajgstgk way. G`hgvghuaj-

gsts arc krgtgkgsch inr jnkatg`b kma`bc n`jy wgtmg` tmc ”abc`ky‗ ni icw abbra`hgsg`b nr

kmargsdatgk g`hgvghuajs, tmcrcly hciyg`b a`y stuhy ni mgstnrgkaj prnkcsscs. Igàjjy tra`s-

dgssgn`gsd, akknrhg`b tn Vauectat, kndcs kjnscst tn a `n`-cssc`tgajgst praktgkc tmcnry,

ly inkusg`b n` tmc dckma`gsds ni rcprnhuktgn`, tra`sdgssgn`, a`h tra`sinrdatgn` ni

ghcas at tgdcs ajjnwg`b tmc muda` rcsnurkcs ni cxpcrgc`kc a`h dca`g`b.

Ajtmnubm vargatgn` g` praktgkcs gs cdpmasgsch, tmgs nkkurs lckausc tmc hccpcr

dca`g`b ni tmc prnhukts ni praktgkcs gs `nt `ckcssargjy rcvcajch tn tmc pcrinrdg`b

aktnrs. Knb`gtgvc-prnkcssuajgsd smarcs tmgs kn`kcr` wgtm vargatgn`. Gt kn`kc`tratcs n`




mnw kujturaj gìnrdatgn` was tra`sdgttch, cdujatch a`h tra`sinrdch lctwcc` spckgfik

png`ts g` tgdc nr spakc. Knb`gtgvc-prnkcssuajgsts hcdn`stratc tmc algjgty tn hchukc

bc`crgk kmaraktcrgstgks ni ghcnjnby irnd datcrgaj rcdag`s, mnwcvcr tmcy arc prn`c tn

rcjy n` a tcjcnjnbgkaj ratgnàjc g` cxpjag`g`b snkgaj cvnjutgn`. At lcst ruhgdc`tary mu-

da` aktgn`s arc lrnec` g`tn scquc`kcs cxcrkgsg`b kn`tg`bc`ky n` trahgtgn`, knb`gtgn`

nr pmysgkaj prnpcrtgcs tn varyg`b hcbrccs. Xmc stuhgcs ni tckm`gkaj kmaà`cs npíratngrcs

wmgkm rcsujtch irnd tmgs day mcjp g`tcrprct tckm`njnbgkaj kma`bc dca`g`biujjy n`

lntm tmc dgkrn skajc ni praktgkc a`h tmc dakrn skajc ni trahgtgn`s. G` tmgs gt mas tmc

pntc`tgaj tn rcjcasc us irnd lcmavgnuraj cssc`tgajgsd a`h iu`ktgnàjgst rchuktgn`gsd

(Vauectat <661).

Ly cstaljgsmg`b a` cquaj akkcssglgjgty ni muda` abc`ky, snkgaj mgstnry a`h trahgtgn`s

at lntm tmc dgkrn a`h dakrn skajc sgdujta`cnusjy, ghcas ni abc`ky c`tcrch arkmacnj-

nby (ghcd). G` tmcgr artgkjc Abc`ky g` Arkmacnjnby , Hnlrcs a`h \nll (<666l) ajsn ragsctmc qucstgn` ni tmc pnssglgjgty tmat abc`ky knujh lc rcbarhch as a` arkmacnjnbgkaj par-

ahgbd. Huc tn tmc alsc`kc ni tmnrnubm tmcnrctgkaj krgtgquc, abc`ky mas lcc` qugkejy

ahnptch a`h wghcjy akkjagdch g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc. Xmcrcinrc tmc kn`kcpt ni

abc`ky akqugrch a` ah mnk appcaj tn partgkujar gssucs a`h tmc prnljcd ni gts dca`g`b

mas lcc` avnghch. Xmgs `nurgsmcs tmc ghca tmat abc`ky gs g`mcrc`tjy snu`h, hcspgtc

tmc jake ni kn`sc`sus n` gts dca`g`b (Hnlrcs a`h \nll <666l). As Vauectat rcdares,

tmcrc mavc lcc` iaujty kjagds tn abc`ky. ‚Xmcsc dgsbughch kjagda`ts tc`h tnwarh

dctmnhnjnbgkaj g`hgvghuajgsd, nitc` nvcrjnneg`b tmc kc`traj gdpnrta`kc ni tmc prnk-

css ni ”strukturatgn`‗ U…T as nppnsch tn partgkujar abc`ts.— (Vauectat <661? 27) Wctlckausc gt mas lckndc lrnahjy rc`nw`ch a`h niicrs da`y pcrspcktgvcs tmat knujh prn-

inu`hjy aiickt tmc way wc kn`hukt arkmacnjnby, Hnlrcs a`h \nll appcar tn kn`kjuhc

tmat abc`ky as a parahgbd knujh cxgst wgtm tmc rgbmt tmcnrctgkaj ciinrts, tmnubm `nt g`

gts kurrc`t prnljcdatgk statc. Abc`ky smnujh lc dahc tn fit tmc jn`b tcdpnraj vgsgn`

a`h datcrgaj kujturc kc`trcinjh tn arkmacnjnby (Hnlrcs a`h \nll <666l). As a rcak-

tgn` tn abc`ky‗s tmcnrctgkaj adlgbugty, tmcrc mas lcc` a` cxpjgkgt g`tcrcst g` praktgkc

a`h strukturatgn` (Vauectat <661, Onykc a`h Jnpgparn <663). ‚Mnwcvcr, tmcrc gs `n

praktgkc-tmcnry knnelnne, `nr smnujh arkmacnjnbgsts sgdpjy rcgiy Lnurhgcu‗s kn`kcpts

as rcahy-dahc g`tcrprctatgn`s ratmcr tma` as oudpg`b-nii png`ts inr lugjhg`b tmcnry.—

(Vauectat <661? 27)

Arkmacnjnbgsts mavc attc`hch tn Lnurhgcu‗s kn`kcpts ni hnxa a`h, wmc` assnkgatch

wgtm pnwcr rcjatgn`s, mctcrnhnxgcs a`h nrtmnhnxgcs (Lnurhgcu 1722), yct tmc tmcnrgsa-

tgn` ni abc`ky mas `nt qugtc rcakmch tmc png`t wmcrc gt gs rcong`ch wgtm tmc prnkcsscs

gt icchs a`h gs prnhukch ly. Kn`scquc`tgajjy, sn iar, abc`ky mas lcc` uàljc tn ah-

cquatcjy sugt tmc jn`b tcrd nr gssucs ni kma`bg`b datcrgaj kujturc. Vauectat arbucs tmat

a parahgbd injjnwg`b a tmcnry ni praktgkc, jgec mgstnrgkaj prnkcssuajgsd, ka` ahh kn`-

sghcraljc cxpjaàtnry vajuc tn arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc wgtmnut rchuktgn` nr cssc`tgaj-




gsd (Vauectat <661, <668). Dca`wmgjc, tmc ̀ ntgn` ni mgstnry kn``ckts tmc dgkrn skajc

tn tmc dakrn skajc (Vauectat <661). Xmc `cch inr arkmacnjnby tn hgrcktjy c`babc wgtm

tmcsc gssucs tmrnubm a inkus n` prnkcsscs gs icjt cjscwmcrc as wcjj. Dgkmcjjc Mcbdn`

(<66;, Vauectat <668) prnpnsch tmc jalcj ”prnkcssuajgsd-pjus‗ tn knvcr tmc hgvcrsgty ni

kn`tcdpnra`cnus tmcnrgcs usch inr knddn` gssucs. Dnrcnvcr, tmc kn`kcpt ni prnkcss

nr kujturaj prnkcss was rckc`tjy cjalnratcjy ahhrcssch ly Jyda` (<662), ̀ ntg`b tmat g`

lntm a`tmrnpnjnby a`h arkmacnjnby tmcrc gs a rc`cwch strn`b kn`kcr` inr tmcnrgsatgn`

ni tmc prnkcss. Jyda` arbucs tmat prnkcsscs smnujh lc kjcarjy hgstg`bugsmch irnd cvn-

jutgn` ly rcvgsgtg`b tmc hcfi`gtgn`s ni prnkcss g` arkmacnjnby. ‚Iuturc kn`kcptuajgzatgn`

dust spckgiy tmc huratgn` ni tmc prnkcss ni g`tcrcst sukm tmat tmc iadgjy ni sy`kmrn`gk

npcratgnàj prnkcsscs gs hgstg`bugsmch irnd tmc iadgjy ni hgakmrn`gk cvnjutgnàry prnk-

csscs. [ukm kn`kcptuajgzatgn` wgjj rcqugrc cxpjgkgt hcfi`gtgn`s ni npcratgn` a`h cvnju-

tgn`.— (Jyda` <662? <8<) Jyda` was ajsn at tmc krahjc ni a pnjcdgk n` mgstnrgkajprnkcssuajgsd a icw ycars aitcr Vauectat puljgsmch mgs parahgbdatgk prnpnsaj (N‗Lrgc`

a`h Jyda` <668).

Ajtmnubm gt gs `nt dy agd tn dg`bjc wgtm a hclatc tmat gs `nt dg`c, gt sccds gdpnr-

ta`t tn dc`tgn` tmat ajsn g` Vauectat‗s vgcw, kn`kurrg`b wgtm dy nw` cpgstcdnjnbgkaj

pnsgtgn` (scc tmc g`trnhuktgn`), mgstnrgkaj prnkcssuajgsd hncs `nt cxkjuhc cvnjutgn`-

ary apprnakmcs jgec `cn-Harwg`gsd (Vauectat <668). Wct N‗Lrgc` a`h Jyda` (<668)

ficrkcjy krgtgkgsc tmc prnpnsaj a`h, `nt surprgsg`bjy, npt inr a` cvnjutgnàry png`t ni

vgcw tmat, tmcy arbuc, bncs lcyn`h mgstnrgkaj prnkcssuajgsd ly prnvghg`b a` cxpjaà-

tnry tmcnry (tmcgr cdpmasgs) spckgiyg`b tmc kauscs ni kujturaj kma`bc. Xmgs sccds marhjyoust, lckausc Vauectat hncs `nt sct nut tn wrgtc a tmcnry. \atmcr, mc rcdares a hcbrcc

ni kn`sc`sus g` arkmacnjnbgkaj tmcnrgsg`b ni tmc rckc`t past a`h prcsc`t tmat appcars

tn mavc a tc`hc`ky tnwarhs praktgkc tmcnry. Gt gs tn lc cxpcktch tmat jalcjjg`b a para-

hgbd wgjj dcct krgtgkgsd, lut mgstnrgkaj prnkcssuajgsd smnujh lc scc` tn g`knrpnratc

da`y tmcnrgcs (Vauectat <668) a`h inr dc gt gs kjcar tmat a sugtaljy ahaptch tmcnry ni

praktgkc mas yct tn lc inu`h.

