Visual Grammar Carte

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Christian Leborg

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Pr,inceton Architectural Press

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First published in Norway by Abstrakt Forlag

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CopYlightEnglish edition I t : ' 2006 Princeton Architectural Press

10 09 OB 07 06 5 4 3 2 1 First edition

NOpari of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner

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Special thanks 10: Nellie Atjian, Dorothy Ball, Janel Behning,Becca

Casbon, Penny (Yuen 'Pik) Chu, Russell Fernandez. Jan Haux, Clare

Jacobson, John King. Mark Lamster, Nancy Eklund Later, Unda Lee.

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Press -Kevin C. Uppert, publisher

Library ·ofCongress Cataloging·in·PublicalionData

Leborg. Christian.

{Visuall grammatikk. EngJishJVisual grammar I Christian Leborg.

p. em,

Includes bibliographical. references.

ISBN-IS: 978+56898-581·7 (alk. paper)

ISBN·W:I·56898·581·9 (alk. paper)

1. Visual perception. 2. Visual communication in art I,.Tille.

N7430,5.L39132006

701'.8-dc22

2005034807

http://www.papress.com/

http://www.papress.com/



Christian LeborqVisual G rammar

Activit es Rela\ ons

Princeton Architectural PressNew York



To Marianne



VISUAL GRAMMARI PREFACE

Preface

Every day we are confronted with vast amounts of visual messages, but without 8. basic under-

standing of visual language many of these messages remain incomprehensible to us, and a

productive dialogue between producers and consumers of visual communication cannot take

place.

Knowledge of visual concepts is often acquired through physical experience and applied

wltl out tile use of written or spoken language: there are, however, a number of underlying

processes before and after the act of creation where verbal language has an important func-

tion. Reflection about what one is going to create or what one has created alters the creative

process: we think diiferently when we have a language to describe something. This book is a

ccntribution towards establishing such a language, It intends to be both a primer on visual lan-guage and a visual dictionary of 1he fundamental aspects of visual communication.

The eason tor writing a grammar of visual language is ,he same as for any language: to

define i-s basic elements, describe its patterns and processes, and to understand the re.a-

tions between the individual elements i the system. Visual language 'las no 'orrnal syntax or

semantics, but the visual objects themselves can be classified. Accordingly, the book is divided

j to four parts: abstract objects and structures, concrete objects and structures, activi-

ties, a d relations, The irst chapter deals ' N I , 1 1 abstractions such as dimension, format. and

volume; the second concerns concrete objects and structures such as form, size, color, and

textu rs: the til iI 'd part describes the act iviti es that can take place ina composition sue n as

repetition, mirroring, and movement, and the fourth chapter deals with the relations betweenseveral objects in a composition.

Wrlll 9 this book I have stood 01 the shoulders of a number of the greats \'.'10 have thought

a d written about visual lanquaqe. They are listed in the selected bibliography at the back of

the book. Iwould also like to thank Anette Wang, who gave me resistance when I needed it

and my Norwegian publisher Einar Plyhn, who gave me no resistance whatsoever. Yngve lien

and Bjarn Kruse contributed co structtve criticism. In addition, 1received valuable feedback

from professionals and laymen, friends and family.

I hope tha this book will nelp you soeak and write about visual objects and their creative

pot.enlial and enable you to better understand II-e graphics thai you encounter every day ,

Oslo, November 2005

Christian Leborg



VISUAL. GRAMMARI CONTENTS

Abstract Concrete

Abstract Objects

10 Point11 Line

1 2 Surface

13 Volume

14 Dimensions

16 FOrmat

Concrete Objects

28 Form30 Size

32 Color

Concrete Structures

Abstract Structures19 Formal Structures

20 Gradation

21 Radiation

22 Informal Structures

23 Visual Distribution

24 lnvi sib lei I nactive Structu res

24 Structural Skeleton

35 Visible Structures

35 Active Structures

36 Texture



VISUAL GR.~MI'..I.~RI CONTENTS

Activities Relations

40 Repetition

40 FrequencyIRhythm

42 Mirroring

43 Mirroring against a Volume

44 Rotation

46 UpscalinglDownscaling

48 Movement

48 Path

49 Direction

49 Superord inate! Subord inate

Movement

50 Displacement

50 Direction 01 Displacement

55 Attraction

55 Static

56 Symmetry Isymmetry

57 Balance

58 Groups

60 Fine/Coarse

61 Diffusion

62 Direction

63 Position

64 Space

65 Weight66 Amountl Dom inance

68 Neutral

69 Backg round /Foreq rou nd

70 Coordination

71 Distance

72 Parallel

73 Angle

74 Negative! Positive

75 Transparent/Opaque

76 Tangent

78 Overlapping

79 Compound

80 Subtraction

81 Coincidence

82 Penetralion

83 Extrusion

84 Influence

85 Mod iiicatio n

86

Variation

89 Glossary

96 Bibliography



VISUAL GRAMMARI ABSTRACT

5

10 POint! S rface6 J

1 Lne 12 13 Voume

, 1 ~ 1 J !~4

I ,&@Corceolric 21 Cent-i'uqalRacial 011 Radiation SlruclJre

:..~....,~~~.. ...- ~. - ---

\II I, I

23~_l_!

Dlstnbutro-i

;. . . . . . -- ...... _ .. -----

2~ Invisible:. .. . ,St r \ .i ~ I,m !_~ ...

8



VISUAL GRAMII1ARI ABSTRACT I OaJECTS

Abstract Objects. Abstract objects are

ideal shapes that cannot be physically

created. When you try to draw a point,

for example, you do not end up with a

point but with a surface.

The a bove ulus tr a : J I1 m a y le c k uke a point, bu t it is o :,ly the re ore se nta tro-i o f a point. It 's a c ti.a l 'y a d o: ~ 1 ' ' ' ' l t h a

s ur fa ce . Its s ize is O.1?t o f -: 'l a t 0': t he jI'L Js tr a tio n b e lo w.

"The abstract C O · - l ' . · e y s the essential meaning~ cutti ng tt ~rcuqh the conscious tc the urcor.sclcus. trom experleice of

t he s ub sta n ce i 1 tile s e ns or y 'f ie ld ojl redly 10tll~ nervous systerr I from the e ve nt to pe rc e pt ion." DO I~is A . DOldis~

A Primer o! Visual Literacy. (C a mbr id ge : M IT P'8SS, - 1 973 ) , 8 - 1.



IVISUAL G RA MM AR I A BS TR AC T I O BJE CTS I 'POINT

iPoint. -¥ett-s-a~ or feel a point; it is a place with

area, :he point has a pOSttt~at can be defined by

coordinates (numbers on one, f 0, or three axes),

<, !<, /""

<, /""

<, /""

<, /""<, /""

<, /""

/"" <,

/"" <,

/"" <,

/"" <,

/"" <,

/'" <,

/""

___ I~

Thecce 'd io 1s le s '~ , t hi s ~'<l;rl ''''a ~"Q,69f)~ehe~,uceer eic'nar:d cc nerol ilw oa;;e.

A ~c1erica, O:::<lro'irlllh:;~,s;err s J'stle .....en,:) war.t~ ~C'n d o .a;e. fe' olXillllO'S

·"'IIl,e01'\the e<;llt a ee ~I'5 ocalec. T'le ~Ja~r (lnd till) ~e.'o·dc9·l1e""e· arre:;;';:$l:nl mol2clo ce nts at '"IOrl~/S¢ul~ ~r c cMt/weSI. ·e$po~li·"" .

10



TRACT I OSJ rcrs ILl N EISUAL GRAM MARl ASS

ber of points thatd •s anum. h ve two

eunderstoo a be 'Infinite or av

I· can I' _ can. , .'

L

ine. A me othe r , A rne points IS aone ana '.. teen twore adjacent to . t st distance be w

. The shor endpoints.

straight line.

- : : : : J 1<___ ________________________________I

----------<_

- - - - I



VISUAL G~AMMARI ABSfRACT I 0 GJECTSI SURI'A,CE

Surface.A surface is defined by two lines that do not co

or by a minimum of three points that are not located on a line

two lines have one coinciding pomt, the surface will be a p

I, t~e s~"'e way tha; e irocan be dese, ieee as a rcw 01adpo r-ts, a su=acc car ~e oe' ned es a 'O W ci h1es , Poin:s are

Sla c ke d in e- re o re c : on 10 10 1m a I ne ; a su r t ace is c re a le da te« 01 ires is $iae~eo a~a rig11argle:o ·.1~tc'rect'or-, Tn

di'\1~lic1s call also ce sean as 1'. '(lSand oj me~s;~~5. Be cauSu Iia ce s a pC i<1ttU ·a j . s I >r ~Ti ie 'a t e d i n rw o d i -e c l iC "'S . " 5~.'h as Iw o c jm e ns ie r-s ,

'heo.r ls ld e of a volume is a svrtace.It ear J0 39. can : nJOUSsw 'ace will' d i l 'e red ~vr'.<es,O f a e·~llectIQn o r po i) 'gono. o r

m uW angv ~rs u "a c,c s uc h a s th", fig u '0 on t he l e f1 ."Tho pa th 01 a Ii~e in ,~otion be come s a pla ns . A pla~o ha s length a'ld bread , " , Q ui 110 thrckness. II he s pe s liondiecllon. II '5 ~OUI' C o y I nc s , It e'el' ne s the cxterr a I im. ts o' a VOl u ~,e."",ue us "'le'1g, Prillciplas of Form and

(Ne'N Yor~: \f~, Ncslra,d Re i nhol d , ' 1993) . <12 .



V IS UA r . to R A MM A RI, A B S TR A CT I:O B JE Cr sl. VOLU M E

I... ;he SliMe way lhfll a s.r+ace 5 a IOvJ €I f I nes, a

~olume s mace up of e number (" surtacss, Here

the polnts arc c '€I ifera~d in Ihree c irec t or s,th e fig J 'e's three eli"le!"lsic ~s.A cube hA s eig h I

v« rtices (the p o;' I s where l~ e Ii~¢s r ~ 'sect).On -ne ns cc 0 the scrfacas slre;chi~g cetween

t~ese vertices is e"'llp~yspace. Thi$ spice does

no: cor ;a,r a1)'thi~g but is de Iin<:d cy its edg es.

- 'e· v a- e vs ",eomet' c v c v m es cannot be repro-d",c<:d e xac tty;1 'Ilat;:y lise a~se t1e 1 " !lttm<!. weU S ·C :C 'ep.edece the m e ~h'does 'cl~ I c~nr·O!!\a"a such 3 pe-lee! c es ig , ·. '$ co .. .·e;·'(: tie~ resAre "IIal1cr ahcal . abslracl mode s.

o," .

.

Vo lume . A volume is an empty space defined by surfaces,

lines, and points,"The path of a plal1e ln l110tiQn(in a dirccfion ether j'a n lt 5i~ tl'i" S iC d ir e e lo n) , cccornes a volume. It h~. a ' PoS i ion i rs p a c e ~nd i s bound b)' p lane s . I n \wo -d i f" '" e n~ io ·, a l d c~ ign , v c UIM is il u se ry " Won g, P rin cip lo s o f Po rm aM I Desig n, 4~ ,

, s



V IS U A " I3 I'l .A M MA R I A B ST RA C T I O B JE CTS ID I M E NS I O NS

II line I' !IS one e d g.e ,.lw o· ··te i: li.c es , a ~d ' o ne d im e '1 siM , A s o-fa ce 'w ith iou r e ~·g .e " 1 1M tOJr ve rt ic es M el t 'Ne,

c im er s tons .. r . . . c ue e ha sewe fve e ig~s . e ignl vC"i ices . s ,x s ur fa ce s. a nd thre e d i-ne ns ons, A hy pe rc ube ha s thi

e dge s, s ix te en ve rtic es . ',we r I~·r~, sur la c e s , a nd lou' c lm e ns ior s .

G

D

•

•

o

2 .

O r~d imM s iC !"l Tbre e d lm e ns ior -s

Dimensions. We, along with everything that surrounds

us, have height, width, and depth-or three dimensions.

Objects can have four, five, and an infinite number of

dimensions, but we cannot perceive these. More or less

than three dimensions are abstractions for us; we can on

imagine them.'D im c-is lc ne xr sts in ,M e 'e @ 1,"Jo rld . liie ca nnot or ly fool it ou t w tn l'Sa l d . o .f c ur lwo-e ye d ,. s re re cc pt ic c n s 9

c an s ee t," Dondis . A P,imer of v is u e ! L i te r a cy ,. 59~60'.

14



o

Four dimensions

VISUAL GRAM MARl ABSTRACT I OBJ ECTS I DIM ENSIONS

•

o

The sphere with its section

at lui! size

The sphere rising The sphere on the

point of vanishing

I~

/\(

My eye

~~- 1----------'( :...:-= - : : . . . . ~ / - - - - - - - - - - ; ~.------~~-. -~-

E dw il' A bbott ,I-.bbott 's book Flatland te lls the s tory 0; a squa re tha t Ii"e s in a two-d r ne ns io ua l w or ld 'cgetr,6[ with its

farni Iy o f g eo metric fig Uf8S. 0 ne da y a three-dimensional sphere cernes t o v is it . \ t . . . .he n the square tel ls the e ls rg y a bo u t

mee ti ng someone trom a nothe r d irne r s 'on, it IS im pr is one d 'lor bla sphe my , A bove 'i'e, s ee the s phe re 's vistt a s ',"ie we d oy

the s qua re . Illus tra tion ba se d e n A bbott 's .jr a',v in g E d ',v in A b bo tt A b bo tt . Fistiand (Lond on, S e ele y & C o, ,8 84 ).

15





PIt' :e'r" format call be "sed -c rcrertc dim(!~slo~s, ccporucr-s.erc scalescf measu"ec:" 'e , t.

Exampl(!s a-c :jc<Jg'"pbc mf.:"~L'e'

~'cr.ts, metric measu-eme-its (",o;er.ceil! m;,'e', mill'",n:e,), Ar~IO'Ame'I'

ca~ rllcastJremeelS ('ele: a;:~ .nches),map '0.',- ars, 3'chilecton c 'Mmals.

D"'pcr '0 Im a 1$ . b oo k lormets. r.ew~·~nper tOfftla\s.pester ;olm"I:>.h'mlem·als. :;c''!e~ lowals. etc.

