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tambora's eruption
Citation preview
26
Climactic Effects of the 1815 Eruption of Tambora
by Jacob Smith
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INTRODUCTION:,Q�������7DPERUD�FDWDVWURSKLFDOO\�HUXSWHG�DIWHU�
WKUHH�\HDUV�RI�LQFUHDVHG�UXPEOLQJ���7KLV�ZDV�RQH�RI�WKH�ODUJHVW�NQRZQ�DVKÿSURGXFLQJ�HUXSWLRQV�LQ�WKH�ODVW��������\HDUV��UHGXFLQJ�WKH�YROFDQR�WR�KDOI�LWV�IRUPHU�VL]H���7DPERUD�LV�VWLOO�D�ODUJH�VWUDWRYROFDQR�������P�WDOO�DQG�!�����NP��LQ�YROXPH��ORFDWHG�RQ�WKH�,QGRQHVLDQ�LVODQG�RI�6XPEDZD��SDUW�RI�WKH�/HVVHU�6XQGD�,VODQGV���7KLV�LV�D�VHJPHQW�RI�WKH�6XQGD�$UF��D�VWULQJ�RI�YROFDQLF�LVODQGV�IRUPLQJ�WKH�VRXWKHUQ�FKDLQ�RI�WKH�,QGRQHVLDQ�DUFKLSHODJR���7DPERUD�OLHV�����NP������PL��QRUWK�RI�WKH�-DYD�7UHQFK�V\VWHP�DQG�����ÿ�����NP�����³����PL��DERYH�WKH�XSSHU�VXUIDFH�RI�WKH�DFWLYH�QRUWKÿGLSSLQJ�VXEGXFWLRQ�]RQH���7KH������HUXSWLRQ�KDV�KDG�D�VLJQLILFDQW�LPSDFW�DW�WKH�JOREDO�VFDOH�
9DVW�DPRXQWV�RI�DHURVROV�ZHUH�LQMHFWHG�LQWR�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH��FORXGLQJ�RXW�WKH�6XQ�LQ�WKH�UHJLRQ�IRU�VHYHUDO�GD\V�DIWHU�WKH�LQLWLDO�HUXSWLRQ���7KH�\HDU�DIWHU�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�EHFDPH�NQRZQ�DV�WKH�´<HDU�:LWKRXW�D�6XPPHUµ�IRU�SHRSOH�WKURXJKRXW�,QGRQHVLD��WKH�(QJOLVK�,VOHV��DQG�HYHQ�$PHULFD���7KLV�\HDU�KDV�DOVR�EHHQ�OLQNHG�WR�PDVVLYH�FURS�IDLOXUH�WKDW�OHG�WR�ZLGHVSUHDG�IDPLQH��GLVHDVH�DQG�VRFLDO�VWUHVV�
$Q�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�RI�WKH�FRPSRVLWLRQ�DQG�G\QDPLFV�RI�(DUWK·V�DWPRVSKHUH�ZLOO�SURYLGH�D�EDVH�NQRZOHGJH�WR�ZKDW�UROH�YROFDQLVP�SOD\�LQ�WKH�V\VWHP���,W�LV�WKHQ�SRVVLEOH�WR�UHFRJQL]H�WR�ZKDW�H[WHQW�LWV�HIIHFWV��ERWK�UHJLRQDOO\�DQG�JOREDOO\��ZLOO�KDYH�RQ�ZHDWKHU�DQG�WKH�(DUWK·V�LQKDELWDQWV�
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE(DUWK·V�UDGLDWLRQ�EXGJHW�GLFWDWHV�WKDW�LQFRPLQJ�
radiation from the Sun must be balanced by RXWJRLQJ�UDGLDWLRQ���$V�WKH�6XQ�KHDWV�WKH�(DUWK��WKH�WHPSHUDWXUH�LQFUHDVHV��FDXVLQJ�LW�WR�UDGLDWH�LQ�WKH�LQIUDUHG�VSHFWUXP���,QIUDUHG�UDGLDWLRQ�WULHV�WR�HVFDSH�LQWR�VSDFH��EXW�JUHHQKRXVH�JDVHV�DEVRUE�D�SRUWLRQ�RI�LW���7KHVH�SDUWLFOHV�FDQ�WKHUHIRUH�LQFUHDVH�RYHUDOO�
DWPRVSKHULF�WHPSHUDWXUHV�VXEVWDQWLDOO\��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al����������,Q�RUGHU�WR�XQGHUVWDQG�DWPRVSKHULF�dynamics and the role that volcanism plays, it helps to KDYH�NQRZOHGJH�RI�WKH�NH\�FRPSRQHQWV�RI�WKH�(DUWK·V�DWPRVSKHUH�
7KH�(DUWK·V�DWPRVSKHUH�LV�GLYLGHG�LQWR�VHYHUDO�UHJLRQV�EDVHG�RQ�LWV�WKHUPDO�VWUXFWXUH��)LJXUH������7KHUH�DUH�WZR�SULPDU\�GLYLVLRQV�LQ�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH��WKH�KRPRVSKHUH�DQG�WKH�KHWHURVSKHUH���7KH�homosphere contains the troposphere, tropopause, VWUDWRVSKHUH��R]RQH��VWUDWRSDXVH��PHVRVSKHUH��WKH�PHVRSDXVH�DQG����RI�WKH�LRQRVSKHUH���7KH�KRPRVSKHUH�LV�D�UHJLRQ�LQ�ZKLFK�WKH�FRPSRVLWLRQ�DQG�PROHFXODU�ZHLJKW�RI�DLU�YDULHV�OLWWOH�WKURXJKRXW��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������:KLOH�WKH�PL[LQJ�UDWLRV�RI�WUDFH�HOHPHQWV�PD\�YDU\�JUHDWO\�LW�LV�SULPDULO\�FRPSRVHG�RI�����12�DQG�����22���7KH�KHWHURVSKHUH�FRQWDLQV�WKH�WKHUPRVSKHUH��H[RVSKHUH�DQG�WKH�UHPDLQLQJ�����RI�WKH�LRQRVSKHUH���7KLV�SDSHU�ZLOO�IRFXV�RQ�WKH�UHJLRQ�IURP�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH�WR�WKH�stratopause and the effects that volcanic aerosols have ZLWKLQ�WKLV�UHJLRQ�
Troposphere and Tropopause7KH�WURSRVSKHUH�LV�WKH�UHJLRQ�RI�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�
RFFXS\LQJ�WKH�ORZHVW�OD\HU�RQ�(DUWK���,W�LV�ZKHUH�weather is created by instability, due to the absorption of solar radiation at the surface that heats air, which PD\�WKHQ�ULVH�WKURXJK�WKH�FROGHU��PRUH�GHQVH�DLU�DERYH���7KH�WURSRVSKHUH�FRQWDLQV�QDWXUDOO\�RFFXUULQJ�N2��22, H22��$U��&22 and a variety of other pollutants VXFK�DV�2���R]RQH���122��2&6��FDUERQ\O�VXOILGH��DQG�622���3DUWLFOHV�RI�YDULRXV�FRPSRVLWLRQ�DQG�W\SH��PDQ\�DULVLQJ�IURP�VXUIDFH�VRXUFHV�VXFK�DV�VRLO�DQG�RUJDQLF�JDVHV��SROOXWH�WKLV�UHJLRQ�KHDYLO\��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7URSRVSKHULF�SDUWLFOHV�DUH�W\SLFDOO\�UHPRYHG�IURP�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�DIWHU�VHYHUDO�ZHHNV�E\�SUHFLSLWDWLRQ���)RU�H[DPSOH��UDLQRXW�SURYLGHV�WKH�GRPLQDQW�VLQN�IRU�YROFDQLF�VXOIXU�LQMHFWHG�LQWR�WKH�troposphere, which will be discussed in more detail ODWHU�
The transition boundary between the troposphere DQG�WKH�OD\HU�DERYH�LV�FDOOHG�WKH�WURSRSDXVH���7KH�temperature and altitude of the tropopause vary from DERXW�ÿ���&��ÿ�����)��DQG����NP�����PL���DW�WKH�HTXDWRU�WR�ÿ���&��ÿ���)��DQG���NP����PL���LQ�WKH�SRODU�UHJLRQV���%RWK�WKH�WURSRSDXVH�DQG�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH�DUH�NQRZQ�DV�WKH�ORZHU�DWPRVSKHUH�
27
Stratosphere7KH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�LV�WKH�UHJLRQ�DERYH�WKH�
WURSRSDXVH�FRQWDLQLQJ�WKH�R]RQH�OD\HU��ZKLFK�KHDWV�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�E\�DEVRUSWLRQ�RI�KLJKÿHQHUJ\�XOWUDYLROHW�UD\V�IURP�WKH�6XQ���7KH�LQFUHDVLQJ�temperature profile of the stratosphere insures it is D�PXFK�PRUH�VWDEOH�UHJLRQ�RI�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�WKDQ�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH���$LU�IURP�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH�HQWHUV�the stratosphere in the tropics, where convective VWRUP�V\VWHPV�FUHDWH�VWURQJ�XSGUDIWV�WKDW�FDQ�EUHDN�WKURXJK�WKH�FROG�WURSLFDO�WURSRSDXVH���0XFK�RI�WKH�ZDWHU�YDSRU�IUHH]HV�RXW�RI�WKH�ULVLQJ�DLU��OHDYLQJ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�PXFK�GULHU�WKDQ�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH���Therefore, particles in the stratosphere are not rained out, and may remain in the stratosphere until WUDQVIHUUHG�ZLWK�DPELHQW�DLU�SDUWLFOHV��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.�������
$W�PLGODWLWXGHV��WRQJXHV�RI�VWUDWRVSKHUH�DUH�IROGHG�LQWR�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH���7KHVH�WRQJXHV�DUH�UHVSRQVLEOH�IRU�WUDQVIHUULQJ�DERXW�����RI�WKH�DLU�LQWR�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7KH�DLU�PL[WXUH�WKDW�LV�WUDQVIHUUHG�LQ�WKLV�]RQH�UHPDLQV�LQ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�IRU�§���\HDUV���7KH�UHPDLQLQJ�����RI�WKH�DLU�PL[WXUH�LV�DJDLQ�WUDQVIHUUHG�E\�DLU�PRYLQJ�GRZQZDUG�DW�WKH�SROHV�E\�WKH�VWURQJ�ZLQWHU�MHW�VWUHDP���7KH�WUDQVSRUW�RI�DLU�RXW�RI�WKH�WURSLFV�WR�KLJKHU�ODWLWXGHV�GHSHQGV�RQ�WKH�GLUHFWLRQ�RI�]RQDO�ZLQGV�RYHU�WKH�HTXDWRU���%\�WKH�WLPH�WKLV�DLU�UHDFKHV�KLJK�ODWLWXGHV��FKHPLFDO�WUDFHUV�LQGLFDWH�WKDW�WKH�DLU�LV�§��ÿ��\HDUV�ROG�
Stratospheric ChemistryThe stratosphere contains elements such as N2,
22��DWRPLF�R[\JHQ���2���R]RQH���2&6��&O��DQG�%U���6WUDWRVSKHULF�FKORULQH�LV�GHULYHG�IURP�DQWKURSRJHQLF�FKORURIOXRURFDUERQV��&)&·V��DQG�PHWK\O�FKORURIRUP��ZKLFK�KDV�QDWXUDO�VRXUFHV���UDWKHU�WKDQ�YROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV��)LJ�������6WUDWRVSKHULF�EURPLQH�FRPHV�IURP�DQWKURSRJHQLF�KDORFDUERQV�DQG�PHWK\O�EURPLGH��QRW�YROFDQRHV���+DORFDUERQV�DUH�RQH�RU�PRUH�DWRPV�RI�&�FRYDOHQWO\�ERQGHG�ZLWK�RQH�RU�PRUH�KDORJHQV�VXFK�DV�&O��)O��%U��RU�,��DQG�DUH�W\SLFDOO\�SURGXFHG�DV�VROYHQWV�IRU�LQGXVWULDO�FOHDQLQJ���9ROFDQLF�DHURVROV�DOWHU�stratospheric chemistry in such a way that it activates FKORULQH�DQG�EURPLQH�IRU�R]RQH�GHSOHWLRQ�E\�PHDQV�RI�UHDFWLRQV�RQ�PROHFXODU�VXUIDFHV�
Ozone Chemistry2]RQH��2���DQG�DWRPLF�R[\JHQ��2��PDNH�XS�WKH�
´RGG�R[\JHQµ�IDPLO\�RI�DWPRVSKHULF�VSHFLHV���7KH�WZR�VSHFLHV�FDQ�LQWHUFKDQJH�UDSLGO\�ZLWK�RQH�DQRWKHU�E\�PHDQV�RI�QXPHURXV�FKHPLFDO�UHDFWLRQV���7KH�UHDFWLRQV�WKDW�SURGXFH�RU�GHVWUR\�WRWDO�RGG�R[\JHQ�DUH�PXFK�VORZHU���6WUDWRVSKHULF�FKHPLVWU\�W\SLFDOO\�
RFFXUV�KRPRJHQHRXVO\�ZKLOH�DHURVROV�DUH�LQ�WKHLU�JDVHRXV�SKDVH���+RZHYHU��KHWHURJHQHRXV�FKHPLVWU\�of an aerosol can occur between any combinations RI�SKDVHV��JDV��OLTXLG�RU�VROLG����7KH�UDWHV�RI�KHWHURJHQHRXV�UHDFWLRQV�LQFUHDVH�VWURQJO\�DV�WKHVH�aerosols become more dilute, thus, the reactions often JR�IDVWHU�DW�FROGHU�WHPSHUDWXUHV���2GG�R[\JHQ�DQG�WKH�R]RQH�DUH�EHOLHYHG�WR�EH�FRQWUROOHG�G\QDPLFDOO\�LQ�the lower stratosphere, and chemically controlled in the upper stratosphere where temperatures are colder DQG�SURPRWH�KHWHURJHQHRXV�FKHPLVWU\��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7UDQVSRUW�RI�DHURVROV�LQ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�JHQHUDOO\�WDNHV�ZHHNV�WR�PRQWKV�WR�FLUFXODWH�DLU�JOREDOO\���:KLOH�RGG�R[\JHQ�LV�SURGXFHG�DQG�GHVWUR\HG�ZLWKLQ�VHYHUDO�KRXUV�DW����NP��LW�VXUYLYHV�IRU�ZHHNV�DW����NP��DQG�IRU�VHYHUDO�\HDUV�DW����NP�
The Antarctic Ozone HoleAs winter approaches and temperatures decrease
in the polar stratosphere, sulfate aerosol becomes very GLOXWH��WDNLQJ�XS�QRW�RQO\�ZDWHU�EXW�DOVR�VLJQLILFDQW�TXDQWLWLHV�RI�QLWULF�DFLG��+12���IURP�WURSRVSKHULF�SROOXWDQWV���,FH�FRUH�FKHPLVWU\�SURYLGHV�IXUWKHU�information on the atmospheric impacts of the HUXSWLRQ���2SSHQKHLPHU��������IRXQG�WKDW�*UHHQODQG�LFH�FRUH�UDWLR�RI�ZLQWHUÿWRÿVXPPHU�GHSRVLWLRQ�RI�12� LQFUHDVHG�IROORZLQJ�WKH�HUXSWLRQV�RI�ERWK�7DPERUD�DQG�.DWPDL����������+H�DWWULEXWHV�WKLV�WR�FRQGHQVDWLRQ�DQG�UHPRYDO�RI�VWUDWRVSKHULF�+12� for the Antarctic VWUDWRVSKHUH�GXULQJ�WKH�ZLQWHU��DQG�VORZHU�IRUPDWLRQ�RI�+12��GXULQJ�WKH�VXPPHU�EHFDXVH�RI�UHPRYDO�RI�2+�WKURXJK�R[LGDWLRQ�RI�622���/RRNLQJ�DW�$QWDUFWLF�LFH�FRUH�FKHPLFDO�VWUDWLJUDSK\��HYLGHQFH�LV�ODFNLQJ�IRU�FKDQJHV�LQ�DWPRVSKHULF�FKORULQH�WKRXJKW�WR�KDYH�EHHQ�UHOHDVHG�E\�WKH�HUXSWLRQ������7J����,W�LV�WKRXJKW�WKDW�PRVW�RI�WKH�KDORJHQV�ZHUH�UDSLGO\�DQG�HIILFLHQWO\�VFDYHQJHG�E\�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH�DV�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�FORXGV�DVFHQGHG��6DGOHU�DQG�*UDWWDQ�������
7KRXJK�VWUDWRVSKHULF�FKORULQH�DQG�EURPLQH�DUH�H[SHFWHG�WR�GHFOLQH�RYHU�WKH���VW�FHQWXU\�GXH�WR�LQWHUQDWLRQDO�WUHDWLHV�UHJXODWLQJ�&)&·V�DQG�KDORFDUERQV��WKHLU�R]RQHÿ�GHSOHWLQJ�HIIHFWV�PD\�VWLOO�EH�JUHDWO\�PDJQLILHG�RYHU�WLPH�E\�YROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV���5HFHQW�H[DPSOHV�LQFOXGH�WKH������HUXSWLRQ�RI�3LQDWXER�DQG�(O�&KLFKyQ�LQ�������7DEOH�������)ROORZLQJ�WKHLU�HUXSWLRQV��VSULQJWLPH�$QWDUFWLF�R]RQH�GHFOLQHG�UHODWLYH�WR�SUHÿHUXSWLRQ�OHYHOV�E\�DERXW����WR������UHVSHFWLYHO\��EHIRUH�UHFRYHULQJ�VRPHZKDW�DV�DHURVROV�GHFOLQHG�RYHU�VHYHUDO�\HDUV��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.�������
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AEROSOLSStratospheric Aerosols
Aerosols play a very important role in the climate EHFDXVH�WKH\�FDQ�SRWHQWLDOO\�EH�DQ�H[WHUQDO�IRUFLQJ�PHFKDQLVP�RQ�WKH�JOREDO�FOLPDWH���3URRI�IRU�WKH�H[LVWHQFH�RI�D�OD\HU�RI�SDUWLFOHV�LQ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�ZDV�GLVFRYHUHG�LQ������E\�D�WHDP�OHG�E\�&KULVWLDQ�-XQJH�ZLWK�WKH�XVH�RI�KLJKÿDOWLWXGH�EDOORRQV���7KH\�determined that a non-volcanic source is responsible IRU�PDLQWDLQLQJ�VWUDWRVSKHULF�VXOIDWH�DHURVRO���,Q�������3DXO�&UXW]HQ�VXJJHVWHG�FDUERQ\O�VXOILGH��2&6��DV�WKH�PDMRU�VRXUFH�RI�´EDFNJURXQGµ�OD\HU��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al. ��������2&6�RULJLQDWHV�IURP�ELRORJLFDO��YROFDQLF��DQG�VRPH�DQWKURSRJHQLF�VRXUFHV��VXFK�DV�WKH�EXUQLQJ�RI�IRVVLO�IXHOV���7KH�WURSRVSKHUH�LV�UHODWLYHO\�LQHUW�DQG�KDV�D�FKHPLFDO�OLIHWLPH�RI�DERXW����\HDUV���7KH�ORQJÿOLYHG�H[LVWHQFH�RI�2&6�DOORZV�LW�WR�EH�GLVWULEXWHG�UHODWLYHO\�XQLIRUPO\�WKURXJKRXW�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH��ILJXUH������7KH�PL[LQJ�UDWLR�LV�DERXW�����SDUWV�SHU�WULOOLRQ�E\�YROXPH��SSWY���PDNLQJ�2&6�WKH�PRVW�DEXQGDQW�VXOIXU�EHDULQJ�FRPSRXQG�LQ�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�
,Q�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH��XOWUDYLROHW�OLJKW�UHDFWV�ZLWK�DWRPLF�R[\JHQ�WR�GHVWUR\�2&6��WKLV�SURGXFHV�622, ZKLFK�WKHQ�R[LGL]HV�WR�VXOIXULF�DFLG���:KLOH�2&6�clearly provides an important source of stratospheric VXOIDWH��LW�EUHDNV�DSDUW�DW�D�UDWH�WRR�KLJK�WR�DFFRXQW�IRU�WKH�DHURVRO�REVHUYHG�LQ�YROFDQLFDOO\�TXLHW�SHULRGV���622�RI�WURSRVSKHULF�RULJLQ��YLD�DQWKURSRJHQLF�SROOXWLRQ�DQG�UHGXFHG�ELRORJLFDOO\�SURGXFHG�VXOIXU�FRPSRXQGV��VWURQJO\�LQIOXHQFHV�DHURVRO�V��LQ�WKH�ORZHU�VWUDWRVSKHUH�
*HQHUDOO\��IRU�D�JLYHQ�PDVV�RI�DHURVRO��D�ODUJH�QXPEHU�RI�VPDOO�SDUWLFOHV�SURYLGHV�D�JUHDWHU�RSWLFDO�GHSWK�WKDQ�D�VPDOO�QXPEHU�RI�ODUJH�SDUWLFOHV���7KH�albedo of an aerosol layer is dependent on its optical GHSWK���,QFUHDVHV�LQ�WKH�SODQHWDU\�DOEHGR�GHFUHDVH�the amount of radiation absorbed, which results in GHFUHDVLQJ�WKH�(DUWK·V�WHPSHUDWXUH��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al. ������
Volcanic AerosolsWhether the net effect of aerosol absorption and
reflection is to cool or to heat the Earth depends on SDUWLFOH�VL]H���)RU�WKH�ZDUPLQJ�HIIHFW�WR�RYHUFRPH�WKH�FRROLQJ�HIIHFW��SDUWLFOHV�PXVW�EH�ODUJHU�WKDQ�DERXW�WZR��P�LQ�UDGLXV��6DGOHU�DQG�*UDWWDQ���������9ROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV�LQWURGXFH�ODUJH�TXDQWLWLHV�RI�DVK�DQG�PDJPDWLF�JDVHV�LQWR�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH���7KH�PDMRU�JDVHV�UHOHDVHG�DUH�ZDWHU�YDSRU��!����E\�YROXPH��DQG�FDUERQ�GLR[LGH��a����E\�YROXPH���ZLWK�VPDOOHU��PRUH�YDULDEOH�FRQWULEXWLRQV�RI�622, H26��&2��+2, N2, +&O�DQG�+%U��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7KH�JOREDO�distribution of aerosols from volcanic eruptions GHSHQGV�SULPDULO\�RQ�LWV�ODWLWXGH�DQG�LQWHQVLW\���
Aerosols from tropical eruptions have the potential WR�VSUHDG�JOREDOO\�LQ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH��DV�ZDV�WKH�FDVH�ZLWK�7DPERUD�LQ������DQG�0RXQW�3LQDWXER�LQ��������However, aerosols from many tropical eruptions �VXFK�DV�(O�&KLFKyQ�LQ�������KDYH�UHPDLQHG�ODUJHO\�LQ�WKHLU�KHPLVSKHUH�RI�RULJLQ���3OXPHV�ZKLFK�GR�QRW�EUHDN�WKURXJK�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH��RU�ZKLFK�RFFXU�DW�KLJK�ODWLWXGHV��KDYH�IHZHU�JOREDO�FRQVHTXHQFHV���9ROFDQLF�DHURVRO�FORXGV�SURGXFHG�GXULQJ�VXFK�HUXSWLRQV�PD\�UHVXOW�LQ�D�VLJQLILFDQW�GURS�LQ�VXUIDFH�SUHVVXUH�DFURVV�PLGODWLWXGHV�RI�WKH�1RUWK�$WODQWLF�VHFWRU��5DPSLQR�et al. O�����
7DPERUDÿVL]H��§�����NP��RI�PDJPD��H[SORVLYH�YROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV�HPLW�ODUJH�TXDQWLWLHV�RI�VXOIXU�GLR[LGH�JDV�LQWR�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH��ZKHUH�LW�LV�converted into a sulfuric acid aerosol dust veil that HQFLUFOHV�WKH�(DUWK��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al. ��������7KH�VXOIXU�PDVV�LQMHFWHG�LQWR�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�E\�WKH�7DPERUD�eruption has been estimated by several independent PHWKRGV�LQFOXGLQJ�PRGHOLQJ�RI�SRODU�LFH�FRUH�VXOIDWH�FRQFHQWUDWLRQV��SHWURORJLFDO�PHDVXUHPHQWV�RI������WHSKUD��DQG�DQDO\VLV�RI�DWPRVSKHULF�RSWLFDO�SKHQRPHQD���7KH�UHVXOWV�YDU\�E\�DQ�RUGHU�RI�PDJQLWXGH�EXW�H[FOXGLQJ�WKH�RXWO\LQJ�HVWLPDWHV��WKH�ILJXUHV�DYHUDJH�DURXQG����7J�RI�HVWLPDWHG�VWUDWRVSKHULF�DHURVRO�ORDGLQJ�RI�624 �2SSHQKHLPHU���������,Q�FRQWUDVW��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.��������VXJJHVWV�WKDW�WKH������7DPERUD�HUXSWLRQ�WR�EH�!����7J�RI�624���They also further estimated the amount for the 1991 3LQDWXER�HUXSWLRQ�WR�EH����7J�RI�624�DQG�WKH������(O�&KLFKyQ�����7J�RI�624��
2SSHQKHLPHU��������VWDWHV�WKDW�LW�LV�GLIILFXOW�WR�separate this total from the different phases of the eruption and, in particular, to determine the different SDUWV�WKDW�GHULYHG�IURP�SOLQLDQ�YHUVXV�FRÿLJQLPEULWH��¶SKRHQL[·��FORXGV�
THE 1815 ERUPTION OF TAMBORAUnderstanding Volcanic Impact on the Atmosphere
+XPDQV�KDYH�XQNQRZLQJO\�H[SHULHQFHG�WKH�JOREDO�DWPRVSKHULF�DIIHFWV�RI�YROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV�IRU�WKRXVDQGV�RI�\HDUV���:KLOH�SHRSOH�FORVH�WR�DQ�DFWLYH�YROFDQR�PLJKW�KDYH�EHHQ�DEOH�WR�DFFRXQW�IRU�VWUDQJH�local phenomena, correlation between the effects on WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�RQ�D�JOREDO�VFDOH�ZRXOG�QRW�EHJLQ�WR�EH�OLQNHG�WR�YROFDQLVP�XQWLO�WKH���th�FHQWXU\���6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.��������VWDWHG�WKDW�%HQMDPLQ�)UDQNOLQ�PLJKW�KDYH�EHHQ�WKH�ILUVW�WR�UHSRUW�WKH�OLQN�EHWZHHQ�volcanism and unusual atmospheric phenomena in ������ZKHQ�VWUDQJH�´GU\�IRJµ�DQG�XQVHDVRQDEO\�FROG�ZHDWKHU�VWUXFN�(XURSH���)UDQNOLQ�VSHFXODWHG�WKDW�WKH�IRJ�ZDV�WKH�FDXVH�RI�WKH�FROG�VXPPHU��DQG�WKDW�LW�RULJLQDWHG�DV�VPRNH�IURP�HLWKHU�PHWHRULWHV�RU�YROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV�KH�NQHZ�WR�KDYH�RFFXUUHG�LQ�,FHODQG�RYHU�
29
WKH�FRXUVH�RI�WKH�SUHYLRXV�\HDU�������HUXSWLRQ�RI�/DNL����7KLV�ZRXOG�EH�FRQILUPHG�RQO\�UHFHQWO\�DQG�KDV�QRZ�EHHQ�OLQNHG�WR�WKH�IDPLQH�WKDW�UHGXFHG�WKH�SRSXODWLRQ�RI�WKH�1LOH�YDOOH\�E\�RQHÿVL[WK���,W�ZDV�QRW�XQWLO�WKH������HUXSWLRQ�RI�.UDNDWRD��WKDW�VWUDQJH�DWPRVSKHULF�HIIHFWV�ZRXOG�EH�OLQNHG�WR�YROFDQRHV�ZRUOGZLGH�
The EruptionTambora became active at least 1 year prior to
WKH������HUXSWLRQ��6HOI�HW�DO����������2Q�WKH�HYHQLQJ�RI�$SULO���������7DPERUD�KDG�D�VKRUWÿOLYHG�WZRÿKRXU�SOLQLDQ�HUXSWLRQ���7KH�ILUVW�HUXSWLRQ�KDG�DQ�LQWHQVLW\�WKDW�H[FHHGHG�����NJ�V-1��SURSHOOLQJ�WKH�SOXPH����NP�above sea level, and the total mass of erupted material ZDV������;���12�NJ��2SSHQKHLPHU�������
2Q�$SULO����������DURXQG�������ORFDO�WLPH��WKH�VHFRQG�PDMRU��PRUH�SRZHUIXO��SKDVH�RI�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�EHJDQ�DQG�RQO\�ODVWHG����KRXUV���,W�LV�HVWLPDWHG�WKDW�WKH�SKDVH�RI�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�KDG�D�GLVFKDUJH�UDWH�RI�§���;�����NJ�V-1�DQG�WKH�SOXPH�UHDFKHG�RYHU����NP�DERYH�VHDÿOHYHO��2SSHQKHLPHU��������PDNLQJ�LW�WKH�VHFRQG�KLJKHVW�HVWLPDWHG�HUXSWLYH�FORXG�LQ�WKH�ODVW������\HDUV���7KH�ODVW�PDMRU�SKDVH�RI�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�ZDV�LJQLPEULWH�GRPLQDWHG���,W�KDV�EHHQ�HVWLPDWHG�WKDW�GXULQJ�WKH�GXUDWLRQ�RI�WKLV�LJQLPEULWH�SKDVH�of the eruption, the mean intensity must have been DURXQG���;�����NJ�V-1�2SSHQKHLPHU���������7KLV�ZRXOG�KDYH�SURSHOOHG�WKH�SKRHQL[�FORXGV�WR�DURXQG����NP�DERYH�VHD�OHYHO��D�PRGHVW�KHLJKW�FRQVLGHULQJ�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�LQWHQVLW\��2SSHQKHLPHU���������+LV�HVWLPDWH�LV�SUREDEO\�VXIILFLHQWO\�FORVH�HQRXJK�EHFDXVH�KH�FRPSDUHG�SKRHQL[�SOXPHV�WR�SOLQLDQ�FROXPQV�LQ�WHUPV�RI�WKHLU�WKHUPDO�HIILFLHQFLHV�
Self et al. �������HVWLPDWHG�WKDW�����NP� of nepheline-normative trachyandesitic pyroclastic PDWHULDO��WKH�HTXLYDOHQW�WR�DERXW����NP� of dense URFN��ZDV�HUXSWHG�RYHU�WKH�GXUDWLRQ�RI�WKH�HUXSWLRQ���2I�SDUWLFXODU�LQWHUHVW��WKH�ODUJHVW�NQRZQ�LQFUHDVH�LQ�WKH�HVWLPDWHG�VWUDWRVSKHULF�DHURVRO�ORDGLQJ��!����7J�RI�624���PRUH�WKDQ���WLPHV�WKH�DPRXQW�RI�WKH������3LQDWXER�HUXSWLRQ��UHVXOWHG�IURP�WKH�HUXSWLRQ��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������$VK�IDOORXW�ZDV�QRWHG�RYHU�DQ�DUHD�LQ�H[FHVV�RI���;�����NP2��DQG�SUREDEO\�IHOO�RYHU�an area of more than 106�NP2���5DPSLQR�et al.���������,Q�DGGLWLRQ�WR�YDVW�DPRXQWV�RI�PDWHULDO�HUXSWLQJ�from several pyroclastic flows, tsunamis and pumice UDIWV�ZHUH�UHSRUWHG�RYHU�WKH�QH[W�FRXSOH�RI�GD\V���0HWHRURORJLFDO�FRQGLWLRQV�VSDZQHG�E\�WKH�H[SORVLRQ�VWDUWHG�ZLWK�D�KRW��IROORZHG�E\�DQ�´H[WUHPHO\�FROG�µ�SRFNHW�RI�DLU�GLUHFWO\�XQGHU�WKH�WURSRVSKHULF�DVK�FORXGV��DV�UHSRUWHG�DW�%DQMXZDQJL������NP�IURP�WKH�YROFDQR���)UHH]LQJ�WHPSHUDWXUHV�ZHUH�UHFRUGHG�LQ�0DGUDV��,QGLD��WZR�ZHHNV�ODWHU��5DPSLQR�et al.�������
The Summer of 1816: “The Year Without a Summer”For two to three days after the eruption, there was
FRPSOHWH�GDUNQHVV�ZLWKLQ�D�����NP�UDGLXV�RI�7DPERUD�DFFRPSDQLHG�E\�D�UHSRUWHG�GUDPDWLF�ORZHULQJ�RI�DLU�WHPSHUDWXUH��DOWKRXJK�LW�LV�QRW�FOHDU�WR�ZKDW�H[WHQW��2SSHQKHLPHU���������/LJKW�HYHQWXDOO\�UHWXUQHG�WR�UHJLRQV�IXUWKHVW�DZD\�DIWHU�RQH�RU�WZR�GD\V�DQG�JUDGXDOO\�E\�WKH�VHFRQG�RU�WKLUG�GD\��IDLQW�OLJKW�ZDV�YLVLEOH�QHDU�WKH�YROFDQR���6XQVHWV�ZHUH�RUDQJH�RU�UHG�QHDU�WKH�KRUL]RQ��SXUSOH�WR�SLQN�DERYH��DQG�ZHUH�VRPHWLPHV�VWUHDNHG�E\�GLYHUJLQJ�GDUN�EDQGV�IRU�DOPRVW�D�\HDU�DIWHU�WKH�HUXSWLRQ��2SSHQKHLPHU���������This phenomena was observed nearly everywhere IURP�,QGRQHVLD�WR�:HVWHUQ�(XURSH�DQG�DOO�WKH�ZD\�WR�1HZ�(QJODQG���7KLV�SURYLGHV�VWURQJ�HYLGHQFH�IRU�DWPRVSKHULF�GLVWXUEDQFH�LQWR�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH���7KLV�is further supported by accounts that claim, “neither VXUIDFH�ZLQGV��QRU�UDLQ�ZRXOG�GLVSHUVHµ�WKH�OLQJHULQJ�KD]H�
History has shown us that volcanic eruptions are associated with colder-than-normal temperatures at WKH�(DUWK·V�VXUIDFH��DQG�7DPERUD�ZDV�QR�H[FHSWLRQ���$YHUDJH�WHPSHUDWXUHV�IHOO���&�WR�����&�EHORZ�QRUPDO�WKURXJKRXW�1HZ�(QJODQG�DQG�WKH�%ULWLVK�,VOHV��DQG�WKH�JOREDO�DYHUDJH�LV�HVWLPDWHG�WR�KDYH�IDOOHQ�E\�����WR�����&����6LJXUGVVRQ�et al. ������
7KLV�KDG�VLJQLILFDQW�KXPDQ�LPSDFW�RQ�PDQ\�UHJLRQV�DFURVV�WKH�ZRUOG�WKURXJKRXW�WKH�QH[W���\HDUV���$EXQGDQW�HYLGHQFH�H[LVWV�IRU�H[WUHPH�ZHDWKHU�LQ�������HVSHFLDOO\�GXULQJ�WKH�VSULQJ�DQG�VXPPHU�LQ�,QGRQHVLD��WKH�%ULWLVK�,VOHV��1RUWK�$PHULFD��DQG�SDUWV�RI�&DQDGD�
GLOBAL HUMAN IMPACTIndonesia
7KH�DUHD�ZLWKLQ�XS�WR�D�����NP�UDGLXV�IURP�7DPERUD�ZDV�KDUGHVW�KLW�E\�WKH������HUXSWLRQ���2I�WKH�LVODQG�RI�6XPEDZD·V��������LQKDELWDQWV��RQO\����VXUYLYHG���,Q�DGGLWLRQ�WR�WKH�GHDWK�WROO�IURP�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�DQG�WKH�VXEVHTXHQW�HDUWKTXDNHV��S\URFODVWLF�flows and tsunamis associated with the event are conservatively estimated to have a death toll of �������MXVW�ZLWKLQ�WKH�ILUVW�FRXSOH�RI�GD\V���)RU�WKRVH�who survived the initial devastation, there was little UHIXJH���7KH�YDVW�DPRXQWV�RI�DVK�TXLFNO\�WDLQWHG�WKH�ZDWHU�VXSSO\�DQG�PDGH�WKH�DLU�FKRNLQJO\�WKLFN�ZLWK�ILQH�GXVW�DQG�DVK���)DPLQH�DQG�GLVHDVH�TXLFNO\�VSUHDG�WKURXJKRXW�WKH�UHJLRQ�DQG�WKH�H[DFW�QXPEHU�RI�GHDG�PD\�QHYHU�EH�NQRZQ�
British IslesThe volcanic cloud traveled around the world,
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As stated in the section on “aerosols”, the effect of WKH�YROFDQLF�DHURVRO�FORXGV�PD\�SURGXFH�D�VLJQLILFDQW�drop in surface pressure across midlatitudes of the 1RUWK�$WODQWLF�VHFWRU��OHDGLQJ�WR�D�VRXWKZDUG�VKLIW�LQ�WKH�WUDFN�WDNHQ�E\�PLGGOHÿODWLWXGH�F\FORQHV���5DPSLQR�et al�������WKHQ�SUHGLFWV�WKDW�D�PDMRU�DQRPDO\�ZRXOG�WKXV�EH�FHQWHUHG�RYHU�(QJODQG�DQG�ZRXOG�H[WHQG�RYHU�PXFK�RI�:HVWHUQ�(XURSH��JLYLQJ�ULVH�WR�D�FROG�DQG�ZHW�VXPPHU�
7KH�VXPPHU�RI������ZDV�FRRO�DQG�H[FHHGLQJO\�ZHW���0DVVLYH�FURS�)DLOXUHV�OHG�WR�IDPLQH��GLVHDVH��DQG�VRFLDO�XQUHVW��5DPSLQR�et al. ��������,Q�FHQWUDO�(QJODQG��WKH�WHPSHUDWXUH�ZDV�DERXW�����&�FRROHU�WKDQ�GXULQJ�WKH�VXPPHU�RI�������2SSHQKHLPHU���������Typhus was reported in almost every town and YLOODJH�LQ�(QJODQG��DQG�ZDV�UHSRUWHG�LQ�PDQ\�FLWLHV�WKURXJKRXW�6FRWODQG���$Q�LQWHUHVWLQJ�VLGH�QRWH��WKLV�SHULRG�FRLQFLGHV�ZLWK�SXEOLFDWLRQ�RI�0DU\�6KHOOH\�V�Frankenstein�DQG�/RUG�%\URQ·V�SRHP�Darkness�
,Q�,UHODQG��DURXQG���������SHRSOH�ZHUH�LQIHFWHG�GXULQJ�WKH�W\SKXV�HSLGHPLF��DQG�RI�WKDW��������SHULVKHG�IURP�WKH�MRLQW�UDYDJHV�RI�IDPLQH��G\VHQWHU\�DQG�IHYHU��2SSHQKHLPHU���������(OVHZKHUH�LQ�(XURSH��WKH�VXPPHU�RI������ZDV�DOVR�UHSRUWHG�WR�RQH�RI�WKH�PRVW�PLVHUDEOH�ZLQWHUV�LQ�UHFHQW�KLVWRU\�
North America�����ZDV�PDUNHG�E\�D�SHUVLVWHQW�GU\�IRJ��RU�
dim sun, as reported in the northeastern United 6WDWHV���$FFRUGLQJ�WR�D�UHSRUW�IURP�1HZ�<RUN��WKH�atmospheric pollution reddened and dimmed the sun VR�PXFK�WKDW�VXQVSRWV�ZHUH�YLVLEOH�WR�WKH�QDNHG�H\H��2SSHQKHLPHU���������7KH�WRWDO�OXQDU�HFOLSVH�RQ�-XQH�9th-10th�ZDV�DOVR�UHSRUWHG�WR�EH�H[WUHPHO\�GDUNHU�WKDQ�QRUPDO���7KH�VXPPHU�RI������ZDV�WKH�FROGHVW�LQ�1HZ�+DYHQ��&RQQHFWLFXW��IRU�WKH�HQWLUH�SHULRG�IURP������WR�������5DPSLQR�el at.���������2Q�-XQH��th, frosts were UHSRUWHG�LQ�&RQQHFWLFXW�DQG��E\�WKH�IROORZLQJ�GD\��D�FROG�IURQW�JULSSHG�PRVW�RI�1HZ�(QJODQG���2Q�-XQH�6th��VQRZ�IHOO�LQ�$OEDQ\�1HZ�<RUN��DQG�'HQQ\VYLOOH�0DLQH��DQG�WKHUH�ZHUH�NLOOLQJ�IURVWV�DW�)DLUILHOG�&RQQHFWLFXW���6HYHUH�IURVWV�KDG�VSUHDG�DV�IDU�DV�VRXWK�DV�7UHQWRQ�1HZ�-HUVH\�WKH�QH[W�GD\��2SSHQKHLPHU���������6XFK�FRQGLWLRQV�SHUVLVWHG�RYHU�WKH�QH[W���PRQWKV��ZKLFK�VKRUWHQHG�WKH�JURZLQJ�VHDVRQ�DQG�UHVXOWHG�LQ�DOPRVW�WRWDO�IDLOXUH�RI�PDLQ�FURSV�
&DQDGD�DOVR�H[SHULHQFHG�VHYHUH�ZHDWKHU�DQG�WKH�VDPH�FROG�ZDYH�WKDW�KLW�1HZ�(QJODQG���,Q�0RQWUHDO��snow fell June 6th�WR�WKH��th�������DQG����FP�RI�VQRZ�DFFXPXODWHG�QHDU�4XHEHF�&LW\��2SSHQKHLPHU���������8QOLNH�,QGRQHVLD��$PHULFD�DQG�WKH�%ULWLVK�LVOHV��WKH�&DQDGLDQ�SRSXODWLRQ�DYRLGHG�VHULRXV�social distress from the severe weather, primarily WKDQNV�WR�DQ�HPEDUJR�RQ�JUDLQ�H[SRUWV�EHWZHHQ�-XO\�
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CONCLUSION3OXPHV�ZKLFK�GR�QRW�EUHDN�WKURXJK�WKH�
WURSRVSKHUH��RU�ZKLFK�RFFXU�DW�KLJK�ODWLWXGHV��KDYH�IHZHU�JOREDO�FRQVHTXHQFHV��2SSHQKHLPHU���������9ROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV�FDQ�LQWURGXFH�ODUJH�TXDQWLWLHV�RI�DVK�DQG�PDJPDWLF�JDVHV�LQWR�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH��which may affect atmospheric dynamics, and thereby GHWHUPLQH�LWV�RZQ�GLVWULEXWLRQ�WKURXJKRXW�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�DQG�PD\�KDYH�KDG�VWURQJ�LPSDFWV�RQ�UHJLRQDO�DQG�JOREDO�FOLPDWH��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������/DUJH�HUXSWLRQV�GR�QRW�QHFHVVDULO\�SURGXFH�JUHDWHU�RU�more protracted temperature anomalies, rather only WKRVH�YROFDQRHV�ZLWK�YHU\�H[SORVLYH�HUXSWLRQV�DUH�RI�FRQFHUQ�WR�WKH�FOLPDWH�DQG�VWUDWRVSKHULF�FKHPLVWU\���$HURVROV�IURP�WURSLFDO�HUXSWLRQV�OLNH�0RXQW�3LQDWXER�LQ����������1��GLG�VSUHDG�JOREDOO\�LQ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH���However, aerosols from many tropical eruptions, VXFK�DV�(O�&KLFKyQ��O��1��LQ�������KDYH�UHPDLQHG�ODUJHO\�LQ�WKHLU�KHPLVSKHUH�RI�RULJLQ��2SSHQKHLPHU���������1DWXUDO�G\QDPLFDO�SHUWXUEDWLRQ�ODVWHG�OHVV�WKDQ�D�\HDU�LQ�WKH�FDVH�RI�3LQDWXER��PDNLQJ�LW�OHVV�ZRUULVRPH�WKDQ�ORQJÿWHUP�R]RQH�GHSOHWLRQ�REVHUYHG�DW�PLGODWLWXGHV��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.�������
