Visual Communications of Power: The Iconography of the

Visual Communications of Power: The Iconography of the Classic Maya Naranjo-Sa’al

Polity

by

Spencer T. Mitchell, B.A.

A Thesis

In

Art History

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for

the Degree of

Master of Arts

Approved by:

Carolyn E. Tate, Ph.D.

Chair of Committee

Janis Elliott, Ph.D.

Committee Member

Mark Sheridan

Dean of the Graduate School

December, 2016

Copyright 2016, Spencer T. Mitchell

Texas Tech University, Spencer T. Mitchell, December 2016

i

Acknowledgments

Several people have contributed to the completion of this thesis. First, I would

like to thank my friends and family who have given me support throughout my academic

career. Next, I want to offer my deepest gratitude to my mentor and thesis committee

chair, Carolyn E. Tate, Ph.D. Without her support and guidance this thesis would not

have been possible. I also want to acknowledge my second committee member Janis

Elliott, Ph.D. for all of her support throughout my time at Texas Tech University. I thank

the Texas Tech School of Art, Helen Jones Foundation and the Medici Circle for their

financial assistance. Lastly, I want to thank the art history faculty and my peers for their

suggestions and support.


ii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ i

Abstract ............................................................................................................................. iv

List of Tables ......................................................................................................................v

List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vi

1. Introduction and Background ......................................................................................1

Introduction ............................................................................................................1

Naranjo in Maya History ......................................................................................2

Literature Review ..................................................................................................8

Thesis Objectives ..................................................................................................12

2. An Analysis of the Naranjo Corpus ...........................................................................14

Introduction ..........................................................................................................14

Methods .................................................................................................................14

Aprons ...................................................................................................................16

Armbands .............................................................................................................18

Backracks/Capes ..................................................................................................19

Belts/Belt Ornaments ...........................................................................................21

Bracelets ................................................................................................................23

Diadems .................................................................................................................24

Earspools/Ear Ornaments ...................................................................................26

Epaulettes..............................................................................................................26

Headdresses ..........................................................................................................27

Held objects ..........................................................................................................31

Knee Ornaments ..................................................................................................35

Necklaces ...............................................................................................................35

Non-Human Entites .............................................................................................36

Nose Ornaments ...................................................................................................37


iii

Pectorals ................................................................................................................38

Footwear ...............................................................................................................39

Skirts .....................................................................................................................40

Thrones .................................................................................................................41

Costumes ...............................................................................................................42

Discussion..............................................................................................................45

Conclusions ...........................................................................................................47

3. A Geospatial Analysis of the Naranjo Corpus ..........................................................49

Introduction ..........................................................................................................49

Methods .................................................................................................................50

Discussion..............................................................................................................52

Conclusions ...........................................................................................................57

4. The Vassal Sites ............................................................................................................59

Introduction ..........................................................................................................59

Methods .................................................................................................................59

Sacul ......................................................................................................................60

Xunantunich .........................................................................................................61

Ucanal....................................................................................................................65

Discussion..............................................................................................................67

Conclusions ...........................................................................................................68

5. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................70

Appendix 1: Tables ..........................................................................................................74

Bibliography .....................................................................................................................77

Figures ...............................................................................................................................85


iv

Abstract

This thesis focuses on the modes of visual communication implemented by the

Naranjo-Sa’al polity. Most previous scholarship has addressed the epigraphic

inscriptions preserved on the monuments of Naranjo; to date, little has been done with the

imagery itself. In this thesis, I explore the Naranjo dynasty’s visual expression of

political identity and authority. I take inventory of all the visual elements present within

the Naranjo corpus and identify the symbols of power for the Naranjo dynasty. I also

consider if the imagery is spatially informed. Lastly, I explore how Naranjo’s modes of

visual communication influenced its vassal sites.


v

List of Tables

1. Maya Chronological Periods .......................................................................................74

2. Naranjo’s Chronological Periods ...............................................................................74

3. Costume versus Regalia Items ....................................................................................75

4. Solstice and Equinox Dates for 750 C.E.....................................................................76

5. Xunantunich’s Chronological Periods .......................................................................76


vi

List of Figures

1.1. Map of the Maya Region ..........................................................................................85

1.2. Naranjo Stela 22 ........................................................................................................86

1.3. Tikal Temple IV Lintel 2 ..........................................................................................87

2.1. Aprons ........................................................................................................................88

2.2. Armbands ..................................................................................................................89

2.3. Backracks and Capes ................................................................................................90

2.4. Belts/Belt Ornaments ................................................................................................91

2.5. Bracelets .....................................................................................................................92

2.6. Diadems ......................................................................................................................92

2.7. Earspools ....................................................................................................................93

2.8. Epaulettes...................................................................................................................93

2.9. Headdresses ...............................................................................................................94

2.10. Held Items ................................................................................................................95

2.11. Knee Ornaments .....................................................................................................96

2.12. Necklaces ..................................................................................................................96

2.13. Non-Human Entities ...............................................................................................97

2.14. Nose Ornaments ......................................................................................................97

2.15. Pectorals ...................................................................................................................98

2.16. Footwear ..................................................................................................................98

2.17. Skirts ........................................................................................................................99

2.18. Thrones ....................................................................................................................99

2.19. Naranjo Stela 6’s K’awiil Taking Ceremony Regalia ........................................100

2.20. Naranjo Stela 8’s Underworld Jaguar God Costume ........................................101

2.21. Naranjo Stela 2’s Star War Costume ..................................................................102

2.22. Naranjo Stela 24’s Net-Skirt-Xoc-Fish–Shell Costume .....................................103

2.23. Naranjo Stela 35’s “Young God” Costume ........................................................104

3.1. Map of Naranjo .......................................................................................................105

3.2. Viewshed Analysis ...................................................................................................105

3.3. Detail from the Map of Naranjo, Group C ...........................................................106


vii

3.4. 3D Model of Stelae 25-31 ........................................................................................106

3.5. Detail from the Map of Naranjo, Group A ...........................................................107

3.6. 3D Model of Stelae 1-4 ............................................................................................107

3.7. Stelae 16 and 17 .......................................................................................................108

3.8. Sunset Over Naranjo During the Winter Solstice ................................................108

4.1. Sacul Stela 6 and Naranjo Stela 11 ........................................................................109

4.2. Sacul Stela 9 and Naranjo Stela 33 ........................................................................110

4.3. Sacul Stela 2 .............................................................................................................111

4.4. Xunantunich Stela 8 ................................................................................................112



4.7. Xunantunich Altar 1 ...............................................................................................115

4.8. Ucanal Stela 3 ..........................................................................................................116

4.9. Ucanal Altar 3 .........................................................................................................117

4.10. Ucanal Stela 4 ........................................................................................................118


1

Chapter 1

Introduction and Background

Introduction

Naranjo served as a major political center for the Classic Maya culture. The

settlement that would rise to become the great capital of the Naranjo-Sa’al polity was

established by 600 B.C.E. by a group of Maya from the modern-day country of Belize

who relocated to what is now Guatemala (see Figure 1.1.); (Fialko 2012: 18). By the

Early Classic period (see Table 1, Appendix 1.), Naranjo rulers were constructing large

scale ceremonial structures and by 546 C.E. the city had risen to political prominence

within the Classic Maya landscape (Martin and Grube 2008: 70). At its peak during the

Late Classic, around 700 C.E., Naranjo controlled approximately 90 square kilometers of

land and the neighboring sites of Xunantunich, Ucanal and Sacul (Fialko 2012: 6). These

sites gained independence after the fall of Naranjo around 830 C.E.

In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, Naranjo has drawn the attention of

both scholars and looters. Since the site’s discovery in 1905 by the Austrian explorer

Teobert Maler, a large corpus of monuments has been brought to light. Beginning in

1996, Naranjo became the subject of archaeological investigations under the direction of

the Guatemalan archaeologist Vilma Fialko, who has been engaged in salvage operations

to stabilize and document the major structures that were trenched by looters. As outlined

in Chapter 1’s section titled “Naranjo in Maya History,” the carved figural imagery and

rows of hieroglyphics found on these stelae and altars provided ample historical

information. While this epigraphic information preserved on the monuments has been


2

heavily studied over the past century, little has been done with the iconography and

spatial placement of the monuments of Naranjo. This thesis provides a systematic study

of Naranjo’s iconography within the context of the individual spatial placement of

monuments within the urban center and their greater associations with the iconography of

Sacul, Xunantunich and Ucanal. This thesis identifies the symbols of power specific to

the Naranjo-Sa’al polity that cannot be inferred from the hieroglyphic inscriptions. Any

Gregorian dates derived from a long count date mentioned in the thesis were converted

using the Goodman-Martinez-Thompson correlation constant of 584,283 (Johnson 2013:

86). Hieroglyphic translations were carried out using The New Catalogue of

Hieroglyphic Inscriptions Volume 1: The Classic Period Inscriptions by epigraphers

Martha J. Macri and Mathew G. Looper (2003). Hieroglyphs discussed in this thesis will

use their catalogue system.

Naranjo in Maya History

The inscriptions found at Naranjo claim that the polity capital was founded

approximately 896,000 years ago by the patron deity named, “Square-nosed Beastie”

(Martin and Grube 2008: 420). In many cases around the Maya region, Classic Period

dynasties would link themselves to a mythic founder that was separate from the rest of

society. This elevates the royal family above the rest of the population (Sharer and

Traxler 2006: 296). However, evidence suggests that an unidentified mortal ruler

presumably began tracking the Long Count for the site sometime around 200 B.C.E. The

earliest accounts of the mortal dynasty are recorded on Stela 45, which names two

Naranjo kings, Tzik’in Bahlam and his son Naatz Chan Ahk (Tokovinine and Fialko

2007: 10-11). Unfortunately, the text inscribed on these early monuments are in a poor


3

state of preservation. Stela 15 possibly makes mention of the son of Naatz Chan Ahk,

one of the figures represented on Stela 45 (Lopes 2005: 2-3). Stela 41 possesses the

earliest surviving long count date at Naranjo of 9.2.0.0.0 (May 13, 475 C.E.); (Martin and

Grube 2008: 70).

Aj Wosal Chan K’inich or Double Comb is the first clearly documented ruler of

Naranjo. His reign spanned between 546-615 C.E. He is also responsible for the erection

of Stelae 16, 17, 25, 27, 38 with the associated Altar 1, 43 and 44 (Fialko 2012: 24).

During this period, Calakmul had created a vast network of alliances with polities

encircling Tikal, Calakmul’s competing political rival. Naranjo was a member of this

network, which is referred to as the Calakmul Alliance (Sharer and Traxler 2006: 377-

381). Epigraphers such as Michael Closs, Simon Martin, Nikolai Grube, Alexandre

Tokovinine and David Stuart have been able to piece together the shifting power relations

of the Central Lowlands based on the decipherment of the hieroglyphic texts preserved

on monuments, stucco friezes and ceramic vessels. Naranjo remained loyal to the

Calakmul Alliance, but upon the death of Aj Wosal Chan K’inich, this alliance began to

deteriorate. Rulers 36 and 37, who are numbered because their names have yet to be

identified, seem to have greatly angered the Calakmul kingdom, which resulted in a

series of wars that crippled Naranjo’s position within the political landscape (Martin and

Grube 2008: 73). These conflicts were with the site of Caracol, one of the oldest allies of

Calakmul (Sharer and Traxler 2006: 361-362).

Caracol was a major political center located in the Maya Mountains of the modern

day country of Belize (Sharer and Traxler 2006:364). As Martin and Grube explain, the

Caracol ruler, known as K’an II, was struggling to legitimize his hold over the Caracol


4

throne. Being a son of a secondary wife and a half-brother of Knot Ajaw, the previous

lord of Caracol, he was not a member of the primary lineage. K’an II may have sought to

solidify the alliance with Calakmul by assisting in the conquest and suppression of the

Naranjo kingdom. K’an II initialized this joint military operation by attacking Naranjo’s

vassal cities. Epigraphic accounts explain that the site named Ko-Bent-Cauac was the

first to be conquered by Caracol in May of 626 C.E. Forty days later, the same site was

attacked again. K’an II then shifted his forces to the site of Tzam. After the battle, the

inscriptions mention a ballgame which usually signifies a sacrifice of a captive. In 631

C.E., Calakmul led a Star War against Naranjo resulting in the disappearance of the

ruling family (Martin and Grube 2008: 74-76).

These events are documented on Naranjo’s Hieroglyphic Staircase 1, which was

initially erected at the site of Caracol to celebrate the 9.10.10.0.0 ending (642 C.E.).

However as epigrapher Alexandre Tokovinine suggests, the stairway may have been

taken from Caracol as a trophy at a later date to Naranjo and reassembled into Structure

B-18, though this cannot be known for certain (Tokovinine 2007: 16). The downfall of

the Naranjo dynasty was apparently a source of pride for Calakmul.

From the epigraphic records, it is clear that on 9.10.15.14.13 (August 27, 684

C.E.), Lady Six Sky of Dos Pilas arrived at Naranjo to reestablish the lineage. It appears

that she was selected by Calakmul lord to bolster the political power of Dos Pilas and to

insure Naranjo’s loyalty to the Calakmul Alliance (Martin and Grube 2008: 74). Dos

Pilas had recently joined Calakmul against Tikal. Lady Six Sky never officially took the

Naranjo royal title but instead carried the Mutal emblem of Dos Pilas. Lady Six Sky

served as regent to her son, Smoking Squirrel (Martin and Grube 2008: 75). The


5

primary motivations for Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel seemed to be the

solidification of their power over the Naranjo polity, to expand the political boundaries of

the Naranjo polity and to seek out revenge against their primary rival, Caracol.

Beginning soon after Lady Six Sky arrived to govern Naranjo, the city began seeking

alliances through gift giving. Their polychrome ceramic cylinder vessels were prized

artworks, and have been found at sites such as Xunantunich, Ucanal and Sacul (Lecount

and Yeager 2011: 138).

Together Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel led a series of successful conquests

against neighboring sites. The first major victory, led by Lady Six Sky, was against the

site of Ucanal on 9.13.1.5.1 (June 20, 693 C.E.) During this campaign, an Ucanal lord

known as Kinichil-Cab was captured. Lady Six Sky commemorated this event on Stela

24. Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel continued the campaign to weaken the allies of

Caracol. She struck Ucanal again on 9.13.2.16.12 (February 1, 695 C.E.) and captured

the lord of Ucanal, Shield Jaguar (Schele and Freidel 1990: 188). This captive can be

seen kneeling in front of Smoking Squirrel on Stela 22 (see Figure 1.2.). Both captives

were held for many years and were required to give blood in rituals. Shield Jaguar

survived at least eighteen years of public humiliation and was presumably sacrificed on

9.13.1.0.16 (June 22, 712 C.E.) for a summer solstice ritual (Schele and Freidel 1990:

193). Additionally, Sacul was also known to be part of Ucanal’s domain. Sacul and

Ucanal frequently formed alliances in military operations. The text of Sacul Stela 1 notes

that the Lord of Ucanal oversaw events at the Sacul center (Escobedo and Wanyerka

2006: 222). After 780 C.E., Naranjo and Sacul seemed to be influencing each other’s

visual culture. This will be discussed in Chapter 4.


6

Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel continued their military campaign with a

significant battle waged between Naranjo and Tikal at a place called Yellow Rabbit in

695 C.E. This may have been a preparatory attack leading to Calakmul’s greater conflict

with Tikal later that same year. Archaeologist Jason Yeager and his team discovered that

Stela 22 mentions the burning of the site of Kokom, the modern day site known as

Buenavista Del Cayo, on the 27th of March of 696 C.E. (Yeager et al. 2015: 186). On

9.18.5.11.0 (April 20, 726 C.E.) Naranjo carried out a Star War event against the same

site.

Smoking Squirrel and Lady Six Sky continued to expand their territory and to

chip away at Caracol’s regional influence. Naranjo ultimately attacked and defeated

Caracol and drove that polity into a hiatus. It appears that Smoking Squirrel was the ruler

who took Caracol’s Hieroglyphic Staircase as a trophy to Naranjo. Smoking Squirrel

appears to have left a piece in Ucanal’s ballcourt, which was formally an ally or vassal

site of Caracol and took the rest of the staircase to erect at Naranjo (Schele and Freidel

1990: 194-195). Epigrapher Alexandre Tokovinine suggests that he intentionally

rearranged the blocks to alter the textual meaning to mock the royal family of Caracol

(Tokovinine 2007: 21). Shortly after this event, Smoking Squirrel died circa 727 C.E.

and his mother Lady Six Sky died in 741 C.E. These two rulers left the most extensive

collection of stelae at Naranjo.

Under Lord Yik’in Chan K’awiil, Tikal led a star war against Naranjo in February

of 744 C.E. Smoking Squirrel and Lady Six Sky’s successor Yax Mayuy Chan Chaak

was captured in this conflict, according to documentation on Tikal Stela 5. The text of

Tikal Temple 4 Lintel 2 (see Figure 1.3.) mentions the capture of Naranjo’s patron deity


7

and depicts Tikal’s lord, Yik’in Chan K’awiil seated on Naranjo’s throne (Martin and

Grube 2008: 79). The importance of this deity will be expanded upon in Chapter 2. As a

result of this capture, Naranjo entered into a hiatus period for about 40 years. This period

saw further conflicts with Tikal and limited monumental construction (Martin and Grube

2008:78-79).

It is not until the inauguration of Naranjo’s lord Itzamnaaj K’awiil in 784 C.E.,

that Naranjo stabilized. He was able to erect monuments with regular frequency. Stelae

7, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 35 and Altar 2 are associated with his reign. He was succeeded by

Waxaklajuun Ubaah K’awiil, the last known ruler of Naranjo. Stela 32 depicts him

receiving tribute atop his flame engulfed throne. Recent excavations revealed that a weak

unknown ruler rededicated Aj Wosal Chan K’inich’s Stelae 38 and 44 and Altar 1 on the

steps of Structure D-1 near the time of the site’s desertion (Fialko 2012: 32). This was a

feeble attempt by the near-powerless lord to rejuvenate the dynasty’s power. Shortly

after this, Naranjo was abandoned.

By 830 C.E. Xunantunich had begun erecting monuments. Xunantunich Stela 8

even may display Naranjo’s emblem glyph (Helmke, Awe and Grube 2011:109). It is

unclear if the site became a refuge for the royal dynasty of Naranjo or if the rulers of

Xunantunich were emulating Naranjo to solidify their new found independence. Most of

Naranjo’s vassal sites were declaring autonomy after 830 C.E. (LeCount and Yeager

2012: 363).


8

Literature Review

Naranjo was discovered in 1905 by Teobert Maler, who first documented thirty-

two of the now forty-five known monuments at the site in his 1908 publication,

Explorations in the Department of Petén, Guatemala, and Adjacent Region (Maler 1908).

Maler photographed twenty of the then-known thirty-two monuments. Stelae 1, 4, 15,

16, 17, 18, 26 and 27 were omitted because of poor preservation (Morley 1909: 544).

