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Water for Life 

Bryan Tan, Calvin Soh, Nadirah Isa, Charmaine Choo Shirley Chin,

Low Qin Yuan, Wong Jia Ping, He Yeqi

University Scholars Programme, Nanyang Technological University

Perth Study Trip 2014

Theme: Water, Sustainability

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Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 3 

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 3 

2. Singapore ............................................................................................................................................ 3 

2.1 Singapore’s Water Challenges ...................................................................................................... 3 

2.2 Singapore’s Water Solutions ......................................................................................................... 4 

2.2.1 The Four National Taps .......................................................................................................... 4 

2.2.2 Water Conservation ............................................................................................................... 6 

3. Perth .................................................................................................................................................... 8 

3.1 Perth’s Water Challenges .............................................................................................................. 8 

3.2 Perth’s Water Solutions .............................................................................................................. 10 

3.2.1 Demand‐side Measures ....................................................................................................... 10 

3.2.2 Supply‐side Measures .......................................................................................................... 15 

4. Comparison of Singapore and Perth’s Water Strategies .................................................................. 18 

4.1 Conservation Of Water ............................................................................................................... 18 

4.1.1 Educating and Informing the Public ..................................................................................... 19 

4.1.2 Legal and Authoritative Measures ....................................................................................... 20 

4.1.3 Support and Incentives ........................................................................................................ 21 

4.2 Supply‐side Strategies ................................................................................................................. 21 

4.2.1 Usage of Local Catchment Areas ......................................................................................... 21 

4.2.2 Desalination ......................................................................................................................... 21 

4.2.3. Rainwater Tanks .................................................................................................................. 22 

4.2.4. Greywater Recycling ........................................................................................................... 22 

4.2.5. Groundwater Management ................................................................................................ 22 

4.2.6 Recycled Wastewater .......................................................................................................... 23 

5. Discussion‐Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 27 

About the Authors ................................................................................................................................ 28 

Our Reflections ..................................................................................................................................... 29 

 .............................................................................................................................................................. 30 

Works Cited ........................................................................................................................................... 31 

 

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Abstract  NTU’s University Scholars Programme (USP) has embarked on a trip to Perth in Jan 2014 to learn more about the different areas of sustainability and how they are affecting our current and future lives. Our team is working on the theme of water and basically, we have identified several key issues such as the sustainability of water as a whole due to the depleting supply as drinking water is a finite resource. Before our trip, we have also visited the NEWater visitor centre in Singapore to understand more about what Singapore has done to try to alleviate the water shortage problems. During our visit in Perth, we have attended a talk on Water Quality by Associate Professor Jeff Charrois, Director of Curtin Water Quality research Centre in Curtin University to learn more about the measures Perth has undertaken to maintain the sustainability of water. Hence, we were able to relate their water sustainability water problems to Singapore’s problems. We were able to find out some problems surrounding Perth and analyse the underlying causes and compare it with Singapore and these information would be further elaborated in our report.

1. Introduction Water is an indispensable aspect of our lives which we often give little thought to, resulting in us neglecting it in one way or another. In physiology, 70% of the human body is made up of water - a highly significant proportion. Furthermore, water is necessary for drinking, washing, agriculture, recreation and many other activities. Water of adequate quantity and quality is also central to the integrity of the environment and the maintenance of ecosystems. As such, a clean, potable and accessible water supply is necessary to our survival. However, this is proving to be an increasingly difficult challenge for many areas, such as Perth and Singapore1, due to changing weather conditions, and decreasing or lack of water supply respectively.  

Hence, our report aims to compare the steps taken by Singapore and Perth to cope with their water challenges. It will also include insights generated by our group from our personal experiences in both countries.

2. Singapore 2.1 Singapore’s Water Challenges 

Situated in Southeast Asia, Singapore has an estimated land size of 700 km2 and a population density of approximately 7,000 people per square km. The climate in Singapore is hot and humid, with a temperature range of about 230C to about 310C and a total annual rainfall of about 2280 mm. In 2010, Singapore’s water demand was recorded to be about 380 Million Gallons a Day (MGD).  