3DUWLFOHV�RI�UDGLXV�JUHDWHU�WKDQ�WZR��P�IDOO�DW�UDWHV�RI�PRUH�WKDQ����NP�SHU�\HDU�LQ�WKH�ORZHU�VWUDWRVSKHUH��HQVXULQJ�WKHLU�UHPRYDO�ZLWKLQ�PRQWKV���7KXV��VHGLPHQWDWLRQ�OLPLWV�WKH�VL]H�RI�VWUDWRVSKHULF�DHURVRO��PDNLQJ�LW�XQOLNHO\�WKDW�YROFDQLF�DHURVRO�FRXOG�EH�ODUJH�HQRXJK�WR�ZDUP�WKH�(DUWK�IRU�VLJQLILFDQW�SHULRGV�RI�WLPH��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7KH�YROFDQLF�cloud from the Tambora eruption traveled around the world, and within three months, its optical HIIHFWV�ZHUH�REVHUYHG�DW�GLVWDQW�ORFDWLRQV�WKURXJKRXW�(XURSH��5DPSLQR�et al.���������+LVWRU\�KDV�VKRZQ�us, however, that volcanic eruptions associated with colder-than-normal temperatures at the Earths surface because of increases in the planetary albedo decrease WKH�DPRXQW�RI�UDGLDWLRQ�DEVRUEHG��DQG�DOVR�WKH�(DUWK·V�WHPSHUDWXUH��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7KH�IROORZLQJ�\HDU��������ZDV�PDUNHG�E\�D�SHUVLVWHQW�GU\�IRJ��RU�dim Sun, as reported in the northeastern United Slates �5DPSLQR�et al.�������
:HDWKHU�UHFRUGHG�LQ�,QGRQHVLD��WKH�%ULWLVK�,VOHV�DQG�1RUWK�$PHULFD�ILWV�LQ�FORVHO\�ZLWK�WKH�VXPPHU�FRROLQJ�DQG�ZLQWHU�ZDUPLQJ�H[SHFWHG�IRU�WKH�QRUWKHUQ�KHPLVSKHUHV�UHVSRQVH�WR�PDMRU�VXOIDWH�DHURVRO�YHLOV���(VWLPDWHV�IURP�QRUWKHUQ�KHPLVSKHUH�WHPSHUDWXUH�GDWD�VXJJHVW�WKDW�7DPERUD�FRROHG�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�E\�����WR�����&��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������The atmospheric and climatic effects of the eruption
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DIIHFWHG�WKH�1RUWKHUQ�+HPLVSKHUH�XQWLO�������6HOI�et al.�������
,W�VHHPV�SODXVLEOH�WKDW�7DPERUD·V�HUXSWLRQ��DQG�LWV�JOREDO�FOLPDWLF�UHDFK�UHDOO\�SOD\HG�D�UROH�LQ�WKH�RXWEUHDNV�RI�GLVHDVH�IURP�����ÿ�����)DU�EH\RQG�,QGRQHVLD��WKH�SDWWHUQ�RI�FOLPDWLF�DQRPDOLHV�KDV�EHHQ�blamed for the severity of a typhus epidemic and the JUHDW�HSLGHPLF�RI�FKROHUD�WKDW�EURNH�RXW�LQ�%HQJDO�LQ�����ÿ����2SSHQKHLPHU���������+RZHYHU��WKH�HSLGHPLF�RI�FKROHUD�LV�WKRXJKW�WR�KDYH�DULVHQ�EHFDXVH�RI�WURRS�PRYHPHQWV�LQ�,QGLD�GLVSODFLQJ�SHRSOH�RXW�RI�WKH�endemic source of the disease, and the epidemic did QRW�UHDFK�(XURSH�XQWLO�����ÿ�����7KH�1HZ�(QJODQG�UHJLRQ�ZDV�SUREDEO\�SDUWLFXODUO\�YXOQHUDEOH�WR�GLVDVWHU�EHFDXVH�IDUPLQJ�ZDV�DOUHDG\�WDNLQJ�SODFH�
RQ�FOLPDWRORJLFDOO\�PDUJLQDO�ODQGV��DQG�WKHUH�ZDV�increased competition from the mid-western USA and FHQWUDO�&DQDGD��2SSHQKHLPHU�������
$�7DPERUDÿVL]H�HUXSWLRQ�LQ�WKH���st century will KDYH�PXFK�PRUH�SURIRXQG�DIIHFWV�RQ�KXPDQV�OLYLQJ�on an overcrowded Earth, where natural resources are DOUHDG\�VWUDLQHG�WR�WKH�OLPLW���,W�KDV�EHHQ�FDOFXODWHG�WKDW�WKHUH�LV�SHUKDSV�DV�KLJK�DV�D�����FKDQFH�RI�D�7DPERUDÿVL]HG�HUXSWLRQ�RFFXUULQJ�VRPHZKHUH�LQ�WKH�QH[W����\HDUV��DQG�WKDW�LW�LV�PRUH�OLNHO\�WR�EH�LQ�,QGRQHVLD�WKDQ�DQ\�RWKHU�FRXQWU\��5DPSLQR�et al.���������:LOO�'XUDQW�RIIHUHG�XV�WKLV�VLPSOH��\HW�SURIRXQG�VWDWHPHQW��´&LYLOL]DWLRQ�H[LVWV�E\�JHRORJLF�FRQVHQW��VXEMHFW�WR�FKDQJH�ZLWKRXW�QRWLFH�µ
FIGURES
Figure 1: Divisions of Earth’s atmosphere
Figure 2: Aerosol sources and cycles into the atmosphere (from US Climate Change Science Program)http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/stratplan2003/final/graphics/images/SciStratFig3-1.jpg
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Table 1: Comparison of selected volcanic eruptions (after Oppenheimer 2003).
:25.6�&,7('�
2SSHQKHLPHU�&����������Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (indonesia) 1815��3URJUHVV�LQ�3K\VLFDO�*HRJUDSK\��9RO������SJ������ÿ����
5DPSLQR��0�5���6��6HOI��5��%��6WRWKHUV����������Volcanic Winters��$QQXDO�5HYLHZ�RI�(DUWK�DQG�3ODQHWDU\�6FLHQFHV��9RO������SJ����ÿ���
5DPSLQR��0�5���1HZWRQ��0�6���DQG�:ROII�-�$����������Volcanological Study of the Great Tambora Eruption of 1815��*HRORJ\��9RO������SJ�����ÿ����
6DGOHU��-�3�DQG�*UDWWDQ���-XO\��������Volcanoes as Agents of Past Environmental Change���*ORED��DQG�3ODQHWDU\�&KDQJH��9RO�����SJ�����ÿ��������
6LJXUGVVRQ�+���+RXJKWRQ�%�)���0F1XWW�6�5���5\PHU�+���6WL[�-����������Encyclopedia of Volcanoes��$FDGHPLF�3UHVV��6DQ�'LHJR��SJ����ÿ�������ÿ��������ÿ���
7KLV�LV�UHVHDUFK�SDSHU�ZULWWHQ�IRU�*HRORJ\������9ROFDQRORJ\��