Naranjo’s Hieroglyphic Stairway 1 was first documented during Maler’s 1905

expedition, but had been largely dismantled by looters by 1914 (Graham and von Euw

1975: 2:8).

In 1909, the archaeologist and early epigrapher Sylvanus G. Morley began dating

the twenty monuments photographed by Maler. Based on the long count dates, Morley

established the basic chronology of Naranjo, consisting of the Early, Middle and Late

periods, which are divided by two hiatus periods (see Table 2, Appendix 1.); (Morley

1909: 550). He theorized that the first hiatus period was caused by an intense warfare

event. This event was later identified as the Star War event against Naranjo initiated by

Yooknoom Head of Calakmul during December of 631 C.E., as discussed above (Martin

and Grube 2008: 70). Morley found that the middle period saw the rapid construction of

several monuments, which he associated with a renewed prosperity of the city. These

monuments, as noted by the Maya epigraphers Simon Martin and Nikolai Grube,

documented the military conquests of Lady Six Sky and her son Smoking Squirrel

(Martin and Grube 2008: 72). Morley observed a prolonged gap after the erection of

these monuments, which concludes with the construction of Plazas B and C (Morley

1909: 557). This second hiatus is now understood to be caused by Tikal’s Star War


9

against Naranjo in 744 C.E. after the death of Lady Six Sky (Martin and Grube 2008: 78).

Shortly after Morley completed this study, he led a total of three expeditions to the site of

Naranjo to continue the documentation of the monuments. Morley photographed the

monuments Maler chose to omit and discovered Stelae 33-36 (Graham and von Euw

1975: 8).

The next major study of Naranjo was initiated by archeologist and early

epigrapher Tatiana Proskouriakoff in 1962. She is well known for her work with Maya

iconography and epigraphy. Proskouriakoff requested fellow archaeologist Richard E.

W. Adams to travel to the site to create latex casts of the several of the inscriptions. He

was only able to collect a fraction of his original assignment due to treefall caused by a

hurricane in 1963 (Graham and von Euw 1975: 8). The photographs taken by Maler and

Morley and the casts created by Adams became the only record of many of the

monuments, because a second wave of looting began in 1964.

While archaeological investigations were forced to cease during this period of

lawlessness in the Petén, research was carried out on the inscriptions preserved on the

photographs and casts taken by Maler, Morley and Adams. In the years of 1972 and

1973, Guatemala’s Department of Prehispanic Monuments of Instituto de Antropología e

Historia (IDAEH) ordered a “rescue operation” under the leadership of archaeologist

Rafael Morales Fernández. During this operation, nineteen known stelae were recovered

from Naranjo and transported to a secure warehouse for their protection (Fialko 2005: 4).

In 1975, archaeologist Ian Graham included Naranjo in his Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic

Inscriptions for which he provided a photograph of each monument and a drawing made

by himself or one of his co-authors. While he was compiling his corpus, he traveled to


10

Naranjo where he documented Stelae 37-41 (Fialko 2012: 8). Graham’s corpus included

Naranjo Stelae 1 through 41, Altar 1, Lintel 1 and Hieroglyphic Stairway 1, and Ballcourt

Sculpture 1 (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, 1980). Once Graham’s

illustrations became available, epigraphers began to transcribe the historical information

preserved in Graham’s corpus. This historical information was ultimately consolidated as

a chapter in Simon Martin and Nikolai Grube’s volume titled Chronicle of the Maya

Kings and Queens (2008: 68-83).

A third wave of looting occurred between 1997 and 2001 after the public became

aware of Naranjo’s unique polychrome, cylinder ceramic vessels through various

publications (Fialko 2005: 5). Looters dug approximately 270 tunnels into the major

structures at the site resulting in extensive destruction of cultural material. During this

period, Naranjo was under the control of the looters. In 2001, the Guatemalan Ministry

of Culture and Sports was able to gain control over the site through the

PRONATPROSIA-PETEN project (Fialko 2005: 5). In 2002 Vilma Fialko began a

phase one archaeological operation to evaluate the condition of the site and to create a

“record of predation” (Fialko 2005: 5).

In 2006 Naranjo became a part of the World Monuments Watch, which increased

global awareness of the site. This then enabled Naranjo to receive full funding from the

Gilbert and Ildiko Butler Foundation, the United States Department of State Ambassadors

Fund for Cultural Preservation and Guatemala’s Ministry of Culture and Sports (Fialko

2012: 14). This funding enabled Naranjo to become a part of the recently founded

Yaxha-Nakum-Naranjo National Park’s six-part plan. These six objectives are to create a

Geographic Information System (GIS) based geodatabase, to stabilize the structures,


11

document the exotic flora, develop a local environmental stewardship, develop the sites

for ecotourism and the conservation of the surviving sculpture (Fialko 2012: 14). This

sixth objective seeks to recover looted monuments from private collectors, treat them for

preservation and construct a museum to protect the originals and to create replicas to

place in their original locations (Fialko 2012: 40).

Four additional monuments have been discovered since Fialko started her work in

2001. In 1997, the upper section of Stela 42 had been stolen by looters and has yet to be

recovered (Mayer 2002: 72). The butt of the monument was located in 2001 by Fialko’s

team. This section was moved to a warehouse near the site of Yaxha by IDAEH for

protection (Mayer 2001: 79). Then, the butt of Stela 43 was recovered the next year and

stored with Stela 42 (Mayer 2002: 72). More recently, Stela 44 was discovered near

Structure B-18 (Fialko 2012: 24). In May of 2002, Altar 2 was uncovered near Structure

B-18 (Skidmore 2007: 24). The shattered Stela 45 was found in a looter’s trench in

Structure C-9 and is the earliest monument to date. The text has been deciphered, and

appears to date about 546 C.E. (Tokovinine and Fialko 2007: 4).

While the monuments have been widely studied by epigraphers, their

iconography, with the exception of Stela 45, has been largely ignored. Fialko and her

team have been engaged in a salvage operation concerned primarily with preservation

and stabilization of structures. Even the 6th objective of the Yaxha-Nakum-Naranjo

National Park’s plan focuses only on the recovery and preservation of stolen material, not

on the study of visual communication systems. Thanks to the efforts of so many scholars

who published on the monuments of Naranjo, it has been possible for me to analyze the

royal actions, costumes and regalia. This study sheds additional light on the political


12

identity of the Naranjo-Sa’al dynasty and its ranking within the Classic Maya political

landscape.

Thesis Objective

This thesis will address the iconography found at the site of Naranjo with the

objective of identifying how the monuments, which were erected over roughly a 400-year

period, responded to Naranjo's evolving political alliances and the subsequent changes in

its status and political identity.

My initial research question was to determine if the evolution of Naranjo’s

sculptural elements could be linked to key historic events. However, during my

investigations it became apparent that if I wished to understand the sculptures in their

context I had to move beyond the historical influence and consider both the political and

geospatial influences as well. By investigating both Naranjo and the sites most closely

involved with it, this thesis will answer the following questions. What were the symbols

of divine kingship for the Naranjo city center? Can certain objects be seen reoccurring

on multiple stelae? How did the rulers' efforts to express their power contribute to a

definition of political identity? Were any structures of Naranjo orientated to reflect the

solar solstices and equinoxes, as has been documented for buildings at Palenque,

Yaxchilán and Chichén Itzá? Does the iconography reference the surrounding natural or

manmade features? Did the visual modes of communication found at Naranjo influence

the the visual systems used at the sites of Xunantunich, Sacul and Ucanal? Studying the

images found at the site of Naranjo and its vassal sites reveals information regarding how

Naranjo’s power and political identity was presented.


13

I will provide the first comprehensive and systematic study of the visual

communication systems at the Maya site of Naranjo. Most previous research has focused

on stabilizing the site and the documentation of the written record. This is problematic

because the majority of the people contemporary to the erection of these monuments

were illiterate (Coe and van Stone 2005: 13). The elites were faced with communicating

their messages of power through pictorial means to their commoner population. This

study will ultimately enable researchers to view the monuments in their entirety and to

understand how the imagery of Naranjo was shaped by the political landscape. This is

especially crucial because Naranjo is becoming increasingly important within Maya

studies.


14

Chapter 2

Analysis of the Naranjo Corpus

Introduction

Naranjo possesses a rich visual culture that communicates messages of power and

authority to the viewer. The majority of the carved surfaces depict imposing lords and

ladies wearing elaborate regalia and holding ritual objects. While these images were

meant to commemorate the events recorded in the texts, they also provide insight into the

cultural objects that animated the political authority of the Naranjo-Sa’al polity. The vast

majority of the viewers encountering these sculptures upon their erection were illiterate

(Coe and Stone 2005: 13), meaning the lords had to visually represent themselves holding

or wearing these symbols of power the commoner population associated with divine rule.

This chapter will seek to identify these objects of power through a systematic inventory

of all the visual elements present in the Naranjo corpus.

Methods

For this study, I created a series of classifications for the various visual elements.

These included separate classifications for each article of clothing, non-human entities,

thrones and held ritual objects. Initially, I sorted the monuments by ruler (as an

individual who presumably commissioned the work) to identify if there were any

reoccurring traits for each individual or any new artistic elements that emerged over

Naranjo’s timeline. I separated each element of the Naranjo corpus into its own

subsection. The subsections are organized within this chapter alphabetically beginning

with “Aprons” and concluding with “Thrones.” Each item was initially identified using


15

Schele and Miller’s Blood of Kings, Schele and Freidel’s visual glossary found in The

Untold Story of the Ancient Maya: A Forest of Kings and Pillsbury, Doutriaux, Ishihara-

Brito and Tokovinine’s Ancient Maya Art At Dumbarton Oaks. These three volumes

provide illustrations labeling the separate articles of clothing worn by Classic Maya

kings. My initial classifications were then cross-referenced with more recent publications

by Nikolai Grube, Stephen Houston, Mary Miller, Andrea Stone, David Stuart, Karl

Taube and Marc Zender. These classifications are Aprons, Armbands, Backracks and

Capes, Belts/Belt Ornaments, Bracelets, Diadems, Earspools/Ear Ornaments, Epaulettes,

Headdresses, Held Objects, Knee Ornaments, Necklaces, Non-Human Entities, Nose

Ornaments, Pectorals, Footwear, Skirts and Thrones. In this case, I labeled each

individual item based on appearance and symbolic theme. These items are presented in

order of frequency within each subsection. I gathered iconographic information

identified on each classified object from other various publications on Maya art and

imagery. The individual objects are discussed in context within the “Costumes” and

“Discussion” sections. It is important to note that there is a correlation between certain

objects and specific costumes worn for specific ceremonies. Table 3 in Appendix 1

outlines these distinctions for each clothing classification. I conclude this chapter with

my observations regarding the most frequent themes, costume elements and ritual items

that are represented in the Naranjo corpus.

While there are no previous comprehensive iconographic studies specifically for

the Naranjo corpus, my research design has been influenced by other scholars who have

conducted similar studies of other sites in the Maya region. Art historian Carolyn E. Tate

published the volume titled Yaxchilán: The Design of a Maya Ceremonial City in 1992,


16

which sought to understand how the structures and monuments shaped human experience

at the site of Yaxchilán (1992: 5). Chapter 3 titled “Manifesting Tradition: Imagery at

Yaxchilán, Part I, the Cosmos and Regalia” inspired the methods I utilized for this study

(1992: 29-49). In this study, she systematically broke down the all of the visual elements

present in the Yaxchilán corpus. More recently, art historian Julia Guernsey studied how

the monuments of the Preclassic Maya site of Izapa actively engaged within the

landscape by considering the monuments spatial contexts and iconographic information

(2006: 16). In 2009, art historian Flora Clancy published The Monuments of Piedras

Negras, concerned with producing a history of the carved monuments at the site and how

the viewer’s vision creates a reciprocity (2009: 1). Additionally, the general

iconographic studies published by Nikolai Grube, Stephen Houston, Mary Miller, Linda

Schele David Stuart and Karl Taube have been invaluable to my research.

Aprons

Aprons were an article of royal costume, probably a textile, embellished with

embroidery or perhaps paint or dye, that superimposed the loincloth and were supported

by the belt. There are ten examples of aprons represented within the Naranjo corpus. The

most prevalent is the Serpent Fretted God C apron first described by Linda Schele

(Freidel and Schele 1990: 90-91). This style is depicted on Stelae 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 20, 22,

23, 28 and 41. It is composed of a frontal image of a deity flanked by two stylized

serpent heads in profile (see Figure 2.1.a.). This particular type is found all across the

Maya region making it a universal Maya symbol of rulership. Many scholars believe that

it converts the ruler into a personification of the axis mundi or world tree (Schele and

Freidel 1990: 90). However, this theory is presently being contested. David Stuart


17

suggests that this apron is actually frontal representation of the animated glyph for LEM

or “flash.” He also notes that the Ch’olti’ Mayan word for lightening is “u lem Chahak,”

which literally translates to “Cha’ak’s Flash” (Stuart 2010: 291-293). Furthermore,

K’awiil is understood to the personified form of Cha’ak’s axe (Stuart 2010: 293). As

noted above the deity represented on this apron is framed by two stylized serpents. I

suggest that the apron’s serpent elements on the sides reference K’awiil’s serpent leg.

Further connections between this apron and K’awiil can be seen with its association with

the costume worn for the “Taking of the K’awiil Scepter ceremony” or the ritual that a

new lord undergoes to take the throne. I suggest it may be better to rename this apron as

the “Serpent Fretted God K Apron.” The second apron type is represented on Stelae 11

and 34 which possess a simple plumed apron draped over the shoulders, reaching the

knees (see Figure 2.1.b.). This apron is associated with the Underworld Jaguar God

costume discussed later in the chapter.

The following apron classifications are only associated with a single stela. Stela

19 possesses perhaps the most elaborate apron composed of an embroidered or painted

six layered design (see Figure 2.1.c.). The top layer represents a logogram with an

embedded mat symbol (Stone and Zender 2011: 81), followed by a series of abstract

symbols including the sign for clouds (Stone and Zender: 2011: 143). Next, Stela 9

depicts a plain textile apron with serpent-fretted sides and a strip of mat attached to the

bottom (see Figure 2.1.d.). It is possible that this was a Serpent Fretted God K apron but

the central portion has eroded away. Stela 30 is classified as the “hieroglyphic apron.”

This example possesses a heavily eroded center which may have had a zoomorphic glyph

with an upturned nose and eight phonetic affixes radiating around the four sides of the


18

central glyph (see figure 2.1.e.). Stela 21 shows a second variant of the plumed apron

seen on Stelae 11 and 38. Stela 21’s apron possesses the “Casper” or ZZ3 glyph (see

Figure 2.1.f.); (Macri and Looper 2003: 257). The ZZ3 glyph may be a reference to Lady

Casper, the mother of Tajal Chaak (Martin and Grube 2008: 71). Stela 38 has a unique

apron with a mid-portion of a diagonal serpent head with a central extension supporting a

serpent head and celts (see Figure 2.1.g.). Stela 33 depicts a plain apron with the glyph

for “zero” embroidered on the front (see Figure 2.1.h.); (Johnson 2013: 75). Next, Stela 2

shows an elaborate apron (see Figure 2.1.i.) depicting a zoomorphic head comparable to

the “Starry Deer Crocodile” headdress seen on Piedras Negras Stela 45 (Clancy 2009:

30). As noted above, it is a central element of the “Star War” costume (Freidel and

Schele 1990: 193). Lastly, Stela 8 shows a plain white apron (see Figure 2.1.j.).

Aprons seem to be closely associated with specific costumes worn for certain

events. The Serpent Fretted God K apron for example, appears on stelae that represent

the rulers engaging in the “Taking of the K’awiil Scepter” ceremony or the ceremony in

which a new lord takes the throne. Also as previously stated, Stela 2’s “Starry Deer

Crocodile” apron is specific to the Star War costume. Both of these costumes are

discussed at greater length in the “Costume” section. While many of the apron’s precise

ceremonial functions are unclear, they are a garment that is specific to the costume worn

by the ruler.

Armbands

Naranjo has three examples of armbands represented in the sculptural work. This

article of clothing is defined as any separate item found on the forearm. The first and


19

most common style is the “Ajaw Type,” which is present on Stelae 14 and 38 (see Figure

2.2.a.). This is composed of a small Ajaw mask with three jade beads hanging below. It

is a similar jade arrangement to the “Ajaw Belt” discussed below. The second version is

the “Striped Textile” band seen on Stela 31 (see Figure 2.2.b.). This armband is worn by

Lady Six Sky and she wears one on each forearm. The third style is the “Bead Band”

represented on Stela 13 (see Figure 2.2.c.). It is composed of a single row of large round

jade beads. Armbands are unusual at the site of Naranjo because only four Stelae depict

the figures wearing them. They seem to be a personal preference rather than a specific

item associated with a costume.

Backracks and Capes

Much like armbands, both backracks and capes are rather rare in the imagery of

Naranjo. This is probably because the figures are depicted in a frontal pose which

obstructs them from view. Stelae 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,

25, 28, 29, 31, 33, 35, 37 and 38 do not have any visible depictions of backracks and

Stelae 10, 15, 16, 18, 26, 27, 32, 34, 36, 39, 40, 42 and 43 are far too eroded to determine

if there is a backrack present. Only four types have been documented in the Naranjo

imagery.

The first version is the “Plumed Cape” seen on Stela 30 (see Figure 2.3.a.). This

article of clothing covers the shoulders and extends down to the ankles while the front

remains open. The entire cape seems to be made of feathers. The second example is the

“Bird with Plumes” style found on Stela 8 (see Figure 2.3.b.). Not much can be seen on

this monument because of the figure’s frontal pose. A bird head can be seen over the left

shoulder of the primary figure, while feathers wrap around the figure’s left hip. This


20

backrack presumably includes some kind of stuffed bird. The third type, “Semi-circle

Plumed with Trimmed Feathers,” is worn by Smoking Squirrel on Stela 2 (see Figure

2.3.c). Behind the upper half of Smoking Squirrel’s body are long trimmed feathers that

form a semi-circular shape which terminates horizontally along his hip. This is part of

the “Star War” costume which will be discussed later in the chapter. Next, there is the

“Downturned Feather” type found on Stela 17 which seems to be composed of

untrimmed feathers extending down to the figure’s ankles (see Figure 2.3.d.).

Unfortunately, this monument has suffered heavy erosion. What is still visible shows

long untrimmed feathers angled towards the unknown figure’s feet. The final version is

“Ajaw with Celts and Shells” type found on Stela 41.

Stela 30’s Plumed Cape, Stela 8’s Bird with Plumes backrack and Stela 2’s Semi-

circular backrack are all associated with monuments documenting warfare events. Stela

2 recounts Smoking Squirrel’s sacrifice of the captive Ucanal Lord Shield Jaguar for the

summer solstice event of 712 C.E. (Schele and Freidel 1990: 193). Stelae 8 and 30 depict

their figures impersonating the Underworld Jaguar God. The inscriptions of Stela 30

describe Smoking Squirrel’s capture of Yaxchilán lord Itzamnaaj Bahlam (who is

depicted under Smoking Squirrel’s feet) in 698 C.E. Stela 8 references Itzamnaaj

K’awiil’s battle with Yaxha in 796 C.E. (Martin and Grube 2006: 83). While Stela 2

does have a solstice reference, all three stelae are united by the theme of warfare. Stela

17’s backrack cannot be correlated to any specific event or ceremony because the

inscriptions are illegible. What can be gathered from the Stelae 2, 8 and 30 is that

backracks and capes were specific items associated with costumes.