                                                            

 

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Since its independence in 1965, Singapore has been almost completely dependent on foreign sources for water. This is primarily due to the lack of natural water sources in the country. Furthermore, the expanding population and development of Singapore as a science hub means there is high and growing demand for potable water and water for industrial uses (C. Tortajada, et al, 2013). Coupled with the lack of rainfall in Singapore, Singapore is also affected by climate changes that affect the rate of evaporation of water from water bodies. Moreover, with a land size of only 700km2, industries in Singapore are competing against each other for land use. This will affect the development of water generating plants (e.g. desalination plant or NEWater reclaimation plant). Lastly, the public’s mindset towards water use and conservation also affects how Singapore manages its water problem. Steps taken by Singapore to cope with its water challenges will be looked at next.  

 

2.2 Singapore’s Water Solutions In order to cope with water challenges, Singapore currently obtains water from 4 different sources known as the Four National Taps: local catchment areas, imported water, NEWater, and desalinated water. Singapore also has measures put in place to encourage water conservation. These measures range from households-based to organisations-based.

2.2.1 The Four National Taps 

2.2.1.1 Local Catchment Areas As a small island that does not have natural aquifers2 and lakes to collect rainwater, Singapore collects rainwater through a comprehensive network of drains, canals,

                                                            2 Aquifers are water-bearing formations capable of yielding water in sufficient quantity to constitute a usable supply for people's uses.

 

Figure 1 Four National Taps in Singapore. Retrieved from https://app.mewr.gov.sg/data/imgcont/1715/water%20conservation_issue.png

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rivers and stormwater collection ponds before it is channelled to Singapore's 17 reservoirs for storage. This makes Singapore one of the few countries in the world to harvest urban stormwater on a large scale for its water supply. There has also been an increased emphasis on the management of these water catchment areas, with these areas being demarcated and gazetted with no polluting activities to be allowed in the area. Some examples are the Lower Peirce Reservoir and Macritchie Reservoir. These two reservoirs are surrounded by secondary forests which are home to many different plants and animals. Nature boardwalk trails are also available for visitors and this has promoted the awareness of conserving and maintaining the cleanliness and biodiversity of the area.

2.2.1.2 Imported Water 40% of Singapore’s water consists of imported water from Johor, Malaysia, under two bilateral agreements. The first agreement has expired in August 2011 and the second agreement expires in 2061. Imported water has always been an important source of water for Singapore and it has heavily substantiated our water supply to meet the demand. Over the years, Singapore is slowly adjusting its water policies and seeking out new sources. This way, the country is gradually trying to reduce its dependence on imported water.

2.2.1.3 NEWater 

Figure 2 NEWater plant in Changi. Retrieved from http://www.unc.edu/~bmcneil/Sing%201/Sing%201%20290.JPG

NEWater is a name that has been coined for high-grade reclaimed water used in Singapore. Launched in 2003 after many years of research and development, NEWater is produced by taking treated used water and further purifying it using advanced membrane technologies and ultra-violet disinfection, making it ultra-clean

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and safe to drink. NEWater has passed more than 100,000 scientific tests and even surpasses World Health Organisation (WHO) requirements for drinking water. Currently, NEWater is able to meet up to 30% of Singapore’s current water needs. There are plans to expand the production of NEWater and allow it to fulfil a greater percentage of our water needs in Singapore, possibly up to 55% of our demand in time to come.

2.2.1.4 Desalinated Water Singapore has 2 desalination plants located in Tuas: SingSpring Desalination Plant and the Tuaspring Desalination Plant. During the pre-treatment process of desalination, seawater entering the desalination plant is channeled through Hyflux’s proprietary Kristal® ultrafiltration membranes to remove suspended particles. This seawater then passes through semi-permeable membranes in a two-stage reverse osmosis treatment process to remove the salt from the water and produce fresh pure water. Finally, the water undergoes post-treatment process for re-mineralisation before being delivered to PUB for distribution to households and industries in Singapore. According to the Public Utilities Board website, the SingSpring Desalination Plant can produce about 30 million gallons of water per day while the slightly larger Tuaspring Desalination Plant can produce 70 million gallons. It is also estimated that desalinated water can meet up to 25% of Singapore’s current water demand.

2.2.2 Water Conservation Securing an adequate water supply is only half of the water equation – managing the demand side is just as crucial. The PUB (Public Utilities Board) has a wide-ranging water conservation plan that encourages customers to use water wisely. Through this plan, Singapore’s per capita domestic water consumption has been brought down from 165 litres per day in 2003 to the current 152 litres. Below are the various water conservation measures that Singapore has taken.

