War, Aggression and Self-Defence - Assetsassets.cambridge.org/.../frontmatter/9780521793445_frontmatter.pdf · War, Aggression and Self-Defence Yoram Dinstein’s seminal textbook

War, Aggression and Self-Defence

Yoram Dinstein’s seminal textbook is an essential guide to the legalissues of war and peace, armed attack, self-defence and enforcementmeasures taken under the aegis of the Security Council. This revisedthird edition incorporates new material on the Kosovo air campaign,‘humanitarian intervention’, recent resolutions adopted by the SecurityCouncil, and the latest pronouncements of the International Court ofJustice and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugos-lavia. Also discussed are new treaties, including the 1998 Rome Statuteon the International Criminal Court, and current studies of the Interna-tional Law Commission. In addition, supplementary sections consider,for example, enforcement action carried out by regional organizationsunder the authority of the Security Council. War, Aggression and Self-Defence remains a comprehensive and highly readable introduction tothe legal issues surrounding war and self-defence, and continues toprovide an indispensable tool for students and practitioners of interna-tional law, international relations and military studies.

yoram dinstein is Humboldt Fellow at the Max Planck Institute forInternational Law, Heidelberg. Other posts he has held include Profes-sor of International Law as well as President of Tel Aviv University, andStockton Professor of International Law at the US Naval War College.Professor Dinstein has published extensively in the Weld of internationallaw.

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War, Aggression andSelf-Defence

Yoram Dinstein

Third edition






published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridgeThe Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

cambridge university pressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York NY10011-4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa


First edition © Grotius Publications Limited 1988Second edition © Cambridge University Press 1994Third edition © Cambridge University Press 2001

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published by Grotius Publications Limited 1988 (0 949009 156)Second edition published by Cambridge University Press (0 521 46526 5)Reprinted 1995, 1999Third edition published by Cambridge University Press 2001Reprinted 2002, 2003

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeface Plantin 10/12pt System Poltype ® [vn]

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress cataloguing in publication data

Dinstein, Yoram.War, aggression and self-defence/by Yoram Dinstein. – 3rd ed.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and indexes.ISBN 0 521 79344 0 – ISBN 0 521 79758 6 (pb)1. Aggression (International law) 2. War (International law) 3. Self-defence(International law) I. Title.KZ6374.D56 2001341.6'2–dc21 00-045554

ISBN 0 521 79344 0 hardbackISBN 0 521 79758 6 paperback






Contents

Introduction to the Third Edition page xiFrom the introduction to the First Edition xiiTable of cases xivTable of treaties xviTable of Security Council resolutions xxiiTable of General Assembly resolutions xxivList of abbreviations xxv

Part I The legal nature of war 1

1. What is war? 3A. The deWnition of war 3

(a) The numerous meanings of war 3(b) An analysis of Oppenheim’s deWnition of war 4

i. Inter-State and intra-State wars 5ii. War in the technical and in the material sense 9iii. Total wars, limited wars and incidents short of war 10iv. War as an asymmetrical phenomenon 13

(c) A proposed deWnition of war 14B. Status mixtus 15

(a) Peacetime status mixtus 16(b) Wartime status mixtus 17

C. The region of war 19(a) The territories of the parties to the conXict 19(b) The high seas and the exclusive economic zone 21(c) Outer space 23

D. Neutrality 23(a) The basic principles 23(b) Some concrete rules 24

i. Passage of belligerent military units and war materials 24ii. Enrolment in belligerent armed forces 25iii. Military supplies to belligerents 26

2. The course of war 29A. The beginning of war 29

(a) War in the technical sense 29

v






(b) War in the material sense 32B. The termination of war 33

(a) Treaties of peace 33i. The signiWcance of a treaty of peace 33ii. Peace preliminaries 36iii. The legal validity of a treaty of peace 37

(b) Armistice agreements 39(c) Other modes of terminating war 44

i. Implied mutual consent 44ii. Debellatio 45iii. Unilateral declaration 46

C. The suspension of hostilities 47(a) DiVerent types of suspension of hostilities 47

i. Local cease-Wre agreement 48ii. General cease-Wre agreement 49iii. Cease-Wre ordered by the Security Council 49

(b) The nature of cease-Wre 51(c) Denunciation and breach of cease-Wre 53

Part II The illegality of war 57

3. A historical perspective of the legal status of war 59A. The ‘just war’ doctrine in the past 59

(a) The Roman origins 59(b) Christian theology 60(c) The ‘fathers’ of international law 61