21

Belts/Belt Ornaments

There are eight versions of belts at Naranjo. The most prevalent is the “Triple

Ajaw Mask” type (see Figure 2.4.a.). Stelae 6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 20, 22, 23 and 28 include

representations of this belt. It is composed of three visible jade ajaw masks with knotted

textiles draped over the top of the mask. The textile frames the ajaw face while the knot

rests on the top of the forehead. I propose this textile is an embedded logogram

referencing the 3M9 Glyph meaning “wise” (Macri and Looper 2003: 307). This would

result in the mask being “wise ajaw” or a wise ancestor. Below each mask, there is a

single horizontal jade celt with three additional vertical jade celts hanging from the

horizontal celt. The masks are separated with a crossband design with shell tinklers.

There is also a “Single Ajaw Mask Belt” represented by Stelae 7, 8 and 35 (see Figure

2.4.b.). This is the same design as the Triple Ajaw Mask” version but only possesses one

“wise ajaw” apparatus. There is a second variation to this design represented on Stela 38

where the Ajaw apparatus hangs below the band (see Figure 2.4.c.). An additional

difference is that the knotted textile present in the other two variations is absent on this

belt. Instead, the mask has three shells hanging over its forehead. The third design is the

“Knotted Ajaw” belt which is represented on Stelae 1, 25, 30 and possibly 33 (see Figure

2.4.d.). This belt is composed of a textile wrap around the waist supporting the “wise

ajaw” apparatus instead of the crossband design represented on the three previously

discussed belts.

Next there is the “Xok-Fish” belt which is associated with Lady Six Sky and the

“Net Skirt-Xoc Fish-Shell” costume discussed later in the chapter (see figure 2.4.e.);

(Stone 1991: 201). This belt appears on Stelae 24, 29 and 31. It consists of a jade band,


22

which is composed of rectangular jade pieces and small round jade beads. The center

piece is a large stylized Xoc head, or shark head, below which a spondylus shell hangs.

There is also a matted extension with a personified mat (Schele and Miller 1986: 44)

hanging from the belt that supports a jade celt and numerous bones all of which hang

below the spondylus shell. Stela 41 depicts an “Underworld Jaguar God” belt, which is

composed of an Underworld Jaguar god mask superimposing a matted design flanked by

two floral symbols. Additionally, affixed to the back of the belt is an ajaw mask. I argue

the mask is wearing the nose of “Square-nosed Beastie” (see Figure 2.4.f.). This is

important because Square-nosed Beastie is understood to be the mythic founder of the

city. This humanoid form may have been another way of depicting the ancestral deity.

The ajaw mask has three jade celts hanging beneath it with a long cloth backing. It is

possible that other figures would have worn this because if Stela 41’s figure was depicted

in a frontal pose, it would not have been visible. The side view was probably selected to

display the God N headdress.

Stela 3 possesses an interesting “Simple Knotted” belt style composed of

rectangular jade beads with bone extensions and a same 3M9 knot that typically appears

above the ajaw face (see Figure 2.4.g.). However, on this belt there is no mask present.

Stela 3 depicts an example of “Simple Knotted” belt over a jaguar pelt supporting shell

tinklers. The final classification is the “Plain Textile” style composed of a cloth wrap and

shell tinklers. This can be seen on Stela 19. Stelae 11 and 21 both represent figures

without belts (see Figure 2.4.h.).

Through this study, I discovered several patterns. The Single Ajaw variants

appeared consistently over the course of Naranjo’s history. But it was not until the


23

beginning of the reign of Smoking Squirrel in 693 C.E. that the triple ajaw variant

appeared. Additionally, the Triple Ajaw belt only appeared with the Serpent Fretted God

K apron, which as previously discused is most strongly associated with the “Taking of

the K’awiil Scepter” ceremony. Next there is the Xoc-Fish Belt which is only worn by

Lady Six Sky at Naranjo. This is associated with the Net-Skirt-Xoc-Fish” costume which

is most commonly understood to be a female costume (Stone 1991: 201).

Bracelets

Bracelets are common pieces of regalia at Naranjo and there are eleven types that

are visually represented at the site. The most common of which is the “Jade Bracelet

with Full Ajaw Glyph Extensions” type found on Stelae 13, 14, 19, 22, 24, 35 and 37 (see

Figure 2.5.a.). This type can be recognized by its rectangular jade beads that cover the

entirety of the wrist. Each of these rectangular beads have an associated round jade bead

sometimes carved into an ajaw face. This differs from the “Jade Bracelet with Half Ajaw

Glyph Extensions,” which has round bead extensions for every other rectangular bead

(see Figure 2.5.b.). This style can be seen on Stelae 1, 5, 6, 12 and 20. Stelae 21 and 31

depict the “Jade Beads with Bone Endings” version which is composed of square and

rectangular jade beads strung horizontally with bone extenders running up the forearm

(see Figure 2.5.c.). Stelae 17 and 41 depict the “Knotted Naranjo Emblem Glyph” which

is composed of a knotted section near the hand and the Naranjo emblem glyph covering

the wrist (see Figure 2.5.d.). Stelae 30 and 33 possess the “Darkness Glyph” style, which

is composed of the hieroglyph for darkness between multiple horizontal textile bands

with two round jade beads on the lower section (see Figure 2.5.e.); (Schele 1985:43).


24

Stela 8 depicts an example of the “Matted” bracelet which is a simple textile bracelet

with the matt symbol centered upon it (see Figure 2.5.f.).

For the final four styles assortments of jade beaded types I did not provide a

specific name due to their simplicity. A jade ring around the wrist with round jade bead

extensions appears on Stela 4. Stela 38 shows its figure wearing a bracelet composed of

three rectangular jade beads with a knotted top. Stela 11 possesses a style composed of

two row of rectangular beads with a single row of square beads. Lastly, Stelae 2 and 25

possess perhaps the simplest being a single row of large round jade beads. Bracelets

appear to be mostly an article of royal regalia, not correlated with any specific costume.

Diadems

Diadems are a common article of regalia at Naranjo. This piece of regalia

consisted of a small jade carving of one of the three versions of the Jester God affixed to

the forehead by a textile or leather strap (Taube and Ishihara-Brito 2012: 147). These

deities are commonly referred to as the “Jester God.” This term was first coined by

Linda Schele, who likened the foliage to the hat worn by medieval court jesters (1975:

49-50). David Stuart first discovered that there are three distinct versions of jester gods:

avian, piscine and anthropomorphic (n.d.a.: 139-141). Naranjo includes examples of all

three versions. The most common is the piscine Jester God diadems which can be seen

on Stelae 4, 8, 11, 13, 21, 25, 30 and 41. This version is most likely a stylized form of a

shark (Taube and Ishihara-Brito 2012: 148). The figure typically has an open mouth, a

triangle tooth, its tail above its head and an upturned nose (see Figure 2.6.a). It is

comparable to the previously discussed Xoc-Fish Belt (see Figure 2.4.e). The piscine

Jester God diadem appears consistently over the entirety of Naranjo’s timeline.


25

The second version is the anthropomorphic Jester God diadem which appears on

Stelae 12 and 14. This version is composed of a human face with three leaves spouting

out of the top of the head (Taube and Ishihara-Brito 2012: 149). These leaves are now

understood to reference newly sprouted maize. This correlation between the jester god

and newly sprouted corn was first discovered by art historian Virginia Fields (1986: 172-

173). While there are only two examples at Naranjo, it is interesting to note that both of

the anthropomorphic diadems are worn by Itzamnaaj K’awiil who reigned during the

Late Classic Period (784-810>). The anthropomorphic diadem was most widely worn in

the Maya region during the Late Preclassic and the Early Classic Periods (Taube and

Ishihara-Brito 2012: 149). Itzamnaaj K’awiil was understood to be a stabilizing figure in

Naranjo’s history (Martin and Grube 2008: 82). His placement on the throne in 784 C.E.

saw the return of regular monumental activity and the end of Naranjo’s second hiatus

after the Star War event of 744 C.E. I suggest Itzamnaaj K’awiil may have been wearing

this earlier form of the jester god diadem as an effort to reference the older rulers. It is

possible that this diadem was more widely represented on earlier, now-lost monuments.

There are two examples of avian jester god diadems represented in the Naranjo

corpus: Stelae 8 and 13. This version is understood to be composite figure of the world

tree and the principal bird deity (Taube and Ishihara-Brito 2012: 149). It can be

identified by its downturned beak and sun god eye. Like many examples found

throughout the Maya region, these avian diadems are located in the headdress rather than

on the brow (Taube and Ishihara-Brito 2012: 149). Stela 8 depicts an elaborate example

that includes both wings and feet affixed to the top of the headdress. This diadem is also


26

placed above a skyband (see Figure 2.9.j). This may an effort to associate Stela 8s’s

headdress to the heavens.

Earspools/Ear Ornaments

While most figures depicted on Naranjo’s corpus are wearing earspools, there are

only six styles. However, most of the stelae are too eroded to properly classify. The first

is the “Plain” version seen on Stelae 7, 13, 19 and 20 which is represented by a simple

round jade disk with a round inlaid circle below which three jade beads hang (see Figure

2.7.a.). It is supported with a leather strap with a beaded end. Stela 12 shows the same

type earspool with a bone hanging beneath instead of a string of beads (see Figure 2.7.b.).

Stela 2 possesses an elaborate earspool composed of jade disk with small inlay. Attached

to this is a shell ornament (Castro 2012: 441) carved to represent the XQ6 or Ik glyph

(Macri and Looper 2003: 198). This is all supported by a leather strap with a bone

ending (see Figure 2.7.c.). Stela 6 depicts a similar style to Stela 2 but possesses a floral

hanging portion instead of a Ik glyph (see Figure 2.7.d.). Stela 25 depicts an ear

ornament composed of a medial section of bone (see Figure 2.7.e.). Lastly, Stela 24

depicts an ear ornament composed of cylindrical jade earspool with a floral element (see

Figure 2.7.g.). Earspools appear to be an article of regalia unassociated with any specific

costume.

Epaulettes

Epaulettes, or shoulder ornaments, are unusual at Naranjo. Most of the figures’

shoulders remain uncovered or are draped in a shawl like garment. There are two

separate types of Epaulettes represented at Naranjo. The first is a mask of the sun god,


27

K’inich affixed to a textile or plumed shoulder garment. This can be seen on Stelae 2 and

30 (see Figure 2.8.a.). The second style is the “Blessed” type which may be a reference

to the glyph, ZB1 (Macri and Looper 2003: 215). It is composed of a knotted textile on

the lower half of a circular mount with two tassels affixed (see Figure 2.8.b.). This can

be seen on Stela 13.

Headdresses

The corpus of Naranjo possesses eleven types of headdresses. The most

prevalent headdress is of K’awiil (see Figure 2.9.a.). This headdress is composed of a

large deity head of K’awiil with a serpent plume mount on the rear. Extending from this

mount, there are beaded cropped feathers and paper extending outwards. K’awiil is

understood to be the patron god of kings, maize and lightning and is frequently

impersonated by rulers. Schele first identified K’awiil, originally referred to as the jester

god or God K during her early work at Palenque (1974: 10). K’awiil is also the

personification of Cha’ak’s axe (Stuart 2010: 291). Cha’ak is the Maya rain god and the

striking of his axe was believed to cause lightning (Ishihara 2009: 10). Stelae 3, 12, 14,

30, 31 and 37 all depict the ruler wearing the K’awiil headdress. This headdress is

typically composed of a large god mask attached to some kind of helmet mount, a

serpentine plume mount is located on the rear section supporting cropped, beaded

feathers. If the headdress is associated with the Underworld Jaguar god costume, it will

have a smoking jaguar ear just above the ear. This costume will be described in the

“Costume” section.

The second most prevalent is the Yop-aat headdress which is represented on

Stelae 6, 7, 13, 20 and 22 and which was first identified by David Stuart on his blog


28

(2013). The Yop-aat deity seems to be related to Cha’ak and is almost visually identical.

The defining characteristic is the curved dotted element extending out of the top of his

head (see Figure 2.9.b.) (Stuart 2013). The headdress is composed of a Yop-aat god

mask affixed to a jade beaded helmet mount. Atop the Yop-aat head, there is a single

knotted section superimposed by a bloodscroll and a flower. The headdress also

possesses beaded trimmed plumes supported by a serpent mount. I found that this

headdress is most commonly associated with the “Taking of K’awiil Scepter” event,

which will be discussed below.

GIII of the Palenque Triad is represented with the Water-lily Jaguar headdress.

This form of GIII is recognizable by the water-lily blossom typically observed on top of

the head (see Figure 2.9.c.). GIII of the Palenque Triad is probably the sun god. While

the Underworld Jaguar God is understood to be the sun journeying through the

underworld at night, the Water-lily Jaguar God is still not fully understood (Miller and

Tuabe 1993: 129; Schele and Miller 1986: 51; Berlin 1963), which is represented by

Stelae 4 and 19. Again, both stelae display a different style. Stela 19 shows Lord

Smoking Batab wearing a version that includes a Mexican year sign on the plume

support. Stela 4’s example appears to be a more traditional Maya style (see Figure

2.9.d.). It is supported by a headband with a Jester God diadem (discussed above) affixed

to the front while a waterlily sprouts underneath the jaguar head. Again this headdress is

related to the Underworld Jaguar God costume, so it possesses a smoking jaguar ear

above the ear.

Stelae 28 and 38 depict examples of the “Square-nosed Beastie” headdress that is

understood to be the mythic founder of the city of Naranjo (see Figure 2.9.e.). This


29

headdress is composed of a representation of the deity with some slight variation in the

plumage. Stela 38 depicts the headdress with full feathers, while Stela 28 shows the

headdress with beaded cropped feathers. The feathers are affixed to a matted serpent

mount. It may be possible that these headdresses were worn to celebrate specific

anniversaries of major dynastic accomplishments. Stela 28 concludes by noting the one

katun anniversary of the first quarter-katun event of lord Aj Wosal Chan K’inich’s reign

(Closs 1983: 69). Stela 38 represents Aj Wosal Chan K’inich wearing a Square-nosed

Beastie” headdress. Smoking Squirrel’s choice to wear this headdress may have been a

reference to this monument.

Next, Stela 41 depicts an unknown ruler wearing a God N headdress (see Figure

2.9.f.). The lower section is heavily eroded but a K’awiil diadem can be recognized.

Above this there is a rectangular section out of which God N emerges. This is

presumably a stylized representation of the god emerging from the shell seen on other

works. The back section possesses a serpent mount, out of which long untrimmed

feathers extend. The uppermost section appears to be a floral support for additional

feathers. The purpose of this headdress cannot be determined due to the erosion of the

text.

Stela 2 depicts an Avian headdress associated with the "Star War” costume (see

Figure 2. 9.g.); (Schele and Freidel 1990: 194). This headdress is composed of a dome

helmet base. On top of the dome there is a stuffed bird and a jaguar tail superimposes the

bird. Also the helmet supports trimmed, beaded feathers. Another style that can be

recognized is the “Fish and Flower” headdress depicted on Stela 5. This item is heavily

eroded but a paper top supported by a mat mount that superimposes a waterlily design


30

being eaten by a fish can be recognized (see Figure 2.9.h.). Stela 24 depicts Lady Six

Sky is wearing a Mexican Day Sign headdress. This style is identifiable by the Mexican

A-O sign that superimposes blood scrolls (see Figure 2.9.i). A small bundle of feathers

can be recognized in the back most section of the headdress but little else can be

discerned due to erosion. Stela 8 depicts an example of the “Skyband” headdress (see

Figure 2.9.j.). This headdress is composed of a domed helmet with a skyband element

running along the bottom. On the rear of the headdress a Venus symbol can be seen

before a serpent mount. Out of the mount long untrimmed feathers extend. On the top of

the headdress there is an unusual Avian Diadem (see Diadem section) that possesses

wings and legs. Lastly, a Tripartite Spear can be seen extending out of the back of the

headdress.

Lastly, Stela 21 depicts Smoking Squirrel wearing an interesting “Penance”

headdress (see Figure 2.9.k.). This headdress is composed of a domed helmet adorned

with the penance or bloodletting knots (Joralemon 1974: 62). It also supports a Jester

God diadem. The entire object is superimposed by a blood scroll. The headdress

possesses cropped, beaded feathers. Also because the headdress is associated with a

variant of the Underworld Jaguar costume, a smoking jaguar ear can be seen just above

the ear. Headdresses are one of the most important garments for the Maya elites. Each

headdress is associated with specific costumes or ceremonies. This will be expanded

upon in the “Costume” section of this chapter.


31

Held Objects

A variety of ceremonial objects can be seen in the Naranjo corpus. All are

closely related to the action being performed and the costume worn by the central figures.

There are a total of thirteen distinct objects, the most common of which is the ceremonial

bar (see Figure 2.10.a.). Stelae 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 14, 20, 22, 25, 31 and 32 all depict there

ruler holding it with cupped hands facing outwards. The most common visual elements

of a ceremonial bar are the crossbands on the center bar with a serpent head on each end.

Typically, each serpent head has an ancestor or a deity head in the jaw. Sosa, Schele,

Freidel and Parker associate the Ceremonial Bar with the ecliptic (Sosa 1986: 185-196;

Freidel, Schele and Parker 1993: 76). Art historian Flora Clancy noted that most rulers

only depict themselves holding them once while nearly half of all rulers over the Maya

regions show it on their first stela (Clancy 1994: 24). She suggests that the Ceremonial

Bar is closely tied to Early Classic representations of birth and creation. When the ruler

held this object, they visibly supported the transformative energies behind or within

creation and its correlation to warfare, which she refers to as the “cosmic struggle of the

ceremonial bar” (Clancy 1994: 37-41). Clancy discusses the significance of the

Ceremonial Bar in the eastern area of the Central Lowlands. The sites located in this

region have the highest frequency of images depicting Ceremonial Bars (Clancy 1994:

24). Naranjo has a total of eleven examples. What can be determined from this is that

the ceremonial bar was a significant symbol of rulership for the people of Naranjo.

Next, Stelae 8, 16 and 38 depict two styles of the Tripartite Staff, which was first

identified by Tatiana Proskouriakoff (1950: 95-100). Both variants possess the same

shaft consisting of three knots flanked by two spondylus shells. These are separated by


32

woven wooden sections. Stelae 8 and 16 depict a weaponized version with a serpent

head opening its mouth with a flint head coming out, while Stela 38 ends with a bundle of

feathers (see Figure 2.10.b. and c.). Clancy suggests that this object when held

diagonally much like on Stela 38 served a similar ritual functions as the ceremonial bar

(1994: 36). Clancy further argued that the weaponized version seen on Stelae 8 and 16 is

related to the cosmic struggle embedded in the imagery of the ceremonial bar (Clancy

1994: 37).