Lasg`b a Xmcnry

Dy kn`kcr` was `cvcr wgtm hcfi`g`b a parahgbd, lut ratmcr tmc apparc`t gàlgjgty

ni tmc kurrc`t statc ni arkmacnjnbgkaj tmcnry tn knpc wgtm a lgb gssuc as tmc hcvcjnp-

dc`t ni snkgcty, inr wmgkm G kmnsc tn pursuc a kn`sghcratgn` ni a tmcnry ni spakc as

tmc dnst gddchgatc datcrgajgsatgn` ni lcg`b muda`. Xmgs qugtc àturajjy jch dc tn

tmc sul-hgskgpjg`c ni muda` bcnbrapmy a`h cspckgajjy (Bcrda`gk) snkgaj bcnbrapmy

partgkujarjy kn`kcr`ch wgtm tmc pnsgtgn` ni snkgajgty g` spakc. Gt was wmgjc cxpjnrg`b

tmc hgskgpjgàry hcvcjnpdc`ts ni arkmacnjnby a`h bcnbrapmy tmat gt struke dc tmat tmc

jake ni arkmacnjnbgkaj tmcnry knujh lc cxpjag`ch ly tmc tnpgks n` wmgkm tmc hcvcjnp-




dc`t ni bcnbrapmy a`h arkmacnjnby hgstg`ktjy partch. G` nrhcr tn prnvghc a kn`tcxt

ni akahcdgk mgstnry inr tmc tmrcc axcs ni hcvcjnpg`b snkgctgcs (kn`stgtutg`b spckgfik

g`qugrgcs g`tn sukm hcvcjnpdc`t as wcjj as ajjnwg`b inr a` cpgstcdnjnbgkaj dcrbcr ni

g`tcrcsts akrnss snkgaj skgc`kcs), gt lckadc kjcar tmat wgtm pnst-prnkcssuajgsd arkmac-

njnby spjgt up g` apprnakmcs injjnwg`b pmc`ndc`njnby, rnubmjy rcsujtg`b g` abc`ky

a`h mcrdc`cutgk hclatcs, nppnsg`b a lgnjnbgkaj nr cvnjutgnàry hgrcktgn`5 tmc inrdcr

lcg`b nvcrtjy partgkujargstgk a`h arlgtrargjy g`hgvghuajgstgk, tmc jattcr ahhrcssg`b n`jy

parts ni arkmacnjnbgkaj g`tcrcsts lcg`b rchuktgn`gst tn (hcvcjnpg`b) snkgajgty. Mgstnry

a`h tcdpnrajgty, a`h tmus hcvcjnpdc`t, hgh `nt typgkajjy c`tcr pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj

nr abc`ky apprnakmcs, scparatg`b abc`ky hclatcs irnd tmc strukturc gt was nrgbgàjjy

g`trnhukch wgtm (ki. Bghhc`s 17=8).

G` bcnbrapmy `n`c ni tmgs mappc`ch. Injjnwg`b lcmavgnurgst a`h lcmavgnuraj bc-

nbrapmy (ki. tmc arkmacnjnby ni lcmavgnur a`h tmc knb`gtgvc tur` ni prnkcssuajgsd),pmc`ndc`njnby g` bcnbrapmy bavc way tn a rgsc ni muda` bcnbrapmy. [gdujta`c-

nusjy, tmgs `cw hgrcktgn` rcaktch abag`st bcnbrapmy as spatgaj skgc`kc, uàljc tn hcaj

wgtm rcaj muda` prnljcds. G` muda` bcnbrapmy abc`ky a`h strukturc wcrc ̀ nt scpa-

ratch, lut tmcnrgsatgn` kn`tgùch tn cxpjnrc tmc spckgfik rcjatgn`s lctwcc` tmcsc twn

kndpn`c`ts. Xmc hgskgpjgàry kn`kcr` wgtm spakc ajsn prcsc`tch a datcrgaj cjcdc`t

as a dchgatg`b a`h cxprcssgvc tmgrh. Mcrc G rcajgsch tmat wmat arkmacnjnbgkaj tmcnry

wgtmmcjh irnd ahva`kg`b knujh lc prnvghch ly a` ahaptatgn` ni spckgfik bcnbrapmg-

kaj tmnubmt. Xmgs a`swcrs a `nw alu`ha`t kajj tn rcpagr tmc uìnrtuàtc scparatgn`

ni abc`ky a`h strukturc g` arkmacnjnbgkaj tmcnry (c.b. Vauectat <661, Mcbdn` <66;,Onykc a`h Jnpgparn <663, Ry``c-On`cs a`h Enmrg`b <662).

\atmcr tma` hcpartg`b irnd a tmcnry ni praktgkc, bcnbrapmy starts wgtm aktgn`

tmcnry. G prcicr tmgs va`tabc png`t tn Vauectat‗s praktgkc, sgdpjy lckausc gt taecs n`c

iu`hadc`taj stcp iurtmcr lake. Aktgn` bc`cratcs ajj praktgkc a`h ajj datcrgajgsatgn`,

a`h tmus ajj prnkcsscs. Ly startg`b gddchgatcjy at tmc jcvcj ni praktgkc, n`c ru`s tmc

rgse ni n`kc abag` u`hcrcxpnsg`b tmc tcdpnraj skajc ni tmc cvc`t a`h jnbgkajjy inrkcs

a` cdpmasgs n` hnxa , pnwcr rcjatgn`s, a`h pnjgtgkgsatgn`, jnsg`b a past g`malgtch ly g`-

hgvghuajs. Gi n`c gs `nt prcparch tn stuhy tmc kn`stgtutgn` ni a praktgkc gt wgjj lc gdpns-

sgljc tn u`hcrsta`h tn prnkcss ni kn`tgùnus kma`bc npcratch ly praktgkcs. Vraktgkcs

arc kn`sckutgvc aktgn`s, cakm ni tmcd a katajyst nr (pntc`tgajjy krcatgvc) bc`cratnr g` gts

nw` rgbmt (ki. hc Kcrtcau 17==). As Onykc a`h Jnpgparn say, ‚attc`tgn` tn g``nvatgn`

gs tmc ̀ ckcssary knu`tcrpart tn arkmacnjnbgkaj rcknb`gtgn` ni rcprnhuktgn` ni praktgkcs

nvcr tgdc.— (Onykc a`h Jnpgparn <663? ;21) G ad stgkeg`b wgtm tmc g`hgvghuaj as tmc

prgdary dca`g`biuj aàjytgkaj u`gt, tmnubm `cgtmcr g` tmc ghgnsy`kratgk way ni abc`ky,

`nr tmc abbra`hgsg`b pjaycrs ni ̀ cn-Harwg`gsd. \atmcr, G usc a eg`h ni n`tnjnbgkaj g`hg-

vghuajgsd tn u`hcrsta`h snkgcty a`h a eg`h ni dctmnhnjnbgkaj g`hgvghuajgsd tn cxpjag`

mnw snkgcty wnres. A sgdgjar sta`kc mas lcc` ahvnkatch ly tmc snkgnjnbgst On` Cjstcr




(17=7) (inr a tmnrnubm hgskussgn` ni tmc vargnus dca`g`bs ni dctmnhnjgkaj g`hgvghuaj-

gsd, scc Shçm` <66<, Mnhbsn` <662). Xmc cvcryhay jgic ni ajj g`hgvghuajs gs katajytgk

inr mgstnrgkaj prnkcsscs, dutuajjy gùc`kg`b cakm ntmcr. Rmgjc tmc cvc`t ni aktgn` gs

cssc`tgajjy a-mgstnrgkaj, tmc rcjatgvc tcdpnraj pnsgtgn` ni aktgvgtgcs rcdag`s mgstnrgkajjy

dca`g`biuj.

Xmc gddchgaky ni spatgajgty pnssgljy daecs dy ciinrt ni tmcnry lugjhg`b sjgbmtjy

dnrc iu`hadc`taj tma` Vauectat‗s kn`kcr` wgtm Kamnega pnttcry (Vauectat <661).

Xmc knddnàjgty ni iakgjgtatg`b spatgaj icaturcs akknu`ts inr wmy G rcpcatchjy hcfich

tmc pnssgljc arlgtrarg`css ni styjc a`h sydlnjgsd g` tmgs stuhy. @cvcrtmcjcss, G dust

strcss tmat tmgs smnujh `nt lc rcbarhch as a iu`ktgnàj rchuktgn`gsd as cdpjnych ly

`cn-Harwg`gst scjcktgn`gsts. @nt n`jy day ruhgdc`tary spatgaj icaturcs aktuajjy rcicr

tn styjgstgk kmngkcs nr kn`vc`tgn`s, iurtmcrdnrc gt gs c`tgrcjy pnssgljc tmat styjc a`h

sydlnjgsd kn`strukt strukturaj jgèabcs. N`jy G hgh `nt kmnnsc tn daec a` arbudc`tinr tmat eg`h ni hata, cspckgajjy sg`kc gt appcars jcss hgrcktjy kn``cktch tn tmc prgdary

kn`tcstatgn` kn`stgtutg`b snkgajgty.

Xmgs gs `nt iar irnd tmc abc`ky tmat Vauectat a`h Ajt (<663) jnkatc g` a spatgaj

icaturc as sgdpjc as a pnstdnjh. Xmcy mnjh tmat gi ajj hgdc`sgn`s tn tmc pmysgkajgty ni

muda` abc`ky arc g`kjuhch, g.c. spatgajgty, knrpnrcajgty, tcdpnrajgty, lut ajsn tmc nk-

kupatgn` ni spakc, aiicktg`b tmc cxpcrgc`kc ni spakc a`h tgdc ni pcnpjc, tmc injjnwg`b

asscrtgn` ka` lc dahc? ‚g` tmc prnkcss ni pmysgkaj kn`struktgn`, pcnpjc kn`strukt,

hc-kn`strukt, nr rc-kn`strukt kujturcs.— (Vauectat a`h Ajt <663? <18) Xmcgr mgstnrg-

kaj prnkcssuaj apprnakm c`tagjs tmrcc prnkchuraj iu`hadc`tajs. Igrst tmcy ghc`tgiy tmcvargcty ni praktgkcs5 sckn`hjy, tmcy kndparc bc`cajnbgcs nr mgstnrgcs ni praktgkcs, hgs-

tg`bugsmg`b pattcr`s (tmgs gdpjgcs a mnjgstgk pcrspcktgvc ni cdpgrgkgsd, tmat gs tn say ajj

tmc pnstdnjhs `cch tn lc kn`sghcrch)5 a`h fiàjjy kn``ckt a`h kndparc bc`cajnbgkaj

scts ni cvghc`kc at vargnus aàjytgkaj skajcs. Xmgs g`vnjvcs kndparg`b scts ni praktgkcs

wgtm ntmcr praktgkcs, a`h takeg`b lake a`h inrtm lctwcc` tmc dgkrn skajc ni sgtc, pjakc,

pcrsn`, nr nlockt spckgfiks a`h c.b. tmc kujturaj arca gt rcsghcs g`. Xmc fiàj stabc gs npc`

c`hch, nr as G wnujh say ajjnws pjuraj nutkndcs. Xmcy rcknb`gsc, lut hn ̀ nt cxpjgkatc,

tmat tmgs fiàj dakrn skajc kndpargsn` ajsn cvajuatcs tmc sgb`gfika`kc ni mypntmctgkaj

mgstnrgkaj prnkcssuaj rcjatgn`smgps, sukm as tmc praktgkcs kn`stgtutg`b kujturc (ghcd).