B. Recent concepts of ‘just war’ 63(a) Kelsen’s theory 63(b) ‘Wars of national liberation’ 64(c) ‘Humanitarian intervention’ 66

C. The extra-legality of war 69D. The legality of war 71E. Exceptions to the general liberty to go to war 73

(a) Special arrangements 73(b) The Hague Conventions 74(c) The Covenant of the League of Nations 75

4. The contemporary prohibition of the use of inter-State force 78A. The Kellogg–Briand Pact 78B. The Charter of the United Nations 80

(a) The prohibition of the use of inter-State force 80(b) Attempts to limit the scope of the prohibition 83

C. Customary international law 86(a) The general prohibition of the use of inter-State force 86(b) The relationship between customary and conventional law 90

D. Treaties other than the Pact and the Charter 91E. The prohibition of the use of inter-State force as jus cogens 93

(a) The signiWcance of jus cogens 93(b) How can jus cogens be modiWed? 96

vi Contents






F. State responsibility 98(a) Application of general rules of State responsibility 98(b) State responsibility for international crimes 102

5. The criminality of war of aggression 106A. War of aggression as a crime against peace 106B. The deWnition of aggression 114C. Individual responsibility for crimes against peace 120

(a) The scope of the crimes 120i. Ratione materiae 120ii. Ratione personae 121iii. Ratione temporis 123

(b) Mens rea 124i. Mistake of fact 126ii. Mistake of law 126iii. Duress 127iv. Insanity 128

(c) Inadmissible defence pleas 128i. Obedience to national law 128ii. Obedience to superior orders 129iii. Acts of State 132

(d) The penal proceedings 133

6 Controversial consequences of the change in the legalstatus of war 135

A. War in the technical sense 136B. Inconclusive ‘police action’ 137C. Equal application of the jus in bello 140

(a) Self-defence 140(b) Collective security 146

D. Impartial neutrality 147E. Territorial changes 151

Part III Exceptions to the prohibition of the use ofinter-State force 157

7 The concept of self-defence 159A. The right of self-defence 159

(a) The meaning of self-defence 159(b) Self-defence as a right 161(c) Self-defence as an ‘inherent’ right 163

B. Self-defence as a response to an armed attack 165(a) Armed attack and preventive war 165(b) The scope of an armed attack 169

i. The beginning of an armed attack 169ii. A small-scale armed attack 173iii. The locale of an armed attack 176iv. The target of an armed attack 179v. Support of armed bands and terrorists 181

viiContents






C. Conditions precedent to the exercise of self-defence 183D. The role of the Security Council 185

(a) The two phases rule 185(b) The options before the Security Council 187(c) Failure to report to the Security Council 189

8 The modality of individual self-defence 192A. Self-defence in response to an armed attack by a State 192

(a) Measures short of war 192i. On-the-spot reaction 192ii. Defensive armed reprisals 194iii. The protection of nationals abroad 203

(b) War 207i. Necessity 207ii. Proportionality 208iii. Immediacy 212

B. Self-defence in response to an armed attack from a State 213(a) Extra-territorial law enforcement 213(b) The practice of States 218(c) Webster’s formula 219

9. Collective self-defence 222A. The meaning of collective self-defence 222B. Collective self-defence treaties 226

(a) Mutual assistance treaties 227(b) Military alliances 230(c) Treaties of guarantee 233

C. The legal limitations of collective self-defence 236(a) The primacy of the UN Charter 236(b) The requirement of an armed attack 237(c) Other conditions for the exercise of collective self-defence 239

D. The modality of collective self-defence 240E. The Gulf War and collective self-defence 242

10. Collective security 246A. The meaning of collective security 246B. The decision-making process 253

(a) The duties incumbent on UN Member States 253(b) The responsibility of the Security Council 255

C. An overview of the Security Council’s record 256(a) The ‘Cold War’ era 256(b) The Gulf War 258(c) The years since the outbreak of the Gulf War 261

D. The mechanism of employing collective force 263(a) Article 42 and the absence of special agreements 263(b) Peacekeeping forces 266(c) Enforcement action beyond the purview of Article 42 268