Scree") ~oN\o' l : . "sa~e ;JsuaU,{ +. tH; : aSJ~ec

I~ c xe s: a pIxel (piC lure ",iement)s U~esmai'cs; UI'i~04 "Iform(!:\o~ it,

dig,:;,1ill"~ges. i'ney are caacratic )'ld

JOOl· O.C' l39 ircreS \~SI":.

T~'pcsr"ph'C pO'~'5 (abbrevratec as

et) a'" :'lC ~malles l lypogr !l : " IJC

urns, -e~$Jn~9 "c~rox'mi\~c,y 0.0'48

w:tes. T~e C,:CfO 'S :.e contral~'"of "lca s~ 'em e~ 1 , :~ o : )"!X:graphcsc/sle,". <:«,'0' sir., twe: ve lypofJtaP~'<:00 nts.

The tor-nats ;O f r:aps ;\r:; Bfcll, tc:: .tval

= " ans 2'0excressed as tne 'a:,ol>cl-, ',aer I~e clawing arc th e j > h y > ~al Sze,

'orex,,"'ple': <,0000000,' :~o,

In =",o::e pace- lo",:,at~ '0; OW lI'Ie01's ys t em . w~ic<, is ba se d 0<' Ihe fool :>

''''eter"le. an d a- c ca'ied A , 6, an o C.

Most bcc« 'orlllal, arc oasec Of' the

gQIOC~section c: golder - e;. 1, ::I

1OG.:'lelnaF:: fC~-l.ola

~ " " 1 'expresses

Ii'll r~ ' Q ee : , · ,ccr 1 ' . " , ( > S'lCS. n II"Sc a s e ! ;e : t' '' 'e o n '-Ie ~e.old a nd w,d lh 01

a page. Tn" go'den sec",)n ,s ac-uevedwhc., one di"ides ~ 'ire seg ....er.I5~ch~'IH :~e ratio oi : ' 1 0 shorter 'inc 10 the'ong!!' 1 ne is :'le sarr e as thll 'a~Q of!he lo"gcr line 10:~,ewho'e se9":c~t_S,,;. Ire i(lrmJI'l be.ow ar o lI'c C'ooc

on \:.'1~, i f . j i , - : ,

;)';,;,.~"o,,~. o r :. 61 8 , a ls o a .~ ~c a. rs

1 ,I ,c so cu'led Fioor ' JCC' seqaencc,

where cacr ,um~or 'r n'l: seuue rce 1$

11 '0 sum a t the l ....('l pre ce ~ .. ,S '\um~ers~

I, ?, 3. b. a . '3, ~1. 34, 55. c<;". T~e'11:.00' adJ~cer: n.rmi le, s , " 'Ie

s e c u e nc e p ro _g IC S ;, ', IO I '1 appreachcs;:',0,8,

VISUAL GRAMMARI ABSTRACT I OBJECTSI FORMAT

A o e qua ,s o ne s qua -e "'~"~ ', or S 4'

X ;'&.l"'I",

T'lc 1'I~ig":o· tlape' is CaICJI3!.:d ,'I 2rar.-sbasco C1 OM ~ou".(e r-ater. It :1e pape'

w Il, gllS 1 (1 0 .q , thi:; maans th:, t cr e Sq~1;<:

mete' 0' Ih.s eaper, or :n'~o-to-r-at, WI) ;)"$

100 ~,

A~ 2{l? Y .:'20

a

1 ' , 1



WSVAL CI'I'.:AMMARI !\IBSTRACT ISTRUCTURES

Abstract Structures. Placing' objec

in relation to one another will

establish a structure. We can only

describe a st.ructureif we are able

to recognize its pattern. A structur

that does not have visible structure

lines is called abstract.



VISUAl. GRAMMAR! A8STRACTI STRUCTUqeSI FORMAL

Formal Structures. When objects are evenly distributed in

a composition I the structure is formal. The axes according to

which the objects are organized are called structure lines.$:'uCI~re 'res U~ pass tb'avgh th" C{)je.c:f certer 0.' OpilCB cenlel. ney can elso. •~n beet",e"" ,." :>b.eels and

oell~e leJ""" str~clurel elernems wi:~• "",(;h lI"eobjecls Il:C placec,----- ------ i-----

,

L -,

,- - - - - - - -1- - - -

I

___ L

A !:'uclule I~ ",~ich ell sectlons c· objects are 31ke and equal)' dlslriouled is ::~lIed a basic sir .ictore or a grid.This,-,re 0.1 '''pel,; ve structure is based or slr~clu-e lI~es mat 8'e l)e'Condie.Jlar 10o~e ancthe-, uSLal'yhorizortally and

.e r nc a ') ',

'9



V I SUAL GRAMMAR, ABSTRACT I S T RUCl 'U 'R E S I I "O RM A L I GRADATION

Gradation. A gradated structure works in the same way

a repetitive structure" but here the structure units change

size or form (or both) at an even rate.

I ! I I I, I

lI

I; I

,

,

IR a d a t ie r

S ra d a" on c an a pply to ~iS:a"C"', Ch1.1g0 ind s c aco+ent, a nd CLive,

Or th,d t $o~e c f t he -n os : C <; -"'Of grad \ l

: J"e s a "e 5 ~e '-'" n'~~,m"elgrso ; !a ,c1jli,es '~sa-a d"eel,e') and f"ciatie, (expand ngr.o

20



VISUAL GRAMMAR ABSTRACl STRUCTUR ESt FORMALI RADIA110N

l

.I\' "

,I' 'I

I

I,

III I I

!\ .

,\ , !

\; / 1 / / / i

\.

\' ,e spe~~ of concent-ic -aciation v-her II";,structu-e l ines arc circles ·",th an uneqca d;st",r,~e +om the same eel' ter,

Radiation. A radiation is aformal repetitive structure with

structure units that are situated around a common center.

T~e spi-al is concentric ~that ils sr-ucture ire;

have a~~ -ieqca dis tarce +om the ce '1, , - . I~isalso cerr-ri ~g,,1becai.se the ~..Iicall ne emelles+om a center; The spiral IS I~us a 1}'bri~ ~etwe,.ra corcer toc ar c ce,lrilL '.lal .*~~t~e.

2·



VISUAL GRAMMAR! ABSTRACT! STRUCTURES!INFORMAL

Informal Structures. When no regularities in the

arrangement of objects in a composition can be discern

the structure is informal. A structure is informal even if o

recognizes a pattern as long as the objects do not follow

straight structure lines,

It is ikely ',at pa'cs 0' the sl'uc:~'e aae-e arc lormal ever l~oJa~ we =2rncl-ecog~ilc :1e palle 'n. T~o'e a

matklcma: c equ8lioF\S1~3.twi"e1 rcp'<!l3 r,eo v.sva,lly de rot &.ppci l io nave a 'olm,,' s:- ~(;:J;e, T .e ::ef" t 'Ccoree'" orlyIt:· i$I.a aspects et Sl'uet~rcs.

22



VISUAL GRA!.111!"'-Rl A9·S1RACf, STlfUCTURES1INFQ.RMALI VISU.ALDISfRIBU1!ON

Visual Distribution. If objects are positioned in a

structure judg.ing by the eye. the structure is based on

visual distribution. I t can also be called a similarity structure ..

-~ . . ----

-VI~J~1 cis{' butio ' Should allow eachi.nr; k > N n to :)~CJPl' a sr-uar aml)J~j 0; space as J V e : ' g e c Jy I~e eye:

WO'9 P'ir>r;iple.s 01 FOlm lind Design. 42.



'.,.SU."L G Il"fI IM AIlI A SSi"A Ci I S TR L.C iU R E SI ' NFQRVALI' N VI SI B L E/ IN AC TI VE

Invisible/Inactive Structures. Although the structure

lines in an abstract structure are invisible, our brain has a

tendency to fill in what is missing, so we see where they are

Inactive structures indicate the position of the objects but d

not affect their form.

i1 a cl'-: e s tr vc tc re s c a r'! be 'J s ib lc ,11d in vis iq le . ( S e e a lo e A c t iv e S l r~ C I~ re s , p . 3 3 .)

Structural Skeleton. In all compositions or objects

there are forces that are bound by the limits of the surface.

These varying degrees of energy follow certain axes with

regard to form and proportions. These axes, or paths, can

be called the format's or object's structural skeleton.

(See figure on p. 25).

"So \l1e M\ur9 of t\ visva experierce call '0" b e d es c- bed in ~llims0' riches 0' si,e an d c s :ance , j "' 9 'c c s of ansor ·N~·,e ~ngths o f I'u e . T he s e s ta t ic +easurernerts de " ne ollly u- e 's: ,mulus: 1112:s , :,e message senile the e yby t he p h/s ic a l ·N or ld . B ut the life of a percect-us cxc-esslcn a nd m ea n 1 1g -d e r lve s e n : fely f r o, ,; t h e a c ! i ·. d i, .-01 thp e rc s s tu a l t er e e s.' i'( ud o ll Am l" eim . AN an(/ V iS\ ia i Pe rcep ti on ( 8e r < s ls ) ': U r i . . ..rs i1y o f Ca l ii o- 1 ia Press . 19(4), 1

24



/I/

25-.. ,



.I.-~I ~3 :< S 0 :u 'a : ;o ~ 133 CoI- . : rSp"c·e



V ,IS U A I. G R AM MA 'R I C O NC ~e Te l O B JE CTS

Concrete Objects. Objects are per-

ceived w ith in defined limits. These limitsare called co nto ur lines. T he co nto ur is

what defines the shape, or form,

A s una ce c an hM om a ny iorm s. Form s a ro d e f,ne d by lhe i,c onlour$ . w hic h e a n be w aig ht O rourve d . 1 1tho v isua l

lr llM i tio n is q ra d a ie d Or h as s m all n ua nc e s in s ha d e or h ve . '1 is diffie" 'llo define th e form .

•Form ("om La t. "~coma). , 1 c O lTmo" USO,the e xte rio r e f a (n '19 ' s . c onc re te : a ro~~d. s GJ a re -s f a ile d , e t c. ' ..3. ?Ias: c. ~a'.,ns "'0 U ~ e,~. Fii!uralwely st<:~kir:;l, of 111 O·" : , ,' .: )I I<" s o-,e'al 2po-llMP'lce as a ,,!b e ol))ec, ..... :10~:cC1sideraiic1 '0' corterc, 5. Cas : ng -011 c." e"obt"Johar5c1, Kuns lo f dbog , 6 5 .



Form

Geometric forms

oOrganic forms

oRandom forms

oCir~lij.As/roI09Y; Elern .1"e.Asuo-

110my: Fu I moor. Me/corology:

C e a r ", .· 28 .t ha '. Canography: : : ; " : 1 ' . ,,Jclure. Elec:ricity: Mete'.

CllemiSifY: Ac c. Ml!chanics:

POI', 01 '01 uior. Biology: 5'0.

28

Georrelr ic forms are easee en ma:1ellla: cal iacts abc.it ~ol'ls, incs

su·'aces. a,d solids.

oRanC':)m fo'-s are c-eatee It\r:)ug" '1I:;'od~~tior\ ~'C()'s~io'JS ~~-'"

act 0'. or "IC'oo tat ir' ~e'co IrO"T'l"3;Jre.

E q ia l-a r rn ed C ro ss .

Asuol09Y: Matte'. theoa':, y .As/ronomy: Nort~. Alchemy:

'0 fc J r e erner1:' . Cartography:ChU'C1. chepe . O'.llllisric

lerminology system: Posili~opole. c U~519'. posItivec1.;.r~e.irerease.

A - ' o , " _

Diree tion, ooieal consec ~e

'A2.scuh1e ,ender.

"""creo,%BI: ;:'osl , b~.Physics: G r a ·.i: a Uo r a c e ntCartography: Oceardc c.nre

Runes: 8JI.



\"SUAL GRAMh;'~~1 COI'<CRETEI OlOJECTSi FORM

- . .. .2 ' :orlll~ cresentec he:e de some of t h e b as ic 963h.lts in \/'/esTern ideo,~r6phy ( l u , : ; ( _ . \ · d i r l g to C arl G , Liunqrnar (see his

ccok SymboJer, . r'/Iillrr.:j: .A.ldebaran FC"'la~,1990) , Thcv are the basic sigr~.sman ha s ceated as co...plele legible entitles.

D

o

oSquare.

IvI2tAriali7.~tion, the E ar th ,

Meteorology: The ground.Cartography; Farm. Biology: He,

Military: Soldier. Alchemy: Salt:

Household article: Stop,

Heart.

leon tor the pl~'lsical heart. l.ove,

II I love, ldeoqrarr tor Iavatory.

29



VISU,\I. GRAMMARI CONCRETE IOBJI!CTS SIZE

30



l'his recta l[JI~ is T1c! " , of aspresc n th S nook.

VISUAL GRAI',.jI_.tMl CONCRET!;;rOBJIOCTSiSIZE

31



V I$U AL G RA MM A'R I G ONe Ra TE I 0 S Je CTS I C OLO R

Color . Colors are different wavelengths of li.ght. Concre

objects and the materials of which they are made reflect

only part of the light spectrum and therefore appear as i

they have color.

Hue refers 10 the w!loolengthof tho color a~d is separate from i ts i nl 'e n s il y ' 01 saturation. Saturated hues aee

we areaccustomed 10,seeing in Ihe chrernat lc Circle, This book is printedir, tw o colors, but onlycnc h~e,. nred. Black, gray. and white are celers without hlle.

TO M d es c r ibe s a coIQ ('s l ightne S$fd aikne ss . The 1000. a ls o c a lle d the & ha de , is the c olor 's eonte rr t or bla e!< .

SaMatiorl describes ti le .elative ratio of ti 'e co lo's hue and whi te c o nt e nt . A c olo, w ith lit t le sateration conl.oioamount 01 while. .

·T~e sever -dnds of color contrasts are :he 'o ' ( )Wing: 1.CorUa$t 0" h~ e '2. L.9hl·g·ar~ cor-tras; 3. C o z-vr. . . rm C<I. C.,mc eme":ary cortrast 5. Sir.cuW!cous ccot-ast €. Corl,ut::li Silt~ratior 7. Coriras, 0 ext'i!1sion:Johi~rcs 1Ii,,1, Tile A.I of COIOf (Ne'I" YOlk: Rci~to'c P~b'iS~iI"9 Co·:oraiic "1,'967).