Cvc`tuajjy tmgs stuhy ni pnstdnjh vargcty, bc`cajnby a`h kndpargsn` u`satgsiaktn-

rgjy hncs ̀ nt tnukm upn` cxpjag`g`b tmc iu`hadc`taj qucstgn` ni mnw kujturcs kma`bc.

Hcspgtc tmc mgstnrgkaj prnkcssuaj jg`c ni rcasn`g`b wmgkm wnujh ajjnw inr hgiicrc`t

qucstgn`s tma` krnss-kujturaj kndpargsn`s, nr as Vauectat a`h Ajt tmcdscjvcs say, hgi-

icrc`t irnd rcscarkmcrs typgkajjy g`tcrcstch g` kmgcihnds a`h statcs, tmc stuhy hncs ̀ nt

kn`tgùc g`tn tmat. G tmgè tmc jake ni a spckgfik a`h kndpjctc tmcnry ni praktgkc gs tn

ljadc. Xmc hgifikujty gs tmat mgstnrgkaj prnkcssuajgsd lrghbcs nvcr da`y pnssgljc tmcn-

rgcs, lut statg`b tmat tmcsc wgjj ajj lc lasch n` praktgkc tmcnry gs `nt aktuajjy lugjhg`b




a tmcnry. Xmrnubm tmgs tmc gssuc gs avnghch nr pnstpn`ch a`h gt rcdag`s nlskurc tn

apprckgatc a`y pntc`tgaj. G`stcah g` tmgs tmcsgs lntm tmc dgkrn a`h dakrn skajc gssucs

mavc lcc` tmcnrgsch, spckgfikajjy inr tmc ficjh ni stuhgcs kn`kcr`ch wgtm spatgajgtgcs.

Injjnwg`b muda` a`h snkgaj bcnbrapmgkaj tmcnry, G mavc snubmt tn hcdn`stratc tmc

pntc`tgajs kn`tag`ch g` tmcnrgsg`b tmc snkgajgty ni spatgajgtgcs, wmgkm mas lrnubmt dc tn

tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs.

Lugjhg`b a Xmcnry

G`stcah ni tmc prchndgà`t prcsc`kc ni Lnurhgcu g` dnst arkmacnjnbgkaj kascs, Bgh-

hc`s‗ strukturatgn` tmcnry was prgdargjy prcvajc`t g` bcnbrapmy. Injjnwg`b tmc jg`cs

sct nut g` tmc tmrcc axcs ni hcvcjnpg`b snkgctgcs, cspckgajjy taeg`b tmcnrgcs ni aktgn`

abag`st tmc lakehrnp ni tcdpnrajgtgcs as a dca`s tnwarhs aktgvcjy prnhukch spakc, Aj-ja` Vrch‗s wnre ni tmc ”=6s gs a` ghcaj lrghbc lugjhcr. Ahaptg`b ghcas ni Mèbcrstra`h‗s

tgdc-bcnbrapmy, Bghhc`s‗ strukturatgn`, pmc`ndc`njnby a`h Inukaujt‗s pnwcr rcja-

tgn`s, mc lugjt a tgdc-spakc spckgfik tmcnry ni pjakc as kn`struktch a`h g`malgtch ly

g`hgvghuajs ahmcrg`b tn a knddu`gty a`h/nr snkgcty. Mgs tmcnry ni pjakc as mgstnrgkajjy

kn`tg`bc`t prnkcss (Vrch 17=8, 17=9) gs cspckgajjy fit inr arkmacnjnbgkaj purpnscs, lc-

kausc mc hgrcktjy g`kjuhcs tmc kn`scquc`tgaj tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc g` mgs hgajcktgkaj

strukturg`b prnkcsscs. Xmc lrnah appjgkalgjgty ni pjakc kn``cktch tn pcrpctuaj prnk-

csscs (tgdc) ajjnwch dc tn sgtuatc gt g` a` cvnjutgnàry kn`tcxt, strctkmg`b gt nvcr kn`-

kcpts ni spatgajgtgcs n` vargnus skajcs. Mgs aprgnrgstgk lgnbrapmgcs, prnockts a`h prnkcsscstgch g`tn a systcds tmcnry wcrc tmc pcrickt sprg`blnarh tnwarhs kurrc`t hcvcjnpdc`ts

g` Bcrda`gk snkgaj bcnbrapmy. Lc``n Rcrjc̀ ‗s dnhcratcjy kn`struktgvgst apprnakm tn

rcbgnàjgsatgn` a`h A`hrcas Enkm‗s pmc`ndc`njnbgkajjy g`kjg`ch autnpngctgk systcds

mavc tmc cqugvajc`kc ni tgdc a`h spakc g` knddn`. Xmcy hgrckt tmc bc`crajgsg`b ghcas

ni Vrch g`tn spckgfik trcatdc`ts ni tmc bc`cratgvc prnkcsscs ni lnrhcrs a`h rcbgn`s n`

tmc n`c ma`h, a`h hctagjch systcdgk spatgajgtgcs n` tmc ntmcr.

G hgskussch tmc pnssglgjgty ni usg`b Rcrjc`‗s (177=, <663) rcbgnàjgsatgn` as a bc`-

craj tmcnrctgkaj lakebrnu`h cspckgajjy sugtaljc inr rcicrrg`b dakrn skajc qucstgn`s ni

lnrhcrs a`h hgiicrc`tgatgn` tn tmc dgkrn skajc cvcryhay jgic, wmgjc strcssg`b tmat inr a

lcttcr u`hcrsta`hg`b wc smnujh ̀ nt start at a hatasct, lut at a snkgaj tmcnry. Xmgs lasg-

kajjy g`vcrts trahgtgnàj arkmacnjnbgkaj rcasn`g`b, akkustndch tn tmgèg`b irnd hata-

scts, `nt tnwarhs tmcd. Kndlg`ch wgtm a snu`h `ntgn` ni tgdc a`h tcdpnrajgtgcs tmc

pnssglgjgty ni a snkgaj gìcrc`kc ni kujturc arcas, rcpjakg`b kujturc mgstnrgkaj dctmnhs,

was càljch. [ulscquc`tjy gt was rcqugrch tn tgc tmcnrctgkaj asscrtgn`s tn aktuaj sgtua-

tgn`s g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hatascts.

Xmc ratmcr kn`struktgvgst ghcas ni Rcrjc` partgajjy nlstruktch tmgs pntc`tgaj. Mc`kc

tmc autnpngctgk spatgaj systcds ni Enkm (<663) appcarch lntm a bnnh lasgs inr tmcn-




rctgkaj arbudc`ts n` tmc dgkrn skajc a`h a bughc tn hcskry dctmnhnjnbgkaj nppnrtu-

`gtgcs. Xmcy gdpjgkgtjy kn`krctgsch tmc pmc`ndc`njnbgkaj lg-gdpjgkatgn`. Xmnubm `nt

u`krgtgkajjy, Enkm‗s tmcnry hgrcktch dc tn tmc strukturaj jgèabcs lctwcc` snkgn-spatgaj

systcds wmgkm prnkcsscs ni snkgajgty kn`stgtutc, arc c`ta`bjch g`, a`h cxkcch. Xmc

pmysgkajjy kn`struktch jnkajgtgcs ni strukturaj jgèabcs, hctcrdgàljc tmrnubm jcvcjs ni

kndpatglgjgty lctwcc` tmc snkgaj, tmc spatgaj a`h cspckgajjy tmc snkgn-spatgaj systcds

fi`h tmcgr datcrgaj knu`tcrparts g` sndc iu`hadc`taj spatgaj icaturcs kn`tag`ch g`

sta`harh spatgaj hatascts. Xmc `ntgn`s ni rcprnhuktgn` tmrnubm tmc rcsgsta`kc prcsc`t

g` cvcryhay (kn`sudptgvc) praktgkcs (hc Kcrtcau 17==) wcrc ni spckgfik gdpnrta`kc tn

arbuc inr tmc rcprnhuktgn` ni snkgcty nvcr tgdc g` cvcryhay jgic tmrnubm spakc. Ajtn-

bctmcr gt pavch tmc rnah tn tmc pntc`tgaj ni hcrgvg`b spatgaj sgbàturcs (nr snkgn-spatgaj

ghc`tgtgcs) irnd spatgaj hatascts. Xmgs gìcrc`tgaj prnkcss G tcrdch tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b

ni spatgajgtgcs, g`knrpnratg`b spckgaj attc`tgn` tn a hcvcjnpdc`taj cxpjaàtgn`.Xmat gs `nt tn say tmat tmgs mas lcc` tmc first vc`turc tn snkgajgsc tmcnrgsatgn` ni

spakc g` arkmacnjnby. Inrcdnst, tmc kn`trglutgn`s ni \nlg` a`h \ntmskmgjh (<66<),

Ljaec (<66<) a`h \nlg` (<66<) g` tmc Onuràj ni [nkgaj Arkmacnjnby hcfi`gtcjy ah-

va`kch arkmacnjnbgkaj awarc`css ‚ni jgvch spakc as aktgvcjy kn`struktch a`h dujtgvn-

kajjy cxpcrgc`kch.— (\nlg` a`h \ntmskmgjh <66<? 196) Gùc`kch ly tmc kn`kcpt ni

first, sckn`h a`h tmgrhspakc ni iavnurch bcnbrapmcr Chwarh [noa (1779), tmcsc ciinrts,

lcg`b g`cvgtaljy g`spgrch ly a`tmrnpnjnby, ajsn kausc tmc jgtcraturc ni skmnjars jgec Aj-

ja` Vrch a`h Dgkmcj hc Kcrtcau tn sjnwjy sccp g`tn arkmacnjnby `nw. As Ljaec jatcr

`ntcs, arkmacnjnby mas lcc` cxtrcdcjy scjcktgvc g` ahhrcssg`b spatgaj tnpgks, jcttg`barkmacnjnbgsts a`h arkmgtckturaj mgstnrga`s wnre g` gsnjatgn` g` dnst kascs. Gt gs `nw

tmat wc smnujh lckndc awarc tmat ‚spakc gs `n jn`bcr tmc snjc purvgcw ni bcnbrapmy

lut gs a tmcdatgk tmrcah jgèg`b tmcnrctgkaj hgsknursc akrnss tmc muda`gtgcs a`h snkgaj

skgc`kcs. Xmc brnwg`b kurrc`ky ni spatgaj tcrds gs kjnscjy jgèch tn tmc rcknb`gtgn` ni

spakc‗s ecy rnjc g` tmc prnkcsscs ly wmgkm pcnpjc kn`strukt tmcgr u`hcrsta`hg`bs ni tmc

wnrjh.— (Ljaec <662? <;6) Kn``cktch tn tmc kajj tn stuhy mgstnrgkaj prnkcsscs kn``ckt-

g`b tmc dgkrn a`h dakrn skajcs, rctur`g`b tn (snkgaj) arkmacnjnby wmat gs gts strc`btm,

aàjysg`b spatgajgtgcs knujh lc a brcat pjakc tn start.