2.2.2.1 Households Water Efficient Homes (WEH) is a programme to help residents save water at home and cut down on their water bills. WEH encourages residents to install water saving devices and practice good water conservation habits. As part of the programme, PUB officers visit households to install free-of-charge water saving devices such as thimbles. 40% of households in Singapore have installed water saving devices in this exercise and they managed to save up to 5% of their monthly water consumption.

2.2.2.2 Construction Sites Construction sites are not excluded from water conservation measures. An example of it is, all water fittings such as taps must be labelled with at least one or more ticks under MWELS. Other examples include: self-closing delayed action taps must be installed at all wash basins and shower points; constant flow regulators must also be installed at all wash basin mixers, shower mixers and bib taps.

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2.2.2.3 Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme (WELS)  

The Mandatory WELS is a grading system of 0/1/2/3 ticks to reflect the water efficiency level of a product. Currently, taps and mixers, washing machines, dual-flush low capacity flushing cisterns (LCFCs), urinal flush valves and waterless urinals are labelled under this Scheme. The more ticks a product has, the more water-efficient it is. With this scheme, consumers can make informed choices when making purchases.

2.2.2.4 Water Efficiency Fund PUB has also set up the Water Efficiency Fund to encourage companies to look into efficient ways of managing their water demands and promoting water conservation within their businesses and in the community. Projects that yield at least 10% reduction in water consumption within an organisation will be co-funded.

2.2.2.5 Water Conservation Campaigns Since February 2011, PUB had introduced a number of initiatives to educate the population about managing and conserving water. It had come up with a programme

Figure 3 Water Efficency Labelling Scheme. Retrieved from http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-0RrwPWnAN38/T6OFqvSUUmI/AAAAAAAADGk/SYbmcydJQWU/s640/Water%2BEfficiency.jpg

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to reach out to the People, Private and Public sectors, or known as the 3Ps. Using the motto of “Every drop counts, use only what you need”, PUB had focused its campaign on the activities that were perceived as to be the most water consuming, that is showering and washing in the kitchen sink.

Its education campaign aimed to reduce Singapore’s per capita domestic consumption to 147 litres by 2020 and 140 by 2030, down from the 165 litres per day in 2003.

Since 2011, PUB had also introduced several initiatives to help its campaign in reducing water usage.

2011 saw water saving tips being shown on TV commercials and also shared during exhibitions. PUB also worked with maid employment agencies to cultivate water saving habits for household chores when training new maids. Guidebooks and videos were also distributed for this cause.

2012 and 2013 saw a greater outreach to the public by getting them much more involved in the water conservation programme. Competitions were held at primary schools where students had to make videos to express their views on water conservation. The popular TV programme of ‘Good Morning Singapore’ aired a series with each episode focusing on a certain theme of saving water such as ‘planning your workflow’ for household chores. Advertisements were also placed on MRT trains to continuously bring back the message and importance of the theme.

3. Perth 

3.1 Perth’s Water Challenges  Perth, situated in Western Australia, enjoys a Mediterranean-style climate (Tourism Australia, 2013). Summers generally last from December to late March, with the hottest month being February, while winters occur between May and September. On the whole, Australia has been experiencing much climate change in recent years (Bureau of Meteorology, 2013), with the spring of 2013 being the country’s warmest on record. This has affected Perth as well, with both maximum and minimum temperatures hitting all-time highs (Bureau of Meteorology, 2013).  

Furthermore, rainfall patterns of Perth and southwest WA have also changed. Specifically, total average winter rainfall in the state of Western Australia has experienced decline over the last few decades, falling by more than 10 percent since the mid-1970s (Ruprecht J, et al, 2013).

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Figure 4 (left) The percentage chgange in average 1969-1999 May to July rainfall from the 1910-1968 mean. (right) The Percentage change in average in 2000-2008 May to July rainfall from the 1910-1968 mean. Retrieved from http://www.ioci.org.au/pdf/Fact%20Sheet%204.pdf

 

Figure 5 Trends in total annual rainfall for WA from 1950-2008 (mm/10 years). This figure shows where the rainfall has decreased sharply (brown shading) in the south west and increased dramatically in the north (darker green shading). Retrieved from http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/change

  

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As a result of the drying climate, declining rainfall and growing population, Perth is facing a multitude of challenges regarding water shortages and management.