V IS I,JA L G R AM M AR I C O NC A E 1E ' 0 6.JE CT SI C O ~O R

Pofe : white:

!ely wllite light

, : $ s (u r a l ad a nd pu re

"0 u- i de r s ta - i d ,ne hue , s ha c a . B Fa S atura tion of ceto rs , ; IM2;1\G Ihem a s \I~e CMtcnl arc' surtacec! a sp 'ie re whe re

'he Nor II' r -o le 's c G"'p le ie ly w hil e a no tI~e S outh P O'e e el: ' 0 101 61 ) b la ck, ihe co" ,p le i e :y ,al'Urflted a nd p L ' r e hue s a re

.c ca le c a long ;'1(: equator. If ::)01.) m C~G S in ,a wa rd s t ile teNer o r ~'e $oiele.lI-e c o O'S W II b e co me less s atu-a ie d a nd

~'"ad~a'ly ae re~'ac~dby "ruy s~e':e$. O~ l~c surface ot !~e S{li,:~er" 'Ic"';,so'ler'e tl1erea,e CQm~'eTe\ j I ",,:~';;\edcetcrsw ~1""ryin9 black cO,,",.,I1:. (See 31$:)I~wn,TheAll oi Colo,.)

33



VISUAl GRAM MARl CONCRHEI STRUCTU RES

Concrete Structures. A structure is

concrete when its structure lines

are visible or actively influence the

form of the objects in the structure.

In contrast to abstract structures,

which only indirectly indicate how

objects are positioned, concrete

structures are visual compositionsin themselves.

34



VISUA~ GRAMMARI CONCREl'EI SlRUCTVRESI VIS leu

Vis ib le Structures. A visible structure is a structure

, ' , t visible structure lines ..A visible structure can consist

-:::structure lines and objects or of structure lines only.

Ac t i ve Structures. A structure is active when the

s tr cture lines influence the form of the objects in the

Si. ucture. A structure need not be visible to be active.



V IS U A I. C ; R AM M AR l C ONC R EiEI ST I'\ U CTU R~SI TEXTURE

Texture . A texture is a structure than can be seen and/

or felt. The texture can consist of structure lines and/or

objects. Texture exists in materials and can be created

through inscription and application,

@ @ @••.•,. - . ~I

' ' ' + -. . .

FQrmal

@ @ @- . . .IH-

~IiA

1 . f o r m . a , 1

t iD 0 00 0

-r'&-+

I~ -.

::tGra d a l iQn

g) 9) g) ;..'.-. .,_

RadLilitic"

(e ) (e ) (e )0

+ . . . _\"

Spi r a l



VlSUA~ GRAW.iARICONCRETcl STRUCTURESI TEXTURE

Textures can have an ornamental, random, or mechanical

design. The system of textures is the same as for abstract

structures: formal, informal, gradation, radiation, and spiral.

·.,••••,. . .• •

" ..\.••••• • • •

- -

. I . ~•••••• • •. . . . .

..,,

· . . . .. . ,, • I'

.. . ... "..,- . '·."• •••• •••..,. .•• • • •• •.•· - t . •.. . . ••

37



VISUAl GRAMMARI ACTIVITI lOS

•• • • I • • .e eR f i f m 9

'11 0

:.~~

40 40 Frequency 40 Rylr-rr Form

••~

<10 51z

fill fill

••$ ~O40 Oirectior 40 Te)!f'ure

O; - - -~ \4~• I I

; i <z4{o\~i_O~ ..__ L 5 Rolet on

Own Axis

40 Color

_ I

• •2 Mirr(lfi'lg

49 Suoe/ordinatelSubordinateMovemer1

36

•3 Mirroringa ga ins t a V ol'um

48 Movemem

,50 O,isplacement

4g Directior

SO~OfOisp l a ce lT



VISUAL GRAMMAR I ACTIV ITI ES

Activities. Visual repro d uctio ns are

static*. What can be perceived as an

activity, is a static representatio n o r a

sequence that creates an illusio n o f

activity.

'Kinetic art-art that uses analog movement as an instrument-is the only genre within pictorial and

visual art where the illusion 01 movement is not created with sequences 01 pictures or static represen-

tations. Film consists ot stil l images shown in a ser ies at a high frequency.

·~'~--H.+er@ between '"e tuturists' cynarn c rncvement and Ducilamp's diagr,\mmaiic: concept of mcve nent lies

::ll1es' '~/otiGf1llne_" Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics (New York: Paradox Press. 1 99 3), '1 10 ,

39



VISUAL. GRAMMARI ACTIVITIESI REPETITION

Repetition. When several objects with a single

shared characteristic are arranged in a cornposi-

tion, the object has been repeated, even if other

characteristics of the objects are different. When

a multitude of objects has one particular feature

in common, such as form or size, this repetition is

called form repetition or size repetition, respec-

tively. When the repeated objects have more

than one feature in common, the most dominant

common feature is selected to describe the

repetiti 0n.

Frequency/Rhythm. When the distance

between the repeated objects is identical, the

repetition has an even frequency. When the dis-

tance between the objeots varies between several

given frequencies, the repetition has a rhythm.

Eve,lr"quer:y

- -.- -

. . -40

F

S

C

Direc

Tex



VISUAL GRAMlvlARI ACTIVITI ESI REPETm ON

•

•

41



VISU-\L (>'RAMMAHIA:CTIVITI ~Sl MIRRO RING

M irro r ing. When light waves emanating from an objec

reflected on a surface, the object has been mirrored, Th

light waves are reflected off the surface at the same ang

they fall onto it T h e physical object is symmetrical.ly

rendered on an axis.

'A ~'irr:>r doesr't reflect :"'gs\he w t·or" w a1 ·o~rd. U rellects wha l i$ m. . . .eo a leY h treat of ~ .. A la n FletchAu 01 Looking Sideways (Lon(lor.: P,aio;lor e 'us. 20e.), 229.



VISUAL GRAI~MARI ACTIVITIESI M IRRO RING

Mirroring against a Volume. When the surface on

which something is reflected has several different

angles, it can be defined as a volume or as part of a

volume. A volume that mirrors another object distorts the

mirror image because the light that meets the surface is

reflected at different angles.

43



here ~'lC",tatlo~loll<)",~thernoverne-it cl the SJn ~~ti lh(,clock (clnckw se). Til S is alsn Ih~

drscvon lor sc't!wi 19 ;, 1 (j screw

~r fu~ninQ or r 6 :_;",Niicr,

VISUAl ail~AMMAR ACTIVITIESIROTATION

When an object moves around a point or an

axis, it rotates. The shape of the path along which a rota

object moves can be either circular or elliptic.

The r ot "t i1 9 o bje c t

44



,

VISUAL GRAMMAR' ACT1VITIES ROTATION

If the rotating object faces the rotation

point with the same side at all times,

the object will have rotated around it"elf

after one revolution.

The distance lrtim the center to the

object's rotation path is called the pendu-

lum. This distance is the radius of a circle.

The rotation poin l is the

center ot a circle. ln case

of an elliptical movemen t

Ihe lenqth of the pendulum

will vary.

The rotation point can also be

inside th e object. i f the objeclrotates around its own axis, This

is also r~t@rredto as a revolving

object.

45



VISUAL GRAMMAR ACTIVITIESI UPSCALI N G/DOWNSCALI NO

Upscalingl Downscal ing.

Objects are enlarged or scaled

down along the x-axis and the

y-axis. These directions are called

horizontal and vertical, or level and

perpendicular. When an object is

enlarged or scaled down propor-

tionately, the width-to-height

ratio will remain constant.





VISUAL c > RAMMARI ACTIVITI ES MOVEM ENT

Movement. True movement (without sequences or

steps) is only found in the real world. Movement within a

visual composition is only a representation of movement.

The positioning of an object can suggest forces that have

influenced or will influence it and move it.

, ' Movement path

Path. An object in constant movement will travel along a

imagined line. This line is called a path. The path can be

straight or have the form of an arc.

AS



V I S U A L G RB ,W ..IA R I A C T IV I T e s DIRe.CT lON

o rsct on oi movsm,mt

----------.

Direction. The direction of a movement can be defined by

the line that leads from the starting point of the movement

to its presumed endpoint.

Superordinate and Subordinate Movement. An\

\

\

object can rotate) swing, or move forward and backward, while

still experiencing a superordinate movement along one path.

49



V IS U AL G RA M M AR A CTIV ITIE SI DIS PLA CE M E NT

Displacement, When only parts of an object move) a

displacement of the form takes place. Displacement is

defined by an angle. Angle 01di$~lace"'enl

Oi 'cellonand "9~e01< :I splacemenl

Direction of Displaceme points or lines of a

ove in a specific direction.



VISUAL G RAM MARl ACTIVITIeSI DISPLACEM ENT

51



V SUAl GRAVMARI RELATIONS

•• •• • •5 Al'ra::lionl S o Syrrrrelr{,' 57 6alarce 56 Gro\..psSate ASyl'rrre ry

t I J .:.• •63 Pos to r .ce/

eg,1

75 lranspare,1/Opaque

••0171 Coo'dlnalorl 72 Parallel

Distance

..6 langenl

,

76/79 Overla:lo;ng/ 80/61 Suet-actCcmpeorc Coir ode

73 Angle

I

~84 Influcrcc2/S3 ~~"'etratio'/

Ext'USlor85 MoeHl catlcn

52



Re:lations. Visual objects in a

composition relate to the viewer,

the format, and o ther elements

within the compositio n .

"\Ilhoug~ tOIS(Poddis: $; Is ccrr ~1"!, , , ly.. . , :;lio1Ioss en :a sheet 0' paPCI. te(~es are work 19 <)~ t.The

cojec, is eraw~ :o.".,.ro:l the marg;~s ,,' t~e pa.ge.The ' Ilar:; ns lecatee c oscst (Q :~e ob.,,::;1~ave

11'0g-eat"sl mpj),e~or , . T -u s ts also Ihi! case ie - o\hl),l!' o-or!s in, ne c om oo 5iiio r. E ern er ..:sI~a~are cosest tc eac~Q"ar h " · , . , , ;ne g,·ea:osl allr3clic ~(lII~ral:l,i",! force) I~""ard eacn 5ther.



V I SUA l . GRAM~ ,i ," .R I REL''I O NS I Ar rRACTION

54



Attraction. Objects that are grouped together in a

composition will either attract or repel one another.

Static. The object on page 54 is balanced and not in

movement. The influential forces are equally strong and

offset each other.

Ina stationary representation an activity is only suggested, Energetic or hvely composit ions seem as if they have come1 : 0 a halt Orare about to initiate movement, crec.ting an rllusion cf the activily belore or af ter that moment. The composi-

tion on page 54, on the ether hand, is passive O r static, It is not the representatior of a stooped movement, Ai tile sa-ne

t irre, even in a static C~Qmosition there are forces at ', ',.ork. Note that he object must be posit ioned slightly above the

middle of the page for the ent i re com posi tion to be absolutely balanced. This is callec the cotical center,

58



V SJAL GR."'MM';.~ I RELi,TlQN$ I SYMMETRY/ASYMMETRY

\'.

iris t igu"e is arrangedsyrn- etrical ly ale 19 an axis.

\

\\~ymmetry/Asymmetry. When objects are id

arr.~nged on both sides of an axis, they are sym

obje'~~can be monosymm1etric or rnultlsymmetri

is symh:~.~tricwhile the lay Iut of the spread'

.\ ..... 5

l Iy

trical.

. This pa

4

3

..

_.//

-nis"9u1e has fi,;e.:~~/"elry axes.

/:I

/. ./'



Balance. A composition is balanced when all elements

have optical equilibrium. Balance can be created between

objects that have the same form but different positions, or

between objects that have contrasting forms. Without this

interaction between elements, a composition is static and

not dynamic.

Think 0'; ' '(his: t . . .< vo -p flg e la yo ut a s a comcosnlon to be balanced. T he lett arc ! rig hl p ag es can 8@ co mpared to tr e

arms of a scale on each side of the gu11.,r, , ,,hieh ads as the tipp n8 coint. He black disc on he page offsets all he

Objects on :he opposite page due tc its larger size and the tact that it is located further out on tte arm and thus has

I~ rea , , :e r o p ti ca l I N ei gh t. In addition, there s (" 'lO re te xt o n this page than o r the opposi te pa ge, v·..hrch furtt e r helps

create balance.

57



VISUi\~ G~AMMARIRI LATIO~SIGROUPS

.,.,;;..u~~:.g When objects are repeated in a composition, t

form a group. or a unit. When several units are put togeth

super-units are created. Groups can be named after the

form of their underlying structures.

Lrnear 9'O~P. Ob. ects that are repcatee along a l.ne f",," " linear Jrif_

T,,(: objects 'I" ;jstructure ce-ipesed 01polygons as ,n the model

to I~e left. whie, is f< l ,med of III<I"9Ic5. are made up 01tria~8ular

uni ts , The objects and the vis1O'e structure l ines i r this group

c-cate a :edure.



59

\lISU,\L GRAVM;'.R I RELATIONS I GROUPS

Triang ular g r : ; > u : ; > . Ocjects that are repealed i1

a tr anqular structure loren a tr.anqula! W 1it.Rhombic g row p . O b: ee l s tbat a rerepeated in a.rhombic structure form a

rrc'mbic ur-i I.

Circular group. The KOlill at wh.ch a unit is seen as an eqi.llatera ;lol/gon instead of a Circle is a question of dst-ru: on,

A pulygor 'nust have more than tou r sides ir Order 10ce confused witI' a circle, A unit can also ne based on parts of a

[i(rle; curved Iines are a par; of a circular form. Is the above grou p a seven-sided urut or a circle-based group?



'· iI SU Il L G~A I 'AMA P I REL.ATIC \S I 1 ' 1N E /COARS E

This structure is

coarser than.

..ee

-j----. - - . - r e- - - - - - - _ - - - r - - - - - . - - - - -

Fine/Coarse. The fineness or coarseness of a structure

determined by the distance between the structure lines.

also relative to the distance of the viewer to the structure.

"".this S-".icture. These

i"NO structu-os a'~

equally saturater aut they

neve dii'erel-t ceorees 0'

Iineness/coarserieS5.