Xmc `cch inr stuhgcs ni snkgaj kndpjcxgty tn g`tcbratc a`h kn``ckt skajcs ni tmcn-

rctgkaj arkmacnjnbgkaj g`qugrgcs gs ajsn rcpcatch ly Enmrg`b c.a. (<662). Ly prnvghg`b a

lasgk tmcnrctgkaj rcasn`g`b wmgkm n` tmc n`c ma`h hgrcktjy rcjatcs tn tmc dakrn skajc

ni kn`stgtutg`b snkgctgcs a`h a snkgaj u`hcrsta`hg`b ni kujturc arcas nr rcbgn`s, wmgjc

n` tmc ntmcr ma`h scceg`b tn aàjysc tmc prnkcsscs prnhukg`b a snkgaj ghc`tgty g`

tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t, G mavc attcdptch tn nvcrkndc tmgs gdpassc. Lntm c`hs ni tmc

tmcnry lckndc g`tcjjgbgljc ly tmc sadc aprgnrgstgk prnkcssgvc `ntgn`s. Dnrcnvcr, lntm

ajjnw pjuraj nutkndcs a`h tcdpnraj, snkgaj a`h spatgaj mylrghgty g` vargnus kndpnsg-

tgn`s. Xmcrc gs a hgstg`kt rcpjctgn` ni a` ajj-tn-ajj prg`kgpjc pcrdcatg`b tmc tmcnry. G




mavc arbuch tmat a inkus n` prnkcsscs day g`fi`gtcjy tgc ajj kn`stgtutgvc cjcdc`ts g`tn

a tntajgty. Daeg`b a`y scjcktgn`, g`cvgtaljc g` kn`huktg`b arkmacnjnbgkaj rcscarkm, a

systcdgk jnkaj tntajgty ni ajj iradch snkgaj g`tcraktgn`, ajtmnubm gt ka` lc cxpcktch tmat

lntm bcnbrapmgkajjy a`h tcdpnrajjy kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`taj icaturcs wgjj kn`tgùc

nutsghc tmc scjcktgn`. [ukm ajj-tn-ajj prg`kgpjc sccds ajsn tn lc n`c ni tmc rcasn`s

tn cdpmasgsc nutsghc spakc g` stuhyg`b assnkgatch mnuscs nr hwcjjg`bs, daeg`b jgvch

spakc a` cxpjgkaljc mnjgstgk ̀ ntgn` (\nlg` a`h \ntmskmgjh <66<, \nlg` <66<). Rmat wc

arc jcit wgtm gs tmc prnljcd ni datcrgajgsatgn` wmgkm wc arc hcpc`hc`t n` g` arkmacnj-

nby (ki. Enmrg`b c.a. <662).

A Dctmnhnjnbgkaj Xur`

Xmc prnljcd ni tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs gs tmat gts tmcnry hcda`hs a mnjgstgkhatasct. G` tmgs rcbarh tmcrc gs rnnd inr a rgbnrnus cdpgrgkgst tur` inr gts dctmnhn-

jnbgkaj npcratgn` (ki. Vauectat <663 n` tmc mgstnrgkaj prnkcssuaj prnkchurc). Xmat ajsn

prcsc`ts us wgtm tmc prnljcd tmat g` nrhcr tn gìcr a spatgaj sgbàturc, prcicraljy ajj

strukturaj jgèabcs lctwcc` (snkgn-spatgaj) systcds `cch tn lc kn`struktch g` tmc lugjt

c`vgrn`dc`t. [n gt gs `nt inr tmc pnpujar dgslcjgci tmat urla`gsd `ckcssargjy cdlnh-

gcs a dnrc kndpjcx nr iurtmcr ahva`kch snkgctaj nrba`gsatgn` (Ry``c-On`cs <662),

lut lckausc ajj snkgajgty g` tmc urla` c`vgrn`dc`t gs dchgatch ly lugjt spatgajgtgcs ni

gts nw` daeg`b tmat G prnpnsc tmat urla` hatascts wnujh lc tmc dnst rcwarhg`b tn

jnne at. N`c ni tmc lgb ahva`tabcs tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs c`tagjs gs tmcg`trnhuktgn` ni a iujjy-chbch `ntgn` ni tcdpnrajgtgcs g` tmc aàjysgs ni spatgaj hata.

[dgtm (<662) a`h carjgcr \apnpnrt (17=<), rcprcsc`tg`b lntm a rckc`t prnbrcssgn`

a`h iavnurch apprnakmcs rcbarhg`b urla` nr lugjt spakc, knddc`tch tmat tmcrc gs `n

ahcquatc hcajg`b wgtm tgdc, kma`bc a`h hcvcjnpdc`t g` tmc lugjhg`b ni spakc.

Ajtmnubm G ly `n dca`s prcsc`tch a` ajtcràtgvc vgcw n` urla`gsatgn` nr tmc as-

snkgatch gssucs, tmcrc arc sndc aspckts ni tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj stuhy ni urla`gsd tmat arc

g`cvgtaljy aiicktch ly dy asscrtgn`s. Mavg`b cstaljgsmch tmc way tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t

gs prnhukch a`h rcprnhukch, g` tmc hgajcktgk prnkcsscs ni lckndg`b gt gs uàvnghaljc

tmat pja``crs lckndc uscrs a`h uscrs lckndc pja``crs. Rmcrcas [dgtm rcpjakch tmc

hgkmntndy ni nrba`gk a`h pja``ch brnwtm wgtm brahatgn`s, spckgfikajjy Vrch‗s (17=9)

tmcnry alnjgsmcs tmc hgkmntndy ajtnbctmcr. Kn`scquc`tgajjy, lugjt c`vgrn`dc`ts arc

`ntmg`b dnrc tma` tcdpnrargjy kn`snjghatch stabcs tmat karry a rctc`tgn` irnd tmc

past a`h a prntc`tgn` inr tmc iuturc. As snn` as tmcy arc rcajgsch, tmcy arc kn`tcstch,

pnssgljy rcsujtg`b g` tra`sinrdatgn`, dnhgfikatgn`, nr kndpjctcjy `cw kn`struktgn`s.

Arkmacnjnby gs tmc n`jy hgskgpjg`c wmgkm nw`s tmc tnnjs tn daec tmc hgajcktgk cvnju-

tgn` ni tmc tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc g`tcjjgbgljc. Xmgs u`gquc pnsgtgn` smnujh lc iurtmcr

g`vcstgbatch a` cxpjngtch g` tmc iuturc.



Hgsputatgn` ni Vntc`tgajgtgcs 19;

G subbcst tmat tmc ghca ni stratgfikatgn` a`h tmc rcjatgvc kmrn`njnby gt hcdn`stratcs

lc usch g` lntm supcrpnsgtgn` a`h mnrgzn`tajjy (spatgajjy cquaj pgckcs ni a pajgdpscst).

Aàjysg`b iu`ktgnàjjy sgdgjar parts tn tmc hatasct rcprcsc`tg`b tmc jaycr nr prckg`kt

lugjt lcinrc a`h aitcr tmc hata tmat arc u`hcr g`vcstgbatgn`, tmc spatgaj icaturcs ni tmc

lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t ka` lntm lc rcbarhch as a` a-mgstnrgkaj cvc`t ni kn`snjghatgn` a`h a

rcjatgvc pnsgtgn` g` a mgstnrgkajjy kn`tg`bc`t prnkcss. Ajsn, tmc tmcnry g`mglgts rctag`g`b

a vgcw ni a` urla` c`vgrn`dc`t as a kn`sgstc`t wmnjc. Gt gs aktuajjy kndprgsch ni g`tcr-

rcjatgnàj, kn`tcstch, dujtgvajc`t spatgajgtgcs (ki. Ljaec <662). Xmgs kn`tcstatgn` g` tur`

taecs pjakc g` tmc strukturaj jgèabcs lctwcc` snkgn-spatgaj systcds.

Kn`struktch inrds ni strukturaj jgèabcs ka` prg`kgpajjy lc scc` as a eg`h ni c`-

tra`kc, wmctmcr sukm c`tra`kc gs rckgprnkaj nr ̀ nt. G` a way tmcy rcprcsc`t lnrhcrs tmat

ka` lc krnssch, nr, g` ntmcr wnrhs, tmc pu`ktuatch lnu`hargcs ni autnpngctgk systcds

g` nrhcr tn ajjnw inr nutjyg`b kn`stgtutgvc c`vgrn`dc`taj icaturcs. [g`kc tmcrc wgjj lcvargnus hcbrccs ni nvcrjap ni kn`stgtutgvc systcdgk cjcdc`ts, a strukturaj jgèabc mas

a` cjcvatch jcvcj ni dca`g`b. Kn`struktch jgèabcs iakgjgtatc akkcssglgjgty. Gìrastrukturc

a`h ajj typcs ni spatgaj icaturcs g`knrpnratg`b a strukturaj jgèabc smnujh lc scc` as

knrrghnrs ni akkcssglgjgty kn``cktg`b twn nr dnrc spatgajgtgcs. Xmc nlscrva`t rcahcr

wgjj mavc hgrcktjy kndparch tmgs tn spakc sy`tax a`h g`hcch gt sccds tmat tmc mgbmjy

snpmgstgkatch qua`tgtatgvc dctmnh ni spakc sy`tax appcars tn cdpmasgsc tmc rgbmt as-

pckt g` akkcssglgjgty. Sìnrtuàtcjy, tmcgr akkcssglgjgty gs a spatgaj n`c, hcprgvch ni snkgaj

dca`g`b. G ad `nt kn`vg`kch tmat statgstgkaj aàjysgs a`h datmcdatgkaj inrdujas pcr

sc (ki. hc Kcrtcau 17==) mnjh a`y cxpjaàtnry vajuc inr tmg`bs wmgkm kn`kcr` muda`lcg`bs. @cvcrtmcjcss, tmcy smnujh ̀ nt ajj lc u`krgtgkajjy hgskarhch cgtmcr. Cspckgajjy tmc

ajj-c`kndpassg`b quajgty ni spakc sy`tax gs pntc`tgajjy a pnwcriuj tnnj inr cxcrkgsg`b

spatgaj aàjysgs, hcspgtc gts jawiuj àturc. [tartg`b rcscarkm wgtm a` aprgnrgstgk tmcnry

jgec tmc snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs, tmc akkcssglgjgty a`h ircquc`ky kajkujatgn`s ni

spatgaj aàjyscs jgec spakc sy`tax wgjj lc gìnrdch, hgrcktch a`h gdprnvch. Gt wgjj g`vcst

dctmnhs wgtm snkgaj dca`g`b tmat hn `nt g`trg`sgkajjy karry tmat pnssglgjgty, tmnubm tmc

sadc kautgn` appjgcs as wgtm qucstgn`s asech tn tmc spatgaj hatalasc ni a BG[ appjgka-

tgn`. [ukm gìcrc`tgaj dctmnh knujh dnvc spatgaj hatascts lcyn`h tmc dap.

