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26 Climactic Effects of the 1815 Eruption of Tambora by Jacob Smith ¶&LYLOL]DWLRQ H[LVWV E\ JHRORJLF FRQVHQW VXEMHFW WR FKDQJH ZLWKRXW QRWLFHµ ÿ :LOO 'XUDQW INTRODUCTION: ,Q 7DPERUD FDWDVWURSKLFDOO\ HUXSWHG DIWHU WKUHH \HDUV RI LQFUHDVHG UXPEOLQJ 7KLV ZDV RQH RI WKH ODUJHVW NQRZQ DVKÿSURGXFLQJ HUXSWLRQV LQ WKH ODVW \HDUV UHGXFLQJ WKH YROFDQR WR KDOI LWV IRUPHU VL]H 7DPERUD LV VWLOO D ODUJH VWUDWRYROFDQR P WDOO DQG ! NP LQ YROXPH ORFDWHG RQ WKH ,QGRQHVLDQ LVODQG RI 6XPEDZD SDUW RI WKH /HVVHU 6XQGD ,VODQGV 7KLV LV D VHJPHQW RI WKH 6XQGD $UF D VWULQJ RI YROFDQLF LVODQGV IRUPLQJ WKH VRXWKHUQ FKDLQ RI WKH ,QGRQHVLDQ DUFKLSHODJR 7DPERUD OLHV NP PL QRUWK RI WKH -DYD 7UHQFK V\VWHP DQG ÿ NP ³ PL DERYH WKH XSSHU VXUIDFH RI WKH DFWLYH QRUWKÿGLSSLQJ VXEGXFWLRQ ]RQH 7KH HUXSWLRQ KDV KDG D VLJQLILFDQW LPSDFW DW WKH JOREDO VFDOH 9DVW DPRXQWV RI DHURVROV ZHUH LQMHFWHG LQWR WKH DWPRVSKHUH FORXGLQJ RXW WKH 6XQ LQ WKH UHJLRQ IRU VHYHUDO GD\V DIWHU WKH LQLWLDO HUXSWLRQ 7KH \HDU DIWHU WKH HUXSWLRQ EHFDPH NQRZQ DV WKH ´<HDU :LWKRXW D 6XPPHUµ IRU SHRSOH WKURXJKRXW ,QGRQHVLD WKH (QJOLVK ,VOHV DQG HYHQ $PHULFD 7KLV \HDU KDV DOVR EHHQ OLQNHG WR PDVVLYH FURS IDLOXUH WKDW OHG WR ZLGHVSUHDG IDPLQH GLVHDVH DQG VRFLDO VWUHVV $Q XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH FRPSRVLWLRQ DQG G\QDPLFV RI (DUWK·V DWPRVSKHUH ZLOO SURYLGH D EDVH NQRZOHGJH WR ZKDW UROH YROFDQLVP SOD\ LQ WKH V\VWHP ,W LV WKHQ SRVVLEOH WR UHFRJQL]H WR ZKDW H[WHQW LWV HIIHFWV ERWK UHJLRQDOO\ DQG JOREDOO\ ZLOO KDYH RQ ZHDWKHU DQG WKH (DUWK·V LQKDELWDQWV EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE (DUWK·V UDGLDWLRQ EXGJHW GLFWDWHV WKDW LQFRPLQJ radiation from the Sun must be balanced by RXWJRLQJ UDGLDWLRQ $V WKH 6XQ KHDWV WKH (DUWK WKH WHPSHUDWXUH LQFUHDVHV FDXVLQJ LW WR UDGLDWH LQ WKH LQIUDUHG VSHFWUXP ,QIUDUHG UDGLDWLRQ WULHV WR HVFDSH LQWR VSDFH EXW JUHHQKRXVH JDVHV DEVRUE D SRUWLRQ RI LW 7KHVH SDUWLFOHV FDQ WKHUHIRUH LQFUHDVH RYHUDOO DWPRVSKHULF WHPSHUDWXUHV VXEVWDQWLDOO\ 6LJXUGVVRQ et al ,Q RUGHU WR XQGHUVWDQG DWPRVSKHULF dynamics and the role that volcanism plays, it helps to KDYH NQRZOHGJH RI WKH NH\ FRPSRQHQWV RI WKH (DUWK·V DWPRVSKHUH 7KH (DUWK·V DWPRVSKHUH LV GLYLGHG LQWR VHYHUDO UHJLRQV EDVHG RQ LWV WKHUPDO VWUXFWXUH )LJXUH 7KHUH DUH WZR SULPDU\ GLYLVLRQV LQ WKH DWPRVSKHUH WKH KRPRVSKHUH DQG WKH KHWHURVSKHUH 7KH homosphere contains the troposphere, tropopause, VWUDWRVSKHUH R]RQH VWUDWRSDXVH PHVRVSKHUH WKH PHVRSDXVH DQG RI WKH LRQRVSKHUH 7KH KRPRVSKHUH LV D UHJLRQ LQ ZKLFK WKH FRPSRVLWLRQ DQG PROHFXODU ZHLJKW RI DLU YDULHV OLWWOH WKURXJKRXW 6LJXUGVVRQ et al. :KLOH WKH PL[LQJ UDWLRV RI WUDFH HOHPHQWV PD\ YDU\ JUHDWO\ LW LV SULPDULO\ FRPSRVHG RI 1 2 DQG 2 2 7KH KHWHURVSKHUH FRQWDLQV WKH WKHUPRVSKHUH H[RVSKHUH DQG WKH UHPDLQLQJ RI WKH LRQRVSKHUH 7KLV SDSHU ZLOO IRFXV RQ WKH UHJLRQ IURP WKH WURSRVSKHUH WR WKH stratopause and the effects that volcanic aerosols have ZLWKLQ WKLV UHJLRQ Troposphere and Tropopause 7KH WURSRVSKHUH LV WKH UHJLRQ RI WKH DWPRVSKHUH RFFXS\LQJ WKH ORZHVW OD\HU RQ (DUWK ,W LV ZKHUH weather is created by instability, due to the absorption of solar radiation at the surface that heats air, which PD\ WKHQ ULVH WKURXJK WKH FROGHU PRUH GHQVH DLU DERYH 7KH WURSRVSKHUH FRQWDLQV QDWXUDOO\ RFFXUULQJ N 2 2 2 , H 2 2 $U &2 2 and a variety of other pollutants VXFK DV 2 R]RQH 12 2 2&6 FDUERQ\O VXOILGH DQG 62 2 3DUWLFOHV RI YDULRXV FRPSRVLWLRQ DQG W\SH PDQ\ DULVLQJ IURP VXUIDFH VRXUFHV VXFK DV VRLO DQG RUJDQLF JDVHV SROOXWH WKLV UHJLRQ KHDYLO\ 6LJXUGVVRQ et al. 7URSRVSKHULF SDUWLFOHV DUH W\SLFDOO\ UHPRYHG IURP WKH DWPRVSKHUH DIWHU VHYHUDO ZHHNV E\ SUHFLSLWDWLRQ )RU H[DPSOH UDLQRXW SURYLGHV WKH GRPLQDQW VLQN IRU YROFDQLF VXOIXU LQMHFWHG LQWR WKH troposphere, which will be discussed in more detail ODWHU The transition boundary between the troposphere DQG WKH OD\HU DERYH LV FDOOHG WKH WURSRSDXVH 7KH temperature and altitude of the tropopause vary from DERXW ÿ& ÿ ) DQG NP PL DW WKH HTXDWRU WR ÿ& ÿ) DQG NP PL LQ WKH SRODU UHJLRQV %RWK WKH WURSRSDXVH DQG WKH WURSRVSKHUH DUH NQRZQ DV WKH ORZHU DWPRVSKHUH