E. Is there an alternative to the Security Council? 273(a) The General Assembly 273

viii Contents






(b) The International Court of Justice 276i. Concurrent or consecutive competence of the Council

and the Court 276ii. Can the Court invalidate binding decisions adopted by

the Council? 279

Conclusion 283

Index of persons 285Index of subjects 292

ixContents






Introduction to the Third Edition

This is a completely updated edition of a book originally published in1988 and revised in 1994. Since the end of the ‘Cold War’, although fearsof a global cataclysm have considerably abated, the level of force andcounter-force used regionally – in the Balkans, in the Gulf, in Africa andin other trouble spots – is constantly reaching new heights. Every addi-tional conXict leaves its marks on international law. Each time the com-munity of nations has to contend with Xagrant aggression, the de factoresponse leaves normative (de jure) footprints in its wake. In broaderterms, every major war becomes a crucible in which the jus ad bellum (justlike the jus in bello) is tested and forged.

The third edition reXects recent judicial pronouncements of the Inter-national Court of Justice and the International Criminal Tribunal forYugoslavia, the latest decisions adopted by the Security Council, the textsof new treaties (such as the Rome Statute of 1998 on the InternationalCriminal Court), the current studies of the International Law Commis-sion, as well as the exponential growth of the legal literature on the subjectof the use of inter-State force. There are supplementary sections, about‘humanitarian intervention’, enforcement actions beyond the purview ofArticle 42 of the UN Charter and the (still abstract) issue of invalidresolutions of the Security Council. Several other sections have beenentirely rewritten, taking into account developments in the practice andtheory of contemporary international law. At the start of a new millen-nium, it is all too clear that the themes of war, aggression and self-defenceremain as compelling as ever.

xi






From the introduction to the First Edition

War has plagued homo sapiens since the dawn of recorded history and, atalmost any particular moment in the annals of the species, it appears to beraging in at least a portion of the globe (frequently, in many places at oneand the same time).

War has consistently been a, perhaps the, most brutal human endeav-our. If for no other reason, the subject of war should be examined andreexamined continuously. There is a tendency today to avoid the use ofthe term ‘war’, regarding it as arcane and largely superseded by the phrase‘international armed conXict’. However, apart from the fact that theexpression ‘war’ – appearing as it does in many international instrumentsand constituting an integral part of a host of customary international legalnorms – is far from outdated, a general reference to international armedconXicts ignores the important theoretical as well as practical distinctionsexisting between wars and other uses of inter-State force (short of war).

This book is divided into three parts. The Wrst part deals with questionslike: What is war? When does it commence and terminate? Is there atwilight zone between war and peace? What is the diVerence betweenpeace treaties, armistice agreements and cease-Wres? Where can war bewaged and what is the meaning of neutrality? These problems, with theirnumerous ramiWcations, seriously impact on the substance of interna-tional law.

The focus of the discussion in the second part is the contemporaryprohibition of the use of force in international relations. The current stateof the law is put in relief against the background of the past. The meaningof aggression, as deWned by a consensus Resolution of the United NationsGeneral Assembly in 1974, is explored. The construct of crimes againstpeace, which is part of the Nuremberg legacy, is set out. Some controver-sial implications of the illegality and criminality of wars of aggression arefathomed, with a view to establishing the true dimensions of the trans-formation undergone by modern international law in this domain.

The third part wrestles with the complex topics of self-defence andcollective security. In the practice of States, most legal disputes concern-

xii






ing the use of force hinge on the alleged exercise of individual or collectiveself-defence. In fact, more often than not, self-defence is invoked byboth antagonists simultaneously. The question when, and under whatconditions, self-defence may legitimately take place is crucial. In thiscontext, the scope of an armed attack – giving rise to self-defence – isinvestigated, and a diVerentiation is made between armed attacks fromand by a State. The functions discharged by the Security Council in theevaluation of self-defence are probed. Other pertinent matters relate tothe modality of self-defence, e.g. can armed reprisals or forcible measuresfor the protection of nationals abroad be harmonized with the law of theUN Charter? Collective self-defence comes under a special scrutiny, andthe infrastructure of the various types of treaties in which it is usuallyembedded is analyzed.