Third, the penance staff is represented on Stelae 17, 30, 33 and 41 (see Figure

2.10.d). It is composed of plain wooden pole with three sections of the triple knots

superimposing a textile wrap referencing bloodletting and penance (Macri and Looper

2003: 256). It is most often shown paired with the jaguar claw eccentric blade, which is

held in the opposite hand. This staff is unusual outside of Naranjo; the only other

example I encountered in my research was Sacul Stela 2 which is a site that was a part of

the Naranjo-Sa’al polity (see Chapter 4). This staff is associated with “Fire Lighting”

ceremony and the Jaguar God of the Underworld impersonators discussed later in this

chapter.

The figures on Stelae 13, 23 and 28 all hold a K’awiil scepter and a shield (see

Figure 2.10.e.). This scepter is a common symbol of rulership across most of Classic

Maya art (Schele and Freidel 1990: 414). The serpent leg is used as the handle and is

grasped in either the left or right hand. The shield is commonly seen in side profile. The

handle is located on the back and the shield always possesses a feather trim. K’awiil,

being the lightning deity, can be understood as being the personification of Cha’ak’s axe.

The striking of the Cha’ak’s axe creates lightning (Stuart 2010: 291). Stelae 13 and 23


33

both depict the kings impersonating Yop-aat, an aspect of Cha’ak the rain god. It is also

important to note that Stela 3 depicts Lady Six Sky holding a K’awiil bloodletter

composed of a K’awiil mask, feathers and a stingray spine while standing upon a Cha’ak

head. This is a further example of K’awiil’s association with the act of bloodletting.

Two types of spears are represented in the Naranjo corpus. First, there is the atlatl

or spear thrower and darts depicted on Stela 2 (see Figure 2.10.f). This object is

represented by two short spears tied together and held behind a shield. These would have

been launched from a spear thrower in battle. Both of these items show their holder

dressed for battle. Stela 2 depicts Smoking Squirrel dressed in the “Star War” costume

and Stelae 4 and 21 are both associated with the Underworld Jaguar God costume

discussed below. The second type is represented on Stelae 1, 4 and 21. This is a plain

spear consisting of a simple wooden shaft and a lithic point (see Figure 2.10.g.).

Stelae 11, 19 and 21 all depict the Underworld Jaguar God Shield. This object is

a circular shield depicting the face of the deity which is recognized by its fanged mouth

and cruller wrapping beneath the eyes and along the bridge of the nose. The face is

encircled by a framing element and possesses a plumed trim of cropped feathers. This

shield is typically associated with the Underworld Jaguar Costume discussed below and

seems to be common across the Maya region (see Figure 2.10.h.). The Underworld

Jaguar Deity is a member of the Palenque Triad first identified by the epigrapher,

Heinrich Berlin in 1963 (Berlin 2001: 430-431). The current consensus is that this god

represents the sun traveling through the underworld after it sets in the west (Ishihara

2009: 18).


34

In this paragraph I list the objects that are not strongly represented in the Naranjo

corpus. These objects either appear in varied forms or on a single monument. Stela 2

and 19 possess examples of incense burners (see Figure 2.10.i.). Small woven shields can

be seen on Stelae 5 and 8 (see Figure 2.10.j.). These are consisting of a wooden handle

and round woven section. It is possible that these are the frontal display of the same

shield seen in profile with the K’awiil scepter. The next object is the “plain staff”

depicted on Stela 11 (see Figure 2.10.k.). While the figure is dressed as a ruler, it is

unclear what the function of the staff was. Next, there is the offering bowl shown on

Stela 24. The contents in this bowl are hieroglyphics that translate to “the cave entering

of nine miin (see Figure 2.10.l.); (Tokovinine and Fialko 2007: 6),” which, I suggest, may

be associated with the cave found beneath Structure C-4. This phrase does also appear on

Stelae 43 and 45. Its exact meaning remains unclear, but it will be discussed further in

Chapter 3.

The last object of interest is the torch held by Itzmanaaj K’awiil on Stela 35. This

object presumably references the myth of the burning of the reclining jaguar god by the

young god. In the myth Cha’ak and a skeletal death god throw the young jaguar god

down a mountain. Then the deity named Kan-Te-Ajaw throws a stone on to the baby

jaguar and burns him alive (Schele and Mathews 1992: 148). Copan, Tikal and Yaxha all

claim the baby jaguar god as their patron deity ((Schele and Mathews 1992: 148; Grube

1999: 263). This is documented on Yaxha Stela 31 which describes the importance of the

reclining jaguar god to the city (Grube 1999: 263). Stela 35 symbolically shows the

Naranjo Lord Itzmanaaj K’awiil burning the captured Yaxha Lord K’inich Lakamtuun

disguised as the patron god of the Yaxha capital (see Figure 2.9.m.); (Grube 1999: 264).


35

What this section shows is that Naranjo utilized many objects during its ceremonies.

While these objects were important, they were not the most influential ritual items at the

site.

Knee Ornaments

Knee Ornaments are fairly in the Naranjo imagery. While the majority of stelae

show their figures without, two styles can be observed. The first style is the “Ajaw” face

which can be observed on Stelae 13, 14 and 38 (see Figure 2.11.a). This item is

composed of a square jade beaded band supporting an ajaw mask. Below this mask,

tassels of square and round jade beads can be observed. The second major type is the

textile “Triangle” version. This object is worn slightly above the knee and consists of a

textile band from which a series of tassels composed of two to three triangles (see Figure

2.11.b.). This style can be observed on Stelae 2 and 19. This seems to be associated with

bloodletting rituals and in both cases appears with the incense burners. The inscriptions

on Stela 2 shows describes the sacrifice of Ucanal’s lord Shield Jaguar for the summer

solstice event of 712 C.E. (Schele and Freidel 1990: 193). Stela 19 describes a scatter

ritual conducted by K’ahk Ukalaw Chan Chaak in 780 C.E. While the rituals were

similar, the collective costumes worn by the two separate rulers differed greatly. Despite

this, it is possible this was a piece of regalia that was selected as a personal preference of

the lord.

Necklaces

Necklaces were an important part of regalia and a valuable prestige item. Naranjo

possesses seven separate examples in its corpus. The most common style is the Square


36

Jade Bead type, which is composed of varying rows of perforated square jade beads.

This can be seen on Stelae 1, 3, 6, 13, 14, 19, 21, 22, 31 and 37 (see Figure 2.12.a).

Second is the “Large Rounded Jade Bead” style which is composed of varying rows of

large round jade beads. This can be seen on Stelae 2, 7, 12, 20, 25, 38 and 41 (see Figure

2.12.b.). Both of these types seem most common with the Yop-aat headdresses and the

horizontal bar pectorals. The third version is the “Shell Necklace” seen on Stela 33. This

necklace is composed of a random assortment of shells hung around the neck (see Figure

2.12.c.). It is significant to note that it is adorned by a figure wearing a headdress

representing the Waterlily Jaguar form of GIII. Next, there is the “Darkness Glyph”

necklace seen on Stela 30 (see Figure 2.12.d). This elaborate style is composed of the

glyph representing “darkness” between multiple horizontal bands. Shells also hang

beneath. The final two styles can be paired together as the “Plumed” type (see Figure

2.12.e.). Stela 5 depicts a simple low hanging necklace covered in feathers. This same

necklace appears again on Stela 11 but with a trophy head attached (see Figure 2.12.f).

Necklaces seem to be a personal choice rather than a piece of costume.

Non-Human Entities: Ancestral Spirits, Vision Serpents, Deities and Animals

Most of the figures depicted on the Naranjo corpus can be classified as humans,

either ruling elites or captives. However, there are seven stelae that possess non-human

or ancestral entities. The most common of these entities is seen on Stelae 1, 2 and 3,

which all depict Smoking Squirrel or Lady Six Sky standing on a head depicting Cha’ak

(see Figure 2.13.a) the Maya storm god (Greene, Robert and Graham 1972: 322; Ishihara

2009: 10-11). I suggest this to be a visual reference to the cave located due north of the

three stelae behind Structure A-15. Chapter 3 will provide an extended discussion


37

regarding Stelae 1, 2 and 3’s relation to topography. An ancestral figure appears on Stela

45, the earliest known monument, which depicts Naatz Chan Ahk standing beneath his

deceased father, Tzik’in Bahlam (see Figure 2.13.b) (Tokovinine and Fialko 2007: 10).

Unfortunately, due to the heavy fragmentation of the monument, nothing else can be

identified. However, Tzik’in Bahlam is engulfed in a blood or smoke scroll which was a

typical Early Classic artistic element (Tokovinine and Fialko 2007: 4). Stela 37 is

Naranjo’s only known example of a vision serpent (see Figure 2.13.c). It shows an

unknown figure, possibly Lady Six Sky, standing in a frontal pose while a serpent sprouts

out of the ground and branches into two separate coils. The serpent also displays flayed

skin and blood dots. The upper section of the serpent cannot be discussed because the

middle portion of this monument is lost. Lastly, an animal appears on one monument.

Stela 40 depicts Smoking Squirrel standing on a rabbit (Stone and Zender 2011: 45). Its

face is depicted in a frontal position while in it supports a Naranjo emblem glyph on each

of its bent elbows (see Figure 2.13.d).

Nose Ornaments

Nose Ornaments are rare in the Naranjo imagery. The vast majority of figures

lack this feature. Only four separate designs can be observed. The first and most

common is the “Knot with Tassel” type (see Figure 2.14.a.). This can be seen on Stelae

8, 13, 21, 23 and 28. It is composed of a single knotted textile strip ending in two cloth

tassels hangs. These tassels are presumably the ends of the strip of textile ran through the

nose piercing. The second design is the “Single Knot with No Tassels” ornament (see

Figure 2.14.b.). This can be seen on Stelae 4 and 25. Next, there is the “Tipple Knot

with a Single Tassel” found on Stelae 33 (see Figure 2.14.c.). Stela 30 depicts an


38

example of the elaborate “Bloodletter” piece, which consists of the triple knots associated

with bloodletting or penance glyph (ZYC), below which a tassel hangs (Macri and

Looper 2003: 256). The final type can be seen on Stela 11 which possesses a nose

ornament consisting of a floral base and two tassels. I classified this style as the “Floral”

ornament (see Figure 2.14.d.). Nose ornaments, much like knee ornaments and bracelets,

seem to be a ruler’s personal choice rather than an important piece of a costume.

Pectorals

Pectorals are a type of jewelry similar to necklaces but they hang over the sternum

and tend to be large single-piece objects. They seem to be large jade objects carved into

a tube that was hung around the neck (Taube and Ishihara-Brito 2012: 195). There are

twelve designs represented in the Naranjo corpus. The most common is the “Skull”

design (see Figure 2.15.a.). This can be seen on Stelae 7, 19 and 38. This object is

composed of a horizontal skull symmetrically flanked by square jade beads and round

jade bead tassels between two curled half scrolls. Stela 13 depicts the same skull pectoral

superimposed by a “Swirl” pectoral, which can be recognized by is spiral center with for

dots (see Figure 2.15.b.). This pectoral has the same frame as the skull pectoral. Stelae

24 and 28 depicts this swirl style by itself. This design is comparable to knotted textile

Chak Xib wears on the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Robicsek 1972: 40). Since the

vessel depicts a seen of sacrifice, this pectoral may be referencing bloodletting of the

lords are engaging in. Next, there is the “Bloodletter” style that can be seen on Stela 8

(see Figure 2.15.c.). Again, this object depicts the three knots associated with a

bloodletting penance (Macri and Looper 2013: 256). The knots are symmetrically

flanked by three scrolls. Stela 6 depicts the simple pectoral consisting of an oval piece of


39

jade with an inlaid oval much like many of the earspools previously discussed (see Figure

2.15.d.). This oval is flanked by the same framing element as the skull pectoral. Stela 21

possesses a pectoral consisting of a large spondylus shell (see Figure 2.15.e.). Stela 12

depicts a horizontal squirrel head with the same framing elements noted on the oval and

skull pectorals (see Figure 2.15.f.). Lastly, Stela 41 depicts a pectoral consisting of an

Ajaw or K’awiil mask. Due to erosion it is impossible to properly identify (see Figure

2.15.g.). The pectoral worn by the rulers of Naranjo seem to be more of a personal

preference rather than a costume element.

Footwear

Naranjo’s visual corpus exhibits a variety of different sandals. A total of nine

styles can be observed. The most common is the “Double Mat” type (see Figure 2.16.a.).

This sandal consists of square register on the heel containing the “mat” symbol,

superimposed by a second register containing a quadripartite with an inlayed mat symbol

or glyph ZQ8 (Macri and Looper 2013: 228). The hem tends to be plumed and the sandal

is tied across the top of the foot. This can be seen on Stelae 6, 40, 21, 24 and 20. The

second classification is the “Mat with Bone and Jade Top” style (see Figure 2.16.b.).

This sandal has a register on the heel depicting a crossband. The upper ankle section is

composed of square jade beads, superimposed with bone extensions. This version seems

most common with Lady Six Sky and can be seen on Stelae 29, 31 and 37. Next, there is

the “Double K’in” sandal (see Figure 2.16.c.). This style has separate registers on the

heel and the ankle, both of which has the symbol XQ3 glyph meaning “sun” (Macri and

Looper 2013:197). This style can either be hemmed with beads or feathers. Stelae 38

and 43 have a simple knotted ankle wrap sandals (see Figure 2.16.d.).


40

Stela 14 depicts a sandal type that has a serpent head as the ankle section (see

Figure 2.16.e.). Stela 2 also possesses serpent-themed sandals. However, here the

serpent head is in the same location as the previously discussed style but is heavily

stylized. This registers sits above a heel register depicting a crossband (see Figure

2.16.f.). Stela 12 has a unique sandal style that possesses an avian head on the heel and a

bundle of trimmed feathers on the top of the foot. The sandal seems to emulating the

entire body of a bird (see Figure 2.16.g). Due to the variability of sandal types, this

particular garment does not seem to be associated with any specific costume and was

selected based on the ruler’s personal preference.

Skirts

Much like most sites in the Maya region, skirts are a common article of clothing

that appear in the imagery. They are separate from the aprons that usually superimpose

them. All skirt types discussed are associated with male figures, except the netted jade

bead skirt which is associated only with Lady Six Sky. Stelae 19 and 41 are the only two

examples of a central figure without a skirt. There are four separate types that can be

identified in the Naranjo corpus. The most common is the jaguar pelt with a beaded hem

(see Figure 2.17.a.). This appears on Stelae 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 20, 28, 33 and 38. The

second version is the jade skirt which is associated with the “Xoc-Fish” belt and Lady Six

Sky (see Figure 2.17.b.). This costume discussed in greater detail in the “Costume”

section of this chapter. This skirt is made from a netted pattern of jade beads. The third

version is an asymmetrical design in which triangular pieces of textile extend to cover the

thigh and the knee of the opposite leg (see Figure 2.17.c.). It seems to be decorated with

geometric designs but unfortunately both stelae that depict this skirt are in too poor


41

condition to describe. Next, there is the Serpent Skirt seen on Stela 2 (see Figure

2.17.d.). This skirt is composed of a textile embroidered with the image of a serpent and

an elaborate hem made of jade beads. This skirt seems to be associated with the “Star

War Costume” discussed below.

Thrones

Five examples of thrones are depicted in the Naranjo corpus. Thrones in this

context are elevated platforms upon which the figure sits. The first is on the upper

register of Stela 9 (see Figure 2.18.a.). This appears to be plain limestone block incised

with glyphs that are now illegible. A pelt rests on the top of the block but little else can

be recognized due to erosion. On Stela 42 is an interesting zoomorphic throne (see

Figure 2.18.b.). It is in the form of a lizard that possesses the Naranjo emblem glyph as

its eye. Unfortunately, looters absconded with the rest of the monument thus destroying

the throne’s original iconographic context. Stela 22 depicts Smoking Squirrel seated on a

jaguar cushion resting on a large toponym (see Figure 2.18.c.); (Tokovine and Fialko

2007: 8). The back of Stela 19 shows an unknown woman (presumably a wife of K'ahk'

Ukalaw Chan Chaak) seated on stone throne. This throne consists of a stone slab

supported by a stone leg (see Figure 2.18.d.). Only half of the throne is visible because it

continues out of the register. Lastly, is the elaborate throne depicted on Stela 32. Here,

the last known ruler of Naranjo, Waxaklajuun Ubaah K’awiil can be seen seated upon a

scaffold decorated with glyphs and celestial signs (see Figure 2.18.e.). Each of the

celestial bands ends with a stylized muan head. The muan bird is associated with God

L’s headdress and is named 13 Sky. He is the personification of the sky (Schele and

Miller 1986: 55). A reed crocodile can be seen resting atop the scaffold. Upon that, there


42

is the actual throne. It is decorated with crossbands (possibly referencing Naranjo’s

emblem glyph), jade celts and ajaw masks. Unfortunately, the upper section of the

throne cannot be seen due to erosion. Stela 32’s scaffold and throne is comparable to

Piedras Negras Stela 25 (Clancy 2009: 28). While thrones are unusual in the Naranjo

corpus, the five examples discussed do emphasize Naranjo as the center of a polity. They

provide visualizations of the courtly activities of Lords and the royal family.

Costumes

There are five major costumes that can readily be identified within the Naranjo

corpus. These costumes have been identified by previous scholars at different sites

across the Maya region. In this section, I list the visual components of each of the five

costumes and compare each stela that possessed the same costume to identify which

pieces of regalia were associated with it. All of the individual components of regalia that

make a costume are outlined in the previous sections. The first of these are the “K’awiil

Scepter Taking Ceremony Regalia” (see Figure 2.19.) which can be seen on Stelae 6, 7,

9, 12, 13, 14, 20, 22, 23, 28 and possibly 45. Tokovinine and Fialko suggest that this

costume was inspired by the jaguar and stingray “paddler” deities (2007: 6). This is due

in part to the glyphs A5-7 found in the inscriptions of Stela 13, which correlates this style

of garment with the paddler deities. The paddler gods are associated with traveling

between the realm of the living and the world of the dead. In a ceremonial context they

typically reference royal bloodletting rituals and period endings (Schele and Freidel

1990: 413). This theme holds true at Naranjo. The most consistent items that appear are

the Yop-aat headdress, the skeletal pectoral, the triple ajaw mask belt, jaguar skirt, ajaw

knee ornaments and the Double Fretted God K apron. On Stelae 6, 7, 12, 14, 20 and 45


43

all the subjects hold the ceremonial bar. Stelae 13, 23 and 28 depict their figures holding

a K’awiil Scepter and shield. This costume was worn for period ending ceremonies and

when a new ruler would take the throne.