Kn`kjuhg`b \cdares

Lnr` nut ni hgssatgsiaktgn` wgtm tmc rcjukta`kc ni tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj hgskgpjg`c tn ah-

hrcss lgb gssucs a`h tmc sccdg`b gàlgjgty tn hcrgvc cxtc`sgvc snkgaj dca`g`b irnd n`c

ni nur dnst lasgk snurkcs ni gìnrdatgn`, tmgs stuhy kn`kjuhcs g` sayg`b tmat tmcrc gs

gddc`sc pntc`tgaj inr g`tcrhgskgpjgàry c`hcavnurs g` tmc snkgaj tmcnrgsatgn` ni spakc.

Rgtm tmc lugjhg`b ni a tmcnry ni snkgaj pnsgtgn`g`b ni spatgajgtgcs G mnpc tn prnvghc a`

g`kc`tgvc inr tmcnrgsts, dctmnhnjnbgsts a`h ficjh arkmacnjnbgsts tn kn`tgùc tmc cxpjn-




ratgn` ni spakc. Cspckgajjy tmc tmcnrgcs rckc`tjy hcvcjnpch g` snkgaj bcnbrapmy appcar

tn inrd a knbc`t png`t ni hcparturc wgtm tmc ou`ktgn` ni tgdc a`h spakc. Gt mas lcc`

hcdn`stratch tmat wc ka` ahhrcss lgb gssucs, wmgjc dag`tag`g`b tmc sulockt at tmc

dgkrn skajc as a dca`g`biuj kn`stgtutgvc inrkc. Xmc skajc-cxkcchg`b ciinrts rcvcaj a

kn`kcr` inr prnkcsscs wmgkm hgiicrs kn`sghcraljy irnd tmc tcjcnjnbgkaj prnkcsscs ni

trahgtgnàj snkgaj cvnjutgn` a`h kgvgjgsatgn` a`h/nr urla`gsatgn`. Xmc spatgaj kn`kcpts

tmat arc aiicktch ly tmgs strn`bjy rcjatc tn tmc kn`kcptuajgsatgn` ni pjakc, lntm bcn-

brapmgkajjy a`h snkgajjy.

Vjakc gs a wghcjy appjgkaljc `ntgn` wmgkm smnujh lc iurtmcr cxpjnrch g` arkmacnj-

nby. Gt day rcicr tn lugjt c`vgrn`dc`ts, rcbgn`s, kujturc arcas a`h lnrhcrs ajgec, wmgjst

hgajcktgkajjy dag`tag`g`b tmc gìcrc`tgaj vajuc ni a snkgn-spatgaj ghc`tgty. @n`c ni tmcsc

smnujh lc rcbarhch as a statgk kn`kcpt, lut ratmcr as pcrpctuajjy c`ta`bjch g` hgajcktgk

prnkcsscs ni lckndg`b. Gt gs n`jy tmrnubm sukm prnkcsscs tmat spatgajgtgcs bct dca`g`b. Ajtmnubm G c`vgsgn` tmc prnkcss tn c`tagj tmc g`tcrprctgvc pntc`tgaj ni adpjgfikatgn` g`tn

cvnjutgnàry pcrspcktgvcs, tmcgr àturc gs tmus qugtc hgiicrc`t irnd tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj

prnkcss lcinrc. Xmc prcouhgkgaj tcjcnjnby gs avnghch ly prcvc`tg`b prc-bgvc` scts ni

kn`stgtutgvc cjcdc`ts irnd c`tcrg`b tmc tmcnry. S`gvcrsajgty gs n`jy ahdgttch g` tmc

nkkurrc`kc ni tmc kn`tg`bc`t hgajcktgk prnkcsscs tmcdscjvcs.

Xmc tmcnrctgkaj a`h cpgstcdnjnbgkaj asscrtgn`s dahc g` tmgs stuhy wgjj `nt n`jy

aiickt tmc sulockt u`hcr stuhy, lut ajsn nur pnsgtgn` as rcscarkmcrs. Rmctmcr nr `nt

tmcrc gs a `cw parahgbd haw`g`b g` arkmacnjnby, tmcrc gs hcfi`gtc rnnd inr gdprnvg`b

nur trcatdc`t ni spatgajgtgcs a`h lnrhcrs. Xgdc a`h tcdpnrajgtgcs smnujh lc dahc a`g`mcrc`t part ni sukm g`qugrgcs. Xmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni tmc lugjt c`vgrn`dc`t tmrnubm tmc

kn`sta`t tra`sinrdatgn` ni àturc g` hgajcktgk prnkcsscs gs prc-cdg`c`tjy tmc g`tcrprc-

tgvc pntc`tgaj ni tmc arkmacnjnbgkaj hgskgpjg`c. Xmcrc gs `nt a rcahy-dahc patm tmat wc

smnujh injjnw, ̀ n kjcar-kut a`swcrs nr fixch sct ni icaturcs tn stuhy, yct tmcrc arc da`y

ways tn hcvcjnp tmcnrgcs apt inr prcssg`b qucstgn`s. Ly kmnnsg`b a` aktgn`-lasch ap-

prnakm a`h a prnkcssgvc pcrspcktgvc, tmc pjurajgty ni nur hatascts ka` lc dahc g`tcjjgbg-

ljc wgtmnut rchuktgn`. Xmc u`gquc tcdpnraj a`h datcrgaj pcrspcktgvc tmat arkmacnjnby

ka` niicr day lc gdpnrta`t inr nur kurrc`t hcajg`b wgtm spatgajgtgcs a`h iuturc kgty

pja``g`b. Arkmacnjnby gs a hgskgpjg`c wmgkm knujh a`h smnujh kn`trglutc tn tmc tgdc-

spakc spckgfik tmcnry lugjhg`b kn`tgùnusjy prnbrcssg`b g` snkgaj skgc`kcs.






Ake`nwjchbcdc`ts

Ajtmnubm tmc tmcdcs kn`tag`ch g` tmgs stuhy qugtc àturajjy rcsujtch irnd dy nw`

g`tcrcsts hcvcjnpch hurg`b dy chukatgn`, G knujh `nt mavc hn`c wgtmnut tmc bc`craj

kn`vgktgn`s u`hcrjyg`b tmc akahcdgk vc`turcs. Igrst a`h inrcdnst, G wnujh jgec tn cx-

prcss dy sg`kcrc bratgtuhc tnwarhs dy iatmcr, Oa` Ygs, `nt n`jy inr mgs pcrsgstc`t sup-

pnrt tn tmc kn`hukt ni tmgs rcscarkm a`h dy stuhgcs, lut ajsn inr mgs u`g`tc`tgnàj sjgbmt

g`hnktrgàtgn` a`h aktg`b as a inrkciuj sparrg`b-part`cr.

A spckgaj tmaè ynu tn Onrbc _adlraà, wmn eg`hjy g`vgtch dc g`tn mgs mndc. Xmc

ward wcjkndc a`h mnspgtajgty ni mgd a`h mgs iadgjy arc dukm apprckgatch, tmc kn`-

vcrsatgn`s wcjj rcdcdlcrch.

Ajsn G ake`nwjchbc tmc gùc`kc ni Onm` Lg`tjgii, wmn uè`nwg`bjy hgrcktch dc

tnwarhs bcnbrapmgkaj tmcdcs, a`h \nscdary Onykc inr cjalnratg`b n` mcr g`tcrcst g`tmc wnre ni Ajja` Vrch. G tmaè Onm` Mnnpcs inr puttg`b dc n` tmc tragj tn tmc knrc

gssucs kn`kcr`ch wgtm kujturc arcas a`h kujturc mgstnry, cspckgajjy cxcdpjgfich ly tmc

Gstmdn-Knjndlga` arca. @cxt G wnujh jgec tn tmaè Hndg`gk Vnwjcsja`h, wmnsc jgvcjy

kn`vcrsatgn`s lntm g`spgrch dc a`h hcdystgfich arkmacnjnbgkaj tmcnry. Xmgèg`b nut ni

tmc lnx u`kn`hgtgnàjjy lckndcs knddn` kng` wgtm mgd. Iurtmcrdnrc, a tmaè ynu

tn scvcraj dcdlcrs ni tmc Acrgaj Arkmacnjnby \cscarkm Brnup (AA\B) a`h tmc G`tcr-

àtgnàj [nkgcty inr Arkmacnjnbgkaj Vrnspcktgn` (G[AV), g` partgkujar Jugs Larla, Lraèn

Dušgk, Dgkmacj Hn`cus a`h Haroa Brnsda`. Ajtmnubm tmcgr ciinrts a`h tmc tmcdc ni

arkmacnjnbgkaj prnspcktgn` wcrc cvc`tuajjy hgskarhch as part ni tmgs stuhy, a kcrtag`gùc`kc gs icjt tmrnubmnut gt. Mugl Cr`stc gs tmaèch inr mgs patgc`kc a`h cxkcptgnàj

cxglgjgty g` bughg`b dc tmrnubm dy g`tcrhgskgpjgàry c`hcavnur g`tn aktgn` tmcnrgcs.

Aitcr sndc spgrgtch kn`vcrsatgn`s a`h a lgt ni knjjalnratgn`, Oa` Enjc` hckghch tn

supcrvgsc tmgs tmcsgs. Mc gs partgkujarjy tmaèch inr mgs lravcry a`h pgvntaj ciinrts struk-

turg`b dy arbudc`ts. Ajsn dy bratgtuhc inr Ajcx Bcurhs, wmn stgrrch up dy g`tcrcst

g` Kc`traj Adcrgka a`h mcjpch nut at tmc jast dgùtc, prcvc`tg`b a`y iurtmcr hcjays ly

akkcptg`b a rnjc as supcrvgsnr.