60



VISIJA~G'!i\Mbt».R IREI.ATIC\$ IAnR,/tCnON

• • • •••• • •• •• ••• ••••• •••

~

.•••••••••• ••••••• •••.••~•••• eee e.· •••••• • •••• eeeee •••••.•• • •• eeee e e e••••••• e e eeee _ ••:••

..• •• _eeeee ee e •••.:••.••• eeeee e_.. ....... ••••••••....•••••~.eee ••..•••••••• ••••• •e••••••••••••••••• • •••••••

...... • '

.. ..... . . . • • .

. . • • . • ...' .• • • • • • • • •......: ...:~.:.:....•....T h I' ! c le gr ee o I a s : ' JC lure ( s s alu -z: on as we I a s iI s c oa r SCO l'1 s $ c a n v..ry.

T,e coa-seness ":);3 dispersed f ield of object3 is oSTIe' ln ~cd by:~c size c! ,I'e <::Ojec:.s .'l te!aho,",to :,e ~,ewcr. liscecree 0 ' s a1 J ra ho, ~e~end5 01 the dis:a,ee be:-,~een the objects.

Diffusion. An irregular dispersion of objects in a cornposi-

tion is called diffusion. The structure can gradually shift from

being fine to coarse, and from sparsely to highly saturated.



Direction. A structure can actively define a direction,

62



++++

Position. A gro up o f o bjects can d efine a o sitio

layout, such as a corner, an edge, a center, l ' an a enter.

63



'/ISUA. GI~"MMA I RELATIO\'S I SPACE

Space. A composition dan have tense and open areas

this manner create white~pace in he layout. The placeme

objects in the str cture can reinforce this impression.



Weight~ThroUg

l. conSCi~us use of the upper and pwer

Freas of r format!lhe designer can play with associftions of

ho w we ex perience the wo rld , a llu mg to t e earth and the

sky. T he composition can create t e illusio n o f som eth ing

being ligrt o r heavy, o f so eth ing that flies, o r so meth ing

thai lIowf· I I



V SU! "I L 3RMAI I i \ R I r,ELr,iIOI~S IAMOUNT/DOMINANCE

with many objects and

large number of obje

dominant.

66

compositibn can h

with few objects.re

not necessarily the m



\ 'lSL'F.~ G~AI·.·I"'IAF REU·TIC,\$ I AfI /IOU NTIDOMI NANCE

£7



Neutral.

68



Backqround/Fore

ived

FOREGROUND

, a llv small

t), 6 , I\'lathem. s saturated). 8,

r~-" 'w·""n. ' 0,1 the cepth axis). g. M ou ';f or b il d@ f ( 05 1 0 : ,u.bstrak: fe,flag. 20(2)\ 3~.



VISUAL G RAMMARI RELATIONSI COOROI NATION

Coordination. Objects are coordinated, if their coordinat

have the same value) the same focus, and are perceived

from the same perspective.

R iO fi g .ne s a bove a re pe r\ ;e i.e d lOS c oor dina te d " ..H ie ;1C f i9 "((!S be low a re ' rot. R e O~ti0~, e LM 0' tim t"'o';1 u

t,ions te.ow s pe rc eiv ed a s be .i,ng ' clos er :i~ spa c e tha n, the vppe r , W MI1 cojc c~s a re .'eee n op er sp ec tt ve , t he e le

c to s e s t tc "he v e'",'e' ,is ~;;ueH, plae,ed low ,' > ~'c;; 'om:;osi,tior'l,

The .e : v. '0 o a j e c !> : a r eexperic/"ced as be'n9 close

to e a c h othel.

70



Distance. The distance perceived between two objects can

vary according to the viewer's perspective. Two figures that

are perceived as being close to each other can, when seen in

another format, be experienced as being remote. Closeness

and remoteness are relative.

The tw o objects on this page are experienced

as being positioned fa' f rom each other,

Relaiively speakinq, they are equally

dis:ani from each other as the two

objects at the bottom of page 7Q,

71



VISUAL GRAMMARI RELATlOI~S;PARALLI:L

Two lines are parallel when they lie on the sam

plane and are at an equal distance from each other at al

Regardless of how long they are, they will never intersec

72



caject can only be situated

at an ang Ie to sorrethinp else, f

it has a directior-. Ths dlrec l ionis nefrned by foe most Important

ax is in th e oojecr's slructu-

ra~ske.etor (See siructural

skeleton or pagE 2L.) A circle,

~c'" in s: an ce . h as no directro-i, a1

elhcsls. or the other hand, does.

VISUAL GRAMMARll'lElATIONSIANGLE

" acute angle is less :.'1ar go'.

1 1 cot",,,, B ngle is 9",,,ater than go'.

, ng ht angle is go',



A form s callec cos;t;,e O f negative ,j i t 's tonei; is s e t o n is n e ga t iv e . A p os it iv e 10'1"1 is ext rover ted n e d o utwa r d )is 1 e g at iy e . Ii s om e t hin g IS e xtrud ed Irom a form . t re or i9 na llorm is

Text the:;s l ighte r a n rna bacvex, A fo rm th an be id le d w it

i ive . w h ile t he n ew io rm IS nega t i y e .

74



Transpar e. A transpar

see-through. Light shines through it so that other elements

behind it become visible. An opaque object is visually

impermeable and prevents light from shining through.

75



V ISU" L a R A MM A R. R ELA TI 0 NS I TA NG EN T

Tangent. When two ob· -cts are located next to each ot

and share one comma point, they are called tangents.

/,7 '5



\ IISUAL GRAMMARI RELATIONS TANGENT

------

- - - - - - - - - - .. _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

..~.

',_

""

77



VISUAL GRAMMAR RELATIONSIOVERLAPPIN(l

Overlapping. When parts of an object lie above parts

another object, the first object overlaps the second one.

18



VISUAL GRAMMARI RELATIONSI COMPOUND

Compound. When two objects overlap each other

and visually appear to be one object, the form is called

a compound form.

79



VISW, l- GRAMMAR! REl-ATIONSI SUBTRACTION

Subtraction. When the part of an object that overlaps

another one is deducted from the underlying object, a

subtraction has taken place.

80



VISUAL GRAMMAR RELATIO S COl NCIDENCE

Coincidence. When two objects have the same form and

size and are situated directly above one another) so that

from above they appear to be one form, they coincide.

I

I

rf

I

I

I

I



V IS U A L G R AM M AR I Fle LA TIO NS I P EN ET RA TIO N

Penetration. When one object is pushed through anothlarger object, a penetration has occurred.

T'IC ~ylhdol' ~as creai~d a hole in the quadratic disc bl ' ponetraling it WheU'er 01' no: lbe-e was a 10le in th e esoreviousl} ' make. Hl l e d i t '<3 re l ·ce .

6 2



VISUAl GRAMMARI RiOlAiiONSI EXTRUSION

Extrusion . The process of forcing a material through

an opening in an object so that the form of the opening

influences the form of the material is called extruding a profile.

If we press a rnatenal ~~IO"2~ the '1010:1at we ne-ietra'cd on lhe previous Nge. lhe -esolt wilJ 09 a cisc 0' a c1 ir::i~·.depend Ilg Q" "e 3"1"0" 11of m5.I~Jial.i>·'as5'ed tnl:;lusll. ""10 ~'olila aCGJ;-'~9 Ihe I:WTI oi 11leCI~e~,n;! is called me

extrudale,

83



VISUAl G R A M M A ' f < 1 ,RE"ATIONSIINHUENCE

Influence. When an object has changed its form becau

of another object, it has been influenced. Objects can al

mutually influence each other.

Mutw@1ini luence



VISUALGRAMMMI RELATIONSI MOOI,~ICATION

Modification. When an object has been slightly altered,

it has been modified. A modification does not change the

basic characteristics of an object.



1f.ISU~'i.GRAII1M~1<1Ei.AiIONS VARIATIO N

Variat ion. Repetitions with varying and minor alterations

(modifications) can be called a variation.

96



V I SUAL GRAMMAR I RELAT IONS VARIATION

07





GlossaryVISUAL GRAMMARI GLOSSARY

. A . b t r o t 1 \ ;i l il il 0 " ' 1

Ab$iraoliM

~nlU:ile

MII'Omali,

A~liM

I\C!i v ~ /

Aeut•• ogl .

Ai1~]r~::i::i

Al:! l t~r~l i ; , :s

An'!~i~1~ ty

; \motJnt

. < \ , • • ,,,£ I,.n.iikln

A'g'"A'n··lg,

!\1i"t.271.!d

J.o:l'h:otiM

" " , * ,! O . r c

f~~ymmel'i:

, ' \ t I r a . c : : o ' "

. . . . .4,:(i'J1~cner:~ ;:

6~CiK~ I 'OU 1 " :t 1

6nl~I·,ce

~~'NM

~rghlr 1CSS

C~nt'e·

C!onl,iluga

Cgnl('I'~lal

0 \ . ' ) 1 ' 1 1

Ou~~,hc

Cir( :,e

eire e ; t e lIT'S

D e: ;- k: lk -. n : :. i a r c -b1e d s e e - in : : - e " S p e : : t ve . P:J1S : ; . 1 U le C lip !(." : I e : l' I. r i_ s i d ~ ( )~ it c c:)t'I'I'PC~ ~Cr- •

II!!;I -eel. f l o : > : r5p",,,,,n1i-g sc ,;.'";-9 i- lh • """ d U.';.ers all· r"ll ined. U,:Ie,}j ng ""'-'::eres Ihal delemliM Ih~ d"*it<n 01

~-e·ythifl::J ::J::JI.J..-d us,

j~ s:~.ss$..E rI::JIa5ize.. !~'t~dl ng rnpcf l ar l\ : 1 I! to .J'JlOpart (ij tl v.·hOle.

(C':.r; se t of OO' f) lS~ cc r r .p-rsed :If f:.r,ay 10 ' 1 \113$ .

' ~r oC' -e s . :; n f c f) ng Ih ~rl-::l:::'

In a s ta tt c r epr es en ta tio n. a ct iv it y is s ug ge :ii~o :": '~ J,EI~el ' i1ei,e;: ~ r I . ...el, p 05 1 !~ a n d r <t y ll tl s h a '. 'o Z !s -c p ce d or wi ll i r it i !3 iG - ;: '. i I l "ICV~ ·

me n l ar d a re a rc :XG!Se n l a lion ;.j I t he i rl ct i' J ' 7 ; / b:".!fore l . I . ' . 9 . i l(::t t- Ii~il om !!lilt.

A n a cu le .:int; Ie is lc s s tha --; 80 :j~gte~:! : i .

Ir.d c~ti(}l~ 01 locelily The ac d -e s s C ;, i" : b a ex :, ,: .r e :e i ~I !: '! :a e ( ;OL "J '~ i" 'F lt ·( ;' :) : , J . ' oer~re~~ :J f IO I1 ;j a . d e a-a lat i lude,

T e ; a, :: o : hi n q s ; :; I! ') C lJ t + e p e r c e p tl o le rc;]lm

Eq l . , , ! lvocal U, : : ; : 1 « 8 . 1 ' . (.1::;'$·;;J re.

$t:rn;: l rlb ; :J meesuraclc ; .siler "'~!2ig'it~numt::e'.

SMwlh t-e-rs fcr.

Ox-n ng aelseee- bee st-alq-: hl~rse::.t~ l-es.

{ry:;a ~~T:} deler-med iJ.! slr : t i : :J1~ .r~~ and :J.1~et: y. , t1 c : c ~ , e . . " S .

QrnaTo:f :" 'I :at i ::! ln. r:..~,~~.~,::o 3;. ba,s.r;.

:...f. : . ! : , a t rA t" l ,

Pone' &cfde.

Not ~ymmf1. - ; : :: . .U~e- . .. - .en ; ; : ; : i 5 0 ~ r i l : : ~ me l eloog an axis .

C b j ; ; : : c . : 5 ocsmoncd i~e e a·~rr~ p ' 0 X 4 m ~i r :2dl :y....C \ < " . . ; 1 a l W 3 " f S elt"'l6- at:ra:-:i .;Y..-e:>e o re unot- er,

I rnas i"e~ f ine, L ne in a ~ysl .em 01 ccwd~nale::5.

R~,ooIJ::h:::m i r a ri £i ht- .a n; J c c c cord na te -sy st'i! lIt , A pr.(:sr:~:1',113 w I!ho;,:~ 'j, -:af'j~nillgpc:;nt

E I {;mf :i ,1 S :i II a C'. )i :r I,pD5 :11::1 , whcsc f1 Jt" lCti"Or" lt 'S i to·e r .n' : ;' IlC~ ~ jo.,~ n 1 ( " , - s 1 im~r:.6tr.t o e j e c t s ,

' Eq ui li br iu rf l : )( '! t' ;, 'e e n e le n .e -r e s. A : it ~r .: il it y 9 .1 1d L Ih !. "q Ul li ty a : :h ie ' Y· ~I ~ l~y~"s ., ~II ~" pe s : iQ rir g ob je c ts ~ vi th d iff (: !l.: :n l w ei 3- ~· s. il"l

!i 'J:1 '1 a '(r,f:j)/ -t -a t ih ey c ala -c e e a ch m l~l: r, !3 aI8 1\ r'~ Ii!II: :: 1! 4 l /i~ ~l al t e. ,s o r 1 1~~ 1N :" ;I ~k $ ag a :n :: .: n ne w it h .:l:iiv it,,_

O'i 'h]:na s-r.rct ...c.

r~ni$ical e r ·, !i ty ' o r s t ru c tu r e .

FQ;;)' IQ5S. : , ;, ' rJ c cn fic e-r ce , e r-e ct . \,Vitl, ~,,:e ir lle rlt o f - = " ~ I l t n e . . . . . . .t i. ,· ~1 ' )i s bd i ( "

C I" f \ .' e d , b e n t, s p r· e r i : : : . : : : : . 1 ,

T he - c ol or's pt'.I.~iticn: 1: ) : ;. scale ci '.......,te to h li JC k , " -h !9 :O r v= - c f ~ color.

I\'k:tr.e p c. nt , ~1rn~M:}hc anc vpla c.er,tr.r. Pc1nl lo,,",.aIe<l : al Ihe c·e1'to!r ofa fo'ma:.

Tt:e I ' .. l o " : "' i ti l -e cs ~w·:1""i t -o -r a c en te r.