Currently, Perth obtains its water from three sources: surface water (dams), groundwater, and desalination.

While surface water has been the main source of water traditionally, as a result of greater evaporation and lesser rainfall, there has been a decrease in inflow to public water supply dams of up to 50% (Department of Water, 2009). As such, out of the twelve surface water sources presently supplying the Perth metropolitan area, a number of them are currently supplied with water from desalination or groundwater sources to maintain sufficient storage levels. It is clear that there is a growing need to move away from surface water as a water source due to its dependency on rainfall, which is becoming an increasingly unreliable resource.

Groundwater refers to the rainwater that have percolated down through the rocks and soils into aquifers. The decline in rainfall has resulted in a reduction in aquifer recharge (Department of Water, 2009). Furthermore, groundwater levels in major aquifers have also declined in response to pumping for water supply and effects of tree plantations 11. There are an estimated 170,000 residential bores in the Perth metropolitan area alone, in addition to meeting the public water supply, private use by industries etc. (Department of Water, 2009).

As for desalination, there are currently two seawater desalination plants supplying water to Perth, but the key issue with desalination will be the high energy usage and investment costs (Department of Water, 2009).

3.2 Perth’s Water Solutions  In light of these challenges to Perth’s water supply, the government has come up with a two-pronged approach to both reduce water demand and increase the water supply. The demand-side measures aims to reduce the usage of water and includes increased water pricing, water restrictions, transparency on the urgency of Perth’s water situation and encouraging lifestyle changes, whereas the supply-side measures which aims to increase the number of sources of water.

3.2.1 Demand‐side Measures 

3.2.1.1 Winter Sprinkler Bans  Perth has implemented water restrictions to prevent Australians from using more water than they need. These restrictions are separated into the different seasons. In winter, rainfall is usually high enough to sustain gardens and evaporation is lower. Hence, the Winter Sprinkler ban aims to conserve water for drier seasons by preventing people from watering their gardens from 1st June to 31st August. To enforce this ban, those who use their sprinkler during the period face a $100 fine. In the drier season, from 1st September to 31st May, the two or three day sprinkler roster is in place for Perth and Mandurah (Area 3) to regulate the amount of water used and prevent excessive usage of water. According to the website for the government of Western Australia, Water Department, Residents can determine their

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watering days through the internet, based on the last digits of their house numbers, as well as find out more about the restrictions. (Department of Water)

3.2.1.2 Licenses  Farms and Industries that require more water than what is usually allocated are required to apply for licences to allow them to use more water. During our research in Perth, we observed some companies that had applied for the license. For example, Sandalford Winery and MacNuts. As they would need to regularly water their plants throughout the year, it was necessary for them to apply for the licence to sustain their plants.

3.2.1.3 Waterwise Office Program  In order to ensure sustainability, Perth has also integrated a “Waterwise Office Program” into its education system which aims to educate and supplement the efforts taken to conserve water. The program not only provides information to the people but also corporations. It encourages office buildings to limit its water use by comparing it with others in the industry, using data logging services, formulate water management plans and receive recognition from the Water Corporation, Property Council of Australia and the City of Perth for best practice water use. Waterwise Water Auditors will also assess large sites and recommend measures to help companies conserve more water such as improved monitoring and changing of infrastructure. Finally, The Water Corporation has partnered with industry experts to develop a free Cooling Tower Water Efficiency Training Course, which presents water saving opportunities to operation managers. The program is based on solid research into the sector, and supported by data from facilities management consultancy HFM Asset Management. To date, the Water Efficiency Management Plan has helped save 18.5 billion litres of water with 344 businesses involved. (Aliento,2013)

3.2.1.4 Government Policies The Australian government also uses pricing strategies to reduce water consumption in the household by making it easier and more cost efficient for citizens to switch to a more water saving device, such as front-loading washing machines and water-efficient showerheads, which greatly reduce water wastage. Since 1993, it has also been compulsory for newly-built houses to install a dual-flush toilet which gives people the option of using less water for flushing. (ABS, 2007) During our visit to Perth, we noted that most toilets had this function which signifies the success of this policy. In order to urge more Australians to take up this measure, the government has made some packages for the installation of such toilets which makes it easier for Australians to access and purchase. (http://www.watercorporation.com.au/) In addition, there are also fines to ensure compliance among the people and disobedience was published to deter others from doing the same. However, there are also cases where people escape fines, hence potentially affecting the success of this policy. (Towie, 2010) Therefore, in response to this, the government has tighten up the policy by being more strict on the implementation of its fines. (Fenech, 2010)

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Special Feature – MacNuts WA Sandalford Winery

Companies in the agriculture and industrial sectors which require more water for their operations have a different approach to obtain their water. Companies are required to apply for licenses and permits on the amount of water they can draw from groundwater sources. Companies would then have to work with the limited amount of water available within a certain timeframe.