The second major costume is the Underworld Jaguar God costume (see Figure

2.20.) associated with the “New Fire” ritual. For this ritual, the Maya would kindle fires

with a staff. The inscriptions of Stela 30 describe several of these events. This ceremony

was performed for calendrical events, though the specifics remain unclear (Houston and

Stuart 1995: 299). This costume is represented on Stelae 4, 8, 11, 16, 17, 21, 30 and 41.

This type can be identified by most readily by the shell beard, the under-eye cruller and

the smoking jaguar ear located just above the ear. Every example also depicts the

primary figure as a warrior, though there is some variation in the how the costume is

constructed. The Underworld Jaguar God Shield and the Penance Staff both appear to be

associated with this costume. The Underworld Jaguar God seems to hold great

significance for the Naranjo-Sa’al polity. Outside of this region, it is unusual to see lords

impersonating the Jaguar God of the Underworld aspect of GIII (Martin 2006: 6).

Linda Schele and David Friedel note that on Stela 2, Smoking Squirrel is wearing

the Late Classic version of the Star War Costume (see Figure 2.21.); (1990: 194). This

costume is composed of a headdress with trimmed beaded feathers affixed to domed

helmet. On top of this is a stuffed bird. Smoking Squirrel is wearing earspools inscribed

with the glyph for “Ik” and as well as a skull and flint pectoral commonly associated with

the taking of captives. On his shoulders, he is wearing sun god epaulettes. Around his

waist, he wears a knotted belt with shell tinklers and the personified venus apron over a


44

textile skirt. On his back, he wears a backrack composed of trimmed feathers. He holds

a serpentine atlatl in one hand and an incense burner in the other.

Next is the “Net-Skirt-Xoc-Fish-Shell” costume (see Figure 2.22.). This

particular style does overlap with multiple costumes. While the core costume usually

includes a Quadripartite Monster headdress at other sites, Naranjo seems to have had

some flexibility (Stone 1991: 201). Lady Six Sky is the only known figure to have worn

this costume. Stelae 3, 24, 29, and 31 all depict her wearing the jade bead skirt with the

Xok-fish belt. Stela 3 is ambiguous in terms of the type of belt but it may actually be an

ajaw belt. Stela 37 does depict an unknown figure in the Net-Skirt-Xoc-Fish-Shell

costume but it is presumably also Lady Six Sky because no other examples of the

costumes are present in the Naranjo corpus. On Stelae 3, 31 and 37 she wears a K’awiil

headdresses; on Stela 29 she may wear a Yop-aat headdress (though it is hard to discern

because of heavy erosion) and Stela 24 depicts her wearing a Mexican Year Sign

headdress. This costume does seem to be strictly associated with Lady Six Sky,

Naranjo’s only female ruler. Her preference to select the K’awiil headdress on three of

her five portraits may have been an attempt to justify her control over the city. Even

though she was from a separate polity and family and was never officially coroneted,

showing herself impersonating the K’awiil would have delivered a powerful message to

the commoner population of Naranjo because it would emphasize her dynastic

connections to the royal family of Dos Pilas. Additionally, art historian Carolyn E. Tate

suggests that Maya elite women would wear this costume during times of political crisis

when “the male dynasty” was threatened (Tate 1999: 94). Tate specifically notes Lady

Six Sky reigned as regent during a time of political crisis (2002: 302). As discussed in


45

Chapter 1 and 3 of this thesis, the original ruling line had been eliminated during the Star

War of 631 C.E. Lady Six Sky’s use of the costume could have been part of her

symbolic effort to rejuvenate the Naranjo capital.

Stela 35 shows the Naranjo Lord Itznamnaaj K’awiil impersonating the “Young

God” that burns a jaguar deity in a classic Maya myth (see Figure 2.23.); (Stuart 1995:

327-330). This costume is composed of a matted headdress, a single ajaw belt and “Jade

Bracelet With Full Ajaw Glyph Extensions” bracelets. Little else can be identified due to

heavy erosion. This costume was worn during a special event during which Itznamnaaj

K’awiil symbolically shows the burning of the captured Yaxha Lord K’inich Lakamtuun

disguised as the patron god of the Yaxha capital (Grube 1999: 264). Unfortunately, no

other full costumes can readily be identified due to the erosion of the pictorial surfaces or

the general mixing of deities’ aspects in the remaining imagery.

Discussion

While the Naranjo corpus displays a vast variety of visual elements, certain items

and themes can be seen appearing regularly. Much like their contemporaries within the

classic Maya region, Naranjo rulers frequently wore was the Serpent Fretted God K

apron. While there is still much debate regarding the identity of deity represented on the

apron, I argue it is K’awiil based on the phonetic evidence discussed by Stuart (2010:

291-293) and the serpent elements found on the sides. Furthermore evidence can be seen

with its association with the “Taking of the K’awiil Scepter” ceremony at Naranjo.

Additionally, I found that ancestral ties were important for the ruling line of

Naranjo. The rulers demonstrated affiliation to their ancestors by wearing one of the four


46

ajaw style belts. The qualities associated with the ancestral masks on these belts were

further emphasized by the use of the knotted cloth wrapped around the mask that could

be read as the 3M9 glyph meaning wise (Macri and Looper 2003: 307). When the rulers

donned these belts, it was as if they were carrying their “wise” ancestors around their

waists. Other examples include the ancestral spirit depicted on Stela 45, the armband

seen on Stelae 14 and 38 and the Jade Braclets with Ajaw extensions. This theme is taken

a step further with Stela 41’s Underworld Jaguar God belt. Affixed to the back was

another ancestral mask with a square-nose extension. I suggest that this arrangement

referred to the mythic founder of the Naranjo Sa’al polity, “Square-nosed Beastie.”

Certain ritual items also held importance for the Naranjo’s dynasty. As at most of

the other classic period capitals, the K’awiil Scepter, Ceremonial Bar, bloodletters and

incense burners all were understood to be symbols of divine kingship. Two unique items

can be identified as belonging specifically to the Naranjo-Sa’al polity. The first of these

is the “Penance Staff” which appears on Stelae 17, 30, 33 and 41. This staff appears to

be associated with the “New Fire” ceremonies. The second object is the Underworld

Jaguar God Shield. Stelae 11, 19 and 21 all depict this object.

Perhaps the most significant characteristic found in the Naranjo corpus is the

frequent reference to the Underworld Jaguar God aspect of GIII. Stelae 4, 8, 11, 16, 17,

21 and 30 all depict the ruler impersonating this deity. Martin notes that this deity is

rarely impersonated in the Maya region (2006: 6). With Naranjo possessing a high

frequency, it is possible that this god held a higher importance in the Naranjo-Sa’al polity

than other sites. Stelae 4, 8, 11, 16, 17, 21, 30 and 41 all depict the figures

impersonating the Underworld Jaguar God, while Stelae 11, 19 and 21 all depict the


47

figures holding the Underworld God Shield. I propose that the Underworld Jaguar God

may have served as a patron deity of the city. As will be discussed in Chapter 4, the

costume does appear in the vassal of Sacul. Further evidence can be found on Tikal

Temple IV Lintel 2 (see Figure 1.3.), Tikal lord Yik’in Chan K’awiil is sitting on the

captured Naranjo palanquin taken during the Star War of 744 C.E. Behind Yik’in Chan

K’awiil, there is a large statue of figure wearing the elements associated with the

Underworld Jaguar costume. The effigy possesses the shell beard, culler and the

smoking jaguar ear which are all associated with Underworld Jaguar God. Furthermore,

Tikal lord Yik’in Chan K’awiil is clutching an Underworld Jaguar God Shield. It is

possible that Yik’in Chan K’awiil placed himself in the Naranjo throne holding their

symbols of power to emphasize Tikal’s victory over the Naranjo-Sa’al polity.

Conclusions

While Naranjo does share many characteristics with other sites in the region, it

also has some unique items of regalia. The most important of these is the Underworld

Jaguar God shield and costume. This deity specifically held some significance to the

Naranjo-Sa’al polity. While I argue that the Underworld Jaguar God is the patron deity

for Naranjo, it is unclear what the specific symbolic significance truly was because the

figures impersonating this deity are presented as warriors and, as Tokovinine and Fialko

have stated, they are participating in the “New Fire” rituals. In addition to being the

Naranjo patron deity, the Underworld Jaguar God may be associated with period endings

and warfare (2007: 6).

Another important aspect of Naranjo’s ruling identity was ancestral veneration.

This is most commonly referenced through items that depict an ajaw mask such as the


48

many belts, backracks and armbands discussed in this chapter. While this is a common

theme all across the Maya region, at Naranjo the founding deity is also represented and

regarded as an ancestor. Square-nosed Beastie is the mythic founder of the city and its

effigy can be seen wearing headdresses and the backrack of Stela 41.

In conclusion, while Naranjo’s ruling elite utilized pan-Maya symbols of power

such as the K’awiil scepter, ceremonial bar, bloodletters and the tripartite staff, they also

possessed objects that were unique to their political identity such as the Penance Staff and

the Underworld Jaguar Shield. The Square-nosed Beastie and the Underworld Jaguar

God were central to their political identity.


49

Chapter 3

A Geospatial Analysis of the Naranjo Corpus

Introduction

In Classic Maya culture, rulers organized their cities to solidify their own power.

The city centers are constructed landscapes built for the management of resources, to

reflect cultural ideology and to facilitate the public displays of power conducted by the

rulers. The city planners would often orientate the city to reference natural formations or

celestial alignments in the surrounding landscape (Aveni 2001: 261). The Maya would

often use features along the visible horizon to track the 365-day calendar and the 260-day

calendar through the movement of the sun (Green 2014: 17). Structures and monuments

would frequently reference these alignments in their spatial placement. One such

example would be the correlations between the Temple of the Sun at Palenque and the

eastern slopes of the Mirador Mountain. Archaeoastronomer Alonso Mendez and his

team discovered that features on the eastern horizon marked the solar solstices, equinoxes

and nadir and zenith passages (Mendez et al. 2005: 7-19). The sunrise of the summer

solstice would occur where the Temple of the Cross meets the visible horizon. The

winter solstice is marked by the sun rising in line with the peak of the Mirador Mountain.

The Temple of the Cross’s architecture also marked these events with windows that focus

shafts of light on these days (Mendez et al. 2005: 7-19).

Discovering these alignments can be difficult because of heavy vegetation,

modern day urban development or site destruction. While direct on the ground survey at

the site remains the best method today, these alignments can potentially be identified


50

virtually. This chapter will discuss the application of digital mapping programs,

specifically ESRI’s geographic information system (GIS) ArcGIS 10.3 and @Last

Software’s SketchUp Pro to recreate the topography and the transit of the sun’s light and

shadows across the site. It will then consider how Naranjo’s iconography was spatially

informed. With this GIS model, I have reconstructed the urban center of Naranjo at the

time of its abandonment. This has enabled me to gain insight into how the architecture,

sculpture and viewer all engaged within the spatial matrix. In this chapter, I will provide

a brief overview of my methods, the observations yielded from the geodatabase, and the

results of this study.

Methods

For this study, I utilized two programs. The first was Sketchup Pro, a 3D model

builder and the second was ArcGIS 10.3 and its two sub programs of ArcScene and

ArcMap. This process is experimental, I have not encountered any previous publications

that bear any similarity to this study. While solar alignments in archaeological features is

a common discussion, most research is carried out directly in the field. The process I

have developed is meant identify possible alignments that can authenticated in the field.

First, I downloaded a Degree Elevation Model (DEM) from Harris Map Mart. I

then uploaded it into ArcMap and georeferenced a map published in Ian Graham’s

Corpus of Hieroglyphic Inscriptions (see Figure 3.1.) to the

“WGS_1984_UTM_Zone_16N” coordinate system. A coordinate system is an x and y

grid system used to reference the Earth’s surface. The “16N” references the longitude

that Naranjo is found within. This georeferenced map was then exported to a separate

file to preserve its spatial reference. In Sketchup Pro, I imported the same map drawn by


51

Ian Graham as a footprint guide (or a plan map for the bases of all the structures). Then,

I created 3D models for Stelae 1-41 and the major structures found at the site. The stelae

dimensions were taken from Ian Graham’s Corpus of Hieroglyphic Inscriptions, while

the structure dimensions were taken from Vilma Fialko’s field reports and publications.

Each model was individually rendered and then combined to the main 3D model of

Naranjo.

Next these data from ArcMap and Sketchup Pro needed to be combined in

ArcScene. The DEM was added into the program. I opened the base height tab in the

DEM’s properties directory and converted it to a 3D model by assigning the height based

on pixel value. Each pixel has an associated numerical value that represents its elevation

in meters. I uploaded the georeferenced map of Naranjo and draped it over the rendered

DEM. In Sketchup Pro, I converted my Naranjo 3D model to a Calloda file format to

insure that it would be compatible with ArcScene. This Calloda file of the Naranjo 3D

model was then uploaded to Arcscene. It was properly scaled and correlated with the

DEM. At this stage of the study, the topography surrounding the Naranjo site core had

been rendered to 30 meter accuracy within ArcScene. This 30 meter measurement refers

to the square amount of land represented in each pixel. The 3D model of the site core

includes all the major structures of the city and Stelae 1-41. Stelae 42-45 were omitted

because I lacked accurate coordinate points.

In ArcMap, I then conducted a viewshed analysis to determine what was visible

from the center of Naranjo. A viewshed analysis calculates what is visible in the

surrounding topography to a viewer standing at a selected observer point. I placed the

observer point in the B Group. This viewshed raster was converted to a vector file and


52

the visible area was isolated into a separate layer (Figure 3.2.). This layer was imported

into ArcScene and draped over the DEM to highlight the visible horizon. Next in

ArcScene, I ran the “Sun Shadow Volume” tool to determine the sun’s location during

the sunrises and sunsets during the summer and winter solstices. I set the tools

parameters to simulate the sun’s movement on the summer and winter solstices and the

spring and fall equinoxes. These dates were acquired from timeanddate.com which

allows the user to select the region, solar event and year. This enabled me to account for

the precession of the equinoxes. I selected the year 750 C.E. for the analysis (See

Appendix 1, Table 4.).

Discussion

This geospatial analysis provided several results regarding how the imagery,

carved on the Naranjo monuments, functioned within a spatial context. Before these

results can be discussed, certain elements of the Classic Maya religion must be outlined

to provide insight into how the viewers would have perceived and engaged with these

sculptures within a given space.

During the Classic period, the royal families of the Maya Lowlands established

themselves at the center of an elaborate funerary cult (Sharer and Traxler 2006: 296-298).

However, the worship of the royal lineage was a form of placemaking borrowed from the

commoner population. As suggested by bioarchaeologist Andrew K. Scherer (2015:

105), commoner families during the Preclassic would place the bodies beneath the house

to lay claim to the land and resources. Burying the deceased ancestors ties a family to the

given location. According to modern Tzeltal Maya belief, souls or ch’ulel can be reused.

Ch’ulel is of the three aspects of the Maya spiritual essence. Ch’ulel specifically is


53

understood to be the life force that animates the body (Stuart 2011: 72). After an

individual passes away, their ch’ulel enters a “pool” of life energy or ch’uletik controlled

by ancestral deities (Calvin 1997: 870). The collection of family ancestors acts as a

centering of power. The burial itself becomes a liminal place were ch’ulel exits and

returns to the world of the living to be reborn as a new member of the lineage. This can

be seen in the practices performed by royal elites of the major Classic period city centers

such as who buried their dead within the large plazas and pyramids. Through the

interment of the dead, the space received its power and became defined as a place. From

this, it can be understood that the living Maya ruler planted his ancestors beneath the city

center to establish his tie and control to the place his lineage has established. This is most

clearly represented with Copan’s dynasty founder K’inich Yax K’uk Mo’ who was

interred near the core of the site. Many of the buildings built in Copan’s main acropolis

surrounding K’inich Yax K’uk Mo’s tomb were dedicated to his memory (Martin and

Grube 2008: 193). The deceased ancestors were placed within the liminal burial space

into which their ch’ulel entered the family’s ch’uletik controlled by the founding deity.

At Naranjo, the dynasty was founded by Square-nosed Beastie who was

understood to be an ancestor of the mortal rulers of the first dynasty. This ancestral tie to

the city of Naranjo allowed these rulers to presumably to gain the commoners’ trust upon

their placement on the throne. However, as discussed in Chapter 1, after the passing of

Aj Wosal Chan K’inich around 615 C.E., Naranjo entered into several conflicts with the

Caracol kingdom to the south. These frequent wars offset the balance of the greater

Calakmul Alliance of which both Caracol and Naranjo were members (Martin and Grube

2008: 73). In December of 631 C.E. (9.9.13.14.14) Calakmul carried out a Star War


54

against the city of Naranjo resulting in the disappearance of the ruling line for Naranjo

(Martin and Grube 2008: 73).

Several inscriptions found at the site describe the “arrival” of Lady Six Sky.

“Arrival” in this context typically means a dynasty foundation or re-foundation (Martin

and Grube 2008: 74). Lady Six Sky appears to have been selected by the rulers of

Calakmul to rejuvenate the city and to reestablish Naranjo’s dynasty. She was the

daughter of Ruler 1 of Dos Pilas, the exiled brother of a Tikal lord who supports the

Calakmul kingdom (Martin and Grube 2008: 76). She gave birth to a son in 688 named

Smoking Squirrel who was inaugurated in May 693 C.E. (Martin and Grube 2008: 75).

These two rulers at Naranjo struggled to establish their power as outsiders, separate from

the original lineage founded by Square Nosed Beastie and the ch’uletik of the original

line. These rulers were Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel. The geodatabase provides

some evidence on how these rulers established themselves at the cosmic center of the

Naranjo-Sa’al polity.

Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel produced more monuments than any other

rulers at Naranjo. I suspect that this was an effort to establish their authority over the

previous dynasty. Through the careful spatial placement of monuments, Lady Six Sky

and Smoking Squirrel were able to communicate their authority to the commoners. Each

of their fourteen known monuments were placed in front of the old dynasty’s stelae,

obstructing them from view.

This can clearly be seen in the easternmost C Group in which Lady Six Sky and

Smoking Squirrel erected eight stelae (see Figure 3.3.). As the viewer moved between

Structures C-4 and C-7, the individual would first pass by Stelae 21, 22 and 23 all of


55

which documented the coronation and military triumphs of Smoking Squirrel. Due south

in front of Structure C-7, there was Stela 24, dedicated to Lady Six Sky. As noted in

Chapter 2, Stela 24 makes reference to a “cave entering of nine miin” (Tokovinine and

Fialko 2007: 6). While modern understanding of this event is ambiguous, it is important

to note a cave located under Structure C-5 just a 100 meters from Stela24. When the

viewer approached Structure C-9, the individual encounter Stelae 28-31, all erected by

Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel between 695 and 721 C.E. These monuments

obstructed and dwarfed Stelae 25, 26 and 27, two of which are known to have been

commissioned by Naranjo’s Lord Double Comb between 615 and 623 C.E. Stela 26 is

far too damaged to identify whom it depicted. This obstruction forces the viewer to walk

among and behind Stelae 28-29 to access Aj Wosal Chan K’inich’s Stelae 25 and 27

(Figure 3.4.).