Collective security, as an institutionalized use of force by the interna-tional community, is still an elusive concept in reality. The originalmechanism devised by the Charter has yet to be activated, although someimperfect substitutes have evolved. An important subject of discourse isthe relative powers – actual and potential – of the Security Council, theGeneral Assembly and (in light of the Nicaragua Judgment) even theInternational Court of Justice.

xiiiFrom the introduction to the First Edition






Table of cases

Administrative Decision No. II, 100Alabama Claims, 28Armstrong Cork Company Case, 69Barcelona Traction Case (Case Concerning the Barcelona Traction,

Light and Power Company, Limited), 103, 224Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, Paragraph 2, of the

Charter), 266, 275Chorzow Factory Case (Case Concerning the Factory at Chorzow)

(Claim for Indemnity) (Merits), 98Christiansen, Re, 144Corfu Channel Case (Merits), 193–4, 214–15Dalmia Cement Ltd v. National Bank of Pakistan, 18, 31Delalic Case (Prosecutor v. Delalic et al.), 8Dette Publique Ottoman, AVaire de la, 152East Timor Case, 155Erdemovic Case (Prosecutor v. Erdemovic), 131Farben, I. G., Case (USA v. Krauch et al.), 122Fisheries Jurisdiction Case (Jurisdiction of the Court), 37Genocide Case (Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the

Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide), 282High Command Case (USA v. Von Leeb et al.), 122–3, 125, 128–9Hostage Case (USA v. List et al.), 144Justice Case (USA v. Altstoetter et al.), 143–4Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, 16, 81, 144–7, 159,

166, 179, 183, 202, 209–10Lockerbie Case (Case Concerning Questions of Interpretation and Ap-

plication of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising from the AerialIncident at Lockerbie), 277, 279–81

Merge Case, 44Ministries Case (USA v. Von Weizsaecker et al.), 110, 162Namibia Case (Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Pres-

xiv






ence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstandingSecurity Council Resolution 276), 254, 256

Naulilaa Case, 197–8Nicaragua Case (Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in

and against Nicaragua):Jurisdiction, 186, 276, 278Merits, 5–6, 65–8, 82–4, 87–91, 93–4, 99, 115–16, 120, 165–8,

174–8, 181–90, 193–5, 198, 202, 210, 224, 226, 237–41, 250,276–7

Order, 99Nissan Case (Attorney-General v. Nissan), 268North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, 87Nuremberg Trial (International Military Tribunal), 107–10, 112–13,

121–2, 125–6, 128–30, 132–3, 140, 143, 150, 155, 173, 185–6, 219Pinochet Case (Regina v. Bartle et al., ex parte Pinochet), 133Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

Crime of Genocide, 68RuSHA Case (USA v. Greifelt et al.), 152Tadic Case (Prosecutor v. Tadic), 8, 183, 251Tehran Case (Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular

StaV in Tehran), 177, 187, 214Tokyo Trial (International Military Tribunal for the Far East) (In re

Hirota and Others), 109, 122, 133, 164, 186Ulysses Case (Navios Corporation v. The Ulysses II et al.), 31Zuhlke, In re, 144

xvTable of cases






Table of treaties

1648 Peace of Westphalia, 331871 Great Britain–United States, Washington Treaty for the

Amicable Settlement of All Causes of DiVerence between theTwo Countries, 28

1878 Honduras–Nicaragua, Tegucigalpa Treaty of Friendship,Commerce and Extradition, 73

1888 Constantinople Convention Respecting the Free Navigation ofthe Suez Maritime Canal, 19

1899 Hague Convention (I) for the PaciWc Settlement ofInternational Disputes, 74

1899 Hague Convention (II) Respecting the Laws and Customs ofWar on Land (and Annexed Regulations), 10, 39, 43, 47–8,53–4

1901 Great Britain–United States, Treaty to Facilitate theConstruction of a Ship Canal (Hay–Pauncefote Treaty), 20

1907 Hague Convention (I) for the PaciWc Settlement ofInternational Disputes, 74

1907 Hague Convention (II) Respecting the Limitation of theEmployment of Force for the Recovery of Contract Debts(Porter Treaty), 74–5

1907 Hague Convention (III) Relative to the Opening of Hostilities,29–32, 46

1907 Hague Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs ofWar on Land (and Annexed Regulations), 10, 16, 39, 43, 47–8,53–4, 99, 108

1907 Hague Convention (V) Respecting the Rights and Duties ofNeutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Land, 25–6

1907 Hague Convention (XIII) Concerning the Rights and Duties ofNeutral Powers in Naval War, 25–6, 28

1913 Guatemala–United States, Washington Treaty for the

xvi






Establishment of a Permanent Commission of Enquiry, 741918 Conditions of an Armistice with Germany, 401919 Covenant of the League of Nations, 33, 75–7, 107–8, 246–7,