(Photos taken at MacNuts WA by (left) Professor Schubert Foo and (right, middle) Bryan Tan) One of the companies that we visited during our trip was MacNuts WA. MacNuts WA is a family-owned company located at Baldivis, 50km south of Perth that grows, supplies and processes macadamia nuts. Its products include various flavours of macadamia nuts, macadamia oils and spreads as well as cosmetics made from macadamia extract. We had a short conversation with Lyndy Dobree, one of the directors of MacNuts WA. She mentioned that their plantation extracted groundwater using bores and each macadamia tree has one sprinkler allocated to it. Watering only took place mostly during the summer as it was the period of little rainfall. In this particular summer in January 2014, it had apparently not rained since November 2013. Furthermore macadamias required quite a lot of watering compared to other crops. For them, MacNuts had obtained a license to draw a bulk volume of water for their irrigation; however they never reached the usage limit of the license. In addition, they had storage tanks to collect rainwater to be used in the processing factory so as to supplement their water needs.  

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(Photo taken at Sandalford Winery by Professor Schubert Foo) Another company that we visited was the Sandalford Winery, one of Western Australia’s oldest and largest privately owned wineries. Unfortunately, we were unable to interview any of the directors of the company. What we did discover was that Sandalford Winery did have their own waste water recycling plant. Hence, even if they had a limit on the amount of water that they can draw from groundwater, the company had looked to another avenue to supplement their water required for the various needs in the winery, be it for the agricultural or domestic purposes. It is important to note however that this alternative would only be possible for larger, more established companies that have sufficient funds to set aside to use technology to their advantage.  

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3.2.1.5 Wide Information Availability  Finally, to reduce the demand for Perth’s water, there are many websites online such as http://www.watercorporation.com.au/ and http://www.water.wa.gov.au/ that detail how people can save water by changing their lifestyles, such as by growing less water-intensive plants and recycling water. By making such information widely and easily available to everyone, people will be more likely to comply with these measures since they will have a clearer idea on what to do. According to the “Water Conservation” (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2013) issue published by Australian Bureau of Statistics, it reflected that on the overall, of the households with a garden, the “proportion of households that took at least one step to save water in the garden has decreased over the last six years” (ABS, 2013). Out of the 3.9 million households that saved water in their gardens, only 42% are using mulch (a type of soil that helps conserve moisture). In addition, only 34% water their plants when necessary and an even lower percentage of 29% water their garden only during cooler times of the day. These relatively low figures show that Australians are not yet doing all they can to conserve water. Water conservation efforts are not maximized. This also shows that demand-side measures are, in the long term, insufficient to keep water a sustainable supply in Australia.

 

Figure 6 Percentage of households that took at least one step to save water in the garden in various states. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4602.0.55.003main+features5Mar%202013

These statistics further accentuates the need for Perth to look into supply-side measures as well to keep water in their state sustainable.

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3.2.2 Supply‐side Measures On the other hand, Perth has also been actively trying to increase the supply of water to meet the over-flowing demand. It is doing so by building desalination plants, Water Recycling, Groundwater Management and dams

3.2.2.1 Desalination  Perth has built two desalination plants to supplement its current water supply, as a result of falling dam capacity. One of them is the Southern Seawater Desalination Plant which is located in Binningup and is capable of producing up to 100 billion litres of drinking water a year. The other is Perth Seawater Desalination Plant located in Kwinana, capable of producing up to 45 billion litres. The process of desalination in Perth is similar to Singapore, as explained above. According to the Water Corporation of Western Australia, these plants produce about 17 percent of Perth’s water supply and is designed to operate continuously by obtaining renewable energy from nearby wind farms and solar farms.