This pattern can also be seen in Group A, a small triadic group in the Western

section of the city (see Figure 3.5.). Here Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel erected

Stelae 1, 2 and 3 in front of Stela 4. When the viewer approached the group, they see a

well balanced arrangement. Stela 2, in the center, stands over three meters and is framed

by Stelae 1 and 3 which are approximately two meters in height (see Figure 3.6.). The

figures of Smoking Squirrel on Stela 1 and Lady Six Sky on Stela 3, face towards Stela 2

creating a sort of dialogue between the monuments. Again, the presumably older Stela 4

is completely overshadowed by Stelae 1, 2 and 3 which are united visually by the

presence of a Cha’ak god head located in the lower register of each stela. Each of these

stelae was erected to celebrate a period ending. Stela 1 was erected first on 9.13.10.0.0

(January 24, 702 C.E.), while Stelae 2 and 3 are both dated to 9.14.1.3.19 (February 14,


56

713 C.E.). Furthermore, David Stuart notes that stelae functioned as a temporal

representation of Cha’ak’s lightning strike caused by his axe (Stuart 2010: 289). Cha’ak

was believed to reside “where the mist gathers, such as rocky out cropping or caves”

(Stuart 2010: 287). Directly behind Structure A-15 is a cave which may have been

important during ritual performances. It was large enough to accommodate Maler’s

camp during his initial survey of the site. I suggest the Cha’ak heads on Lady Six Sky

and Smoking Squirrel’s stelae may be referencing this cave.

I argue that the placement of monuments at these two architectural groups reveals

two major concepts. The first is that Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel designed and

erected their monuments to overpower the memory of the previous line. The second is

that these rulers were informed by the natural and preexisting man-made landscape as

they selected locations for new stelae. When the rulers of the new regime installed

monuments at Group C in 702 C.E., they referred to the cave under Structure C-5 in the

text of Stela 24. When they erected their stelae at Group A between 702 and 713 C.E.,

they depicted themselves standing on a Cha’ak head possibly referencing the cave behind

A-15.

Another interesting spatial correlation can be seen with Stela 16 and 17. These

monuments are located at the base of Structure B-20 (see Figure 3.7.). Both of these

stelae depict Aj Wosal Chan K’inich in profile. Much like Stelae 1, 2 and 3, Stelae 16

and 17 spatially reference each other in the imagery. The figures face inwards creating a

sort of dialogue. This was certainly a conscious decision by the sculptors when they

produced the monuments.


57

The second objective of the study was to understand if the monuments were

integrated into any solar alignments. As outlined in the “Methods” section, the ArcScene

tool named “Sun Shadow Volume” was implemented. This tool simulated the solar

movements over the course of Summer and Winter Solstices and Equinoxes. Zenith

passages and the Venus cycles were omitted due to the limitations of the technology.

While I did not discover any direct correlation between the monuments and the sun, I did

find a correlation between the two large platforms supporting Naranjo Structure B-15 and

B-5 (see Figure 3.8.). The horizon visible at the center of the city during the sunset of the

winter solstice matched the temples. Additionally the shadow lines produced from the

Sun Shadow Analysis indicate that the sun would have set between these two mountains

and the two temples. This certainly may indicate that these two structures were erected to

track the sun’s movement. It is important to note that this was purely a GIS study; a field

survey will be needed to determine if these results are correct.

Conclusions

My geodatabase revealed that the sculpture at Naranjo functioned within a

carefully constructed space. Each monument’s location was selected to emphasize

certain messages of power. It seems that for Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel the

erection and placement of stelae was intended to overpower the previous lineage. They

placed their monuments in front of older, smaller monuments to obstruct them from view,

thus dominating the public space.

While the sculptural subjects do not appear to be informed by the solstice cycles

as seen at Yaxchilán (Tate 1992: 113), the surrounding landscape was frequently

referenced in Naranjo’s imagery. This can be seen with Stelae 1, 2, and 3 in that they


58

depict Smoking Squirrel and Lady Six Sky standing on a Cha’ak head. I argue this head

references the cave located behind Structure A-15. Additionally, the sculptural forms at

Naranjo can engage other monuments. This can be seen with Stelae 16 and 17 which

depict lord Aj Wosal Chan K’inich on separate monuments facing himself. A second

example can be seen again with Stelae 1, 2 and 3 on the southern side of Structure A-15

in which the figures on Stelae 1 and 3 have their heads turned to the taller Stela 2 in the

center.

Lastly, the Sun Shadow Volume analysis revealed that the major platforms

supporting Structures B-15 and B-5 seem to reference the visible horizon where the sun

sets during the winter solstices. This means that while the sculptures did not reference

and celestial alignments, the structures around them certainly do.


59

Chapter 4

The Vassal Sites

Introduction

As discussed in Chapter 1, during the reigns of Lady Six Sky and Smoking

Squirrel (682-744 C.E.) the Naranjo-Sa’al polity greatly expanded the boundaries through

the acts of gift giving and warfare that engaged other sites in the region. Xunantunich,

Sacul and Ucanal were the most important among these sites. The rulers of these sites

heavily engaged in the political interactions of Tikal, Caracol, Calakmul and Naranjo and

frequently alternated between political autonomy and subordination. This chapter

focuses on the visual corpus present at these three sites. I have excluded monuments that

lacked either imagery or a long count date. The primary objective is to understand how

power was visually presented at these sites during times of political autonomy versus

times of subordination to Naranjo.

Methods

I implemented the same methods I utilized for my analysis of the Naranjo corpus

presented in Chapter 2. I first took a full inventory of all the visual elements presented on

the corpuses of Xunantunich, Sacul and Ucanal. Each element was classified by

symbolic meaning, utilitarian function or basic subject matter. These were recorded on a

series of spreadsheets. Next, I organized all of the monuments chronologically to

determine the artistic shifts associated with certain political events. Each site will be

presented separately in the following sections. The order in which they are presented is

chronological.


60

Sacul

Sacul is located in the Maya Mountains along the Mopan River. It is unclear

when the site was discovered but its name first appeared in Ian Graham’s Corpus of

Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions (Graham 1975: 1:23; Mayer 1990: 1). Due to the site’s

location, little work has been carried out. In 1990, the site was still only accessible by a 5

½ hour horse ride (Mayer 1990: 1). Six carved stelae have been discovered that were

erected between 731-790 C.E. (Mayer 1990: 5), or quite late in the Late Classic Period.

Of the six carved monuments, only three have legible iconography: Stelae 6, 9

and 10. Sacul Stela 6, dedicated on 9.17.9.4.9 or March 4th, 780 C.E. (Escobedo and

Wanyerka 2006: 254), represents an unknown ruler impersonating the Underworld Jaguar

God, a major figure strongly represented at Naranjo. What is even more interesting is

that the ruler’s costume is the same as that depicted on Naranjo Stela 11 which is dated to

October 14th, 803 C.E. The figures on both sculptures possess plain staffs, Underworld

Jaguar God shields and the domed, plumed headdress with the “casper” glyph.

Interestingly enough, Sacul’s Stela 6 predates Naranjo’s Stela 11 by about twenty years

(see Figure 4.1.). It is possible that Sacul was conducting a “New Fire” ritual overseen

by Naranjo and that this style of the Underworld Jaguar God costume was emulated by

the Naranjo’s K'ahk' Ukalaw Chan Chaak.

Sacul Stela 9, which was dedicated on 9.18.0.0.0 or October 9th, 790 C.E., depicts

an unknown ruler wearing a similar costume as the one worn by K'ahk' Ukalaw Chan

Chaak on Naranjo Stela 33 dated to 9.17.10.0.0 or November 30th, 780 C.E. Both figures

are wearing a similar headdress, a shawl with a geometric design and a single ajaw belt.

The figures both hold a penance staff. As noted in Chapter 2 this is a significant symbol


61

of power associated with Naranjo. The two stelae are not identical; Sacul Stela 9 differs

with its unusual Serpent Fretted God K apron which depicts the deity with an open mouth

and a necklace composed of beaded ajaw masks. It is interesting to note that both Sacul

Stela 6 and 9 depict costumes worn by K'ahk' Ukalaw Chan Chaak of Naranjo who was

contemporary to the erection of these monuments (see Figure 4.2.). This implies a heavy

amount of interaction between Naranjo and Sacul during his reign.

Lastly, Sacul Stela 10 which was dedicated on 9.18.10.0.0 (August 17th, 800)

depicts two unknown figures of equal stature standing over a second register in which a

bound captive appears (see Figure 4.3.). Unfortunately, the monument is far too

weathered to provide any usable comparative data.

Xunantunich

Xuantunich is perhaps the best-known site associated with Naranjo’s domain.

Being located along a central trade route between the Petén region and the Caribbean

made it an important strategic location to control. During the Middle and Late Preclassic

periods many small agricultural settlements had been established in the Belize River

Valley region (Ashmore 2011: 47-48). Xunantunich’s city center rose to prominence

during the Samal phase (600-679 C.E.); (see Table 5, Appendix 1.) and saw an increase

in elite architecture. During the Hats’ Chaak phase (670-780 C.E.), Xunantunich saw

itself integrated into the Naranjo polity. During this period, the Castillo building was

constructed (Ashmore 2011: 54). It is important to note that fragments of a polychrome

drinking vessel were discovered in the Castillo. This vessel included a fragment of the

primary standard sequence (PSS) that included the Naranjo emblem glyph and a date

fragment dating the vessel between 550-650 C.E. Archaeologist Christophe Helmke


62

suggested through personal communication to archaeologists Lecount and Yaeger that the

vessel stylistically resembles other such vessels produced during the rule of Naranjo Lord

Aj Wosal Chan K’inich (Lecount and Yaeger 2010: 340). Shortly after the disappearance

of the original Naranjo’s ruling line in 680 C.E. and the reinstatement of the new dynasty

with Lady Six Sky in 682 C.E., vessels appeared at the sites of Buenavista Del Cayo and

Benque Viejo suggesting that Lady Six Sky was targeting the Belize Valley to restrict the

power of Caracol and gain control over critical trade routes between the Naranjo and the

Caribbean. The style and textual information tie the vessel to the rule of Smoking

Squirrel and Lady Six Sky. Additionally, the expansion and growth of the civic center of

Xunantunich mirrored that of Naranjo’s Group B. Xunantunich lacked a well-established

ruling family which may have resulted in their willingness to enter into the Naranjo-Sa’al

polity or may have made them an easy target for conquest (Lecount and Yeager 2011:

350). Future analysis should consider the 2016 discovery of a new hieroglyphic panel

which is believed to be a section of Naranjo’s hieroglyphic staircase discussing Naranjo’s

defeat at the hands of K’an II of Calakmul. At the time of this study, all publications

regarding the panel were still under peer review (Yuhas 2016).

Xunantunich’s visual corpus appeared after 830 C.E., about the time that Naranjo

fell (Helmke, Awe and Grube 2011: 107-120). Its close proximity makes it possible that

Xunantunich possibly became a seat of power for the Naranjo dynasty (Martin and Grube

2008: 83). The suggestion that the Naranjo royal family relocated to Xunantunich is

derived from the text inscribed on Xunantunich Stela 8, which seems to depict Naranjo’s

emblem glyph. After a re-examination of Xunanunich Stela 8, Helmke, Awe and Grube

suggest that the lord of Naranjo observed an event at Xunantunich, rather than being the


63

subject; although the nature of the event is still unknown (2011: 109). Helmke, Awe and

Grube’s theory is also supported by the rededication of Naranjo Stelae 38, 44 and Altar 2

shortly before Naranjo’s final abandonment (Fialko 2012: 32). I suggest that Fialko’s

discovery of these rededicated monuments at Naranjo indicate there was still a royal

family present at Naranjo after 830 C.E. and the ruler who erected Xunantunich Stela 1

was from a separate family. The sudden appearance of carved stelae at Xunantunich

suggests some new level of autonomy after 830 C.E. I argue the lords emulated the

traditions of the western Petén to solidify and justify their new-found power.

There are four monuments with legible iconography at Xunantunich. These are

Stelae 1, 8 and 9 and Altar 1 which are all grouped together near the base of Structure

A1. All three stelae display a warfare theme which is common for the Terminal Classic

period. Stela 8 does possess a partially legible dedication date that places it at 820 C.E.

(Helmke et al. 2011: 107). Stela 8 depicts a lord standing with a shield and spear (see

Figure 4.4.). He has a simple plumed circular backrack tied to his chest via a cloth strap,

a square jade bead necklace, a single ajaw belt and a plain skirt. He also is wearing a

plumed headdress. Based on the text, Helmke, Awe and Grube hesitantly suggest that

this particular monument seems to have been erected to celebrate a period ending date.

The Lord of Xunantunich carried out a scattering ritual that was overseen by the last

known ruler of Naranjo (Helmke et al. 2011: 109-110). Naranjo Stela 32 and

Xunantunich Stela 8 share the same date of 820 C.E., meaning that Naranjo was still an

active force during this time.

Xunantunich Stela 9 depicts a figure holding a K’awiil Scepter and wearing a

Cha’ak headdress (see Figure 4.5). This headdress includes a unique feature of a


64

hummingbird drinking out of a flower just above the snout of the Cha’ak head. The

figure on Xunantunich Stela 9 wears a Serpent Fretted God K apron, a single ajaw belt, a

jade beaded necklace with a large circular pectoral and a simple plumed backrack. The

costume worn by Stela 9’s figure is similar to the costumes depicted on Naranjo Stelae

13, 23 and 28 which predate Xunantunich Stela 9. Helmke, Awe and Grube suggest that

Xunantunich Stelae 8 and 9 were possibly carved by the same artist and depict the same

lord. This is because Xunantunich Stelae 8 and 9 are stylistically similar and being were

erected within a short period of time (Helmke et al. 2011: 112).

Dating to 849 C.E., Xunantunich Stela 1 (see Figure 4.6.) is the latest monument

erected to possibly celebrate a coronation at the site. It is paired with Xunantunich Altar

1 (Helmke et al. 2011:115-116). Unfortunately, Stela 1 has been heavily damaged

throughout its history. The medial section is heavily eroded and the lower section just

above the butt is fragmented and lost. What can be observed is a ruler standing above a

captive with an Underworld Jaguar God Shield lying by the lord’s right foot. The

primary figure is wearing the same headdress seen on Xunantunich Stela 9. He is also

wearing an intricate square-matted backrack with untrimmed feathers. Probably the most

interesting element is the Underworld Jaguar Shield. As noted in Chapter 2, this object

was an important symbol for Naranjo’s dynasty. While there is not enough surviving text

or imagery to fully understand the true significance of this object, it does show some

continued influence from Naranjo. It is unusual that it is lying on its side rather than

being held by the figure.

The final monument that possesses imagery is Xunantunich Altar 1 (see Figure

4.7.). This monument has been heavily damaged but fortunately, Maler photographed


65

some of the text before it was destroyed. The text on Altar 1 documents the exhuming of

a body. The image depicts a seated skeletal figure with scrolls coming out of the lower

rib cage. These scrolls can be understood to be outpouring blood or rotting matter (Taube

1992: 11). Helmke, Awe and Grube note that the figure is similar in appearance to the

Postclassic version of God A, the skeletal god of death (2011:118).

Ucanal

Ucanal is located in the eastern Petén region on the Mopan River. The site

consists of 114 architectural groups, 26 stelae and 18 altars. Due to shifting political and

economic tides, Ucanal found itself to be alternating between three political situations:

under the control of Tikal, under the control of Naranjo and political independence (Rice

2004: 218). The first historical reference to its political standing occurs on the text of a

ceramic vessel from Ucanal itself, which notes that the lord of Ucanal was a yajaw, or

subordinate, to Tikal’s Siyaj Kan K’awiil who reigned 411-456 (Martin and Grube 2008:

35). After this it seems that Ucanal gained a greater level of autonomy, for in 593 C.E. a

text refers to Ucanal with its own emblem glyph (Rice 2004: 218).

As discussed in Chapter 1, Ucanal became a vassal site to Naranjo after it was

conquered by Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel in 693 C.E. Naranjo’s choice to attack

this site was presumably to weaken Caracol’s influence in the area because Ucanal and

Caracol possessed an alliance at this time. In 693 C.E., Lord Kinichil-Cab of Ucanal was

captured by Naranjo. Just three years later in 695 C.E., ruling Lord Shield Jaguar of

Ucanal was also captured. Both of these captives were kept alive for an extended period

of time. Shield Jaguar was ultimately sacrificed on June 22nd 712 C.E. (Schele and

Freidel 1990: 190). For the next century, Ucanal remained silent and was not referenced


66

by any sites. However, in 810 C.E. Ucanal suddenly became active after Naranjo’s

power began to decline c. 800 C.E. Stylistically, Ucanal’s imagery seemed to be more in

line with Tikal’s Terminal Classic style, suggesting that Ucanal’s ties to Naranjo, Caracol

and Calakmul had ended (Schele and Freidel 1990: 386).

Due to the heavy erosion affecting the monuments of Ucanal, only Stelae 3 and 4

and Altar 3 could be dated. This means that Altar 1 and Stelae 2 and 6 could not be

correlated to Naranjo’s timeline. Ucanal Stelae 3 and 4 were both erected in the 840’s.

Ucanal Stela 3, dated to 10.0.10.0.0 (January 20, 840 C.E.), depicts an unknown lord

standing upon a Quadripartite Monster (see Figure 4.8.); (Rice 2004: 219). He is wearing

the Double Fretted God K apron and a necklace similar to the one on Xunantunich Stela

9. In his right hand, he holds a K’awiil Staff, an element that is not present in the Naranjo

corpus. Unfortunately, little else can be identified. The associated Altar 3 depicts five

kneeling bound captives (see Figure 4.9.). Even though none of the text is legible, it does

appear to emphasize the endemic warfare plaguing the Terminal Classic Period.

Ucanal Stela 4 is dated to November 28, 849 C.E. (Rice 2004: 219-220). This

monument depicts two figures both standing on a bound captive (see Figure 4.10.). The

two elite figures are engaging in a scattering ritual. They are wearing a K’awiil

headdress, a belt with two “wise ajaw” apparatuses (discussed in Chapter 2, see Figure

2.4.a.) and jaguar skirt. The taller figure on the left is wearing the same style necklace

seen on Ucanal Stela 3 and Xunantunich Stela 9. This necklace is composed of jade

beads and an ajaw mask pendant. Above the two figures engaged in the scattering ritual,

there is a floating Tlaloc warrior suspended in a blood scroll (Schele and Freidel 1990:

386).


67

Discussion

Despite the limited collection of carved monuments found at these sites.

Naranjo’s influence can still be traced. Sacul certainly exhibits the most influence from

Naranjo. As previously discussed, Sacul erected three stelae that had imagery: Stelae 6, 9

and 10. The ruler on Sacul Stela 6 wore the same costume as that depicted on Naranjo

Stela 11 which dated to 803 C.E. Both sculptures possess plain staffs, Underworld

Jaguar God shields, and the domed, plumed headdress with the “casper” glyph.

Interestingly enough, Sacul’s Stela 6 predates Naranjo’s Stela 11 by about twenty years.