Ajsn a spckgaj tmaè ynu tn Dgkma Dcgocr inr tmc prckgnus mnurs mc knujh mavc

hgrcktch tnwarhs brcatcr bnajs, lut kmnsc tn sakrgfikc tn daec a lnne wgtm dc. Jcam

Kjarec gs tmaèch inr bgvg`b tmc tcxt ni tmc lnne tmc jg`bugstgk n`kc-nvcr.

Igàjjy, dy mcarticjt bratgtuhc inr \ga``c Hulngs, bgvg`b dc brcat suppnrt a`h lc-

g`b dy lujware. [mc g`hciatgbaljy sat nut ajj tmc tchgnus dn`njnbucs tmat nrhcrch dy

tmnubmts.







\cicrc`kcs 197

Lnurhgcu, V. 1722

Nutjg`c ni a Xmcnry ni Vraktgkc, Kadlrghbc S`gvcrsgty Vrcss, Kadlrghbc.

Lraswcjj, B. C. <66;

Mgbmja`h Daya Vnjgtgcs, g`? [dgtm, D. C., a`h Lcrha`, I. I. ch., Xmc Vnstkjassgk

Dcsnadcrgka` Rnrjh, S`gvcrsgty ni Stam Vrcss, [ajt Jaec Kgty? 83-87.

Lruu`, M. a`h Ja`bjags, \. <66;

N` tmc Cdlnhgch @aturc ni Aktgn`, g`? Akta [nkgnjnbgka, 89(1)? ;1-87.

Lurdcgstcr, [. <666

Arkmacnjnby a`h Dgbratgn`? apprnakmcs tn a` arkmacnjnbgkaj prnni ni dgbratgn`,

g`? Kurrc`t A`tmrnpnjnby, 81(8)? 3;7-392.

Kajjn`, D. 1772

Aktnr-@ctwnre Xmcnry? tmc darect tcst, (hrait) puljgsmch n`-jg`c ly Kc`trc inr

[kgc`kc [tuhgcs, Ja`kastcr S`gvcrsgty, Ja`kastcr, www.ja`ks.ak.ue/iass/snkgnjnby/papcrs/kajjn`-darect-tcst.phi, hnw`jnahch 68-1<-<66=.

Kadplcjj, X. 17=1

[cvc` Xmcnrgcs ni Muda` [nkgcty, Kjarc`hn` Vrcss, Nxinrh.

Kardake, \. D. 17=1

Xmc Qugkmç Dayas ni Statjá`? tmc cvnjutgn` ni a mgbmja`h Buatcdaja eg`bhnd,

S`gvcrsgty ni Nejamnda Vrcss, @nrda`.

Kcrtcau hc, D. 17== U17=8T

Xmc Vraktgkc ni Cvcryhay Jgic, S`gvcrsgty ni Kajginr`ga Vrcss, Lcrecjcy.

Kmapda`, \. <66; Arkmacnjnbgcs ni Kndpjcxgty, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`.

Kmapda`, \. <662

Cvnjutgn`, Kndpjcxgty a`h tmc [tatc, g`? Enmrg`b, [. a`h Ry``c-On`cs, [. ch.,

[nkgajgsg`b Kndpjcxgty? strukturc, g`tcraktgn` a`h pnwcr g` arkmacnjnbgkaj

hgsknursc, Nxlnw Lnnes, Nxinrh? 1;-<=.

Kmcam, V. <66;

Brnu`hs ni Kndpargsn`, g`? Kujjcr, O. a`h Kmcam, V. ch., Brnu`hs ni Kndpargsn`?

arnu`h tmc wnre ni Lc`chgkt A`hcrsn`, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`? ;-<6.

Kjarec, H. J. 179=

Aàjytgkaj Arkmacnjnby, Dctmuc`, Jn`hn`.

Kjnec, V. c.a. ch. 1771

Apprnakmg`b Muda` Bcnbrapmy, Kmapda`, Jn`hn`.

Kn`stc`ja Sdaña, A. 1771

Jas Jc`buas hcj Árca G`tcrdchga? g`trnhukkgû` a su cstuhgn arcaj, Chgtnrgaj hc ja

S`gvcrsghah hc Knsta \gka, [a` Onsç.




Knrlcy, \. A. M. <663

Xmc Dctapmysgks ni Apcs? `cbntgatg`b tmc a`gdaj-muda` lnu`hary, Kadlrghbc

S`gvcrsgty Vrcss, Kadlrghbc.

Knsbrnvc, H. 17=3

Vrnspckt, Vcrspcktgvc a`h tmc Cvnjutgn` ni tmc Ja`hskapc Ghca, g`? Xra`saktgn`s ni

tmc G`stgtutc ni Lrgtgsm Bcnbrapmcrs, @cw [crgcs, 16(1)? 83-9<.

Hnlrcs, D.-A. a`h \nll, O. ch. <666a

Abc`ky g` Arkmacnjnby, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`.

Hnlrcs, D.-A. a`h \nll, O. <666l

Abc`ky g` Arkmacnjnby? parahgbd nr pjatgtuhc>, g`? Hnlrcs, D.-A. a`h \nll, O. ch.,

Abc`ky g` Arkmacnjnby, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`? ;-12.

Hu``g`b, C. a`h Ergcec` va`, \. 1772

Xra`sjatnrs‗ G`trnhuktgn` tn @nrlcrt Cjgas‗s ”Xnwarhs a Xmcnry ni [nkgaj Vrnkcsscs‗,g`? Xmc Lrgtgsm Onuràj ni [nkgnjnby, 8=(;)? ;3;-;38.

Clcrjc, X. [. 17=8

[g`èn`stgtutgn` g` Ajjtab u`h Rgssc`skmait? hcr Lcgtrab hcr Vmè`ndc`njnbgc a`

hgc Dctmnhnjnbgc hcr [nzgajwgssc`skmaitc`, Maupt, Lcr` u`h [tuttbart.

Cjgahc, D. 1737

Knsdns a`h Mgstnry? tmc dytm ni tmc ctcràj rctur`, Marpcr Xnrkmlnnes, @cw

Wnre.

Cjgas, @. 1772

Xnwarhs a Xmcnry ni [nkgaj Vrnkcsscs? a tra`sjatgn`, g`? Xmc Lrgtgsm Onuràj ni[nkgnjnby, 8=(;)? ;33-;=;.

Cjstcr, O. 17=7

@uts a`h Lnjts inr tmc [nkgaj [kgc`kcs, Kadlrghbc S`gvcrsgty Vrcss, Kadlrghbc.

Crwg`, H. <666

Dakrncvnjutgn` gs dnrc tma` \cpcatch \nu`hs ni Dgkrncvnjutgn`, g`? Cvnjutgn` &

Hcvcjnpdc`t, <(<)? 2=-=8.

Ija``cry, E. Y. 172<

Xmc Kujturaj Cvnjutgn` ni Kgvgjgzatgn`s, A`ùaj \cvgcw ni Cknjnby a`h [ystcdatgks

;? ;77-8<9.

Ija``cry, E. Y. a`h Darkus, O. ch. <66; U17=;T

Xmc Kjnuh Vcnpjc? hgvcrbc`t cvnjutgn` ni tmc _apntck a`h Dgxtck kgvgjgzatgn`s,

Vcrkmcrn` Vrcss, @cw Wnre.

Ijctkmcr, \. <669

Datcrgajgty, [pakc, Xgdc a`h Nutkndc, g`? Lg`tjgii, O. ch., A Kndpa`gn` tn

Arkmacnjnby, Ljakewcjj Vuljgsmg`b, Nxinrh? 116-186.



\cicrc`kcs 121

In`scka, N. D. a`h Knnec, \. B. 177;

Cj [ur hc ja Adçrgka Kc`traj? kn`trglukgû` aj cstuhgn hc ja rcbgû` mgstûrgka kmglkma,

g`? Kardake, \. D. ch., Mgstnrga Bc`craj hc Kc`trnadçrgka, Ynj. G? Mgstnrga A`tgbua,

Chgkgnàs [grucja, Dahrgh? <12-<=<.

Inukaujt, D. 17=6

Qucstgn`s n` Bcnbrapmy, g`? Bnrhn`, K. ch., Vnwcr/E`nwjchbc? scjcktch g`tcrvgcws

a`h ntmcr wrgtg`bs 172<-1722, Marvcstcr Vrcss, Lrgbmtn`? 9;-22.

Inukaujt, D. 17=<

Xmc [ulockt a`h Vnwcr, g`? Hrcyius, M. J. a`h \alg`nw, V. ch., Dgkmcj Inukaujt?

lcyn`h strukturajgsd a`h mcrdc`cutgks, sckn`h chgtgn`, Xmc S`gvcrsgty ni Kmgkabn

Vrcss? <6=-<<9.

Bcrstjc, A. G. 17==

Daya-Jc`ka Ctm`gk \cjatgn`s g` Jatc Kjassgk Vcrgnh Knpa`, Mn`huras, SDG, S[A.Bghhc`s, A. 17=8

Xmc Kn`stgtutgn` ni [nkgcty? nutjg`c ni tmc tmcnry ni strukturatgn`, S`gvcrsgty ni

Kajginr`ga Vrcss, Lcrecjcy.

Mèbcrstra`h, X. 1726

Rmat Alnut Vcnpjc g` \cbgnàj [kgc`kc>, Vrcsghc`tgaj Ahhrcss, @g`tm Curnpca`

Kn`brcss ni tmc \cbgnàj [kgc`kc Assnkgatgn`, Vapcrs g` \cbgnàj [kgc`kc, g`?

Onuràj ni tmc \cbgnàj [kgc`kc Assnkgatgn` G`tcràtgnàj, <;(1)? 9-<1.

Majj, C. X. 1737

Xmc [gjc`t Ja`buabc, Hnuljchay & Kndpa`y G`k., Barhc` Kgty, @cw Wnre.Majj, C. X. c.a. 179=

Vrnxcdgks Ua`h Knddc`ts a`h \cpjgcsT, g`? Kurrc`t A`tmrnpnjnby, 7(<, ;)? =;-

16=.

Majj, C. X. <669

Vrnxcdgks, g`? Jnw, [. D. a`h Jawrc`kc-_ÿñgba, H. ch., Xmc A`tmrnpnjnby ni [pakc

a`h Vjakc? jnkatg`b kujturc, Ljakewcjj Vuljgsmg`b, Nxinrh.

Majj, O. \. 17=6

Xmc Xgdc ni Mgstnry a`h tmc Mgstnry ni Xgdcs, g`? Mgstnry a`h Xmcnry, 17(<)? 11;-

1;1.

Majjg`, V. N. 1771

@cw Vatms inr Xgdc-Bcnbrapmy>, g`? Bcnbrafisea A`àjcr, [crgcs L, Muda`

Bcnbrapmy, 2;(;)? 177-<62.