Tta~ ~;_'''lidl tends ~oC'-;":rr;jccnte-,

Sl~i nnebel-""",n I''' '' prot< on a oeipll~

(O f a se t c f : : := J i :: J { S J " ~ ; : - " ' ; a h ...ed s t tuch. " 'C.

e u : " ' ; o . ; . - : : j : 1 1 : ' . " : 8 w-e -e < :H ~ 1:"I\st I a " ~ . ! ! ! ! til>! !:fJTI! ' : ls .wr.a:"Of" 'I :.a, g1teilit '~,ht{G~.r'ltC't~_

Ar...; f " " a i 1 ~t liE ,ekejmte-crcc ~t a ,a"d !" .

0:...... ter- S;ralt;hl li-teIhl""l;h lh~ <.onte· I-cln one .id~0; ~te circle10 the ov.er.

Chore : S1 r :.~ .. , .. ire bebveer i W o C p3rl~!;;)tI ~" e pe ' phet)',

F",i:;h;erj' Lengih a""rd Ih~ wier e d . , . o r Ih~ Qf()Ie,

r" Ralio belwee- the FoOf""'Y a,,~ the dl'TCI.~' (~!>l,,(),.maley 3.1~159).

Rae j , ) : 5 : : D is ta nc e t rc m t h~ : !: :".": 'n '0 i3 f:)'1lM, C i1 c ·e to + e pe f" if) i Cfy ',

S e g r ne r vt : Pa - t of t:1 e c i r cl e 'b~"' :we~1'"IiI chol~::: C \ 1 \ c l th e ·;.eri p " h e r y ,

S~Cor: Pa1 ct t - i ~ c i rc l€- between by : : ) r . ;'Jc·1,

99



'/ISUAL GRAM MARl GLOSSARY

C Oi:!~

C(H';'I'~r.

(";~,t":':ldr:;I"Ir.'i i '

("',..(JMt~I"a~ ~"

o.~I·' Inlunlc :al ! i ln

O:~ I~ I f . = ~r:~" ~i;!?"

U:""Il'l<

("A~fi-s.~I~n

\..(;f 'ip.."aI"' 'Ci

a: r<"""O~~'t!t':~'1I::

Ccl"~ ~ : , ! : ! 1 1 1

,,,,,"I~_

C c r - : - : : . - y ~

Ct;I":"asl

C-t" '"A:! : '~~":

~I'I'";~"'"II:'I

C::-,'\l<

(""(>;"Jf:I1"; j~r:

{ . ' " " "0......:

,D-,.~

1D!: -="m3 '1 i ; : !n

'D!I"'l!'a~!":=

~I·~~.'"L'!!pl"

o."","~*

Do.~'

DI'~"",,'"

ll"l1:' ~!t4J1

c;ft...'.~

D-!TC-~~C"

DI"!-::1t3fl

D i " "

i)i~t.w:,:

)i~!:":1"'.n~::).,

J;!",~!l '-"'::r."

Ji~:mr:l

L .~ )I'n m ( :.~ :I'~d...:~lIIV_:'Ut Ii ~~t l o : : j e : : : t ,

l..:)t ~\t~d f ' l . ~.I'\')I':' : ' : I i : ' " ' ; t~I'-:;,* Jl\'/~, i ll ::rl ll:!J1.)[ )jp~1!~I;:.

1 , J " re i i r: e 1 j , with I", '9 i.' t \ ~X~ i, 1 ' 11 .i " V f . i l " I o r ,'j. 0 P I, ;f J ~ ~"t I \J ( t i l l o ! ; .

W~i,,"~n ~\'iW ut;,,~.-.:t:.i : : i~tH' f rr .: 'i . ., .r ; : . r . .r , I : , i/ ' : , ,1 i r l l; t : 1 . I f - J IOt;;'!'IW:J - : . : i l l l : l o c ~ 'I i , j , t. ' I I ,: . . . . .e O'l l '; ! ! , j l "o tI1¢.r,

~r I ~ W " tl~ttll~~I;::lI, J t t ! J \ C : . ' I I : . l r ~ o l ~ r ! . i C~I,r'1~r. F l I i ~ . C ' ! ( , flt~~tN:"" I : ; , . . . . . . . ,ltJrnl~I:II$I,t\,JI ~!:i, C I : ~ l ' . ' I I n , ~ ~ f : r : l ' : : ' . l ,

Hue ~~~ '' 'I ~ '~ '< ' j· l1~f~V:J~I·k C:., ' ltl~tlJ ,.tl~t :::!i.)k:hl'iJ.r~ ' : :Or lm' .L:". t~~~~.·Vr.l\::tr ,cr:' iLry';":1.:.nlr~flJ.l,r ru : U rl e 1. ll J~ . :, .. ..nl tM! , ' _ ': ;: f :h J 'l I ti .o~"I~ t · ~ " :' I 'I ! , I~ " : .1 " ' 1 eo."tr:9.~ I-

H ~ . C I " :; ~ ,c n t l i :J " "iw..W(I:3 f W r : : ~ pl il J lt '! 1 . cJ ' U r l W I : ' t. , ;, ~ M 'l,!)f n r, ~ mM ~ ~ : ir ~ ' )m l l ~ ; :: t ;: ) "l ' I r :> " tr : : ; 1 . . ' t,: . i. . ij~(~ · . r . . : . t , . CO O ~ p i 9 " 1 ' 1C,

~tC(ZLJ~,.( :- i l " ! l . " : ; I lf lh l h ~S b ! J { l n ~ 1 1 t . . " ' I ~ ~ 1:"1I.;,)~I\I~'~\ o C Q ! o ' f l d g~:! ' .! ' . I r ! ' i . I 1 : ' : l r l i r l f l : " " t . " : ~1"'P::J o c ( , : I I ' L ' . ; ' ( . : v t;1~~t r . ~ ; 1 . Dt-i Md rv j ~

"~~u",!h C q. . ..1" :d!\'::!Ii: f 1U t11CO . ;B~lu t: .i il iQ . .. " tuvJ :Qfl~.

C C . .. .lDc6:)t1 ~.m~~1·~~~COr.,u - a - o r .: nn ni -:l : "It-tr<: fAl I !~i"'''l~.'1 : : : c . i:I!!'JllJl : .111: " .

E~'~""!'J'l 01 '"""""lW' "~tw.." ,e-<I<l, MI: , "' '' ', '1(0",

S JP';C1e" i" a . .. .: . .. l ! ') t 1 . . 1m~"'(nO l :e f , O - ' f ' i " : t 'J1 :;Qk'lf~ :••~~9 1 , " J e en l" i"p"'; :~='.~:"JI" : " I f \'~~-¢ ~.'johe"" : . l t r , . . t . , . " r : ; : I " . I E : ' : -nIh-!- ~te : !' i . , .. • .If.;

C(,: :·r~ ~d of !:('N·<.:ml r. ':=1·':="'1;-::- ,·"'d - oQ l · : . " : v . = ' . "i~ J~I~"j ntt i-: ;at¢ 1\ : i : i l . :t c no t h . . ,t : " ~:,:i~ft:! li t te < .I " : : . l : 3 1 r l , : : , ' I t IJ ' ·d>1::t~~a.

M'.< . ! . .'~ . .~.M.:~'la:o-. cr9-,,- I : rr. (hff:"lrr:."~ ~.L~! ~ J t 1 " ~ ~ . I h " : j..'~JI';':' v A ' • . : J I ~ .

1.'\11'20- : - , . - , a 0 0 . e i; h : h:tl !3 a c o t "" 1 ' ! W ,: r, ( . r.:~;r'r.I-"v:~C+

':-.u-i'(.:d-of t;)'. ...J 1""U:.u:.:. :':C'I;',~.::Ii-~-ad ('J:)p.'jI(, ~(Io~ ~~~t:J: A «f~ 4 ". iI :· ~ ~ I P; I! t' ;i: - . u . n , ! f . ; Q . "

1 ; : I , 1 t 'L tJ ~ ..~~ 1'Il'r.:)"I" t~,, : e t .

; .. I ;u < T P ; :: $ - ~ · C " ~ :: :a 'l "l I' ~7M t. - f t.n.f"(I'rl:::~1)1:4i'.I"t.~" ~1\l'~lli::r~~

1 . . : ~ : " ! " : a . . n l l ~ , i " · 9 f : 1 S 1 . "· g . .. .. b " 'C ~ c . . · c n . ~ · . . .. .. .) o ; . s . ,

0 ..~" e III~ · · 1 e : l·IJ: ~'1:~! '# "lh~rt~r ,

T h ~ ' ; ;~I~:"!' O i l l o q , w ~I 'I F . r . . ' 1 · l:''ilitn.".:J u~~t;J;;e ~ d d I::";\": ........ i l " I "I .I .··I\..Y-t t- d ~ ' J ; . w ' :d"t;~ l '1;1~ s l . : i . . . .~!::U! I r' ~ ,n L i i k ' , n -

~f~~'11 "I:}:':I~ I "~ ~ l· lI }I .: o: ' ' ' $ ~ ). i: '· ti !n l~ :: tr c r r U t . . ~ i. : :e: .e" l~t" : ;~·· 1 y = ' ;~ I ' -: ; : :: o n l t: a ; U . .: : ;~'.l;ij : - r - o k & 1 " , : ; : : :: : r . , .. . ,nn h " : ' :f '

t"!~1;. -:-.:.nJ'.:.(-r.r.~,11"(1-()O""\.

ITS::·e$~~:lfe~..-. :-"" O"t'..nc:; : ':Jj .)i:l"1':t.1'~ t~:.t'')': ~~~,...!d p"·.:.I1.:I.~-'" Ih..~ :'.........1::"'(:, } l ' o ! . I i " , . . : r , . : , : : e n I t . . ; ; d'=t ; lh e.).1s.,

~y.- -,~~ (l'i t , . . , . t : < J , 0_ - < f . " r . r t t Ar..h~ I:..t op~i~ ' , J ! , .r..~f'(';"Y'~ 1\ o:n-~ at' iifk: I;:" .1""t~::;"(.;f 'r;::;., Is.:.~.