2491919 Neuilly Treaty of Peace with Bulgaria, 1001919 St Germain Treaty of Peace with Austria, 1001919 Versailles Treaty of Peace with Germany, 33, 36, 99–101, 106,

2331920 Trianon Treaty of Peace with Hungary, 1001921 Geneva Convention Relating to the Non-FortiWcation and

Neutralisation of the Aland Islands, 201924 Geneva Protocol on the PaciWc Settlement of International

Disputes (unratiWed), 77, 107–81925 France–Czechoslovakia, Locarno Treaty of Mutual Guarantee,

2321925 France–Poland, Locarno Treaty of Mutual Guarantee, 2321925 Locarno Treaty of Mutual Guarantee, 73, 2351926 Persia–Turkey, Teheran Treaty of Friendship and Security, 731928 General Treaty for Renunciation of War as an Instrument of

National Policy (Kellogg–Briand Pact of Paris), 77–80, 90–1,93, 108–9, 135, 150–1, 163, 186, 226

1932 Finland–USSR, Helsinki Treaty of Non-Aggression and PaciWcSettlement of Disputes, 93

1933 London Conventions for the DeWnition of Aggression, 1161933 Rio de Janeiro Anti-War Treaty (Non-Aggression and

Conciliation) (Saavedra Lamas Treaty), 92, 1541939 Great Britain–Poland, London Agreement of Mutual

Assistance, 2281940 United Kingdom–United States, Exchange of Notes, 1501940 Great Britain–USSR, Moscow Agreement Providing for Joint

Action between the Two Countries in the War againstGermany, 223

1942 Great Britain–USSR, London Treaty for an Alliance in the Waragainst Hitlerite Germany and Her Associates in Europe, andProviding also for Collaboration and Mutual AssistanceThereafter, 223

1943 Conditions of an Armistice with Italy, 40–11944 Armistice Agreement with Rumania, 40–11945 Armistice Agreement with Hungary, 40–11945 Charter of the International Military Tribunal (Annexed to the

London Agreement for the Establishment of an InternationalMilitary Tribunal), 107, 109, 112–14, 120–2, 124, 129–33

xviiTable of treaties






1945 Charter of the United Nations, 37–8, 63, 65–8, 80–7, 90–5,97–8, 115–17, 119–20,137–8, 141, 143, 147, 150, 161, 165,167–8, 175, 186, 189–90, 199, 201, 203, 206, 210, 219, 223,225–6, 229, 232, 236–7, 243–4, 247–51, 253–5, 264, 266,270–7, 279–82, 284

Article 1(1), 82, 166Article 1(2), 152Article 2(3), 82Article 2(4), 80–9, 91–3, 98, 114, 116, 161, 165, 173–4,

178, 207, 252Article 2(5), 148Article 2(6), 86Article 2(7), 253Article 10, 118Article 11, 118Article 23, 255Article 24, 247Article 25, 49, 254, 280, 282Article 27, 255–6Article 39, 83, 166, 247–8, 250–3, 255, 257–8, 269, 281,

284Article 40, 41, 253, 257–8Article 41, 81, 247–9, 258–9, 281Article42,137–8,247–8,250,259–60,263–4,268–9,281,284Article 43, 263–5, 268Article 44, 265Article 45, 265Article 46, 81, 265Article 47, 265Article 48, 49, 254–5Article 49, 254Article 50, 249Article 51, 83, 91–2, 159, 161, 163, 165–9, 172, 174–6, 183,

186–95, 198–9, 201, 207, 216, 222–3, 225–6, 229,239–40, 243–4, 247, 250, 257, 259–60, 284

Article 52, 226–7, 269Article 53, 83, 166, 269–72Article 54, 240, 269Article 55, 152Article 61, 255Article 94, 83Article 103, 236–7, 280, 282

xviii Table of treaties






Article 106, 264–5Article 107, 83Article 108, 97Chapter I, 92Chapter IV, 274Chapter VII, 49, 92, 115, 247, 252–6, 258–61, 263, 270,

275–6, 279–81Chapter VIII, 269–70Preamble, 82

1945 Statute of the International Court of Justice (Annexed to theCharter of the United Nations), 87

1947 Paris Treaty of Peace with Bulgaria, 331947 Paris Treaty of Peace with Finland, 331947 Paris Treaty of Peace with Hungary, 331947 Paris Treaty of Peace with Italy, 33, 40–1, 991947 Paris Treaty of Peace with Roumania, 331947 Rio de Janeiro Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance,