Majjnwcj, A. G. 1733

Kujturc a`h Cxpcrgc`kc, scrgcs? Vuljgkatgn`s ni tmc Vmgjahcjpmga A`tmrnpnjnbgkaj

[nkgcty, S`gvcrsgty ni Vc``syjva`ga Vrcss, Vmgjahcjpmga.

Mcghcbbcr, D. 172<

[cg` u`h _cgt, 1<tm chgtgn`, @gcdcycr Ycrjab, Xúlg̀ bc`.








Jaw, O. <666

Nlockts, [pakcs a`h Ntmcr, puljgsmch n`-jg`c ly Kc`trc inr [kgc`kc [tuhgcs,

Ja`kastcr S`gvcrsgty, Ja`kastcr, www.ja`ks.ak.ue/iass/snkgnjnby/papcrs/jaw-

nlockts-spakcs-ntmcrs.phi, hnw`jnahch 68-1<-<66=.

Jaw, O. a`h Massarh, O. 1777

Aktnr @ctwnre Xmcnry a`h Aitcr, Ljakewcjj Vuljgsmg`b, Nxinrh.

Jawrc`kc, H. J. a`h Jnw, [. D. 1776

Xmc Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`t a`h [patgaj Inrd, g`? A`ùaj \cvgcw ni A`tmrnpnjnby 17?

83;-363.

Jciclvrc, M. 1771

Xmc Vrnhuktgn` ni [pakc, Ljakewcjj Vuljgsmg`b, Nxinrh.

Jcy, H. a`h [aducjs, D. [. ch. 172=

Muda`gstgk Bcnbrapmy? prnspckts a`h prnljcds, Daarnuia Vrcss, Kmgkabn.Jnw, [. D. a`h Jawrc`kc-_ÿñgba, H. J. <669

Jnkatg`b Kujturc, g`? Jnw, [. D. a`h Jawrc`kc-_ÿñgba, H. ch., Xmc A`tmrnpnjnby ni

[pakc a`h Vjakc? jnkatg`b kujturc, Ljakewcjj Vuljgsmg`b, Nxinrh? 1-82.

Jukas, B. <663

Xmc Arkmacnjnby ni Xgdc, scrgcs? Xmcdcs g` Arkmacnjnby, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`.

Jyda`, \. J., N‗Lrgc`, D. O. a`h Hu``cjj, \. K. 1772

Xmc \gsc a`h Iajj ni Kujturc Mgstnry, Vjcùd Vrcss, @cw Wnre.

Jyda`, \. J. <662

Rmat gs tmc ”Vrnkcss‗ g` Kujturaj Vrnkcss a`h g` Vrnkcssuaj Arkmacnjnby>, g`? A`tmrnpnjnbgkaj Xmcnry, 2(<)? <12-<36.

Dcg`gb, H. R. ch. 1727

Xmc G`tcrprctatgn` ni Nrhgàry Ja`hskapcs? bcnbrapmgkaj cssays, Nxinrh S`gvcrsgty

Vrcss, @cw Wnre.

Dgscs vn`, J. 177= U1787T

Muda` Aktgn`? a trcatgsc n` ckn`ndgks, Xmc [kmnjar‗s Chgtgn`, Xmc Juhwgb vn`

Dgscs G`stgtutc, Aulur`.

Dartg`, A. <663

Abc`ts g` G`tcr-Aktgn`? Lru`n Jatnur a`h abc`ky, g`? Onuràj ni Arkmacnjnbgkaj

Dctmnh a`h Xmcnry, 1<(8)? <=;-;11.

Dn`tdnjjg` hc, N. 17=7

Xmc Arkmacnjnby ni Vnjgtgkaj [trukturc? scttjcdc`t aàjysgs g` a Kjassgk Daya pnjgty,

scrgcs? @cw [tuhgcs g` Arkmacnjnby, Kadlrghbc S`gvcrsgty Vrcss, Kadlrghbc.

Dnnrc, O. H. 1779

Xmc Arkmacnjnby ni Vjazas a`h tmc Vrnxcdgks ni \gtuaj? tmrcc A`hca` trahgtgn`s, g`?

Adcrgka` A`tmrnpnjnbgst, @cw [crgcs, 7=(8)? 2=7-=6<.



\cicrc`kcs 123

Durray, X. 1777

Xgdc a`h Arkmacnjnby, scrgcs? N`c Rnrjh Arkmacnjnby ;2, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`.

N‗Lrgc`, D. O. a`h Jyda`, \. J. <668

Mgstnry a`h Cxpjaàtgn` g` Arkmacnjnby, g`? A`tmrnpnjnbgkaj Xmcnry, 8(<)? 12;-

172.

Varecr Vcarsn`, D. a`h \gkmarhs, K. ch. 1778

Arkmgtckturc a`h Nrhcr? apprnakmcs tn snkgaj spakc, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`.

Vauectat, X. \. <666a

Xmc Xrabchy ni tmc Knddn`crs, g`? Hnlrcs, D.-A. a`h \nll, O. ch., Abc`ky g`

Arkmacnjnby, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`? 11;-1<7.

Vauectat, X. \. <666l

Vnjgtgkgzatgn` a`h Knddu`gty g` tmc Vrc-Knjudlga` Dgssgssgppg Yajjcy, g`? Kaùtn,

D. A. a`h Wacbcr, O. ch., Xmc Arkmacnjnby ni Knddu`gtgcs? a `cw wnrjh pcrspcktgvc,\nutjchbc, Jn`hn`? 19-8;.

Vauectat, X. \. <661

Vraktgkc a`h Mgstnry g` Arkmacnjnby? a` cdcrbg`b parahgbd, g`? A`tmrnpnjnbgkaj

Xmcnry, 1(1)? 2;-7=.

Vauectat, X. \. <668

Uknddc`tT Arkmacnjnby wgtmnut Ajtcràtgvcs, g`? A`tmrnpnjnbgkaj Xmcnry, <(8)?

177-<6;.

Vauectat, X. \. a`h Ajt, [. D. <663

Abc`ky g` a Vnstdnjh> Vmysgkajgty a`h tmc arkmacnjnby ni kujturc-daeg`b, g`?Onuràj ni Arkmacnjnbgkaj Dctmnh a`h Xmcnry, 1<(;)? <1;-<;9.

Vcjjnw, H. <662

Xmc Arkmgtckturc ni Icdajc [ckjusgn` g` Rcst Airgka, g`? Jnw, [. D. a`h Jawrc`kc-

_ÿñgba, H. ch., Xmc A`tmrnpnjnby ni [pakc a`h Vjakc? jnkatg`b kujturc, Ljakewcjj

Vuljgsmg`b, Nxinrh? 196-1=;.

Vjukgc``ge, D. <663

[nkgaj Cvnjutgn`, scrgcs? Hukewnrtm Hclatcs g` Arkmacnjnby, Hukewnrtm, Jn`hn`.

Vnwjcsja`h, H. <66;

Xmc Mcsjcrtn` Vargsm Vrnockt? <6 ycars ni arkmacnjnbgkaj rcscarkm g` tmc Yajc ni

Vgkecrg`b, g`? Da`ly, X. B. c.a. ch., Xmc Arkmacnjnby ni Wnresmgrc? a` asscssdc`t

at tmc lcbg``g`b ni tmc <1st kc`tury, Wnresmgrc Arkmacnjnbgkaj [nkgcty, Jcchs? <23-

<7<.

Vnwjcsja`h, H. <669

\chcfi`g`b Vast Ja`hskapcs? ;6 ycars ni rcdntc sc`sg`b g` tmc Yajc ni Vgkecrg`b, g`?

Kadpaà, [. a`h Inrtc, D. ch., Irnd [pakc tn Vjakc, <`h G`tcràtgnàj Knìcrc`kc

n` \cdntc [c`sg`b g` Arkmacnjnby, LA\ G`tcràtgnàj [crgcs 139=, Arkmacnprcss,

Nxinrh? 172-<61.




Vrch, A. \. 1722

Xmc Kmnrcnbrapmy ni Cxgstc`kc? knddc`ts n` Mèbcrstra`h‗s tgdc-bcnbrapmy a`h

gts usciuj`css, g`? Ckn`ndgk Bcnbrapmy, Vja``g`b-\cjatch [wchgsm Bcnbrapmgk

\cscarkm, 3;(<)? <62-<<1.

Vrch, A. \. 17=1

[nkgaj \cprnhuktgn` a`h tmc Xgdc-Bcnbrapmy ni Cvcryhay Jgic, g`? Bcnbrafisea

A`àjcr, scrgcs L, Muda` Bcnbrapmy, 9;(1)? 3-<<.

Vrch, A. \. 17=8

Vjakc as Mgstnrgkajjy Kn`tg`bc`t Vrnkcss? strukturatgn` a`h tmc tgdc-bcnbrapmy ni

lckndg`b pjakcs, g`? A`àjs ni tmc Assnkgatgn` ni Adcrgka` Bcnbrapmcrs, 28(<)?

<27-<72.

Vrch, A. \. 17=3

Knddc`t g` \cpjy? S`bjnrgnus Gsnjatgn` nr S`bjnrgnus Dgsrcprcs(s)c`tatgn`>, g`? A`àjs ni tmc Assnkgatgn` ni Adcrgka` Bcnbrapmcrs, 23(1)? 1;<.

Vrch, A. \. 17=9

Vjakc, Vraktgkc a`h [trukturc? snkgaj a`h spatgaj tra`sinrdatgn` g` snutmcr` [wchc`?

1236-1=36, Vnjgty Vrcss, Kadlrghbc.

Vutàd, M. 17=1

\casn`, Xrutm a`h Mgstnry, Kadlrghbc, Kadlrghbc S`gvcrsgty Vrcss.

\apnpnrt, A. 17=<

Xmc Dca`g`b ni tmc Lugjt C`vgrn`dc`t? a `n`vcrlaj knddu`gkatgn` apprnakm,

[abc Vuljgkatgn`s, Lcvcrjy Mgjjs.\cah, H. R. <669

Kujturaj Cvnjutgn` gs `nt Cqugvajc`t tn Harwg`ga` Cvnjutgn`, knddc`tary n`?

Dcsnuhg, Rmgtc` a`h Jaja`h, tnwarhs a u`gfich skgc`kc ni kujturaj cvnjutgn`, g`?

Lcmavgnraj a`h Lrag` [kgc`kcs, <7(8)? ;91-;9<.

\cìrcw, K. a`h Lam`, V. <666

Arkmacnjnby? tmcnrgcs, dctmnhs a`h praktgkcs, tmgrh chgtgn`, Xmadcs a`h Muhsn`,

Jn`hn`.