t-l '..~' ( ; ; D . 1 qJ!Ui'l ltyl'!fio:=t:h 0: C~('I. r . - . " , : " \ tit ~~'" i,-~ ,J'~:I:'1I'·III'1 h~~l'~, X ' " . . . : ! I 1 k r f " 0: ~ e e n .t ,

~~~,:'1: .'., _'·;t'f"&:C- t:1!~'t'!fl. t...::I~",;~ 1:. ~t.:.~ ~1'''.'":In . : : -«fr~lJ ..tb t:l · · , f ; ! b t a n be~-e.en.lil~

F",-:;~ . r . . . . ~~lC~;,.'f(~ ~ ' S : . ) . \'qwr \"...$'C' S¢..~~~ ,::~. f'~~·W~..

G""."" I~, 3'<1\ , , , , , - 4

.M:h~~.'" Ig":,

~ M ...t1~·~··~·ll"llal~t! ; ,:1U~ .'~m.) fe r -r , V .. l ~:"loVi.y, ~"I

C.~~I·:'I. 0 1 1 0 1 ' " IhM·' o,:.·!:::'t!ltLI·f..-';··~·./Jisl ; ; , - ; : : 1 j,I·tJ~.,d"il ' ~.II';;" :.!":':¥."(.~'I"I c = - . . . .. . ...:r..•~: . r : . 1 - : " , I ~ h l ~

V.a~1i(:'&1~"i'.·LI"')I.":I~ ;;';:;r'~'S 11 ; r:}'.,.J.~ ::'i, I"~~~:)"II UI~I:;)"Le'-""l:lCl:~:i,r:":;,., ~ pi~lu·e~.: i : o $ I ~ · .

~"J' ... !.::t -;~•• rJ 11,.:1i'IC!l' · I h - = - · ,. : . ee 3:..• •~~~ " .. "' fl 9 1 U I 't h ! ll :: ) 0.: ~ ' : ! ' . - : : . c r . u · o ! ' f : . : = = ' P h 1';1.0 l i s e l . J ' f ~.l:I~~ ttj c c l c r

le-e ::'C:;;"' •... r . " . I , . . . .p.1~.r, ; I 'i l .-: 1" :. , .11 · ' 1; : 1 I !4\ ~~ :. . .. , tl W··(,,~ (::lh-=w~CU I d!.C c : t : : , . Q · : r : - Ih:: 111;;;i~:)1 e . . . , ~ ~ · · .

: " " " ' i - i e . .s . .. .. If!, a co " I"pw. : i ~(;1" '1h...11 \ " :~rt M ."I'l tI ~ I t"i.I..Il.~ II'~or~ " •• i i . 1 10'~n:ll

Atl loDn. fH:U~:~"' .rd ","(;:..' 1 : . : :0"4"I! l ;kpTle'~ M " ' ...t.;f ~.:': f~/:: ,:~:. j;:.:, ) • IVI~'ll~lIl: ' t 1 .: ¢ :I " ~ n s ~ ~ t /H,· n ~ f S t ' I ' :'I"'~

S,'~ gt. , I'''''' I'M' ~", C ; " " ' " I~U. ~,""",\. : - : ' t \ ¢ ' .In ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' - f , I o ,,:,~~,"",gl'!fM. r , . " t . : . . n r Io i ' : ' eer:» 'f~""iI ~·'tl; t~·.r.,.: ' .. ~ ' . 1 . ; c ~ :t e :1\00',

~u at tJ~~~~:)l) of ~~ ikrr"..r.r~~~ ~ tnt.

F - ~ te- So 0"'" III ~ a : . : ~ w"d :I~~!.a i l ! : ':T::';(~,

Oh-N,t~.i' & ~(.'l I I .~:>U!i l !l~:>'I ' wi :,wlf,.-r.;.-tj(co~;w\M4·"f:"/.f.t(':.;;ro(\!e·ed.li'I:;r~:;ar.M 8 <~·C"v t \ I . . , t ' l I 1 . 1 n e.,·t:lfffl.".irA O~~~se~ ! ) : : . o o : f 'I ' I : " " '~ I '1 - 0 ' ~ • • 'v••: ,•• 1- ( 311~1IC 1"10 :)thr;. :l:"~:";"ij..:h:C:: ~ C iC :1 ~ t .i·'·~bl!tl·!·~~ ;V ' 6C~ C o "" _ A "I 0 *= '" 1 : " . r ' . I o r . P ) 1 . S t I i,d l~ ..1 ;e r, ~ I ~• •e . l > . t u - ~ t , : . 1,,'; I t t :: cy , . . .. : ; :. sn {M,IJ(:~I~ !"kr.- r,"'.:~.m1

it... 1 r- ~ r .r ll ": r e . .. ftd fl)tl:s;!.U ! I~ " " I I ! ; . d u d I P P i i ; . I . , · : S 1:) = : l C ' h .. r J . , o i . " : " I.. . , I ' ! : . . . =1.lI".:rf)l,

hi Q:,~::I(u Ilj.)1~m (j~•·~ti! C .! 'V\'l '1.I :ttvr.~yI-·c·. ~ ! .: . ~ op!t plZirh~

S , . " , , " ; , , ~ ,'.I, i""lIoo',SMJ(': t. I~~h\'et.:w·hw : : ;. . ;)Inl~or :L."t~:-..

Slfj;';il ' l l ~I...';h.'W~"i';·lhy.:"!4~.ur'~I.l,



Dls-ort

C'i:::.:;b.rto-

Dorni,anl

EconomfcaEdge

[br:'16nl

Endpcinl

EI"I·i?_rn-e:lTlc :nt

Ep sod c

Eve-

E xlr c ve r ;

btru·:::;:Jte

Eyelevel

Fine

Fe-mat

F,,,d,1

F,aSfTI~rlla·y

Fra-r-a

Frcctc-r

F re-qu-==nc:,'

Ft.sicn

l3est:. li t (n)

Ge::ta:~ (,;)

Glcsey

G 01de f"'section

Gr8dali·:)n

Grar-m-a-

Gravity

Gr id

'~~(CI"IP

Ha'f-to-ic

Har.d-r ade

Har-rc-y

He:-::aqra:'ll

H gr,li~~ht

H·::.rizcr,

H:,ri:;::c"f",t:;.1

l-Iyp6r"ul~

'. '1SUAL GRAM MARl G WSSARY

;~ush: t ,.vi :: ,~ :or tW.1 i i: -: :i \i .f . out.

Appc -tion T o e- r; dr f ~~ic•.

"an ::::.ularl~' p-orn nenl. r » (ekes its pre.:;er··ce -el t c.....r that oi ethers.

--e8!ci'.i,',us 2JJ~~ulltle .nover-enl cf bod es .rnder the i- i luence o- e··e(sy, Creates ar.d reduces te- rs c- between oqects tr,

a ·,;i su a I ·:::CI"I:)usi l ion.

=ru;~r:.1 i~.::'0:: r:~01ern oits tr, er- r

pha si ;re: : )' J( il / an j siI' p

:i·:::

~y ."ransttlon -rom one area to ancther. T~::::(:·nc.nsu-c of an ohcct.

One c·i : ';e units ::':':"lnlpri.:;if",g a CULnt : ;. ', Ccmpcne-:s contributinq to the creation oi a whole.

"he eid o! (-I.I:n":'- (et-c-d).

A r2Vc·:::\di·:)n ~ - - : a ~ is : 8i rr~er lha· ' the c - qinal

(Of -r--cntton · 'N i~~fr8q:_ .8~r;/ ' a rBr-s :~ ;t ic ," that varies: r8:::,elilion \'.'i~--: tr-eak::.

By -erncvlnp or ceereas n;~ the df(""!ct:-:: -r-nt can CrL : r - l T r : . : (:c:!-~ (r:.:;r:,:)(!cti·,,{:·, lirht.:'sr,a.:1(·:, tr;:Jnsq;::rl?n(:y}. c- e , ...:1 a-rive at

sc meth ·ng thai apcea - s e ...on

D'Jl"·i:::.r~ily oriented.

TI1-9 [(nil l:!'ouphl «tout L y lo·cinS a male- iii :;·r:)Jgrl an coe :i·,}

L:Rh: ~··!fJ·,..es that 1'8e~ t; ,8 sy .s at ~ r:[lhl ::.tn~l:e,

Re f I ed p . . . l re, th o n: : , m al 1 - ] ';:)1nc d . 0 op es : - : 7 c ": c ca -s 8.

Strenq+. cower. e 1e r s : / .

A contour c- an objectina pla-te oef nes lts -orm.

1\1tcr-r-s are def-ned by contccrs created by ntr-ttc --mhnatrons oi.s lr:iii; h l «r d curvec i-es.

1-18·';i·~!:1~o d·:) ·,·.ilh ··'e ;orn Fer l8. i~·i' ·9 :"'_.,euler lcnr. 'n uccodance .vrth the lo-me. \'lilt:"·I:)ut conte-rt.

Th-e: cor - c re te S~lr'cund il "' :?S i ., (I upon ,.',':ich tie visua .=::i.::menls S l al! I;Jnc_I(::', This can be :'·e ~iZ.8 o- L; sheet oi pa.per o r

tnr, tyon of mcoum, ~l·'Nhid-, .si9~8.IS 8r:? lr2.n.Sf=:or:-sd.

l - -equ la- form that 1i8;:, c uts ~h: of the -och- \~ .: classtca ~~C()110::-\".

Broken t.p, drvicec Into a. nuruoer oi parts. In pieces disjcir ted, ~;:,I: U3.

Ihe - ite S'. lr roui ld in(~ (-I .··~)rr· I~-I .l .

A fe- rn +at i s : -: Ii :f c ur t l c C ;:J:2! :]~V iL :? : ~) '(~8 .n c.

R:-l~-C·.<rcq .•c-rt occuvcrcc.

\ '\ "" en tv . .: ) or m ;)!f! U~tts jni 'l , - : " " ! T ako c : r.c.

Mathemat ic led-:: ':: lifl ;j': :' about pC,i ~31 Ir- es, surf aces, and :: :;) lid~J and t heir mut ua r e! r1ticm::, :n noacc.

Fique. shs:)e,

Tc f:-!I"II: P((:·:-:uce, ri',.:::=:ifl3 ~c.

(C~ the char acter of a surfecc) a :-: :IJrT: -lC(!tna: r s . '; :0 s ,l Io ct :, and shinv lhfJl c l: .t j2 :C1S a re re' I€~Je· :_ :: n n,

P'opcrticn bet-veer, hV 0 e-r qt hs v ..her e the r at io c : . · ' ; the :,;11(!1-:0:-::to t-o lc: rW·:-: : t i s t he; :,: :ll ~': =: -as l hal c~ +e 10np~:s: ~.: ) lhe

-vhc e, Ttl is r etic is 1 .618. .

Gr2,d~l::d :':·~8JIJe. U.=;t:'j n reierence lc a tone or textu-e's i:l::.:reL.-:.:::i1g or cecreasinq saturation, or to ar \~.bir.c: i' :' i (lC"r' ::~s .i :~ j or

d :? 'u :?asi~~1 s ize, e:~"e· lh:ol lGh I -===P i: :: .cr or by N;i:;' 0; persoective.

TC8 .C~i~nS 81l :)ulU· I€ 2 :~ '~ I: .j :, I:€ cl l a" !~.p_ .:~~t !~ : : .e e le r- ien ls c ::m~p· i~'ns ; ~ and the rules ct :~e~r cc-ob rrcnon

"orcc o:::r:-l' .\",nq nl1.(""!(j:, :()'.v.:l~(.s ~..r:~:";B"ntl.3fof the EArth.

:Vec:uie sys te-r., skc fe tc r, :C.J2f..W:. Dividinq thf; (.c:mr:(;.sition intc nrna ler em.pes ~il~rs +at (1:?i2:nn n~ lhe des qn oi the

objector the olacer-tent c- elements ir, the fer-r-et.

.Jnit made -P : ..; IIeler- ienl s pes.', o-r ed toget her G" \· ..ith a shared c'iarac-erts-c ;:,0 they are :-l:-:::;c:·:-:-iat(!(1\'itr, one ;:Jn~;.thGr.

-t.. r~ n t ..f:: X;:)·~I :)n-e SC2.!I2!,be lv.eer I h eck ar d 'i,f II te.

Dt-e-tly nftucrccc by ,IJ1:Cln han:i:;:.

whe- several ee-ne-r.s are f~..: ~\!w;~r:(""!r :-:-r0r:.i in] a :-::t;:)f\: of ;)r~l::ln(:~~.Con-rast is 8 fC~CG il~ cp::: ·~):Ji liGn lc hal·ro··: i, be t

conlrasl a-d harncny . ,· ,i I ' -" '. I, ,·.~>:s Lnction tcqet-rer. A harmcr .y r- an to TI.lI;oi r::1"l~;:)~t:, :-1nc.~~n:"'-'as~s . : : : : I . I ~ be ha'nl~~'1iGl_.s_

R-ec.il·no&ar li~liJl:=: deli-r.ilec by si;( .:;ide.:;,

The li 8ht( ~s:~ p8~l cJ ;:: ·~;::IH(:-I',e j: i..~oIi_:r r ~ c::...re,

L n0 ' .v r:CfC triG sk"~' 81"1<1arth ·:)r sU'face (:1 the OCe&i;l r·l~el. L rl t 01 kn(_.'...,I~clSlti o· \:i5i':..:'n~vi.::.t:i.

L-::vel. Cpp:Jsite ;)f '~."7::r. cd (~!(""!f:::r.:(lji:-:-I!lar).

91



\ lIS UALO'RAM'MARI GLOSSARY

1: i! i 'JI'~'c~1

In$"l;t,~I~'C

i r ' c t . u r m c . J . t u r n

I··IJJ~O~~

1 . . . I:,,'III"n

l "SC li o: c -Ii"It~'.'j_ecti.;Jor,

n'trO'iffi'~

Ir~t!t

~lt.h.l

1~·ltC:". :

K ... \l='

Lal;l.

L i £ l O l

LI.,r,:

l~ar

M < I . ;; < i l y

V:ahl:(

Vn~

~b-:)mi

Mi" 'o ' r la~~

M,.j.l

M;.:Ilioalioo

Mo d • •'"

t-."'~'Tc··~

'C£~l"~Pc-r'\c._t ..~

0 1 0 , . , . "Cb!,~n or",',,",

Cnt·....n\oefi~lf\t)!

Opaque

0",...,

09"

Q - . . .a

(h",'ap

P a r . a h : :

i~~'1

PO'I"",

P c " "

F'i:rd,l,m

p " . - ~ ~ ~ , , ,R :: '""9" r

Al i kn, O r" lt !' ~ '; d t h 0 samo, t . ' C j \ II'M 8'~~ (;;,:..

1 ' 0 : : re . '.',1 i :r 'C L . ~ s e ~I"'; ty .

E!"~k~,~I"~I Io:V"i)I ln ' 4 6 (> """ ':;00.

1 '0 (~"g'!!" e nc ;tiing ~tlt(l...91· I Iw IO'ce Of QCW '~ ' 01 :;ro.~u::hjt·91I!!::It).

\!.":t o : 1 p p i~l l ' : ' ; to ~n., Tha· \'jI"llch <;IJ+.I!~ n t l t p t'C ~c "" tC ';o ~m .O l )~ it e o f f i : : r ' . . . . .:F'!L

, :O! lmi.-"_IN' '·c .~~"V.~ ax ~ h~e .~ (,-0 "J:":f"'l;:'Kl 0(0 .fit \ftt;f-J.

r l t ' , · . ' r ! n : l y .::rit~M e d . Cp;:~ i Ie - ~ex:r'C~'f.:""'1'r.d

I . .. .l l " A " 'r k h :i!.n'i 0 1 h Q -~~fI by l' r e ~ 'y e