92, 229–30, 2321948 Bogota Charter of the Organization of American States, 1541948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of

Genocide, 67–81949 Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition

of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 5, 10,16, 18, 48, 110, 143, 146, 195–6

1949 Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Conditionof Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forcesat Sea, 5, 10, 16, 18, 110, 143, 146, 195–6

1949 Geneva Convention (III) Relative to the Treatment ofPrisoners of War, 5, 10, 16, 18, 110, 143, 146, 195–6

1949 Geneva Convention (IV) Relative to the Protection of Civiliansin Time of War, 5, 10, 16, 18, 110, 143, 146, 195–6

1949 Israel–Egypt, General Armistice Agreement, 41–31949 Israel–Jordan, General Armistice Agreement, 41–31949 Israel–Lebanon, General Armistice Agreement, 41–31949 Israel–Syria, General Armistice Agreement, 41–31949 North Atlantic Treaty, 231–3, 2371951 San Francisco Treaty of Peace with Japan, 331953 Panmunjom Agreement Concerning a Military Armistice in

Korea, 41, 43, 1381953 United States–Republic of Korea, Washington Treaty, 2271954 Greece–Turkey–Yugoslavia, Bled Treaty of Alliance, Political

Co-operation and Mutual Assistance, 93, 231

xixTable of treaties






1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property inthe Event of Armed ConXict, 195–6

1955 Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and MutualAssistance, 232, 235

1956 USSR–Japan, Joint Declaration, 33–41958 Geneva Convention on the High Seas, 2161958 Geneva Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous

Zone, 1781959 Washington Antarctic Treaty, 21–31960 Greece–Turkey–Cyprus, Nicosia Treaty of Alliance, 2361960 Nicosia Treaty of Guarantee, 235–61966 India–Pakistan, Tashkent Declaration, 931966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 118,

152–31966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural

Rights, 152–31967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the

Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon andOther Celestial Bodies, 23

1968 Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitationsto War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, 124

1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 37–9, 54–5, 86, 90,93–5, 97, 196, 237

1971 Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Actsagainst the Safety of Civil Aviation, 280

1973 Egypt–Israel, Cease-Fire Agreement, 531974 European Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory

Limitation to Crimes against Humanity and War Crimes, 1241974 Syria–Israel, Agreement on Disengagement between Forces, 531977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August

1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of InternationalArmed ConXicts (Protocol I), 10, 16, 20, 26, 31, 45, 99, 143,152, 196–7

1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims ofNon-International Armed ConXicts (Protocol II), 5, 110

1977 United States–Panama, Treaty Concerning the PermanentNeutrality and Operation of the Panama Canal (and AnnexedProtocol), 20

1978 Egypt–Israel, Camp David Agreements (A Framework forPeace in the Middle East and Framework for the Conclusion ofa Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel), 37

xx Table of treaties






1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon andOther Celestial Bodies, 23

1979 Egypt–Israel, Treaty of Peace, 34–7, 53, 93, 137, 2681979 International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, 2061981 Egypt–Israel, Protocol Establishing the Sinai Multinational

Force and Observers, 2681982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 22–3, 92,

178–9, 2161983 Lebanon–Israel, Treaty of Peace (unratiWed), 351988 Agreement on the Interrelationships for the Settlement of the

Situation Relating to Afghanistan, 234–51988 Afghanistan–Pakistan, Agreement on the Principles of Mutual

Relations, in Particular on Non-Interference andNon-Intervention, 93, 234

1988 USA–USSR, Declaration on International Guarantees, 2341988 Wellington Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral

Resource Activities, 211990 Charter of Paris for a New Europe, 931990 Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, 331993 United Nations Convention on the Prohibition of the

Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of ChemicalWeapons and on Their Destruction, 17

1994 Jordan–Israel, Treaty of Peace, 34–5, 53, 931994 Jordan–Israel, Washington Declaration, 351995 General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and

Herzegovina, 233, 2711998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 5, 111–12,

114, 124–8, 130, 132–41998 The Netherlands–United Kingdom, Agreement Concerning a

Scottish Trial in The Netherlands, 281

xxiTable of treaties






Table of Security Council resolutions

49 (1948), 4850 (1948), 48, 5153 (1948), 4854 (1948), 48–9, 25856 (1948), 4859 (1948), 4861 (1948), 4862 (1948), 4882 (1950), 137, 25783 (1950), 137, 25784 (1950), 138, 25795 (1951), 43