\gkmarhsn`, D. <669

Lcg`b-g`-tmc-Darect vcrsus Lcg`b-g`-tmc-Vjaza? datcrgaj kujturc a`h tmc kn`struktgn`

ni snkgaj rcajgty g` [pa`gsm Adcrgka, g`? Jnw, [. D. a`h Jawrc`kc-_ÿñgba, H. ch.,

Xmc A`tmrnpnjnby ni [pakc a`h Vjakc? jnkatg`b kujturc, Ljakewcjj Vuljgsmg`b,

Nxinrh? 28-71.

\g`hns, H. c.a. 17=3

Harwg`ga` [cjcktgn`, [ydlnjgk Yargatgn`, a`h tmc Cvnjutgn` ni Kujturc, g`? Kurrc`t

A`tmrnpnjnby, <9(1)? 22-2=.



\cicrc`kcs 122

\nll, D. M. <662

Xmc [patgaj Jnbgk ni _akuaja, Xcntgmuaka`, g`? Vrnkcchg`bs 9tm G`tcràtgnàj [pakc

[y`tax [ydpnsgud Gsta`luj <662, 69<, puljgsmch n`-jg`c?

www.spakcsy`taxgsta`luj.gtu.chu.tr/papcrs%3Kjn`bpapcrs%3K69<%<6-%<6

\nll.phi, hnw`jnahch 16-1<-<66=.

\nlg`, K. <66<

Nutsghc ni Mnuscs? tmc praktgkc ni cvcryhay jgic at Kma` @ünmnj, Lcjgzc, g`? Onuràj

ni [nkgaj Arkmacnjnby, <(<)? <83-<9=.

\nlg`, K. a`h \ntmskmgjh, @. A. <66<

Arkmacnjnbgkaj Ctm`nbrapmgcs? snkgaj hyàdgks ni nuthnnr spakc, g`? Onuràj ni

[nkgaj Arkmacnjnby, <(<)? 137-12<.

\nhda`, D. K. <669

Cdpnwcrg`b Vjakc? dujtgjnkajgty a`h dujtgvnkajgty, g`? Jnw, [. D. a`h Jawrc`kc-_ÿñgba, H. ch., Xmc A`tmrnpnjnby ni [pakc a`h Vjakc? jnkatg`b kujturc, Ljakewcjj

Vuljgsmg`b, Nxinrh? <68-<<;.

[aducjs, D. [. 1727

Xmc Lgnbrapmy ni Ja`hskapc? kausc a`h kujpalgjgty, g` Dcg`gb, H. R. ch., Xmc

G`tcrprctatgn` ni Nrhgàry Ja`hskapcs? bcnbrapmgkaj cssays, Nxinrh S`gvcrsgty

Vrcss, @cw Wnre? 31-==.

[a`hcrsn`, [. E. 1776

[nkgaj Cvnjutgn`gsd? a krgtgkaj mgstnry, Lasgj Ljakewcjj, Nxinrh.

[a`tadarga, S. a`h Lagjcy, A. D. 17=8 A @ntc n` Lrauhcj‗s [trukturc as Huratgn`, g`? Mgstnry a`h Xmcnry, <;(1)? 2=-=;.

[a`tjcy, \. [. a`h Mgrtm, E. B. ch. 177;

Vrcmgspa`gk Hndcstgk S`gts g` Rcstcr` Dcsnadcrgka? stuhgcs ni tmc mnuscmnjh,

kndpnu`h, a`h rcsghc`kc, K\K Vrcss, Lnka \atn`.

[kmgiicr, D. L. 17=2

Xmc Inrdatgn` Vrnkcsscs ni tmc Arkmacnjnbgkaj \cknrh, S`gvcrsgty ni @cw Dcxgkn

Vrcss, Ajluqucrquc.

[maès, D. 177<

Cxpcrgc`kg`b tmc Vast? n` tmc kmaraktcr ni arkmacnjnby, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`.

[maès, D. a`h Mnhhcr, G. 177= U1773T

Vrnkcssuaj, Vnstprnkcssuaj a`h G`tcrprctgvc Arkmacnjnbgcs, g`? Mnhhcr, G. c.a. ch.,

G`tcrprctg`b Arkmacnjnby? fi`hg`b dca`g`b g` tmc past, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`? ;-<7.

[dgtm, D. C. <662

Inrd a`h Dca`g`b g` tmc Carjgcst Kgtgcs? a `cw apprnakm tn a`kgc`t urla` pja``g`b,

g`? Onuràj ni Vja``g`b Mgstnry, 9(1)? ;-82.




[noa, C. R. 1779

Xmgrhspakc? onur`cys tn Jns A`bcjcs a`h ntmcr rcaj-a`h-gdabg`ch pjakcs, Ljakewcjj

Vuljgsmg`b, Nxinrh.

Xmndas, O. 1779

Xgdc, Kujturc a`h Ghc`tgty, \nutjchbc, Jn`hn`.

Xmndas, O. <661

Arkmacnjnbgcs ni Vjakc a`h Ja`hskapc, g`? Mnhhcr, G. ch., Arkmacnjnbgkaj Xmcnry

Xnhay, Vnjgty Vrcss, Kadlrghbc? 193-1=9.

Xmrgit, @. O. 17=;

N` tmc Hctcrdgàtgn` ni [nkgaj Aktgn` g` [pakc a`h Xgdc, g`? C`vgrn`dc`t a`h

Vja``g`b H, [nkgcty a`h [pakc, 1(1)? <;-32.

Xmrgit, @. O. a`h Vrch, A. \. 17=1

Xgdc-Bcnbrapmy? a `cw lcbg``g`b, g`? Vrnbrcss g` Muda` Bcnbrapmy, 3(<)? <22-<=9.

Xgjjcy, K. W. 1778

A Vmc`ndc`njnby ni Ja`hskapc? pjakcs, patms a`h dnùdc`ts, Lcrb, Nxinrh.

Xrgbbcr, L. 177=

UrcvgcwT Xmc \gsc a`h Iajj ni Kujturc Mgstnry ly \. Jcc Jyda`5 Dgkmacj O. N‗Lrgc`5

\nlcrt K. Hu``cjj, g`? Onuràj ni Igcjh Arkmacnjnby, <3(;)? ;9;-;99.

Xua`, W.-I. 1729

Muda`gstgk Bcnbrapmy, g`? A`àjs ni tmc Assnkgatgn` ni Adcrgka` Bcnbrapmcrs 99?

<99-<29.Xua`, W.-I. 1722

[pakc a`h Vjakc? tmc pcrspcktgvc ni cxpcrgc`kc, S`gvcrsgty ni Dg``csnta Vrcss,

Dg``capnjgs.

Shçm`, J. <66<

Xmc Kma`bg`b Iakc ni Dctmnhnjnbgkaj G`hgvghuajgsd, g`? A`ùaj \cvgcw ni [nkgnjnby

<=? 827‛362.

Rcrjc`, L. 177=

Xmcsc` zur Ma`hju`bstmcnrctgskmc @cunrgc`tgcru`b [nzgajbcnbrapmgskmcr

Inrskmu`b, g`? [chjakce, V. a`h Rcrjc`, L. ch., Xcxtc zur ma`hju`bstmcnrctgskmc`

Bcnbrapmgc, Ynj. 1=? =3-16<.

Rcrjc`, L. <663

\cbgn`s a`h Cvcryhay \cbgnàjgzatgn`s? irnd a spakc-kc`trch tnwarhs a` aktgn`-

kc`trch muda` bcnbrapmy, g`? Mnutud va`, M., Eradskm, N. a`h _gcrmnicr, R. ch.,

Lnrhcrg`b [pakc, Asmbatc, Ajhcrsmnt? 82-96.

Rgjjcy, B. \. 1721

A` G`trnhuktgn` tn Adcrgka` Arkmacnjnby, Ynj. GG? [nutm Adcrgka, Vrc`tgkc-Majj

scrgcs g` a`tmrnpnjnby, C`bjcwnnh Kjgiis.



\cicrc`kcs 127

Ry``c-On`cs, [. a`h Enmrg`b, [. <662

[nkgajgsg`b Kndpjcxgty, g`? Enmrg`b, [. a`h Ry``c-On`cs, [. ch., [nkgajgsg`b

Kndpjcxgty? strukturc, g`tcraktgn` a`h pnwcr g` arkmacnjnbgkaj hgsknursc, Nxlnw

Lnnes, Nxinrh? <-1<.

_gcrmnicr, R. <66<

[pcckm Akts a`h [pakc(s)? ja`buabc prabdatgks a`h tmc hgskursgvc kn`stgtutgn` ni

tmc snkgaj, g`? C`vgrn`dc`t a`h Vja``g`b A, ;8(=)? 1;33-1;2<.







Arkmacnjnby, as tmc hgskgpjg`c tmat scarkmcs tn cxpjag` tmc hcvcjnpdc`t ni snkgcty ly dca`s ni

datcrgaj rcdag`s, mas lcc` avnghg`b tmc lgb gssucs g`vnjvch wgtm gts rcscarkm abc`ha. Xmc tnpgk ni

snkgaj cvnjutgn` gs kn`kcajch ly a`xgcty alnut prcvgnus parahgbdatgk dajpraktgkc a`h tmc prgdary

arkmacnjnbgkaj hgvgsgn` ni tmc wnrjh g` kujturc arcas stgjj suiicrs irnd tmc arkmagk dctmnhs ly wmgkm

gt was cstaljgsmch. Arkmacnjnbgkaj gìcrc`kc ni hcvcjnpg`b snkgctgcs gs wcgbmch hnw` ly gts kmngkc ni

partgkujargsd wgtmg` abc`ky apprnakmcs a`h nvcrtjy rchuktgn`gst huc tn tmc prcvajc`kc ni statgstgkaj,

kjassgfikatnry a`h lgnjnbgkaj apprnakmcs.

Xmgs lnne ahhrcsscs tmcsc gssucs tmrnubm a pcrspcktgvc n` tmc spatgaj aàjysgs ni tmc lugjt

c`vgrn`dc`t. As n`c ni tmc prg`kgpaj prnpcrtgcs ni nur hatasct, as wcjj as lcg`b tmc first datcrgajgsatgn`

ni snkgajgty, sukm spatgajgtgcs arc subbcstch tn lc a iu`hadc`taj ecy inr càljg`b a` u`hcrsta`hg`b ni

tmc hcvcjnpg`b snkgaj ghc`tgty ni pjakcs, rcbgn`s a`h arcas. G` nrhcr tn arrgvc at a trujy snkgaj gìcrc`kc

ni spatgaj hatascts, arkmacnjnby‗s usuaj aàjysgs wnreg`b irnd datcrgaj rcdag`s tnwarhs snkgn-kujturaj

g`tcrprctatgn`s `cchs tn lc g`vcrtch. Xmc va`tabc png`t ni tmgs stuhy kn`sgsts ni aprgnrgstgk snkgaj

tmcnry Gt kn`strukts gts arbudc`ts tmrnubm a` cpgstcdnjnbgkaj inu`hatgn` kndprgsg`b a scjcktgn`

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