(O i :-~si:l"'l~ *, : ,1 ' ~n~~s::"Jn m~ l,.!"H:'x,:.:t:e:ed).... n.l~.IA:~"I.· ~"OJ~ ' ; : 9 1 ~~,"gi !. ( ~ . .. .. . ,~ ' O r ' (:t.:lr~I~rn:i~~ r - 0 1 . " ' 1 .

(Of :a COTPOS :-t....a~1";U'li)~rgk1 c e-re ....:).'(:l ~~fl:ec:: ~ (.I~r~~~a' , ! $ ! i' n . . .h.

r ~\ ," l'1 " ', ?S c~MO'o't: :"r'E!"'!: : '1.f/1".;JJnIt' : !: .

l .· (: )s t~ ' b' ~ b :o n ! it iL n t, :r:"it..'€!C':lf-9, w t . " k o f I:J l a , ' " ' r . " f ' . ; , . ,1. r~:·)I' ( ! : i ls~r~t~',d .;,i~tl;Jf,b/li9" o om ; ; : ) : : ; ' i ' l i . : . : . " o f ' : ! .

EI':!!:c~·\~rr'\Clgllr:~tt.: 'ij,iy:i to;~t r.:1l.~JoSCons .. . i 'f lp.:t~~I,cn:..". I r, me h l" .n la r . ' l: ;I i) ,f '. 'O p :'M it r :- ;: .f c s r k.

/ . . I n -e i" I~$ t> s lHt~~I lo-rn CQ "l r,. ! 1 , t; : ;, ( ' ;~ p(" if t ! !o :t1 i t u a t e - : : f n.nx11r. ~ i . . "C sr ( : . n t ~ .n cne d ' n t" '. t io . .. . II II ~e i-e ~~t.a : :;el l iG':1

!oM-pc" nl, : is c a la d \t ·J~~wr . f;. ti"l'::: is Ih e ~lli,i l le:::.1 d ~I. j) . . r.r. b ¢ 1 .. .e e - ' I 'I \" U p:.j"~s. It. i t : = . o :"" (: re !,1 $ fc ur -a l ~ IS 19 : ;$u

v ; i l h exhc e ~ Iln:! l1~be h'lr.:c" l r . : n a 1 h 811<.1'/I-.I(h L I· h" :~ ;r,:r ! ; . I 'O - « , S er e : . ' I I !F;inLJsr:d - : . n . a . .. . s l" lC* :he chH'C;en.tJ;~ j.... lo;e: . : :e h . . . .w . : : n i 'Q ' S . . . lja:.':~.

Shd l : .o ! !da . ' !i : i3 i 1 . . .. .

PI. .ral; ;< - 1 > 0 C o p < > . " . te (j' ,", 'rIO'.I~O~:)~: ' v . : ! TO....:. n~~~ p......At'ar~,trmcr.: nf (.:1r.~nl:S i"I IQ\',":j ~:: '''.C:~I''''·n'S \"'J:):iti:Jnlalt! an-: ~rt ~:tII,).

i'\ , s y, 'f 2O ' : : : .. ..~~t~ U . . ,d ( ~ _ ~ ( 1 { ) 1 - ' :.o.sp·~wJ ~I' ~,~ ~.lrl.1(.r:.O p : J Q . . l i i ~ : ; , 1 Sl-ls"!.;.t

; t ) · c ~ ~ . ~-tf"'l~r : J. ., o po s : ,~ ~J:",.a. C" - = " 1 ,

· N · n e a ~ : r : ' i ! a-d ' C ' '! ] , M . :l1'1;j ; ", :p ;; u~ ~ .~ ' QI"C ,r~~:j. A~ £~~~ , j " ' l l l ; , 'C " ' 1 f : ; . l " l . T " l " r i A . I :; . .1 . . .. ~ i r. .e c · ~ J ri '; 'j .: 'c .

Prc'IC!'i;;Ce., pt;!~1'\

Mnu r ~d.usb~nt

e,."c"' ..",n~h '~ 'SJ - ! I : : ; : ~""" ' J ,. i"; l t :: ;Y1 n)"."'t'rC": i~r . i i h t r - f~=::rl~'=nte.:: (:f:£::n iII••S 13'" e: f '1 C 1 o- e . .. .:e't is . O"("Ate~"t G l~J"-d;,.c,~, o"f'~ '\!:f1'J::!M~t~~ t,;.: ~"'tTCA: u e ~ ;; . . . . ~ ~ U'IC'";,,, «~~jtic:A a f , . r J : ~n~H\,A.'" I~Q,t I.,:r ..~ ~ ( I I 'f::>l s t ~ " * oC ' I o 2 -c-b.ws "H~"" ~IS' ':'y "ten' :~h' ,,: h;r hCol:.~-.e, . 'SO ~te ' " " j e " !~~~ i1'l~3~'~1"'9 ~",i2:t

ol.'j...:!'·"""'''

-t:r...ng ~eJ dn::,-n;.i:"..ns-::int" ca." dei."'C' ~~~:".1S ......r- ~i'i;)t!' :"i;)n :"r~ d Mct\;)ons;:.u'( ss -UT~~ '; : '~"e :31'1I1~! '!

c:,:cr.:!::"'t:·f'.

, . . . . " Iotll-.~-t:: $h~ W-e"'l ~~tf:tij"!l is b r" ~h l- t 'l lh =n . ~ .. r. ;I 'h i 1D e!~.N l~ t!lo.~ir""g, :Q-._t') ' ea t re 'Y 'e , l oo A " 'c d : o o t, .. ,~ 'i " ~ x tr eM !: :1 .. . W" r : : t ' , 00 e\e,~~' ' : ! s , i i i ! rc. -~f~ r.etlt

Ee ...... t I"",,~ I I", ~ "'" ' .. 0 '''''OCI'tioll Q < ,Jt II-

"", ,> l: !us .c ' - "i ?In s 9 'e' !" U~"9:r.1 1 8 ; ' 1 - ; 1 ' 1 9U ' "i il b eu ,, "r . :" ~I (' . .. .. l h S ' i! .- a - " ' : : > ' ' ' : ' ' ' ~ ~i 10 1 e OOC ., 9i. .S ~ a l p"'Y~i~ ('.!b.N.is: t - , a - - . - " $ t h J e : . dime"'l i!'. D"tS,

: )" " ' . . •, , , . , · , ,, , , ·m , , , , , ", , , ,. Op"'-':;;IO 01 1 "" l IP i lJen t

lex!> n r . " ~ bo u l . ~" \ !IflQ " o.oJ pnI)(lOl'l 'I"~

~11. or cc :-mr;: . .. e . . . .w·~lion bolwr:< : : '" : 'X 'I l$ .

QI:: \ :wgci·c le.

. . , , , " t - ¢ " " r~aJl.s c~an . , t ': j r . . . . .t it.}~(fie ::.rJlt!o o~~n"m(H ;:.b.~lCLU.II:I'( Jd ", ec bi~ .... .o C r i a . : : ) S : lne ,;:,:~:te~.

Rurn~ n th e 5oaTi1! ~j~ 0' . OO"curlt:'i~ :; r J ~ : r . y :s.kH::,Ol t Y 'I ': '_ r - e s e . r p I ! J k " . : " ; j i\"~l ne';IS:' r ll le 2 i. M l 'rHll l~' hcf~"i l a'

" > " : t l l s i o < 1 ,

rrnagr:"« I'ht.'! ale-~'I$""/hr~" ~,"1 :O':':;fG'ct:b11: ;r~ng , "he ' pnth, C i ' ,. I "I ,0 S'lHiJ~:'t 0.' , e u r o i 1 " . : d .

OI ..~r:rt1~¢l'a'~!e·~:;'!V: :~ilt.. r : : 1 . cf ~~"i"g.

Z t !! "" il h 0 ' 1; 0 " ;;)"tfJ'e 'ool . . .. . .o ("ItO cr Mo." I I ' r . : - i -cs Of n1~~e:s.

A b:.dy lh3l co . : S i ~ ~¥on ~ li~ M!o.

~~o:: •.. .".)U~'I. e'-~,er j)F!,"~ n , ' ' ! ) .

R~L.!ar' ~."c~i<ledll~r'I!'



1 \ l , F " " ' Y

~ic.i:J·

='.f:f~'~lfl&

" " ' , < > M

J~~!.IC

VISUAL GRAMMARI GLOSSARY

Ci"CJJT i:;te,.ee" cuter ed~ o...sk It&. e"':llh lUO Jrd t -I I' : ~ of '!O"f; E.

.At ' a':9€ :lf~")_

V.lI '_"\1'4 '"~, ' ~-E;?kd: 'i. :3r1th 3..l":~ ~ - . " 'c i 'Y ! p ', e ~Itt.n -01 4opth.

To . i i : f f t ; : ' fI ~sperjfk; :p ace,

P.c:~i "'~Iith l....ee-d ~·lcr'T.

~ nt Ar . abst - a . : - t ;t::e;o"Je~:o ~ j,'-dta:ng a . fT , ee ic~ l! tx ' ,a . t' " )"L P I : . l ze lM11lCU!&."ea S'T;:" \cd 1J'~~¥i(:a IJf'it ol m e.a.;.!.....~. II : 2

:C;o;;:'!Q../~ ~br,~C"~te.cas j";. f 1 . ~ r: { IIC ~t ~ ~t4s.. !"(:fIe"~:;'M dlepa:!ute :l1!lC'.

'"olyg"" v. . , i ; , " ~ " I " ' .mut lateoal""-,,,,+or.

r ~ I ! 9 : ; . . i ~ i o l : [ " j

1 ' > 1 1 m~)' "0, o·~

! = r L ' l 1Lie l i o n

f ! 1 r o p o r : i r . r

R~L4i,~tlIn

,:au:Ji~l!j:

R l i r o r . ( l ' r

I<~<!,"

R~'''''!]C

RIo~b'91o

'1~;e-:Iioo

K~'"$'tj: R e : I ! ~ Q " _

R o d . " "R " , . , . , . o e

RtMEfi"Q

~ O O l i l ; ( > t O

Repr""omlali," '

R~pol"'M

l~l'¢lrl)

R ~ y l l \ m

R~t~lion

~lJbrlc

$nl~'ali"n

SC~ltld dow,

~.on<la ' l 'c< lIo '

S c < : 1 ' "

s . , g " " " ' 1

S~MO'cgy

Sn*df

S h .> :I e " . .

s . . , . ~ " ,

S O n " , " ' " ., ., .

s,~S.eI~1(lI\

st·""S J · " , , ' e

S l ' , ' 9 .1

M : t r n ' ! : , : : . i 'U.sf"doo,ni, ioraaon

G crO I'G 1H re pre se nte cor of : ) 1" .11 vi.s:ual 5\Ji"mIJI"'I:jIl~g~: II:u~~r~1C:;; t hl -R l t :d e - bj ~r .- "~ " 'l i? ;v ~ a n I r- na t c w e a lt h : : ; . f c(;:1;:l;i1.

B as lc .:olc-r!>. Cn 10rs lha t ceo re t I~~ CIee ted by mi x ill @ [Jtl"l~ r L, ' ;")lor :).

Dc oic liun of one n- iY'i(;I<;i! pOi"':';:!:'; on a t i t le, RCP'il"~(:litRt'Q'1 of 11 ~ C ' . ! O : : : . 1 on So f.i"1~,.,e,

R o! l~ ti \) n : jl , o ne t hi r,g to' a'itiltler, Com~ : ;. )t iO f "l-n :.iCo..CI,

L~g i" l. t~ rn i$ s .i o· i. ema - enoe . D~tl ib~Ie,, : Iro"t';' a ct'lnte~.

O t sl . .. 1 . "c s f -o m l h e cente- G~a ( J r :: :r e ~ th e r w . r i , : ) I I ( j : ' Y .

(or '''''9'''' -ar aoo,",) net "" QvIi"9 ""I) ~ y < : 1 < ! 0' Io"'l~ Q<lll<:,,,

A :'iitru<:lu'~ · 1 1 , i T t "JoOnts (}.I '!jb'tQUtoo! Oi"",a, 'S,.Itfa:a.

T~,~';:crl" mm8fr" '!<.

:ou~· 5 00:1 iqu...e ¥."rt-; fe_.r ~hl3."\9~s..

R e = l u ~ ! ' c r ~ •. .. ..ese - r -ose - re -n ':r:or'i a w..~ tdi."'tO:'lr~.

0..es g" _. rq en r,.-", e'e-neus; ~$ 9" •s"9' a t ; : . ' J < : ~!a~ e- I"'r-c<"

Rii!.-o.~f"eEu.:..n.

~n it J reis.:c- 1.3~met-':tfJ ! 5 ! l i . e . . O)TIMiJN ~ ::.onrt:h"g t : ' - " ! ' C ! ' .

L c.:a i:Q : ~ ~ a~af in Ih·e fJIt ~!!!.

roCO';~ U~, s.~' i3 . :Oe Q I a t l t r~""1'1'Wf~~ cbj_lX""..

W " e n a n e .e -ne -n I$CUi5 ~ ~ . " e t a : '1 U r n e s . t - " d " l IN' ,n AIC O . . . . .~ ~icr .C J c r i e r t im=.

Oroc ini"~sl",,:Jir~1 0- a r" 'th ... .

Fe,,,,, iO"""';"9 t i"e dislanc,", ~",,,~n o;>j~ct.. OtIp:"lIo ..,1aU,K:~O".

P l lr '~ II (~ 'IC rr a r n ' .' i, ji h s r d e s : ) ', e ;ua l la n~1h , h \ . : l 1 wh' ;' 'r :: ;; e i j" '9 '1 ~t < : r .e e -d ~ \o t b ~ r ff l' 11 M 9 e s .

'~~C'0e r r tent ' l'G! .E l s" lr~d if] t lm e . I ~* pe ( ~ iO f" I I I g rC 'J llp s,

A-.n o~jo:- :::t's r (O.! '< i· :1lul iCI~round ~i) . r o c i : : : ,

1\ (:F.lt~goly or column,n a hble,

T,.,e ntc% iti c f a c olor 's htJe . fn, u n!l~ tur at .i3 j (Q lor .! i • . c . O M t o - f t h~ c ole r Ii~$ tM t~ repl'::J.csd hv '.';rite-:J( ~1'tJ.Ck.

A reptiOd.jr.;(,.001 lhat is vral'e- G"I;)II.. I n o - (lr!!;I"':aI,

A (_~ d ~-r r.,~ -dby n li xi 1 ;: ) ~.'r.);)I'irra,y «Iktr'~..

7hc pa-t e' e oeoa :·~tie.;, " " t - . " " " " tv", ,~dL

n,~ pili ('i~circe tna: is-tl'~f~j'K t .y ~ t+,o'1J ~~:thc lWf~hI=ry.

S h>"Y 01 ~;gr.>.

Seedi C0":'0'" tc-rl€ 0- ¥i:oneS. Ca.. . ~$O dt!'!::!1 ~ 0 ~ ...rc.

\~~ta i?'i c~~.-.;,;-t - . a J u~ ~ o~

C\~.:!'.:ia I " I d '8: 'eTIe:~Lt :U:.~.til;,..5!IP - E f t ~twee n {OI IT ~ d " o . & ' · a < : h ~ : 1 ! . U < 1 i b'l ,o·d~. V'!SW ,~:Ii!:-mef~s*~-~U'I cts1~IIIC""S: c· itM~ ';u-

I l . : o n s c;.,becajeds ' n ! l l < > .

A - . . ~"Ii~ s;a.e t.roe,

[tot: r - c l a _ i : r ~ " C r o o { ' ! I I l e a g t h Q~3 -= ( : ~ n - e t ~ u r e ¢ . e: s tu l "4 .~ lH-CV"e , r lJb;~t 0 .' a , $~~ c f r n o . : : ; ; . s 1 . " f f l ' r l 8 5 i : I L

O'ga·liz5t~ :~1iI!\ th;~1'".:;-~.'!t(ltk . I ,per 't--t.d' (fit ~~bul:t

Three-: : f i ! r el~ic:r.al ~ectll"i{ric. telR\ ~u;n~ ce i"l"i1cr. ty ~ ~L-r=i1cp''.If surli5..CC~

P~~I e r.~i!i ;-'~TIf::fCal l r . . -o j ' i u : . on 1hr: .w·la ~ ore D~ i'U~!Mud dl:!;.l.n.nt.-o r r o . . . . ..U'fC ce-rer, G oc e, S : c - 3 p r : - j r~iI?;IT.w· ·elJi lch! l$,

Curv~ f f : : r I . [: I -' :d~ga-ounc .a p c; nt ~ li ': er e' l im eS ! a s 1 < jj ',j !{ !.n C".o o. t - s e l f l.an ~i.B· p~rn ,



VIS UAL GRAM MAr,1 GLOSSARY