161 (1961), 258188 (1964), 201199 (1964), 269217 (1965), 269232 (1966), 258233 (1967), 50, 53234 (1967), 50, 53235 (1967), 51, 53241 (1967), 214270 (1969), 201338 (1973), 53353 (1974), 258386 (1976), 249418 (1977), 258502 (1982), 257505 (1982), 49508 (1982), 187509 (1982), 187514 (1982), 50546 (1984), 257

598 (1987), 50, 187, 211, 257660 (1990), 149, 242, 248, 260661 (1990), 149, 242, 244, 259–60662 (1990), 84665 (1990), 242, 259, 265669 (1990), 249670 (1990), 259674 (1990), 101678 (1990), 30, 149, 211, 242, 245,

260686 (1991), 242687 (1991), 50, 101, 212, 242, 260,

267688 (1991), 7, 260689 (1991), 101, 267692 (1991), 101713 (1991), 262731 (1992), 279–80733 (1992), 261–2748 (1992), 149, 249, 261–2,

279–80757 (1992), 149, 261–2781 (1992), 262787 (1992), 262788 (1992), 261–2, 273794 (1992), 262807 (1993), 261808 (1993), 110816 (1993), 263, 270827 (1993), 110836 (1993), 267, 270837 (1993), 267

xxii






841 (1993), 252, 261–2883 (1993), 280917 (1994), 149918 (1994), 261–2929 (1994), 263940 (1994), 252, 263942 (1994), 262955 (1994), 1101035 (1995), 2711054 (1996), 2611070 (1996), 2621088 (1996), 2711101 (1997), 261

1125 (1997), 2611127 (1997), 253, 261–21132 (1997), 261–2, 2731160 (1998), 2621192 (1998), 2811199 (1998), 261, 2711203 (1998), 2711227 (1999), 2521244 (1999), 2721264 (1999), 261, 2631267 (1999), 261–21270 (1999), 2731289 (2000), 2661298 (2000), 252, 261–2

xxiiiSecurity Council resolutions






Table of General Assembly resolutions

95 (I) (1946), 112177 (II) (1947), 112377 (V) (1950), 274, 2762625 (XXV) (1970), 42, 65, 113, 152, 154, 181, 2022793 (XXVI) (1971), 513314 (XXIX) (1974), 65, 113–20, 125, 153, 166, 170–1, 174, 176,

180–242/22 (1987), 89






Abbreviations

A.C. Appeal CasesA.D. Annual Digest and Reports of Public International

Law CasesA.F.D.I. Annuaire Francais de Droit InternationalA.I.D.I. Annuaire de l’Institut de Droit InternationalA.J.I.C.L. Arizona Journal of International and Comparative

LawA.J.I.L. American Journal of International LawA.L.R. Alberta Law ReviewA.P.S.R. American Political Science ReviewA.S.J.G. Acta Scandinavica Juris GentiumA.U.I.L.R. American University International Law ReviewA.U.J.I.L.P. American University Journal of International Law

and PolicyA.Y.B.I.L. Australian Year Book of International LawAll E.R. All England Law ReportsAmer.U.L.R. American University Law ReviewAr.V. Archiv des VolkerrechtsAuck.U.L.R. Auckland University Law ReviewB.F.S.P. British and Foreign State PapersB.J.I.L. Brooklyn Journal of International LawB.Y.B.I.L. British Year Book of International LawC.J.T.L. Columbia Journal of Transnational LawC.T.S. Consolidated Treaty SeriesC.W.I.L.J. California Western International Law JournalC.W.R.J.I.L. Case Western Reserve Journal of International LawC.Y.I.L. Canadian Yearbook of International LawCam.L.J.. Cambridge Law JournalCol.L.R. Columbia Law ReviewCor.L.R. Cornell Law ReviewD.J.C.I.L. Duke Journal of Comparative and International

Law

xxv






D.J.I.L.P. Denver Journal of International Law and PolicyD.L.J. Denver Law JournalD.S.B. Department of State BulletinE.J.I.L. European Journal of International LawE.P.I.L. Encyclopedia of Public International Law (R.