It is possible that Sacul was conducting a “New Fire” ritual overseen by Naranjo and that

this style of the Underworld Jaguar God costume was emulated by the Naranjo’s K'ahk'

Ukalaw Chan Chaak.

On Sacul Stela 9, an unknown ruler wore a costume similar to that worn by K'ahk'

Ukalaw Chan Chaak on Naranjo Stela 33. Both are wearing a similar headdress, a shawl

with a geometric design, and a single ajaw belt defined in Chapter 2. Both figures hold a

penance staff. The unusual Serpent Fretted God K apron with an open mouth and a

necklace composed of beaded ajaw masks. It is interesting to note that both Sacul Stela 6

and 9 depict costumes worn by K'ahk' Ukalaw Chan Chaak of Naranjo who was

contemporary to the erection of these monuments. This implies a heavy amount of

interaction between Naranjo and Sacul during his reign.

At Xunantunich the stelae were erected between 830 and 850 C.E., only ten years

after Naranjo ceased to erect monuments (Martin and Grube 2006: 83). Xunantunich

certainly received some influence from the site after 820 C.E. As previously discussed,

Xunantunich Stela 8 text seems to describe the Naranjo lord overseeing a ritual at the site.


68

Additionally, the rare Underworld Jaguar God shield seen at Naranjo can be observed on

Xunantunich Stela 1. The fact that Xunantunich can construct monuments does show the

weakening of Naranjo’s political power but the text on Xunantunich Stela 8 and the

shield on Xunantunich Stela 1 nevertheless indicates that Naranjo’ monuments and

prestige were still an influence on their visual culture.

Lastly, a lack of similarity of Ucanal’s monuments to those of Naranjo implies

that Naranjo had lost all political influence over Ucanal. Instead, the imagery found on

Ucanal Stela 4 seems closer to Tikal during this period. This implies that Ucanal was

enjoying some level of independence from Naranjo, Caracol and Calakmul.

Conclusions

The imagery found on the monuments of Xunantunich, Sacul and Ucanal

provided excellent information regarding Naranjo’s political influence. Each of these

sites presented in its public displays, a different relationship to the capital of the Naranjo-

Sa’al polity. Sacul’s imagery was created when Naranjo experienced a time of political

stability. Xunantunich’s stelae were erected when Naranjo was in a rapid state of

political decline. Lastly, Ucanal’s dated monuments represented the political landscape

after Naranjo had fallen silent.

Sacul Stelae 6 and 9 reveal the level of influence that Naranjo and Sacul had over

each other in the eighth century. The costume of Sacul Stela 6 shows the Sacul lord

wearing the same Underworld Jaguar God costume K'ahk' Ukalaw Chan Chaak wears on

Naranjo Stela 11. What is interesting is that the Sacal Stela 6 predates Naranjo Stela 11.

Furthermore, the costume seen on Sacul Stela 9 is similar to K'ahk' Ukalaw Chan


69

Chaak’s Stela 33 at Naranjo. This time Naranjo Stela 33 predates Sacul Stela 9. What

this implies is that these lords were actively attending each other’s events and emulating

each other in their own displays of power.

Between 780 and 849 C.E. near the end of the Classic Period, Xunantunich and

Sacul both exhibited a level of visual reference to Naranjo’s royal displays. Xunantunich

began erecting monuments shortly after Naranjo began its sudden political decline in 820

C.E. Stelae 8 and 9 were erected just ten years after Naranjo raised its last stela. The

overall visual composition these two stelae and the potential reference to Naranjo’s last

known lord Waxaklajuun Ubaah K’awiil on Xunantunich Stela 8 seem to infer that there

was some amount of political emulation. Additionally, Xunantunich Stela 1 depicts an

Underworld Jaguar God Shield in the lower left section of the register. As discussed in

Chapter 2, this was a major symbol of power for the Naranjo city center.

Lastly, Ucanal’s Stelae 3 and 4 and Altar 3, which date after 830 C.E., suggest the

complete loss of Naranjo’s influence over their original political dominion. Freidel and

Schele note that the imagery present on Ucanal Stela 4 seems similar to Tikal inferring a

greater influence from them during this time (1990: 386). Additionally, Ucanal may have

held resentment towards the Naranjo dynasty after the prolonged imprisonment and

humiliation of their lords Shield Jaguar and Kinichil-Cab. They presumably avoided

wearing any symbols associated with Naranjo after their city gained political autonomy.


70

Chapter 5

Conclusions

This study sought to provide an in-depth analysis of the imagery the Naranjo-

Sa’al polity. In Chapter 1, I proposed my five primary research questions. These were:

What were the symbols of divine kingship for the Naranjo city center? Can certain

objects be seen reoccurring on multiple stelae? How did the rulers' efforts to express

their power contribute to a definition of political identity? Was the iconography

influenced by space and place? Furthermore, I hoped to discover whether Naranjo’s

influences in subject matter, use of symbols, or stylistic attributes could be identified as a

result of political conquests or alliances related to the sites of Xunantunich, Sacul and

Ucanal. In the subsequent chapters I provided answers to these questions.

In Chapter 2, I systematically inventoried and classified the corpus of Naranjo.

Through this study I discovered that Naranjo shared certain ritual items that most Classic

Maya dynasties utilized. These were the Fretted God K apron, K’awiil scepter,

ceremonial bar, bloodletters and the tripartite staff. Naranjo also referred to their

ancestral line in their belts, knee ornaments backracks. This was a major theme for the

Classic Maya. The study identified two deities as strongly associated with Naranjo’s

political identity. These were Underworld Jaguar God who was closely associated with

the New Fire ceremonies and Square-Nosed Beastie, the mythic founder of the city.

While Square-nosed Beastie was first discovered by Simon Martin in the hieroglyphic

inscriptions (Martin 1993: 226), I identified the regalia associated with the deity. The

Underworld Jaguar God was impersonated during New Fire ceremonies and the figures


71

who impersonated him also always possessed held weapons which emphasized a

connection between the Underworld Jaguar God and warfare. This god would also

frequently appear on a shield held by the figures. I propose that the Underworld Jaguar

God may have served as a patron deity for the city of Naranjo. Further evidence can be

seen on Tikal Temple 4 Lintel 2. The imagery on this lintel depicts Yik’in Chan K’awiil

seated on a palanquin captured from Naranjo in the Star War event of 631 C.E. This

palanquin possesses a large effigy of the Underworld Jaguar God and the emblem glyph

of Naranjo. On the lintel Tikal lord Yik’in Chan K’awiil is seen holding an Underworld

Jaguar God Shield, a symbol of rulership for the Naranjo-Sa’al polity. I discovered that

Square-nosed Beastie was represented on headdresses and the backrack of Naranjo Stela

41. Since Square-nosed Beastie was the founder, he was specific to Naranjo’s visual

culture.

Chapter 3 sought to determine if the imagery was spatially informed by the

surrounding landscape, previously existing man-made features and the solar solstices and

equinoxes. For this I compiled a geodatabase. I rendered a scaled 3D model of Naranjo

in SketchUp Pro and uploaded it into ArcScene. I discovered was that many of the

monuments’ imagery referenced either another monument or a natural feature in the near

proximity. I found that Naranjo Stelae 16 and 17 depict a portrait of Aj Wosal Chan

K’inich that face towards each other. This was an obvious decision by the sculptor(s) to

create a dialogue between the two figures. This pattern is repeated with Naranjo Stelae 1,

2 and 3. The figures of Stelae 1 and 3 look towards Stela 2 located between them.

Additionally, Stela 2 is dramatically taller and depicts Smoking Squirrel in the Star War

costume. This visual engagement and physical scaling create a since of balance and unity


72

for the group. Furthermore, the imagery on these three stelae referenced to the

surrounding natural landscape. The Cha’ak heads filling the basal registers of the stelae

probably referenced the cave located directly behind the Naranjo Structure A15. This

cave is located 25 meters north from Stelae 1, 2 and 3. A similar theme can also be seen

on Stela 24 which depicts Lady Six Sky holding a ceremonial bowl containing

hieroglyphs that reads as “the cave entering of 9 miin” (Tokovinine and Fialko 2007: 8).

I argue that this may refer to a cave is located under Structure C-5, a mere 100 meters

away from Stela 24. The geodatabase also revealed that monument placement was often

a political decision. This was seen in Lady Six Sky’s and Smoking Squirrel’s decision to

erect monuments in front of pre-existing ones, obstructing them from view. I argue that

this was an intentional effort by Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel to justify their rule

despite not being a part of the original dynastic line. The last aspect of the study was to

determine if the iconography was informed by the summer or winter solstices. While I

found a potential alignment between Structures B-5 and B-15 and the visible horizon, I

found no correlation between the imagery and placement of the monuments and the solar

solstices and equinoxes.

The final research question focused on the vassal sites of Sacul, Xunantunich and

Ucanal. I sought to discover if there was any influence between the sites and their

capital. Sacul and Naranjo certainly drew inspiration from each other during the reign of

Naranjo’s lord K'ahk' Ukalaw Chan Chaak (755-c.780 C.E.). They seemed to have been

actively participating in political ceremonies together. Direct examples of emulation can

be seen on Sacul Stelae 6, and Naranjo Stela 11 which both depict their figures wearing

the Underworld Jaguar God costume. Sacul Stela 6 erected at 780 C.E., does predate


73

Naranjo Stela 11 which was erected in 803 C.E. This is an example of Sacul’s lord

possibly influencing K'ahk' Ukalaw Chan Chaak. While the costumes represented on

Sacul Stela 9 and Naranjo Stelae 33 are not identical, they are similar. Both figures

possess a penance staff and a jaguar headdress. It may be possible that in this instance

Sacul was influenced by Naranjo’s K'ahk' Ukalaw Chan Chaak. Xunantunich also

seemed to receive artistic inspiration from Naranjo. As extensively discussed in Chapter

4, Xunanunich Stela 8 references Naranjo in the text and Xunantunich Stela 1 depicts

another example of the Underworld Jaguar God Shield. This implies that the Underworld

Jaguar God was a deity that was seen as important across the entire Naranjo-Sa’al polity.

Ucanal seemed to avoid using any symbols related to Naranjo due to their violent history.

Naranjo’s Lady Six Sky and Smoking Squirrel captured two Ucanal lords, Shield Jaguar

and Kinichil-Cab in 693 C.E., who were held captive for eighteen years.

What can be discerned from this study is that Naranjo’s visual culture was used to

solidify the dynasty’s power over the commoner population. While the Naranjo dynasty

implemented common elements of Classic Maya iconography, the dynasty of Naranjo-

Sa’al polity had a unique political identity that is clearly represented in the iconography.

This identity was presented through the personification of pivotal gods, ancestors, and

using symbols to refer to the surrounding landscape of the city itself. Many of these

symbols radiated into the visual imagery of Xunantunich and Sacul. I hope this study

demonstrates that the design of royal political monuments and buildings reveals an

important dimension of a city’s attempt to create a unique visual identity and that

secondary sites within a polity consciously responded to this central political identity.


74

Appendix 1: Tables

Table 1. Maya Chronological Periods

Time Period Year Range

Archaic Period >2500 BCE

Preclassic Period 2500 BCE – 200 CE

Early Classic Period 250-600

Late Classic Period 600-800

Terminal Classic Period 800-900

Postclassic Period 900-1492

Contact Era 1492-Present

Table 2. Naranjo’s Chronological Periods

Time Period Year Range

Early Period >CE 546- 631

First Hiatus 631-682

Middle Period 682-744

Second Hiatus 744-790

Late Period 790-c.830


75

Table 3. Costume versus Regalia Items

Article of Royal Attire Classification

Aprons Costume

Armbands Regalia

Backracks and Capes Costume

Belts/Belt Ornaments Regalia

Bracelets Regalia

Diadems Regalia

Earspools Regalia

Epaulettes Regalia

Headdresses Costume

Knee Ornaments Regalia

Necklaces Regalia

Nose Ornaments Regalia

Pectorals Regalia

Footware Regalia

Skirts Regalia


76

Table 4. Solstice and Equinox Dates for 750 C.E.

Solar Event Date Time

Spring Equinox March 17, 750 C.E. 4:05 A.M.

Fall Equinox September 19, 750 C.E. 6:10 P.M.

Summer Solstice June 18th, 750 C.E. 6:29 P.M.

Winter Solstice December 17th, 750 C.E. 7:09 P.M.

Table 5. Xunantunich’s Chronological Periods

Pre-Samal Phase < C.E. 600

Samal Phase 600-670

Hats’ Chaak Phase 670-780

Tsak’ Phase 780-890


77

Bibliography

Aveni, Anthony F.

2001 Skywatchers: A Revised and Updated Version of Skywatchers of Ancient

Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Ashmore, Wendy.

2011 “Antecedents, Allies, Antagonists: Xunantunich and Its Neighbors.” In

Classic Maya Provincial Politics: Xunantunich and its Hinterlands. Lisa

J. LeCount and Jason Yaeger eds. pp. 46-64. Tucson: The University of

Arizona Press.

Berlin, Heinrich.

2001 “The Palenque Triad.” In The Decipherment of Ancient Maya Writing.

Stephen Houston, Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazariegos and David Stuart eds.

pp. 425-432. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Bolstad, Paul.

2012 GIS Fundamentals: A First Text on Geographic Information Systems.

White Bear Lake: Eider Press.

Calvin, Inga.

1997 “Where the Wayob Live: A Further Examination of Classic Maya

Supernaturals.” In The Maya Vase Book: A Corpus of Rollout

Photographs of Maya Vases, Vol. 5, Justin Kerr ed. pp. 868-883. New

York: Ker Associates.

Casey, Edward.

1996 “How to Get From Space to Place in a Fairly Short Stretch of Time:

Phenomenological Prolegomena.” In Senses of Place. Steven Field and

Keith H. Basso eds. pp. 13-52. Santa Fe: School of American Research

Press.

Castro, Adrian Velázquez.

2012 “Pre-Columbian Maya Shell Objects.” In Anceint Maya Art at Dumbarton

Oaks. Joanne Pillsbury, Miriam Doutriax, Reiko Ishihara-Brito and

Alexandre Tokovinine eds. pp. 433-474. Washington D.C.: Dumbarton

Oaks Research Library and Collection.


78

Clancy, Flora S.

1994 “The Classic Maya Ceremonial Bar.” Anales del Instituto de

Investigaciones

Estéticas. Num. 64. pp. 7-45.

2009 The Monuments of Piedras Negras, An Ancient Maya City.

Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

Closs, Michael P.

1982 “The Dynastic History of Naranjo: Early Period.” In Fifth Palenque

Round Table, 1982. Merle Green Robertson and Virginia M. Fields eds.

pp. 77-96. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.

1983 “The Dynastic History of Naranjo: Middle Period.” In Fifth Palenque

Round Table, 1983. Merle Greene Robertson and Virginia M. Fields eds.


Coe, Michael D., and Mark Van Stone

2005 Reading the Maya Glyphs. London: Thames and Hudson.

Escobedo, Hector L., and Phil Wanyerka.

2006 “Los Monumentos Esculpidos de Sacul y Algunos Aspectos Hisóricas del

Sitio” In Sacul, Petén, Guatemala: Exploraciones en una entidad política

de las Montañas Mayas, 1985-2006. J.P. Laporte y H.Mejía eds.

Guatemala: Atlas Arqueológico de Guatemala, Dirección General del

Patrimonio Cultural y Natural, Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. pp. 220-

275.

Fialko, Vilma.

2005 “Evolutionary Process of the Monumental Epicenter of Naranjo, Petén,

Research Year 2005.” Field Report. Yaxha-Nakum-Naranjo National

Park, FAMSI.

2009 “Archaeological Research and Rescue Project At Naranjo: Emerging

Documentation in Naranjo’s, Palacio de la Realeza, Petén, Guatemala,

Research Year 2005.” Field Report. Yaxha-Nakum-Naranjo National

Park, FAMSI.

2012 Preserving an Ancient Maya City: Naranjo-Sa’al, Petén Guatemala. New

York: World Monuments Fund.

Fields, Virginia.

1986 “The Iconographic Heritage of the Maya Jester God.” In Sixth Palenque

Round Table. Merle Greene Robertson ed. pp. 167-174. Norman:

University of Oklahoma Press.


79

Freidel, David, Linda Schele and Joy Parker.

1993 Maya Cosmos: Three Thousand Years on the Shaman’s Path. New York:

William Morrow and Company.

Gaméz, Laura.

2005 “Investigations In Temples B-19 and B-24 At Naranjo, Petén: The

Evolution of the North-South Axis of the Central Plaza, Research Year

2005.” Field Report. Yaxha-Nakum-Naranjo National Park, FAMSI.

Graham, Ian.

1975 Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions Volume I: Introduction.

Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

1978 Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions Volume 2 Part 2: Naranjo,

Chunhuitz and Xunantunich. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

1980 Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions Volume 2 Part 3: Ixkun,

Ucanal, Ixtutz and Naranjo. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Graham, Ian, and Eric von Euw.

1975 Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions Volume 2 Part 1: Naranjo.

Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Green, Harold H.

2014 “Cosmic order at Chocolá: implications of solar observations of the

eastern horizon at Chocolá, Suchitepéquez, Guatemala.” In

Archaeoastronomy and the Maya. Gerardo Aldana Y. Villalobos and

Edwin L. Barnhart eds. pp. 17-39. Philadelphia: Oxbow Books.

Greene, Merle, Robert L. Rands and John H. Graham.

1972 Maya Sculpture From the Southern Lowlands, the Highlands and Pacific

Piedmont Guatemala, Mexico Honduras. Berkeley: Lederer, Street and

Zeus.

Grube, Nikolia.

1999 “Monumentos esculpidos e inscripciones jeroglíficas en el triángulo

Yaxhá-Nakum-Naranjo.” In El Sito Maya de Topoxté. Wolfgang W.

Wurster ed. pp. 249-267. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern.

Grube, Nikolai, and Linda Schele.

1993 “Naranjo Altar 1 and Rituals of Death and Burials,” Texas Notes on

Precolumbian Art, Writing, and Culture. No. 54. pp. 1-7.

Guernsey, Julia.

2006 Ritual and Power in Stone. Austin: University of Texas Press.


80

Helmke, Christophe, Jamie Awe and Nikolai Grube.

2011 “The Carved Monuments and Inscriptions of Xunantunich.” In Classic

Maya Provincial Politics: Xunantunich and its Hinterlands. Lisa J.

LeCount and Jason Yaeger eds. pp. 97-121. Tucson: The University of

Arizona Press.

Houston, Stephen, and David Stuart.

1996 “Of Gods, Glyphs, and Kings: Divinity and Rulership among the Classic

Maya.” Antiquity Vol. 70. pp. 289-312.

Ishihara, Reiko.

2009 Deities of the Ancient Maya: A guide for the 3rd Maya at the Playa

workshop. Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and

Collection.

Ishihara-Brito, Reiko, and Karl Tuabe.