V'.~thr)i : ":viuLI~lack c~ p l ~ ,n ; jl ' ~11~h~'''l,~1!rf~U~jtl':l.l,mp'~IIJI"'o! ' ,M~J ',,,,,ith(~i~ltri"i:;.ilil.)rt

p:) f\ t r. f :il~' ) ® r l u r ~ , 1 ~ 1 f : I~ J n - ii"I~,

~H::l~or liJ.l "y .o.r ,d: I.., : : : J : ; ' : - : I o l ' . , ~ e li;Ii.iuil tJljl"lm

I"I~·.Iia r t • •

S ta rt n 9 :)(1 nl

SIO:"

: S l ~ j , j , t . . . u r l

Shcke =h'i~i(;al, f,;U··CI ~~!" Ii e. EX:~\':n'll~~I\.: '~.¢of".'~ JI i ~ = : , t I ! .

S-~...d.II"iI }:. . :,~~~-:. ::mt r r.btr.c:!.s: 11·~!t·.:s.b~C~l".rC'. S ~,~~t .Im j -o , _ _ : o . n a l u- n-S-f.l;:.t...U~

$~I1 : : , J u r c i;c:

s~·- :: :t lJ . ~ : -l I r i f

CoMp::.f1ihon. j"'IP:'1I.:.dJr'!: t-ie w :!y ~ \'~Mk: is p y l w ': : :! ;! ll ho lJ r c _~ o f ciiM~t.:rl! ~'1fI.

ilw Ql'1"! ( " " t n •.Mnr=).IS ~ ~ i : : i = J 1 - : : o co ~rvi~i 'Ol~}1 I 1 - : ' Y . i: t" ~1 t l a t ~ u : ; t : i - lt~ md r..-"Id.lal~in.'(~"!.re I,,:Il rs ~·",,'n ':::In~ a- : : l~r_

Ar~3 j•• . . . : ! 1 'Sib'uc.i\.1'\".: ; :" 'a~ t : r. :n f -o d '!!t l :to'!n1e".t

S < . J O ! I " R ei "" ~ • cd " ' I J . ·i.:".le<:

Suctrcc- Tc :ilke ;Jv."'"l-

~I,..p.::r-u"'it A.f l l I:)"tit; :-""t i!i r : ' i "H" " 'I t ; r 1: " k~~ . . .. .er S.t"'i~·.;."I; .In , . c ,

':')I"nl;:~ l " ' l ( " : " w t : s - u , = c: I : ! ! ':.!'~·u·"i.!"ri'lr : : : , 1 - 1 ~~jJ3:t

~~·n:;1,;: O b j : . : C ' i · . s gn , QI irl·~t re~ r e ~ \ ' ! ' n U " ' ln M ' ) ( '; e - : r ir 9 -

S-~nYneh·rj;~ T h ~ ~ v :h l( :h ~ ": Ii n : " 1 : : : :J1"¥i-r.:e-Or ~ . f J . }.r..i:") n ! ' . I J : > J : t - : ( t r l ; E - . . . .t,;PII). ' t : : n l' :l r r n - e r l- r : ; .'4 :("$ O' i ! . i t C i I : . lo1 l "F.1.V·a " · g : " . : m ( " . ; n l ~ ) (1.... gil ~X

T"''',IC F.!!I~:1 £ I ~ h e 1>3-!e o· 1 . " , , , 1 ,T3i'tg ',"'!:r: 1 :.> .1 :;·· b":M '~r r..., :'lo.:z,h ,~~a'f~~ u lt w~ o b.C (.I ;: ". *... ::{)f"llrC·- :JQlnl (~i"": (;,r tnng,¢tC';).Iexlare ICXl lj i "! ( . .~ · I b! :hc C~""I:=-:rn~='::Xr.·41S~:.,'Ili ul i.t sru :.Iu·.;: A Ir:-,.d••f t ! o : S : : 8 cis!1 b.::t :0 1c~ :It:tt::''.I;:''1 it .a (::""if'IIJ(::";; c- l h < lt

Ih ~iII ~ oI:'~:':i!!'I'!n-:~d i I : : " . pa-t t ! : r -q $0: 1:a...M T o t I I ~ ~ . '0 - : i ; J I - b : : - : r.~;"lfl-.i'i~::J 0 0 : ·1 : a :: :b lo ! :t l i i l i 1 : : ! \ , ," " I. : " .u . . .. ~

I h · ~~ .. .; , ;i ·. ·~ · ·' =i [ c" :! : -1 8 . .. . .. .) i....a~ :J in l: 'n !F Jn !; ;' / , I o h - f - ' . t":I'J O : ) jt C ". .s . . :a"l': :·IUle d r 'k "' .l n~ km ~

T:iflt .o C ..3.~ ~5:k".: 0' 0 : 1 ' " c ; ) j a - c : : 1N:s~ c '" ":r. . ; Inll(".h hn"'lt l.ahQfl it a -d tC'o(; ~ 1.Ij "dOCI:eu. T l J n l : ' ts~. -r-es- i "·p·Jr _ . f i r - :

• ·I : , , ; t~'5 :0'" ( '.: ~! l i n = * - " C C l ~ 1 :: .) "f "1~~,(I1. un.: , : :n : ' ii li t. 1 {' . . .. t ( lO~ e : :a"1 ~1k.1~

t : M C S o - : : l o ~Jt. l rl l".nA.

" l sa r -spa -ent t I C : : : ! . ::;I:·'rfl!!;;l::. l.!. Clp~:it~, ~f ;ep. il<: . . ..~.

- ;~ ' . . I ;J 1 e T"rcc-s~~: :~Ij j~,!

.r."~A,· r-."",,,~i !< l

T~, ,: "( r" :: Jr .e I \: ;i :. :- n. l' l E -: :! .~ .n e ~ i11"'~eU~:)IiI~ Th ~ i~~" "")5(.1"',i."X'.1:··#Ji!C il)ij::::t.W., i,iI I=~~~:'ill :".I:,~.ts . l \ i " o i ' F : : UI·~e -:i.,.,c··::;; 10·:":-

Jrd-_~rsl:'l:":f'n(!(ll C;o:llJ;::tII:J5 5 1~ ~:- :n t;lI ·~ ""I :;) ".l~ 1 ".I ~le ~ M., l. f'i"I I ~~XI"'Se he- r ~ ' I"~MI ~ " ' : " . i Y : l ' " mni.'''I'UJl'11 U~ cl ~:~::.t~

Uvilc r -r ':!.~:-':en ~'""!:!l·3 e-b.!X=:.~~-:<"I!1t~""i]:" ., :n.chi:.t *::t j ~ 10 ='~:r : =-.;:J1I:1!C'Jrl:; :: e :.e·Coi!:P~"(:;::I!l~ : 21~1&1~

V'''il O ::.i~ ~ : ; 1 : ) J~)~~,!~ e c : ~ = . - r = ' . ! ' ! i I . . - n f : o : 1 -o : : : : e : ::.ot~: )I o ! :' :- : I '" .;.-d :! if i t H " .! n s e - . . " ( ! s ,

V.111C I " V ' -:bjx:'sv:e.I.t..t;= ~lf;"'~ I f -: ,) :T I ~ ~ . o i N : : ': . . .\ " ::F'::,.sC:$S...E'tltQ~ i t : : : c;:h3::..:t~ ..~.tl:.~

V a· ~h Po ' : : J . .~'ti\i' ¥"~. (.,h.. '' ' '!l~;'j:309 <,,'fj!,!it

Va-:l~0'" -:::!t'q.i~::!:;'t 0- ~I"~t(fu'''n~ , ,D I "" 'C . . ' i ' ' ! o C ~o :,:or,::',rir3it t,~,:,,:",

Vi:,ltex s.~"",,t :;li' T!-!: r I- ;J ' ~ :~'It.

Vl :=I ti;:ai = - ~ : I " f i ' C ' r < lW~, C ~ ~ r t e r A n.~O-.".;rri\1 ~ftJ'o!'fn.

V "$c ~ ~:!I : o i " ' i " ' ! ! h e b " ! " : -e I ! : r f l l : " .

V~I.:"I I'i •e i e r e l " l : : = ' : In S(ih l

V sunl ~ . ; - ' i " r l r u - . : Ih~~"1I:!C~:.')' rf. : - - . . h ee l s .

Va d V~:;I.V1".

VO 1}1IIe T"'c : ! , ,~ : : : l ) ; " . : 1 ' - ,,~;1,t11l"1t5 . U' l"~C·¢ITC""~. "':J h:"l!.1~

""".r":lTI W: - I i ! . ""'Ig'h·(':i"'r.-~·.al',,·~.....Q ·r q c o o -s , ..n I~~....~::tCi09t~:J \ "~;UI I gt t e -r pem r . .r r . - s \ " ' i ~ : : . " ' U : : : . i aMc l , CpPrK, i l~ ; :.1 0

'i'ic f i t - = - I~ ~ h . : 1 ! ! 7 ~ I· n n . . o r . . .. ~ . : 1 I ' t 1 3 "!l1\'j~ If} ~I : o * - = t .md U ; : " . !l..avil"llC"Li":d·d~ th e Eer: . . ..! '. mni-cr.

lerilh V !SI :oI9 ,.

94



Bibl iography

Aro ~ei- , 'Rucloll.

Ba , ~C lO l I . T ' 1 0 "' " 5 F.

Be r ge r , .Johr,

8roby-.!ohansen, R.

O ~ 1bolt, G n nr a r,

O , ., ,, ci s A . Do1<.1i~.

F le t c'r e ', ,".Ia n ,

Garrett, L'I I ao,

C;lIttU. Tor,se ,U : 6 : "':I~ .lcna niles.

tien-,,-~,C'I'lile,.

Hn'~,Ro,,"rl.

H~mb),. p . . , S. , e~.

K3nd i r , sky . WasSily.

Kra 'J5Se, J _ . ed,

K -ess, G ur the " ~ ' < J .K n.g H , A nna, ed ,

LiJngman, CMI C,

Tve le ras , £gil. ed .

Wir'l:e-s, Na:~a".

VISUAL GRAMMARI BIBLIOGRAPHY

Flall and. New vo·~: New A'1lC"ric~fl l.iorary, 100;1.~irs: pi.blisbee ~"jL" 1dofl: S<~"61 & Co. 1884.

An and Vi"'UIII ~e,cepliol). 'Ber~ riff: u'ri, 'Crsity cl : : 1 1 1 'coni!; Press, '95d.

Beyond ,he /hi,d Dimensio", Now Y:)fk; Sclerv ' ie A.."e,ican L,~ra') '. 1990,

'Ways 01 Seeing, London: Pen~ul' Book:;,197~.

i<unslordbog. V b o'\ ): Forl?ge, S e s am , 2000,

81ikk 1m hilder. Oslo: A~glr8~1forla~, 2C02.

Grllfisk Ildndbok. O~II,):WkeSllppl!f',:,~g.'995.

A Primer QIVisual WerBey. Car-b' age: M IT Press, '9 ' ,3·

The Art of Lookin9 $i"ew~ys, Lo"dcoc P~laidol1 ",I'CSS.~()~1.

Visu,.1 Desigll. New "or~: R"iriloO.'961.

Norsk ()r<iboi<.Os.o: KU1nskap~fcc,:ag,e. 19·98.

Th» Arl 01 COIOf .New YO'~: Reirho,d. 1;)61.

8okUtl'l,m" ord:el; lCX1QII.Slo;:k'lolr.-: Ol<li'On; lo"as- '99;;.

Vis(J2f hngu"Be.Sao, eridqels 9~d: M2,cRO'(~ ' Inc, 199::!·

Advanced L<Jfl lI le':s Dictionary of C!Jf!enl Eng/i .sh O~i",~: O " IO f d '

\Jrti~ersily Press, '9'M.

Point and Unc /0 PI/me, Ne w' Y or k: 00 .. ",1 ',1919. F 1'51puol shed al Baul'uus,~g2B

The' Act of CrMlion. Lr>ndcn : HJlcrin,on & CC, 1964.

Y o ", P r i' /8 ./ o Sky, R. 8IJckmins!ar Fuller. Ba(Hl1: L?rs I,tijIJ"-

.,Ullisl·'e's. ;,,99,

Reading Images. Tho Grammar 01 Visual Desig". Louden: Rou:'ec9~. '996,i=aktikofl. O~ ID : G y l d e nd a '. , '901 ,

SymbolM, M a ll''1 i1 : A ld e ba ra n F i.\ rla g '9 9C ,

Ellbindslek:;ikon. Oslo: Kl,n~sk.;lpslo' agel, 'lg6~.

ilrchi/eclure ill E/flmcnMry. Layror: Gibbl! \;I, Sm (", IgS6.

Principles 01FOIfI! and Desigll. Ne'~'York: V an \os:-;;nd R ",'nho d . ;;'93.

96



'1 Line

Abstract

10 ",oint

16 Formal

T 2"- h.i$i~ e:/hac-;weSt'~tlules

II

19 Formal StruC l u r e s

Abstract Structures

'2. Racialion'23 Vis~al!Olst,icJlior ' 2 " - StructJ'a Skeleton

$5 Active Structures

36 Texlure

30 SilO

32 Colo'

z e Form



40 Repetit iOn42 Mirronng

46 Upscaling/Oownscaling

: J 0 recnor 0' Oisol!lcerrenl

60 Fine/Coarse

• 62 Oifeclion

58 Groups

57 Balance

86 Varia IOn

55 I,' cdi licauon

80/81 Subtraction/Coincidence

44 Rotation 89 Glossary

95 Bibli

49 Dueclior

L a Path

64 SpacoiWeigh1

66 Amounl/Dominance

69 Baokground/Foregroun

71 Distance

74 Negative/Posi1ive

75 Transparent/Opaqv



Other titles available

in this series:

Life in the image world has made us all voracious, if not always

deliberate, consumers of visual messages. Easy access to

computer graphic tools has turned many of us into either amateur

professional image producers. But without a basic understandinof visual language a productive dialog between producers and

consumers of visual communication is impossible. Visual

Grammar can help you speak and write about visual objects and

their creative potential, and better understand the graphics that

bombard you 2417. Itis both a primer on visual language and a

visual dictionary of the fundamental aspects of graphic design.

Christian Leborg is a designer and design educator. He isa founding partner of K, a knowledge and communications

consultancy in Oslo, Norway.

Geometry 61 Design

Kimberlv EIi1m

IS6 N !--b6898-249-6

Elements: of Design

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ISBN 1-56898-329-8

Grid SysieJJiS

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ISBN 1-5689lH 65-

Thinking witt: Type

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ISBN H56898-448·Q

DJ Y Design It Your

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ISSN 1-56898-552-5

IS8H 1-36698-58 --s075-185(;:.898-581-7 $19.95

51995

~~

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