Vol05x07ClimaticEffectsof1815EruptionofTambora

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tambora's eruption

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Page 1: Vol05x07ClimaticEffectsof1815EruptionofTambora

26

Climactic Effects of the 1815 Eruption of Tambora

by Jacob Smith

¶&LYLOL]DWLRQ�H[LVWV�E\�JHRORJLF�FRQVHQW��VXEMHFW�WR�FKDQJH�ZLWKRXW�QRWLFHµ�ÿ�:LOO�'XUDQW

INTRODUCTION:,Q�������7DPERUD�FDWDVWURSKLFDOO\�HUXSWHG�DIWHU�

WKUHH�\HDUV�RI�LQFUHDVHG�UXPEOLQJ���7KLV�ZDV�RQH�RI�WKH�ODUJHVW�NQRZQ�DVKÿSURGXFLQJ�HUXSWLRQV�LQ�WKH�ODVW��������\HDUV��UHGXFLQJ�WKH�YROFDQR�WR�KDOI�LWV�IRUPHU�VL]H���7DPERUD�LV�VWLOO�D�ODUJH�VWUDWRYROFDQR�������P�WDOO�DQG�!�����NP��LQ�YROXPH��ORFDWHG�RQ�WKH�,QGRQHVLDQ�LVODQG�RI�6XPEDZD��SDUW�RI�WKH�/HVVHU�6XQGD�,VODQGV���7KLV�LV�D�VHJPHQW�RI�WKH�6XQGD�$UF��D�VWULQJ�RI�YROFDQLF�LVODQGV�IRUPLQJ�WKH�VRXWKHUQ�FKDLQ�RI�WKH�,QGRQHVLDQ�DUFKLSHODJR���7DPERUD�OLHV�����NP������PL��QRUWK�RI�WKH�-DYD�7UHQFK�V\VWHP�DQG�����ÿ�����NP�����³����PL��DERYH�WKH�XSSHU�VXUIDFH�RI�WKH�DFWLYH�QRUWKÿGLSSLQJ�VXEGXFWLRQ�]RQH���7KH������HUXSWLRQ�KDV�KDG�D�VLJQLILFDQW�LPSDFW�DW�WKH�JOREDO�VFDOH�

9DVW�DPRXQWV�RI�DHURVROV�ZHUH�LQMHFWHG�LQWR�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH��FORXGLQJ�RXW�WKH�6XQ�LQ�WKH�UHJLRQ�IRU�VHYHUDO�GD\V�DIWHU�WKH�LQLWLDO�HUXSWLRQ���7KH�\HDU�DIWHU�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�EHFDPH�NQRZQ�DV�WKH�´<HDU�:LWKRXW�D�6XPPHUµ�IRU�SHRSOH�WKURXJKRXW�,QGRQHVLD��WKH�(QJOLVK�,VOHV��DQG�HYHQ�$PHULFD���7KLV�\HDU�KDV�DOVR�EHHQ�OLQNHG�WR�PDVVLYH�FURS�IDLOXUH�WKDW�OHG�WR�ZLGHVSUHDG�IDPLQH��GLVHDVH�DQG�VRFLDO�VWUHVV�

$Q�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�RI�WKH�FRPSRVLWLRQ�DQG�G\QDPLFV�RI�(DUWK·V�DWPRVSKHUH�ZLOO�SURYLGH�D�EDVH�NQRZOHGJH�WR�ZKDW�UROH�YROFDQLVP�SOD\�LQ�WKH�V\VWHP���,W�LV�WKHQ�SRVVLEOH�WR�UHFRJQL]H�WR�ZKDW�H[WHQW�LWV�HIIHFWV��ERWK�UHJLRQDOO\�DQG�JOREDOO\��ZLOO�KDYH�RQ�ZHDWKHU�DQG�WKH�(DUWK·V�LQKDELWDQWV�

EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE(DUWK·V�UDGLDWLRQ�EXGJHW�GLFWDWHV�WKDW�LQFRPLQJ�

radiation from the Sun must be balanced by RXWJRLQJ�UDGLDWLRQ���$V�WKH�6XQ�KHDWV�WKH�(DUWK��WKH�WHPSHUDWXUH�LQFUHDVHV��FDXVLQJ�LW�WR�UDGLDWH�LQ�WKH�LQIUDUHG�VSHFWUXP���,QIUDUHG�UDGLDWLRQ�WULHV�WR�HVFDSH�LQWR�VSDFH��EXW�JUHHQKRXVH�JDVHV�DEVRUE�D�SRUWLRQ�RI�LW���7KHVH�SDUWLFOHV�FDQ�WKHUHIRUH�LQFUHDVH�RYHUDOO�

DWPRVSKHULF�WHPSHUDWXUHV�VXEVWDQWLDOO\��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al����������,Q�RUGHU�WR�XQGHUVWDQG�DWPRVSKHULF�dynamics and the role that volcanism plays, it helps to KDYH�NQRZOHGJH�RI�WKH�NH\�FRPSRQHQWV�RI�WKH�(DUWK·V�DWPRVSKHUH�

7KH�(DUWK·V�DWPRVSKHUH�LV�GLYLGHG�LQWR�VHYHUDO�UHJLRQV�EDVHG�RQ�LWV�WKHUPDO�VWUXFWXUH��)LJXUH������7KHUH�DUH�WZR�SULPDU\�GLYLVLRQV�LQ�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH��WKH�KRPRVSKHUH�DQG�WKH�KHWHURVSKHUH���7KH�homosphere contains the troposphere, tropopause, VWUDWRVSKHUH��R]RQH��VWUDWRSDXVH��PHVRVSKHUH��WKH�PHVRSDXVH�DQG����RI�WKH�LRQRVSKHUH���7KH�KRPRVSKHUH�LV�D�UHJLRQ�LQ�ZKLFK�WKH�FRPSRVLWLRQ�DQG�PROHFXODU�ZHLJKW�RI�DLU�YDULHV�OLWWOH�WKURXJKRXW��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������:KLOH�WKH�PL[LQJ�UDWLRV�RI�WUDFH�HOHPHQWV�PD\�YDU\�JUHDWO\�LW�LV�SULPDULO\�FRPSRVHG�RI�����12�DQG�����22���7KH�KHWHURVSKHUH�FRQWDLQV�WKH�WKHUPRVSKHUH��H[RVSKHUH�DQG�WKH�UHPDLQLQJ�����RI�WKH�LRQRVSKHUH���7KLV�SDSHU�ZLOO�IRFXV�RQ�WKH�UHJLRQ�IURP�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH�WR�WKH�stratopause and the effects that volcanic aerosols have ZLWKLQ�WKLV�UHJLRQ�

Troposphere and Tropopause7KH�WURSRVSKHUH�LV�WKH�UHJLRQ�RI�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�

RFFXS\LQJ�WKH�ORZHVW�OD\HU�RQ�(DUWK���,W�LV�ZKHUH�weather is created by instability, due to the absorption of solar radiation at the surface that heats air, which PD\�WKHQ�ULVH�WKURXJK�WKH�FROGHU��PRUH�GHQVH�DLU�DERYH���7KH�WURSRVSKHUH�FRQWDLQV�QDWXUDOO\�RFFXUULQJ�N2��22, H22��$U��&22 and a variety of other pollutants VXFK�DV�2���R]RQH���122��2&6��FDUERQ\O�VXOILGH��DQG�622���3DUWLFOHV�RI�YDULRXV�FRPSRVLWLRQ�DQG�W\SH��PDQ\�DULVLQJ�IURP�VXUIDFH�VRXUFHV�VXFK�DV�VRLO�DQG�RUJDQLF�JDVHV��SROOXWH�WKLV�UHJLRQ�KHDYLO\��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7URSRVSKHULF�SDUWLFOHV�DUH�W\SLFDOO\�UHPRYHG�IURP�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�DIWHU�VHYHUDO�ZHHNV�E\�SUHFLSLWDWLRQ���)RU�H[DPSOH��UDLQRXW�SURYLGHV�WKH�GRPLQDQW�VLQN�IRU�YROFDQLF�VXOIXU�LQMHFWHG�LQWR�WKH�troposphere, which will be discussed in more detail ODWHU�

The transition boundary between the troposphere DQG�WKH�OD\HU�DERYH�LV�FDOOHG�WKH�WURSRSDXVH���7KH�temperature and altitude of the tropopause vary from DERXW�ÿ���&��ÿ�����)��DQG����NP�����PL���DW�WKH�HTXDWRU�WR�ÿ���&��ÿ���)��DQG���NP����PL���LQ�WKH�SRODU�UHJLRQV���%RWK�WKH�WURSRSDXVH�DQG�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH�DUH�NQRZQ�DV�WKH�ORZHU�DWPRVSKHUH�

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27

Stratosphere7KH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�LV�WKH�UHJLRQ�DERYH�WKH�

WURSRSDXVH�FRQWDLQLQJ�WKH�R]RQH�OD\HU��ZKLFK�KHDWV�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�E\�DEVRUSWLRQ�RI�KLJKÿHQHUJ\�XOWUDYLROHW�UD\V�IURP�WKH�6XQ���7KH�LQFUHDVLQJ�temperature profile of the stratosphere insures it is D�PXFK�PRUH�VWDEOH�UHJLRQ�RI�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�WKDQ�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH���$LU�IURP�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH�HQWHUV�the stratosphere in the tropics, where convective VWRUP�V\VWHPV�FUHDWH�VWURQJ�XSGUDIWV�WKDW�FDQ�EUHDN�WKURXJK�WKH�FROG�WURSLFDO�WURSRSDXVH���0XFK�RI�WKH�ZDWHU�YDSRU�IUHH]HV�RXW�RI�WKH�ULVLQJ�DLU��OHDYLQJ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�PXFK�GULHU�WKDQ�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH���Therefore, particles in the stratosphere are not rained out, and may remain in the stratosphere until WUDQVIHUUHG�ZLWK�DPELHQW�DLU�SDUWLFOHV��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.�������

$W�PLGODWLWXGHV��WRQJXHV�RI�VWUDWRVSKHUH�DUH�IROGHG�LQWR�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH���7KHVH�WRQJXHV�DUH�UHVSRQVLEOH�IRU�WUDQVIHUULQJ�DERXW�����RI�WKH�DLU�LQWR�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7KH�DLU�PL[WXUH�WKDW�LV�WUDQVIHUUHG�LQ�WKLV�]RQH�UHPDLQV�LQ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�IRU�§���\HDUV���7KH�UHPDLQLQJ�����RI�WKH�DLU�PL[WXUH�LV�DJDLQ�WUDQVIHUUHG�E\�DLU�PRYLQJ�GRZQZDUG�DW�WKH�SROHV�E\�WKH�VWURQJ�ZLQWHU�MHW�VWUHDP���7KH�WUDQVSRUW�RI�DLU�RXW�RI�WKH�WURSLFV�WR�KLJKHU�ODWLWXGHV�GHSHQGV�RQ�WKH�GLUHFWLRQ�RI�]RQDO�ZLQGV�RYHU�WKH�HTXDWRU���%\�WKH�WLPH�WKLV�DLU�UHDFKHV�KLJK�ODWLWXGHV��FKHPLFDO�WUDFHUV�LQGLFDWH�WKDW�WKH�DLU�LV�§��ÿ��\HDUV�ROG�

Stratospheric ChemistryThe stratosphere contains elements such as N2,

22��DWRPLF�R[\JHQ���2���R]RQH���2&6��&O��DQG�%U���6WUDWRVSKHULF�FKORULQH�LV�GHULYHG�IURP�DQWKURSRJHQLF�FKORURIOXRURFDUERQV��&)&·V��DQG�PHWK\O�FKORURIRUP��ZKLFK�KDV�QDWXUDO�VRXUFHV���UDWKHU�WKDQ�YROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV��)LJ�������6WUDWRVSKHULF�EURPLQH�FRPHV�IURP�DQWKURSRJHQLF�KDORFDUERQV�DQG�PHWK\O�EURPLGH��QRW�YROFDQRHV���+DORFDUERQV�DUH�RQH�RU�PRUH�DWRPV�RI�&�FRYDOHQWO\�ERQGHG�ZLWK�RQH�RU�PRUH�KDORJHQV�VXFK�DV�&O��)O��%U��RU�,��DQG�DUH�W\SLFDOO\�SURGXFHG�DV�VROYHQWV�IRU�LQGXVWULDO�FOHDQLQJ���9ROFDQLF�DHURVROV�DOWHU�stratospheric chemistry in such a way that it activates FKORULQH�DQG�EURPLQH�IRU�R]RQH�GHSOHWLRQ�E\�PHDQV�RI�UHDFWLRQV�RQ�PROHFXODU�VXUIDFHV�

Ozone Chemistry2]RQH��2���DQG�DWRPLF�R[\JHQ��2��PDNH�XS�WKH�

´RGG�R[\JHQµ�IDPLO\�RI�DWPRVSKHULF�VSHFLHV���7KH�WZR�VSHFLHV�FDQ�LQWHUFKDQJH�UDSLGO\�ZLWK�RQH�DQRWKHU�E\�PHDQV�RI�QXPHURXV�FKHPLFDO�UHDFWLRQV���7KH�UHDFWLRQV�WKDW�SURGXFH�RU�GHVWUR\�WRWDO�RGG�R[\JHQ�DUH�PXFK�VORZHU���6WUDWRVSKHULF�FKHPLVWU\�W\SLFDOO\�

RFFXUV�KRPRJHQHRXVO\�ZKLOH�DHURVROV�DUH�LQ�WKHLU�JDVHRXV�SKDVH���+RZHYHU��KHWHURJHQHRXV�FKHPLVWU\�of an aerosol can occur between any combinations RI�SKDVHV��JDV��OLTXLG�RU�VROLG����7KH�UDWHV�RI�KHWHURJHQHRXV�UHDFWLRQV�LQFUHDVH�VWURQJO\�DV�WKHVH�aerosols become more dilute, thus, the reactions often JR�IDVWHU�DW�FROGHU�WHPSHUDWXUHV���2GG�R[\JHQ�DQG�WKH�R]RQH�DUH�EHOLHYHG�WR�EH�FRQWUROOHG�G\QDPLFDOO\�LQ�the lower stratosphere, and chemically controlled in the upper stratosphere where temperatures are colder DQG�SURPRWH�KHWHURJHQHRXV�FKHPLVWU\��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7UDQVSRUW�RI�DHURVROV�LQ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�JHQHUDOO\�WDNHV�ZHHNV�WR�PRQWKV�WR�FLUFXODWH�DLU�JOREDOO\���:KLOH�RGG�R[\JHQ�LV�SURGXFHG�DQG�GHVWUR\HG�ZLWKLQ�VHYHUDO�KRXUV�DW����NP��LW�VXUYLYHV�IRU�ZHHNV�DW����NP��DQG�IRU�VHYHUDO�\HDUV�DW����NP�

The Antarctic Ozone HoleAs winter approaches and temperatures decrease

in the polar stratosphere, sulfate aerosol becomes very GLOXWH��WDNLQJ�XS�QRW�RQO\�ZDWHU�EXW�DOVR�VLJQLILFDQW�TXDQWLWLHV�RI�QLWULF�DFLG��+12���IURP�WURSRVSKHULF�SROOXWDQWV���,FH�FRUH�FKHPLVWU\�SURYLGHV�IXUWKHU�information on the atmospheric impacts of the HUXSWLRQ���2SSHQKHLPHU��������IRXQG�WKDW�*UHHQODQG�LFH�FRUH�UDWLR�RI�ZLQWHUÿWRÿVXPPHU�GHSRVLWLRQ�RI�12� LQFUHDVHG�IROORZLQJ�WKH�HUXSWLRQV�RI�ERWK�7DPERUD�DQG�.DWPDL����������+H�DWWULEXWHV�WKLV�WR�FRQGHQVDWLRQ�DQG�UHPRYDO�RI�VWUDWRVSKHULF�+12� for the Antarctic VWUDWRVSKHUH�GXULQJ�WKH�ZLQWHU��DQG�VORZHU�IRUPDWLRQ�RI�+12��GXULQJ�WKH�VXPPHU�EHFDXVH�RI�UHPRYDO�RI�2+�WKURXJK�R[LGDWLRQ�RI�622���/RRNLQJ�DW�$QWDUFWLF�LFH�FRUH�FKHPLFDO�VWUDWLJUDSK\��HYLGHQFH�LV�ODFNLQJ�IRU�FKDQJHV�LQ�DWPRVSKHULF�FKORULQH�WKRXJKW�WR�KDYH�EHHQ�UHOHDVHG�E\�WKH�HUXSWLRQ������7J����,W�LV�WKRXJKW�WKDW�PRVW�RI�WKH�KDORJHQV�ZHUH�UDSLGO\�DQG�HIILFLHQWO\�VFDYHQJHG�E\�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH�DV�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�FORXGV�DVFHQGHG��6DGOHU�DQG�*UDWWDQ�������

7KRXJK�VWUDWRVSKHULF�FKORULQH�DQG�EURPLQH�DUH�H[SHFWHG�WR�GHFOLQH�RYHU�WKH���VW�FHQWXU\�GXH�WR�LQWHUQDWLRQDO�WUHDWLHV�UHJXODWLQJ�&)&·V�DQG�KDORFDUERQV��WKHLU�R]RQHÿ�GHSOHWLQJ�HIIHFWV�PD\�VWLOO�EH�JUHDWO\�PDJQLILHG�RYHU�WLPH�E\�YROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV���5HFHQW�H[DPSOHV�LQFOXGH�WKH������HUXSWLRQ�RI�3LQDWXER�DQG�(O�&KLFKyQ�LQ�������7DEOH�������)ROORZLQJ�WKHLU�HUXSWLRQV��VSULQJWLPH�$QWDUFWLF�R]RQH�GHFOLQHG�UHODWLYH�WR�SUHÿHUXSWLRQ�OHYHOV�E\�DERXW����WR������UHVSHFWLYHO\��EHIRUH�UHFRYHULQJ�VRPHZKDW�DV�DHURVROV�GHFOLQHG�RYHU�VHYHUDO�\HDUV��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.�������

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AEROSOLSStratospheric Aerosols

Aerosols play a very important role in the climate EHFDXVH�WKH\�FDQ�SRWHQWLDOO\�EH�DQ�H[WHUQDO�IRUFLQJ�PHFKDQLVP�RQ�WKH�JOREDO�FOLPDWH���3URRI�IRU�WKH�H[LVWHQFH�RI�D�OD\HU�RI�SDUWLFOHV�LQ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�ZDV�GLVFRYHUHG�LQ������E\�D�WHDP�OHG�E\�&KULVWLDQ�-XQJH�ZLWK�WKH�XVH�RI�KLJKÿDOWLWXGH�EDOORRQV���7KH\�determined that a non-volcanic source is responsible IRU�PDLQWDLQLQJ�VWUDWRVSKHULF�VXOIDWH�DHURVRO���,Q�������3DXO�&UXW]HQ�VXJJHVWHG�FDUERQ\O�VXOILGH��2&6��DV�WKH�PDMRU�VRXUFH�RI�´EDFNJURXQGµ�OD\HU��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al. ��������2&6�RULJLQDWHV�IURP�ELRORJLFDO��YROFDQLF��DQG�VRPH�DQWKURSRJHQLF�VRXUFHV��VXFK�DV�WKH�EXUQLQJ�RI�IRVVLO�IXHOV���7KH�WURSRVSKHUH�LV�UHODWLYHO\�LQHUW�DQG�KDV�D�FKHPLFDO�OLIHWLPH�RI�DERXW����\HDUV���7KH�ORQJÿOLYHG�H[LVWHQFH�RI�2&6�DOORZV�LW�WR�EH�GLVWULEXWHG�UHODWLYHO\�XQLIRUPO\�WKURXJKRXW�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH��ILJXUH������7KH�PL[LQJ�UDWLR�LV�DERXW�����SDUWV�SHU�WULOOLRQ�E\�YROXPH��SSWY���PDNLQJ�2&6�WKH�PRVW�DEXQGDQW�VXOIXU�EHDULQJ�FRPSRXQG�LQ�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�

,Q�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH��XOWUDYLROHW�OLJKW�UHDFWV�ZLWK�DWRPLF�R[\JHQ�WR�GHVWUR\�2&6��WKLV�SURGXFHV�622, ZKLFK�WKHQ�R[LGL]HV�WR�VXOIXULF�DFLG���:KLOH�2&6�clearly provides an important source of stratospheric VXOIDWH��LW�EUHDNV�DSDUW�DW�D�UDWH�WRR�KLJK�WR�DFFRXQW�IRU�WKH�DHURVRO�REVHUYHG�LQ�YROFDQLFDOO\�TXLHW�SHULRGV���622�RI�WURSRVSKHULF�RULJLQ��YLD�DQWKURSRJHQLF�SROOXWLRQ�DQG�UHGXFHG�ELRORJLFDOO\�SURGXFHG�VXOIXU�FRPSRXQGV��VWURQJO\�LQIOXHQFHV�DHURVRO�V��LQ�WKH�ORZHU�VWUDWRVSKHUH�

*HQHUDOO\��IRU�D�JLYHQ�PDVV�RI�DHURVRO��D�ODUJH�QXPEHU�RI�VPDOO�SDUWLFOHV�SURYLGHV�D�JUHDWHU�RSWLFDO�GHSWK�WKDQ�D�VPDOO�QXPEHU�RI�ODUJH�SDUWLFOHV���7KH�albedo of an aerosol layer is dependent on its optical GHSWK���,QFUHDVHV�LQ�WKH�SODQHWDU\�DOEHGR�GHFUHDVH�the amount of radiation absorbed, which results in GHFUHDVLQJ�WKH�(DUWK·V�WHPSHUDWXUH��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al. ������

Volcanic AerosolsWhether the net effect of aerosol absorption and

reflection is to cool or to heat the Earth depends on SDUWLFOH�VL]H���)RU�WKH�ZDUPLQJ�HIIHFW�WR�RYHUFRPH�WKH�FRROLQJ�HIIHFW��SDUWLFOHV�PXVW�EH�ODUJHU�WKDQ�DERXW�WZR��P�LQ�UDGLXV��6DGOHU�DQG�*UDWWDQ���������9ROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV�LQWURGXFH�ODUJH�TXDQWLWLHV�RI�DVK�DQG�PDJPDWLF�JDVHV�LQWR�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH���7KH�PDMRU�JDVHV�UHOHDVHG�DUH�ZDWHU�YDSRU��!����E\�YROXPH��DQG�FDUERQ�GLR[LGH��a����E\�YROXPH���ZLWK�VPDOOHU��PRUH�YDULDEOH�FRQWULEXWLRQV�RI�622, H26��&2��+2, N2, +&O�DQG�+%U��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7KH�JOREDO�distribution of aerosols from volcanic eruptions GHSHQGV�SULPDULO\�RQ�LWV�ODWLWXGH�DQG�LQWHQVLW\���

Aerosols from tropical eruptions have the potential WR�VSUHDG�JOREDOO\�LQ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH��DV�ZDV�WKH�FDVH�ZLWK�7DPERUD�LQ������DQG�0RXQW�3LQDWXER�LQ��������However, aerosols from many tropical eruptions �VXFK�DV�(O�&KLFKyQ�LQ�������KDYH�UHPDLQHG�ODUJHO\�LQ�WKHLU�KHPLVSKHUH�RI�RULJLQ���3OXPHV�ZKLFK�GR�QRW�EUHDN�WKURXJK�WKH�WURSRVSKHUH��RU�ZKLFK�RFFXU�DW�KLJK�ODWLWXGHV��KDYH�IHZHU�JOREDO�FRQVHTXHQFHV���9ROFDQLF�DHURVRO�FORXGV�SURGXFHG�GXULQJ�VXFK�HUXSWLRQV�PD\�UHVXOW�LQ�D�VLJQLILFDQW�GURS�LQ�VXUIDFH�SUHVVXUH�DFURVV�PLGODWLWXGHV�RI�WKH�1RUWK�$WODQWLF�VHFWRU��5DPSLQR�et al. O�����

7DPERUDÿVL]H��§�����NP��RI�PDJPD��H[SORVLYH�YROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV�HPLW�ODUJH�TXDQWLWLHV�RI�VXOIXU�GLR[LGH�JDV�LQWR�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH��ZKHUH�LW�LV�converted into a sulfuric acid aerosol dust veil that HQFLUFOHV�WKH�(DUWK��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al. ��������7KH�VXOIXU�PDVV�LQMHFWHG�LQWR�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH�E\�WKH�7DPERUD�eruption has been estimated by several independent PHWKRGV�LQFOXGLQJ�PRGHOLQJ�RI�SRODU�LFH�FRUH�VXOIDWH�FRQFHQWUDWLRQV��SHWURORJLFDO�PHDVXUHPHQWV�RI������WHSKUD��DQG�DQDO\VLV�RI�DWPRVSKHULF�RSWLFDO�SKHQRPHQD���7KH�UHVXOWV�YDU\�E\�DQ�RUGHU�RI�PDJQLWXGH�EXW�H[FOXGLQJ�WKH�RXWO\LQJ�HVWLPDWHV��WKH�ILJXUHV�DYHUDJH�DURXQG����7J�RI�HVWLPDWHG�VWUDWRVSKHULF�DHURVRO�ORDGLQJ�RI�624 �2SSHQKHLPHU���������,Q�FRQWUDVW��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.��������VXJJHVWV�WKDW�WKH������7DPERUD�HUXSWLRQ�WR�EH�!����7J�RI�624���They also further estimated the amount for the 1991 3LQDWXER�HUXSWLRQ�WR�EH����7J�RI�624�DQG�WKH������(O�&KLFKyQ�����7J�RI�624��

2SSHQKHLPHU��������VWDWHV�WKDW�LW�LV�GLIILFXOW�WR�separate this total from the different phases of the eruption and, in particular, to determine the different SDUWV�WKDW�GHULYHG�IURP�SOLQLDQ�YHUVXV�FRÿLJQLPEULWH��¶SKRHQL[·��FORXGV�

THE 1815 ERUPTION OF TAMBORAUnderstanding Volcanic Impact on the Atmosphere

+XPDQV�KDYH�XQNQRZLQJO\�H[SHULHQFHG�WKH�JOREDO�DWPRVSKHULF�DIIHFWV�RI�YROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV�IRU�WKRXVDQGV�RI�\HDUV���:KLOH�SHRSOH�FORVH�WR�DQ�DFWLYH�YROFDQR�PLJKW�KDYH�EHHQ�DEOH�WR�DFFRXQW�IRU�VWUDQJH�local phenomena, correlation between the effects on WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�RQ�D�JOREDO�VFDOH�ZRXOG�QRW�EHJLQ�WR�EH�OLQNHG�WR�YROFDQLVP�XQWLO�WKH���th�FHQWXU\���6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.��������VWDWHG�WKDW�%HQMDPLQ�)UDQNOLQ�PLJKW�KDYH�EHHQ�WKH�ILUVW�WR�UHSRUW�WKH�OLQN�EHWZHHQ�volcanism and unusual atmospheric phenomena in ������ZKHQ�VWUDQJH�´GU\�IRJµ�DQG�XQVHDVRQDEO\�FROG�ZHDWKHU�VWUXFN�(XURSH���)UDQNOLQ�VSHFXODWHG�WKDW�WKH�IRJ�ZDV�WKH�FDXVH�RI�WKH�FROG�VXPPHU��DQG�WKDW�LW�RULJLQDWHG�DV�VPRNH�IURP�HLWKHU�PHWHRULWHV�RU�YROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV�KH�NQHZ�WR�KDYH�RFFXUUHG�LQ�,FHODQG�RYHU�

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29

WKH�FRXUVH�RI�WKH�SUHYLRXV�\HDU�������HUXSWLRQ�RI�/DNL����7KLV�ZRXOG�EH�FRQILUPHG�RQO\�UHFHQWO\�DQG�KDV�QRZ�EHHQ�OLQNHG�WR�WKH�IDPLQH�WKDW�UHGXFHG�WKH�SRSXODWLRQ�RI�WKH�1LOH�YDOOH\�E\�RQHÿVL[WK���,W�ZDV�QRW�XQWLO�WKH������HUXSWLRQ�RI�.UDNDWRD��WKDW�VWUDQJH�DWPRVSKHULF�HIIHFWV�ZRXOG�EH�OLQNHG�WR�YROFDQRHV�ZRUOGZLGH�

The EruptionTambora became active at least 1 year prior to

WKH������HUXSWLRQ��6HOI�HW�DO����������2Q�WKH�HYHQLQJ�RI�$SULO���������7DPERUD�KDG�D�VKRUWÿOLYHG�WZRÿKRXU�SOLQLDQ�HUXSWLRQ���7KH�ILUVW�HUXSWLRQ�KDG�DQ�LQWHQVLW\�WKDW�H[FHHGHG�����NJ�V-1��SURSHOOLQJ�WKH�SOXPH����NP�above sea level, and the total mass of erupted material ZDV������;���12�NJ��2SSHQKHLPHU�������

2Q�$SULO����������DURXQG�������ORFDO�WLPH��WKH�VHFRQG�PDMRU��PRUH�SRZHUIXO��SKDVH�RI�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�EHJDQ�DQG�RQO\�ODVWHG����KRXUV���,W�LV�HVWLPDWHG�WKDW�WKH�SKDVH�RI�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�KDG�D�GLVFKDUJH�UDWH�RI�§���;�����NJ�V-1�DQG�WKH�SOXPH�UHDFKHG�RYHU����NP�DERYH�VHDÿOHYHO��2SSHQKHLPHU��������PDNLQJ�LW�WKH�VHFRQG�KLJKHVW�HVWLPDWHG�HUXSWLYH�FORXG�LQ�WKH�ODVW������\HDUV���7KH�ODVW�PDMRU�SKDVH�RI�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�ZDV�LJQLPEULWH�GRPLQDWHG���,W�KDV�EHHQ�HVWLPDWHG�WKDW�GXULQJ�WKH�GXUDWLRQ�RI�WKLV�LJQLPEULWH�SKDVH�of the eruption, the mean intensity must have been DURXQG���;�����NJ�V-1�2SSHQKHLPHU���������7KLV�ZRXOG�KDYH�SURSHOOHG�WKH�SKRHQL[�FORXGV�WR�DURXQG����NP�DERYH�VHD�OHYHO��D�PRGHVW�KHLJKW�FRQVLGHULQJ�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�LQWHQVLW\��2SSHQKHLPHU���������+LV�HVWLPDWH�LV�SUREDEO\�VXIILFLHQWO\�FORVH�HQRXJK�EHFDXVH�KH�FRPSDUHG�SKRHQL[�SOXPHV�WR�SOLQLDQ�FROXPQV�LQ�WHUPV�RI�WKHLU�WKHUPDO�HIILFLHQFLHV�

Self et al. �������HVWLPDWHG�WKDW�����NP� of nepheline-normative trachyandesitic pyroclastic PDWHULDO��WKH�HTXLYDOHQW�WR�DERXW����NP� of dense URFN��ZDV�HUXSWHG�RYHU�WKH�GXUDWLRQ�RI�WKH�HUXSWLRQ���2I�SDUWLFXODU�LQWHUHVW��WKH�ODUJHVW�NQRZQ�LQFUHDVH�LQ�WKH�HVWLPDWHG�VWUDWRVSKHULF�DHURVRO�ORDGLQJ��!����7J�RI�624���PRUH�WKDQ���WLPHV�WKH�DPRXQW�RI�WKH������3LQDWXER�HUXSWLRQ��UHVXOWHG�IURP�WKH�HUXSWLRQ��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������$VK�IDOORXW�ZDV�QRWHG�RYHU�DQ�DUHD�LQ�H[FHVV�RI���;�����NP2��DQG�SUREDEO\�IHOO�RYHU�an area of more than 106�NP2���5DPSLQR�et al.���������,Q�DGGLWLRQ�WR�YDVW�DPRXQWV�RI�PDWHULDO�HUXSWLQJ�from several pyroclastic flows, tsunamis and pumice UDIWV�ZHUH�UHSRUWHG�RYHU�WKH�QH[W�FRXSOH�RI�GD\V���0HWHRURORJLFDO�FRQGLWLRQV�VSDZQHG�E\�WKH�H[SORVLRQ�VWDUWHG�ZLWK�D�KRW��IROORZHG�E\�DQ�´H[WUHPHO\�FROG�µ�SRFNHW�RI�DLU�GLUHFWO\�XQGHU�WKH�WURSRVSKHULF�DVK�FORXGV��DV�UHSRUWHG�DW�%DQMXZDQJL������NP�IURP�WKH�YROFDQR���)UHH]LQJ�WHPSHUDWXUHV�ZHUH�UHFRUGHG�LQ�0DGUDV��,QGLD��WZR�ZHHNV�ODWHU��5DPSLQR�et al.�������

The Summer of 1816: “The Year Without a Summer”For two to three days after the eruption, there was

FRPSOHWH�GDUNQHVV�ZLWKLQ�D�����NP�UDGLXV�RI�7DPERUD�DFFRPSDQLHG�E\�D�UHSRUWHG�GUDPDWLF�ORZHULQJ�RI�DLU�WHPSHUDWXUH��DOWKRXJK�LW�LV�QRW�FOHDU�WR�ZKDW�H[WHQW��2SSHQKHLPHU���������/LJKW�HYHQWXDOO\�UHWXUQHG�WR�UHJLRQV�IXUWKHVW�DZD\�DIWHU�RQH�RU�WZR�GD\V�DQG�JUDGXDOO\�E\�WKH�VHFRQG�RU�WKLUG�GD\��IDLQW�OLJKW�ZDV�YLVLEOH�QHDU�WKH�YROFDQR���6XQVHWV�ZHUH�RUDQJH�RU�UHG�QHDU�WKH�KRUL]RQ��SXUSOH�WR�SLQN�DERYH��DQG�ZHUH�VRPHWLPHV�VWUHDNHG�E\�GLYHUJLQJ�GDUN�EDQGV�IRU�DOPRVW�D�\HDU�DIWHU�WKH�HUXSWLRQ��2SSHQKHLPHU���������This phenomena was observed nearly everywhere IURP�,QGRQHVLD�WR�:HVWHUQ�(XURSH�DQG�DOO�WKH�ZD\�WR�1HZ�(QJODQG���7KLV�SURYLGHV�VWURQJ�HYLGHQFH�IRU�DWPRVSKHULF�GLVWXUEDQFH�LQWR�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH���7KLV�is further supported by accounts that claim, “neither VXUIDFH�ZLQGV��QRU�UDLQ�ZRXOG�GLVSHUVHµ�WKH�OLQJHULQJ�KD]H�

History has shown us that volcanic eruptions are associated with colder-than-normal temperatures at WKH�(DUWK·V�VXUIDFH��DQG�7DPERUD�ZDV�QR�H[FHSWLRQ���$YHUDJH�WHPSHUDWXUHV�IHOO���&�WR�����&�EHORZ�QRUPDO�WKURXJKRXW�1HZ�(QJODQG�DQG�WKH�%ULWLVK�,VOHV��DQG�WKH�JOREDO�DYHUDJH�LV�HVWLPDWHG�WR�KDYH�IDOOHQ�E\�����WR�����&����6LJXUGVVRQ�et al. ������

7KLV�KDG�VLJQLILFDQW�KXPDQ�LPSDFW�RQ�PDQ\�UHJLRQV�DFURVV�WKH�ZRUOG�WKURXJKRXW�WKH�QH[W���\HDUV���$EXQGDQW�HYLGHQFH�H[LVWV�IRU�H[WUHPH�ZHDWKHU�LQ�������HVSHFLDOO\�GXULQJ�WKH�VSULQJ�DQG�VXPPHU�LQ�,QGRQHVLD��WKH�%ULWLVK�,VOHV��1RUWK�$PHULFD��DQG�SDUWV�RI�&DQDGD�

GLOBAL HUMAN IMPACTIndonesia

7KH�DUHD�ZLWKLQ�XS�WR�D�����NP�UDGLXV�IURP�7DPERUD�ZDV�KDUGHVW�KLW�E\�WKH������HUXSWLRQ���2I�WKH�LVODQG�RI�6XPEDZD·V��������LQKDELWDQWV��RQO\����VXUYLYHG���,Q�DGGLWLRQ�WR�WKH�GHDWK�WROO�IURP�WKH�HUXSWLRQ�DQG�WKH�VXEVHTXHQW�HDUWKTXDNHV��S\URFODVWLF�flows and tsunamis associated with the event are conservatively estimated to have a death toll of �������MXVW�ZLWKLQ�WKH�ILUVW�FRXSOH�RI�GD\V���)RU�WKRVH�who survived the initial devastation, there was little UHIXJH���7KH�YDVW�DPRXQWV�RI�DVK�TXLFNO\�WDLQWHG�WKH�ZDWHU�VXSSO\�DQG�PDGH�WKH�DLU�FKRNLQJO\�WKLFN�ZLWK�ILQH�GXVW�DQG�DVK���)DPLQH�DQG�GLVHDVH�TXLFNO\�VSUHDG�WKURXJKRXW�WKH�UHJLRQ�DQG�WKH�H[DFW�QXPEHU�RI�GHDG�PD\�QHYHU�EH�NQRZQ�

British IslesThe volcanic cloud traveled around the world,

DQG�ZLWKLQ���PRQWKV��LWV�RSWLFDO�DIIHFWV�ZHUH�REVHUYHG�DW�GLVWDQW�ORFDWLRQV�LQ�(XURSH��5DPSLQR�et al.���������

Page 5: Vol05x07ClimaticEffectsof1815EruptionofTambora

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As stated in the section on “aerosols”, the effect of WKH�YROFDQLF�DHURVRO�FORXGV�PD\�SURGXFH�D�VLJQLILFDQW�drop in surface pressure across midlatitudes of the 1RUWK�$WODQWLF�VHFWRU��OHDGLQJ�WR�D�VRXWKZDUG�VKLIW�LQ�WKH�WUDFN�WDNHQ�E\�PLGGOHÿODWLWXGH�F\FORQHV���5DPSLQR�et al�������WKHQ�SUHGLFWV�WKDW�D�PDMRU�DQRPDO\�ZRXOG�WKXV�EH�FHQWHUHG�RYHU�(QJODQG�DQG�ZRXOG�H[WHQG�RYHU�PXFK�RI�:HVWHUQ�(XURSH��JLYLQJ�ULVH�WR�D�FROG�DQG�ZHW�VXPPHU�

7KH�VXPPHU�RI������ZDV�FRRO�DQG�H[FHHGLQJO\�ZHW���0DVVLYH�FURS�)DLOXUHV�OHG�WR�IDPLQH��GLVHDVH��DQG�VRFLDO�XQUHVW��5DPSLQR�et al. ��������,Q�FHQWUDO�(QJODQG��WKH�WHPSHUDWXUH�ZDV�DERXW�����&�FRROHU�WKDQ�GXULQJ�WKH�VXPPHU�RI�������2SSHQKHLPHU���������Typhus was reported in almost every town and YLOODJH�LQ�(QJODQG��DQG�ZDV�UHSRUWHG�LQ�PDQ\�FLWLHV�WKURXJKRXW�6FRWODQG���$Q�LQWHUHVWLQJ�VLGH�QRWH��WKLV�SHULRG�FRLQFLGHV�ZLWK�SXEOLFDWLRQ�RI�0DU\�6KHOOH\�V�Frankenstein�DQG�/RUG�%\URQ·V�SRHP�Darkness�

,Q�,UHODQG��DURXQG���������SHRSOH�ZHUH�LQIHFWHG�GXULQJ�WKH�W\SKXV�HSLGHPLF��DQG�RI�WKDW��������SHULVKHG�IURP�WKH�MRLQW�UDYDJHV�RI�IDPLQH��G\VHQWHU\�DQG�IHYHU��2SSHQKHLPHU���������(OVHZKHUH�LQ�(XURSH��WKH�VXPPHU�RI������ZDV�DOVR�UHSRUWHG�WR�RQH�RI�WKH�PRVW�PLVHUDEOH�ZLQWHUV�LQ�UHFHQW�KLVWRU\�

North America�����ZDV�PDUNHG�E\�D�SHUVLVWHQW�GU\�IRJ��RU�

dim sun, as reported in the northeastern United 6WDWHV���$FFRUGLQJ�WR�D�UHSRUW�IURP�1HZ�<RUN��WKH�atmospheric pollution reddened and dimmed the sun VR�PXFK�WKDW�VXQVSRWV�ZHUH�YLVLEOH�WR�WKH�QDNHG�H\H��2SSHQKHLPHU���������7KH�WRWDO�OXQDU�HFOLSVH�RQ�-XQH�9th-10th�ZDV�DOVR�UHSRUWHG�WR�EH�H[WUHPHO\�GDUNHU�WKDQ�QRUPDO���7KH�VXPPHU�RI������ZDV�WKH�FROGHVW�LQ�1HZ�+DYHQ��&RQQHFWLFXW��IRU�WKH�HQWLUH�SHULRG�IURP������WR�������5DPSLQR�el at.���������2Q�-XQH��th, frosts were UHSRUWHG�LQ�&RQQHFWLFXW�DQG��E\�WKH�IROORZLQJ�GD\��D�FROG�IURQW�JULSSHG�PRVW�RI�1HZ�(QJODQG���2Q�-XQH�6th��VQRZ�IHOO�LQ�$OEDQ\�1HZ�<RUN��DQG�'HQQ\VYLOOH�0DLQH��DQG�WKHUH�ZHUH�NLOOLQJ�IURVWV�DW�)DLUILHOG�&RQQHFWLFXW���6HYHUH�IURVWV�KDG�VSUHDG�DV�IDU�DV�VRXWK�DV�7UHQWRQ�1HZ�-HUVH\�WKH�QH[W�GD\��2SSHQKHLPHU���������6XFK�FRQGLWLRQV�SHUVLVWHG�RYHU�WKH�QH[W���PRQWKV��ZKLFK�VKRUWHQHG�WKH�JURZLQJ�VHDVRQ�DQG�UHVXOWHG�LQ�DOPRVW�WRWDO�IDLOXUH�RI�PDLQ�FURSV�

&DQDGD�DOVR�H[SHULHQFHG�VHYHUH�ZHDWKHU�DQG�WKH�VDPH�FROG�ZDYH�WKDW�KLW�1HZ�(QJODQG���,Q�0RQWUHDO��snow fell June 6th�WR�WKH��th�������DQG����FP�RI�VQRZ�DFFXPXODWHG�QHDU�4XHEHF�&LW\��2SSHQKHLPHU���������8QOLNH�,QGRQHVLD��$PHULFD�DQG�WKH�%ULWLVK�LVOHV��WKH�&DQDGLDQ�SRSXODWLRQ�DYRLGHG�VHULRXV�social distress from the severe weather, primarily WKDQNV�WR�DQ�HPEDUJR�RQ�JUDLQ�H[SRUWV�EHWZHHQ�-XO\�

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CONCLUSION3OXPHV�ZKLFK�GR�QRW�EUHDN�WKURXJK�WKH�

WURSRVSKHUH��RU�ZKLFK�RFFXU�DW�KLJK�ODWLWXGHV��KDYH�IHZHU�JOREDO�FRQVHTXHQFHV��2SSHQKHLPHU���������9ROFDQLF�HUXSWLRQV�FDQ�LQWURGXFH�ODUJH�TXDQWLWLHV�RI�DVK�DQG�PDJPDWLF�JDVHV�LQWR�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH��which may affect atmospheric dynamics, and thereby GHWHUPLQH�LWV�RZQ�GLVWULEXWLRQ�WKURXJKRXW�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�DQG�PD\�KDYH�KDG�VWURQJ�LPSDFWV�RQ�UHJLRQDO�DQG�JOREDO�FOLPDWH��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������/DUJH�HUXSWLRQV�GR�QRW�QHFHVVDULO\�SURGXFH�JUHDWHU�RU�more protracted temperature anomalies, rather only WKRVH�YROFDQRHV�ZLWK�YHU\�H[SORVLYH�HUXSWLRQV�DUH�RI�FRQFHUQ�WR�WKH�FOLPDWH�DQG�VWUDWRVSKHULF�FKHPLVWU\���$HURVROV�IURP�WURSLFDO�HUXSWLRQV�OLNH�0RXQW�3LQDWXER�LQ����������1��GLG�VSUHDG�JOREDOO\�LQ�WKH�VWUDWRVSKHUH���However, aerosols from many tropical eruptions, VXFK�DV�(O�&KLFKyQ��O��1��LQ�������KDYH�UHPDLQHG�ODUJHO\�LQ�WKHLU�KHPLVSKHUH�RI�RULJLQ��2SSHQKHLPHU���������1DWXUDO�G\QDPLFDO�SHUWXUEDWLRQ�ODVWHG�OHVV�WKDQ�D�\HDU�LQ�WKH�FDVH�RI�3LQDWXER��PDNLQJ�LW�OHVV�ZRUULVRPH�WKDQ�ORQJÿWHUP�R]RQH�GHSOHWLRQ�REVHUYHG�DW�PLGODWLWXGHV��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.�������

3DUWLFOHV�RI�UDGLXV�JUHDWHU�WKDQ�WZR��P�IDOO�DW�UDWHV�RI�PRUH�WKDQ����NP�SHU�\HDU�LQ�WKH�ORZHU�VWUDWRVSKHUH��HQVXULQJ�WKHLU�UHPRYDO�ZLWKLQ�PRQWKV���7KXV��VHGLPHQWDWLRQ�OLPLWV�WKH�VL]H�RI�VWUDWRVSKHULF�DHURVRO��PDNLQJ�LW�XQOLNHO\�WKDW�YROFDQLF�DHURVRO�FRXOG�EH�ODUJH�HQRXJK�WR�ZDUP�WKH�(DUWK�IRU�VLJQLILFDQW�SHULRGV�RI�WLPH��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7KH�YROFDQLF�cloud from the Tambora eruption traveled around the world, and within three months, its optical HIIHFWV�ZHUH�REVHUYHG�DW�GLVWDQW�ORFDWLRQV�WKURXJKRXW�(XURSH��5DPSLQR�et al.���������+LVWRU\�KDV�VKRZQ�us, however, that volcanic eruptions associated with colder-than-normal temperatures at the Earths surface because of increases in the planetary albedo decrease WKH�DPRXQW�RI�UDGLDWLRQ�DEVRUEHG��DQG�DOVR�WKH�(DUWK·V�WHPSHUDWXUH��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������7KH�IROORZLQJ�\HDU��������ZDV�PDUNHG�E\�D�SHUVLVWHQW�GU\�IRJ��RU�dim Sun, as reported in the northeastern United Slates �5DPSLQR�et al.�������

:HDWKHU�UHFRUGHG�LQ�,QGRQHVLD��WKH�%ULWLVK�,VOHV�DQG�1RUWK�$PHULFD�ILWV�LQ�FORVHO\�ZLWK�WKH�VXPPHU�FRROLQJ�DQG�ZLQWHU�ZDUPLQJ�H[SHFWHG�IRU�WKH�QRUWKHUQ�KHPLVSKHUHV�UHVSRQVH�WR�PDMRU�VXOIDWH�DHURVRO�YHLOV���(VWLPDWHV�IURP�QRUWKHUQ�KHPLVSKHUH�WHPSHUDWXUH�GDWD�VXJJHVW�WKDW�7DPERUD�FRROHG�WKH�DWPRVSKHUH�E\�����WR�����&��6LJXUGVVRQ�et al.���������The atmospheric and climatic effects of the eruption

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DIIHFWHG�WKH�1RUWKHUQ�+HPLVSKHUH�XQWLO�������6HOI�et al.�������

,W�VHHPV�SODXVLEOH�WKDW�7DPERUD·V�HUXSWLRQ��DQG�LWV�JOREDO�FOLPDWLF�UHDFK�UHDOO\�SOD\HG�D�UROH�LQ�WKH�RXWEUHDNV�RI�GLVHDVH�IURP�����ÿ�����)DU�EH\RQG�,QGRQHVLD��WKH�SDWWHUQ�RI�FOLPDWLF�DQRPDOLHV�KDV�EHHQ�blamed for the severity of a typhus epidemic and the JUHDW�HSLGHPLF�RI�FKROHUD�WKDW�EURNH�RXW�LQ�%HQJDO�LQ�����ÿ����2SSHQKHLPHU���������+RZHYHU��WKH�HSLGHPLF�RI�FKROHUD�LV�WKRXJKW�WR�KDYH�DULVHQ�EHFDXVH�RI�WURRS�PRYHPHQWV�LQ�,QGLD�GLVSODFLQJ�SHRSOH�RXW�RI�WKH�endemic source of the disease, and the epidemic did QRW�UHDFK�(XURSH�XQWLO�����ÿ�����7KH�1HZ�(QJODQG�UHJLRQ�ZDV�SUREDEO\�SDUWLFXODUO\�YXOQHUDEOH�WR�GLVDVWHU�EHFDXVH�IDUPLQJ�ZDV�DOUHDG\�WDNLQJ�SODFH�

RQ�FOLPDWRORJLFDOO\�PDUJLQDO�ODQGV��DQG�WKHUH�ZDV�increased competition from the mid-western USA and FHQWUDO�&DQDGD��2SSHQKHLPHU�������

$�7DPERUDÿVL]H�HUXSWLRQ�LQ�WKH���st century will KDYH�PXFK�PRUH�SURIRXQG�DIIHFWV�RQ�KXPDQV�OLYLQJ�on an overcrowded Earth, where natural resources are DOUHDG\�VWUDLQHG�WR�WKH�OLPLW���,W�KDV�EHHQ�FDOFXODWHG�WKDW�WKHUH�LV�SHUKDSV�DV�KLJK�DV�D�����FKDQFH�RI�D�7DPERUDÿVL]HG�HUXSWLRQ�RFFXUULQJ�VRPHZKHUH�LQ�WKH�QH[W����\HDUV��DQG�WKDW�LW�LV�PRUH�OLNHO\�WR�EH�LQ�,QGRQHVLD�WKDQ�DQ\�RWKHU�FRXQWU\��5DPSLQR�et al.���������:LOO�'XUDQW�RIIHUHG�XV�WKLV�VLPSOH��\HW�SURIRXQG�VWDWHPHQW��´&LYLOL]DWLRQ�H[LVWV�E\�JHRORJLF�FRQVHQW��VXEMHFW�WR�FKDQJH�ZLWKRXW�QRWLFH�µ

FIGURES

Figure 1: Divisions of Earth’s atmosphere

Figure 2: Aerosol sources and cycles into the atmosphere (from US Climate Change Science Program)http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/stratplan2003/final/graphics/images/SciStratFig3-1.jpg

Page 7: Vol05x07ClimaticEffectsof1815EruptionofTambora

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Table 1: Comparison of selected volcanic eruptions (after Oppenheimer 2003).

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2SSHQKHLPHU�&����������Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (indonesia) 1815��3URJUHVV�LQ�3K\VLFDO�*HRJUDSK\��9RO������SJ������ÿ����

5DPSLQR��0�5���6��6HOI��5��%��6WRWKHUV����������Volcanic Winters��$QQXDO�5HYLHZ�RI�(DUWK�DQG�3ODQHWDU\�6FLHQFHV��9RO������SJ����ÿ���

5DPSLQR��0�5���1HZWRQ��0�6���DQG�:ROII�-�$����������Volcanological Study of the Great Tambora Eruption of 1815��*HRORJ\��9RO������SJ�����ÿ����

6DGOHU��-�3�DQG�*UDWWDQ���-XO\��������Volcanoes as Agents of Past Environmental Change���*ORED��DQG�3ODQHWDU\�&KDQJH��9RO�����SJ�����ÿ��������

6LJXUGVVRQ�+���+RXJKWRQ�%�)���0F1XWW�6�5���5\PHU�+���6WL[�-����������Encyclopedia of Volcanoes��$FDGHPLF�3UHVV��6DQ�'LHJR��SJ����ÿ�������ÿ��������ÿ���

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