Bernhardt ed.)F. FederalFor.AV. Foreign AVairsG.J.I.C.L. Georgia Journal of International and Comparative

LawG.Y.I.L. German Yearbook of International LawH.I.C.L.R. Hastings International and Comparative Law

ReviewH.I.L.J. Harvard International Law JournalH.J.I.L. Houston Journal of International LawHague Conventions The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1899 and

1907 (J. B. Scott ed., 3rd ed., 1918)Har.L.R. Harvard Law ReviewHof.L.R. Hofstra Law ReviewI.C.J. Rep. Reports of the International Court of JusticeI.C.L.Q. International and Comparative Law QuarterlyI.J.I.L. Indian Journal of International LawI.L.C. Ybk Yearbook of the International Law CommissionI.L.M. International Legal MaterialsI.L.Q. International Law QuarterlyI.L.R. International Law ReportsI.M.T. Trial of Major War Criminals before the

International Military TribunalI.R.R.C. International Review of the Red CrossI.Y.H.R. Israel Yearbook on Human RightsI.Y.I.L. Italian Yearbook of International LawInt.AV. International AVairsInt.Con. International ConciliationInt.Law. International LawyerInt.Leg. International Legislation (M. O. Hudson ed.,

1931–50)Int.Rel. International RelationsIo.L.R. Iowa Law ReviewIs.L.R. Israel Law ReviewJ.I.L.E. Journal of International Law and EconomicsJ.Y.I.L. Jewish Yearbook of International LawJur.R. Juridical Review

xxvi Abbreviations






Ken.L.J. Kentucky Law JournalL.C.P. Law and Contemporary ProblemsL.J.I.L. Leiden Journal of International LawL.N.T.S. League of Nations Treaty SeriesL.Q.R. Law Quarterly ReviewL.R.T.W.C. Law Reports of Trials of War CriminalsM.P.Y.U.N.L. Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations LawMar.J.I.L.T. Maryland Journal of International Law and TradeMer.L.R. Mercer Law ReviewMich.J.I.L. Michigan Journal of International LawMich.L.R. Michigan Law ReviewMil.L.R. Military Law ReviewMod.L.R. Modern Law ReviewN.I.L.R. Netherlands International Law ReviewN.M.T. Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg

Military Tribunals under Control Council LawNo. 10

N.W.C.R. Naval War College ReviewN.Y.I.L. Netherlands Yearbook of International LawN.Y.L.S.J.I.C.L. New York Law School Journal of International and

Comparative LawN.Y.U.J.I.L.P. New York University Journal of International Law

and PoliticsP.A.S.I.L. Proceedings of the American Society of

International LawP.S.Q. Political Science QuarterlyP.Y.I.L. Pace Yearbook of International LawPeace Treaties Major Peace Treaties of Modern History 1648–1967

(F. L. Israel ed., 1967)R.B.D.I. Revue Belge de Droit InternationalR.C.A.D.I. Recueil des Cours de l’Academie de Droit

InternationalR.D.S.C. Resolutions and Decisions of the Security CouncilR.E.D.I. Revue Egyptienne de Droit InternationalR.G.A. Resolutions Adopted by the General AssemblyR.G.D.I.P. Revue Generale de Droit International PublicR.I.A.A. Reports of International Arbitral AwardsR.I.D.P. Revue Internationale de Droit PenalR.S.I.D.M.D.G. Recueils de la Societe Internationale de Droit

Militaire et de Droit de la GuerreS.D.L.R. San Diego Law ReviewS.I.U.L.J. Southern Illinois University Law Journal

xxviiList of abbreviations






S.J.I.L. Stanford Journal of International LawS.J.I.L.C. Syracuse Journal of International Law and

CommerceS.J.L.R. St John’s Law ReviewSp. SpecialSupp. SupplementT.G.S. Transactions of the Grotius SocietyT.I.L.J. Texas International Law JournalTul.L.R. Tulane Law ReviewU.C.L.R. University of Chicago Law ReviewU.L.R. Utah Law ReviewU.N.J.Y. United Nations Juridical YearbookU.N.T.S. United Nations Treaty SeriesU.T.L.R. University of Toledo Law ReviewV.J.I.L. Virginia Journal of International LawV.J.T.L. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational LawVill.L.R. Villanova Law ReviewVir.L.R. Virginia Law ReviewW.C.R. World Court Reports (M. O. Hudson ed., 1934–43)W.L.L.R. Washington and Lee Law ReviewW.U.L.Q. Washington University Law QuarterlyW.V.L.R. West Virginia Law ReviewY.B.W.A. Year Book of World AVairsY.J.I.L. Yale Journal of International LawY.L.J. Yale Law JournalZ.A.O.R.V. Zeitschrift fur Auslandisches OVentliches Recht

und Volkerrecht

xxviii Abbreviations






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