2012 “From Stone to Jewel: Jade in Ancient Maya Religion and Rulership.” In

Anceint Maya Art at Dumbarton Oaks. Joanne Pillsbury, Miriam

Doutriax, Reiko Ishihara-Brito and Alexandre Tokovinine eds. pp. 135-

271. Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.

Johnson, Scott A.,

2013 Translating Maya Hieroglyphs. Norman University of Oklahoma Press.

Laporte, Juan Pedro, Rolando Torres, Hector Escobedo and Paulino Morales.

1990 “El Valle de Sacul en Las Montanas Mayas de Guatemala.” In En

Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1990. J.P.

Laporte, H. Escobedo y S. Brady ed. Guatemala: Museo Nacional de

Arqueología y Etnología. pp. 107-118.

Le Fort, Genevieve and Robert Wald.

1995 “Large Numbers on Naranjo Stela 32,” Mexicon, Vol. 17, No. 6. Mexicon.

pp. 112-114.

LeCount, Lisa, and Jason Yeager

2011 “Placing Xunantunich and Its Hinterland Settlements in Perspective.” In


J. LeCount and Jason Yaeger eds. pp. 337-369. Tucson: The University of

Arizona Press.

Looper, Mathew G.

1992 “Creation Mythology at Naranjo.” Texas Notes on Precolumbian Art,

Writing, and Culture. No. 30.


81

Lopes, Luis.

2005 “A Probable Reference to Na-“Gourd” Chan Ahk on Naranjo Stela 15,”

Mesoweb. URL: www.mesoweb.com/articles/lopes/Probable/Reference.

Macri, Martha J., and Mathew G. Looper.

2003 The New Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs. Norman: University of Oklahoma

Press.

Maler, Teobert.

1908 Explorations in the Department of Petén, Guatemala, and Adjacent

Region. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Martin, Simon.

1993 “Tikal’s Star War Against Naranjo,” In Palenque Roundtable.Vol.10.

Merle Greene Robertson, Martha J. Macri and Jan McHargue ed. pp: 223-

35. San Francisco: Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute.

Martin, Simon, and Nikolai Grube.

2008 Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens. New York: Thames and

Hudson.

Mayer, Karl H.

1990 “The Stela and Inscriptions of Sacul Guatemala,” Mexicon. Vol. 1.

Mexicon. pp. 1-16.

2001 “Stela 42 from Naranjo, Petén, Guatemala,” Mexicon. Vol. 23, No. 4.

Mexicon. pp. 78-79.

2002 “Stela 43 from Naranjo, Petén, Guatemala,” Mexicon. Vol. 24. Mexicon.

pp. 72.

Mendez, Alonso, Edwin L. Barnhart, Christopher Powell, and Carol Karasik.

2005 “Astronomical Observations from the Temple of the Sun. Journal of

Astronomy and Culture, Vol. XIX, pp. 44-73.

Miller, Mary, and Karl Tuabe.

1993 An Illustrated Dictionary of Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the

Maya. London: Thames and Hudson.

Morley, Sylvanus G.

1909 “The Inscriptions of Naranjo, Northern Guatemala,” American

Anthropologist, Vol. 11 No. 4. pp. 543-562.

1937 The Inscriptions of Petén. Washington D.C.: Carnegie Institute of

Washington.


82

Proskouriakoff, Tatiana.

1950 A Study of Classic Maya Sculpture. Washington D.C.: Carnegie Institute

of Washington.

1993 Maya History. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Rice, Prudence.

2004 Maya Politcal Science: Time, Astronomy, and the Cosmos. Austin:

University of Texas Press.

Robicsek, Francis.

1972 The Maya Book of the Dead The Ceramic Codex: The Codex Style

Ceramics of the Late Classic Period. Norman: University of Oklahoma

Press.

Sharer, Robert J., and Loa P. Traxler.

2006 The Ancient Maya. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Schele, Linda.

1974 “Observations on the Cross Motifs at Palenque,” Primera Mesa Redonda

de Palenque, vol. 1. Merle Green Robertson and Virginia M. Fields eds.


1982 Maya Glyphs: The Verbs. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Schele, Linda, and David Freidel.

1990 The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya: A Forest of Kings. New York:

Harper Perennial.

Schele, Linda, and Mary Ellen Miller.

1986 The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art. New York: George

Braziller, Inc.

Scherer, Andrew K.

2015 Mortuary Landscapes of the Classic Maya: Rituals of Body and Soul.

Austin: University of Texas Press.

Skidmore, Joel.

2007 “An Updated Listing of Early Naranjo Rulers,” Pre-Columbian

Art Research Institute (PARI) Journal. Vol. VII, No. 4. pp. 23-24.


83

Steinbach, Penny.

2015 “Aligning the Jester God: The Implications of Horizontality and

Verticality in the Iconography of a Classic Maya Emblem.” In Maya

Imagery, Architecture, and Activity: Space and Spatial Analysis in Art

History. Maline D. Werness-Rude and Kaylee R. Spencer eds.

Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. pp. 106-139.

Stone, Andrea.

1991 “Aspects of Impersonation in Classic Maya Art.” In Fifth Palenque Round

Table, 1983. Merle Greene Robertson and Virginia M. Fields eds. pp.

194-202. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press

Stone, Andrea, and Marc Zender.

2011 Reading Maya Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Maya Painting and

Sculpture. London: Thames and Hudson.

Stuart, David.

1995 “A Study of Maya Inscriptions.” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of

Anthropology, Vanderbilt University Tennessee, Nashville.

2010 “Shining Stones: Observations on the Ritual Meaning of Early Maya

Stelae.” In The Place of Stone Monuments: Context, Use and Meaning in

Mesoamerica’s Preclassic Transition. Julia Guernsey, John E. Clark and

Barbara Arroyo eds. pp. 283-298. Washington D.C.: Dunbarton Oaks

Press.

2011 The Order of Days: Unlocking the Secrets of the Ancient Maya. New

York: Random House Inc.

2013 “Leaf Glyphs: The Spelling with yo and YOP.” Maya Decipherment:

Ideas on Ancient Maya Writing and Iconography. URL:

https://decipherment.wordpress.com/2013/03/06/leaf-glyphs-spellings-

with-yo-and-yop/

Tate, Carolyn E.

1992 Yaxchilán: Design of a Maya Ceremonial City. Austin: University of

Texas Press.

1999 “Writing on the Surface of the Moon: Women’s Products, Archetypes, and

Power in Ancient Maya Civilization.” In Manifesting Power: Gender and

the Interpretation of Power in Archaeology, Tracy Sweely ed. pp. 81-102.

2002 “Holy Mother Earth and Her Flowery Skirt: The Role of the Female Earth

Surface in Maya Political and Ritual Performance.” In Ancient Maya

Gender Identities and Relations. Lowell S. Gustafson and Amelia M.

Trevelyan eds. pp. 281-318. Westport: Bergin and Garvey.


84

Thompson, J. Eric S.

1962 A Catalogue of Maya Hieroglyphs. Norman: University of Oklahoma

Press.

Tokovinine, Alexandre.

2007 “Of Snake Kings and Cannibals: A Fresh Look at the Hieroglyphic

Stairway,” Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute (PARI) Journal. Vol.

VII, No. 4. pp. 15-22.

2013 Place and Identity in Classic Maya Narratives. Washington D.C.:

Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.

Tokovinine, Alexandre, and Vilma Fialko.

2007 Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute (PARI) Journal. Vol. VII, No. 4.

pp. 1-14.

Viescas, John L., and Michael Hernandez.

2014 SQL Queries: For Mere Mortals. Anne Arbor: Edwards Brothers Malloy.

Yaeger, Jason.

2010 “Shifting Political Dynamics as Seen from the Xunantunich Palace.” In


J. LeCount and Jason Yaeger eds. pp. 145–160. Tucson: The University of

Arizona Press.

Yaeger, Jason, M. Kathryn Brown, Christophe Helmke, Marc Zender, Bernadette Cap,

Christie Kokel Roderiquez and Sylvia Batty.

2015 “Two Early Classic Elite Burials From Buenavista Del Cayo, Belize.”

Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology. Vol. 12. pp. 181-191.

Yuhas, Alan.

2016 “Maya Tomb Uncovered Holding Body, Treasure and Tales of ‘Snake

Dynasty.’” The Guardian. URL:

https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/aug/06/maya-snake-dynasty-

tomb-belize-ruins.


85

Figures

Figure 1.1. Map of the Maya Region (Sharer and Traxler 2006: 24).


86

Figure 1.2. Naranjo Stela 22 (Graham and von Euw 1975: 55, drawing by Ian Graham).


87

Figure 1.3. Tikal Temple IV Lintel 2 (Martin 1993: 224, drawing by William R. Coe).


88

Figure 2.1. Aprons (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by Ian Graham

(a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i and j). a. Stela 6’s Serpent Fretted God K Apron, b. Stela 11’s,

Simple Plumed Apron, c. Stela 19’s Elaborate Six Layered Apron, d. Stela 9’s a Plain

Textile Apron, e. Stela 30’s Hieroglyphic Apron, f. Stela 21’s “Casper Plumed Apron, g.

Stela 38’s Serpent Apron, h. Stela 33’s “Zero” Apron, i. Stela 2’s Starry Deer Crocodile

Apron, j. Stela 8’s Plain Apron.


89

Figure 2.2. Armbands (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by Ian

Graham (a and b) and Eric von Euw (c)). a. Stela 14’s Ajaw Armband, b. Stela 31’s

Striped Textile Armband, c. Stela 13’s Jade Bead Armband.


90

Figure 2.3. Backracks and Capes (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings

by Ian Graham (a, b, c and d)). a. Stela 30’s Plumed Cape, b. Stela 8’s Bird with Plumes

Backrack, c. Stela 2’s Semi-circle Plumed with Trimmed Feathers Backrack, d. Stela 17’s

Downturned Feather Backrack.


91

Figure 2.4. Belts/Belt Ornaments (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings

by Ian Graham (a, b, c, d, e, f, h) and Eric von Euw (g)). a. Stela 28’s Triple Ajaw Mask

Belt, b. Stela 8’s Single Ajaw Mask Belt, c. Stela 38’s Second Variant of Single Ajaw

Belt, d. Stela 30’s Single Ajaw Mask Belt, e. Stela 24’s Xok-Fish Belt, f. Stela 41’s

Underworld Jaguar God Belt, g. Stela 3’s Simple Knotted Belt, h. Stela 19’s Plain Textile

Belt.


92

Figure 2.5. Bracelets (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by Ian

Graham (a, b, c, d)). a. Stela 24’s Jade Bracelet With Full Ajaw Glyph Extensions, b.

Stela 6’s Jade Bracelet with Half Ajaw Glyph Extensions c. Stela 21’s Jade Beads With

Bone Endings d. Stela 41’s Naranjo Emblem Glyph Bracelet, e. Stela 30’s Darkness

Emblem Bracelet d. Stela 8’s Matted Bracelet.

Figure 2.6. Diadems (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by Ian

Graham (a and b) and Eric Von Euw(c)). a. Stela 14’s Anthropomorphic Jester God

Diadem, b. Stela 8’s Piscine Jester God Diadems, c. Stela 13’s Avian Jester God

Diadems.


93

Figure 2.7. Earspools (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by Ian

Graham (b, c, d, e, g) and Eric von Euw(a)). a. Stela 13’s Plain Earspools with Jade

Beads, b. Stela 12’s Plain Earspool with Bone, c. Stela 2’s Paddler Earspool, d. Stela 6’s

Plain Earspool with Bone Supports, e. Stela 25’s Bone Earspool, g. Stela 24’s Bone Ear

Ornament with Floral extension.

Figure 2.8 Epaulettes. (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by Ian

Graham (a) and Eric von Euw (b)). a. Stela 30’s K’inich Epaulette, b. Stela 13’s

“Blessed” Epaulette.


94

Figure 2.9. Headdresses (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, 1980, drawings by

Ian Graham (a, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k) and Eric von Euw(b)). a. Stela 30’s K’awiil

Headdress, b. Stela 13’s Yop-aat Headdress, c. Stela 19’s Water-lily Jaguar Headdress, d.

Stela 4’s Alternate Water-lily Jaguar Headdress, e. Stela 38’s Square-nosed Beasty

Headdress, f. Stela 41’s God K Headdress, g. Stela 2’s Avian Headdress, h. Stela 24’s

Mexican Year Sign Headdress, i. Stela 5’s Fish and Flower Headdress, j. Stela 8’s

Skyband Headdress, k. Stela 21’s Penance Headdress.


95

Figure 2.10. Held Items (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by Ian

Graham (a, b, c, d, f, g, h, I, j, k, l, m) and Eric von Euw (e)). a. Stela 6’s Ceremonial

Bar, b. Stela 8’s Tripartite Spear, c. Stela 38’s Tripartite Staff, d. Stela 30’s Penance

Staff, e. Stela 13’s K’awiil Scepter and Shield, f. Stela 2’s atlatl, g. Stela 21’s Spear, h.

Stela 19’s Underworld Jaguar Shield, i. Stela 19’s Incense Burner, j. Stela 8’s Small

Woven Shield, k. Stela 11’s Plain Staff, l. Stela 24’s Offering Bowl, m. Stela 35’s Torch.


96

Figure 2.11. Knee Ornaments (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by

Ian Graham (b) and Eric von Euw (a)). a. Stela 13’s Ajaw Style, b. Style 2’s Textile

Triangle Style.

Figure 2.12. Necklaces (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by Ian

Graham (b, c, d, e, f) and Eric von Euw (a)). a. Stela 13’s Square Jade Bead Necklace, b.

Stela 38’s Large Rounded Jade Bead Necklace, c. Stela 33’s Shell Necklace, d. Stela 30’s

Darkness Glyph Necklace, e. Stela 5’s Plumed Necklace, f. Stela 11’s Plumed Necklace

with a Trophy Head.


97

Figure 2.13. Non-Human Entities: Ancestral Spirits, Vision Serpents, Deities and

Animals (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978; Tokovinine and Fialko 2007: 5,

drawings by Ian Graham (a, c, d) and Alexandre Tokovinine (b)). a. Stela 2’s Cha’ak

Head, b. Stela 45’s Ancestral Spirit, c. Stela 37’s Vision Serpent, d. Stela 40’s Rabbit.

Figure 2.14. Nose Ornaments (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by

Ian Graham (a, b, c, d)). a. Stela 8’s Knot with Tassel Nose Ornament, b. Stela 25’s

Single Knot Ornament, c. Stela 30’s Bloodletter Type, d. Stela 11’s Floral Ornaments.


98

Figure 2.15. Pectorals (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, 1980, drawings by Ian

Graham (a, c, d, e, f, g) and Eric von Euw (b)). a. Stela 19’s Skull Pectoral, b. Stela 13’s

of Swirl Pectoral, c. Stela 8’s Bloodletter Pectoral, d. Stela 6’s Oval Jade Pectoral, e.

Stela 21’s Spondylus Shell, f. Stela 12’s Squirrel Pectoral, g. Stela 41’s Mask Pectoral.

Figure 2.16. Footwear (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by Ian

Graham (a, b, c, d, e, f)). a. Stela 6’s Double Mat Sandal, b. Stela 31’s Mat with Bone

and Jade Top Sandal, c. Stela 30’s Double K’in Sandals, d. Stela 38’s Simple Knotted

Ankle Wrap Sandal, e. Stela 14’s Serpent Sandals, f. Stela 2’s Avian Sandal.


99

Figure 2.17. Skirts (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, drawings by Ian Graham

(a, b, c, d)). a. Stela 8’s Jaguar Pelt with a Bead Hem, b. Stela 24’s Jade Bead Skirt, c.

Stela 5’s Asymmetrical Skirt, d. Stela 2’s Serpent Skirt.

Figure 2.18. Thrones (Graham and von Euw 1975; Graham 1978, 1980; Mayer 2001,

drawings by Ian Graham (a, c, d, e) and Stefanie Teufel(b)). a. Stela 9’s Plain Limestone

Block Throne, b. Stela 42’s Zoomorphic Throne, c. Jaguar Pelt Cushion, d. Stela 19’s

Stone Throne, e. Stela 32’s Throne of Waxaklajuun Ubaah K’awiil.


100

Figure 2.19. Naranjo Stela 6’s K’awiil Taking Ceremony Regalia (Graham and von Euw

1975: 23, drawing by Ian Graham).


101

Figure 2.20. Naranjo Stela 8’s Underworld Jaguar God Costume (Graham and von Euw

1975: 27, drawing by Ian Graham).


102

Figure 2.21. Naranjo Stela 2’s Star War Costume (Graham and von Euw 1975: 13,

drawing by Ian Graham).


103

Figure 2.22. Naranjo Stela 24’s Net-Skirt-Xoc-Fish–Shell Costume (Graham and von

Euw 1975: 63, drawing by Ian Graham).


104

Figure 2.23. Naranjo Stela 35’s “Young God” Costume (Graham 1978: 91, drawing by

Ian Graham).


105

Figure 3.1. Map of Naranjo (Graham and von Euw 1978: 6-7).

Figure 3.2. Viewshed Analysis of Naranjo Naranjo City Center (map created by author,

2016).


106

Figure 3.3. Detail from the Map of Naranjo, Group C (Graham and von Euw 1978: 6-7).

Figure 3.4. 3D Model of Stelae 25-31 (model created by author, 2016).


107

Figure 3.5. Detail from the Map of Naranjo, Group A (Graham and von Euw 1978: 6-7).

Figure 3.6. 3D Model of Stelae 1-4 (model created by author, 2016).


108

Figure 3.7. 3D Model of Stelae 16 and 17 (model created by author, 2016).

Figure 3.8. Sunset over Naranjo During Winter Solstices (model created by author,

2016). This image shows the alignment between Structure b-15 and B-5 and the

surrounding landscape. The arrow indicates where the sun set on December 17th, 750

C.E. at 7:09 P.M.


109

Figure 4.1. Sacul Stela 6 (a.) and Naranjo Stela 11 (b.) Comparison (a. Escobedo and

Wanyerka 2006: 252, drawing by Paulino L. Morales; b. Graham 1978: 33, drawing by

Ian Graham).


110

Figure 4.2. Sacul Stela 9 (a.) and Naranjo Stela 33 (b.) Comparison (a. Escobedo and

Wanyerka 2006: 259, drawing by Paulino L. Morales; b. Graham 1978: 87, drawing by

Ian Graham).


111

Figure 4.3. Sacul Stela 2 (Escobedo and Wanyerka 2006: 259, drawing by Paulino L.

Morales).


112

Figure 4.4. Xunantunich Stela 8 (Graham 1976: 123, drawing by Ian Graham).


113



114



115

Figure 4.7. Xunantunich Altar 1 (Graham 1976: 127, drawing by Ian Graham).


116

Figure 4.8. Ucanal Stela 3 (Graham 1980: 158, drawing by Ian Graham).


117

Figure 4.9. Ucanal Altar 1 (Graham 1980: 167, drawing by Ian Graham).


118

Figure 4.10. Ucanal Stela 4 (Graham 1980: 159, drawing by Ian Graham).

Documents

Visual Communications of Power: The Iconography of the