3.2.2.2 Rainwater Tanks  

 

Figure 7 Rainwater Tank in a typical Australian household. Retrieved from http://www.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/ohp-enhealth-manual-atsi-cnt-l~ohp-enhealth-manual-atsi-cnt-l-ch6~ohp-enhealth-manual-atsi-cnt-l-ch6.1

Rainwater tanks have been used by people for the last 100 years to save and store water to meet domestic water needs. These tanks collect and store rainwater runoff for later use. It reduces the use of other water sources which may be more detrimental to the environment and encourages self-sustainability. Stored water can be reused for normal household use such as watering gardens and flushing toilets. However, the use of such water for drinking is questionable as it depends on the quality of maintenance. (Rainwater Tanks Information Sheet, 2013)

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3.2.2.3 Water Recycling  In addition, from the study trip, we also learnt that Perth, like Singapore, is no novice in the area of treating wastewater. Through a lecture delivered by Associate Professor Jeff Charrois, Director of Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, we learnt that as of last August, Perth government has already declared the 3 years of trials a success and confirmed treated wastewater as an alternative source of supply of water. The recycled wastewater is then “injected into the groundwater aquifer beneath the city, where modelling shows it will spend several decades before finally emerging through customers' taps.” (WAtoday, 2013). When the treated wastewater gets extracted, it is then no different from the groundwater that Perth citizens have been extracting for years. Terry Redman, water minister of Western Australia estimated that the treated wastewater can be potentially in the ground for 30 years before it flows out of taps again. This method allows Perth to increase its groundwater supply as the demand is constantly growing and if too much groundwater is extracted without adequate time for replenishment, it runs a danger of over-salination of the underground water source, leaving it unable to be used for some time.

3.2.2.4 Grey Water  Grey water, defined as untreated used water that has not come into contact with toilet waste. It can come from washing machines, showers and the laundry tub, can either be diverted for use in the garden or be processed by a treatment system, before being reused. The diversion of grey water without treatment can only be applied to the garden via sub-surface irrigation and cannot be stored. Greywater recycling, however, reuses treated greywater, which has gone through treatment such as membrane filtration and disinfection. Greywater helps to save costs on other means of obtaining water and can even help to maintain gardens during restrictions. (Greywater Recycling Information Sheet, 2013) However, negative publicity about the use of grey water has focused on disease-causing organisms, which should not be used on vegetable gardens, resulting in this measure being less successful than others. (Western Australia Statistical Indicators, 2007)

3.2.2.5 Groundwater Management  Domestic Garden Bores tap on shallow ground water, which can be about 50 to 100 metres in depth. The groundwater is formed when rain percolates into the ground until it reaches an impermeable barrier which traps it and forms “shallow groundwater”. This shallow groundwater can then be used by the people and conserve water at the same time. (Garden Bores Information Sheet, 2013) Research has shown that there are about 169,200 garden bores in the Perth Metropolitan Area. About 1 in 4 families have bores in their homes as of 2004. In 2006, bore water was used by one-quarter of Perth households (26%) (ABS, 2007) Concerns about bore water use in Perth have been raised recently in relation to its possible impact on ground water levels. However, there are limitations to which the bores can be used as areas with certain conditions such as an unsuitable soil type and the bore

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being situated too close to a conserved wetland. According to the Water and Rivers commission (1998), the “Perth Groundwater Atlas” is a helpful tool to determine the sustainability of the area intended to build the bore.

3.2.2.6 Dams  Perth has traditionally relied on dams as their source of water. Dams, such as the Mundairing Weir and Victoria Dam, help to store water, which can then be transported from town to town through the use of pipelines. According to WA Today, dams supply 31 percent of Perth’s water supply. However, the water supply in dams are becoming critically low, hence the need for alternative sources of water. (Nicholson, 2013)

   

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4.  Comparison  of  Singapore  and  Perth’s  Water 

Strategies Singapore has developed from a water-scarce country to a world class leader in water management today due to its concurrent emphasis on both supply and demand management on water. Perth has done a fairly remarkable job in encouraging residents to take active part in the conservation of water, and is also moving towards sustainability in water tapping on technologies to treat wastewater. Looking at the success in different strategies taken by both countries, it is worthwhile to study their similarities and differences and generate insights from them.

An overview of the different demand and supply-side measures is shown below.

Supply‐side 

Conservation of water

Recycled Wastewater

Desalination

Local Catchment Areas

Import 

Singapore

Greywater

Groundwater

Rainwater Tank

Perth

Educatio

Rules and 

regulatio

Support & 

incentives 

Water Tank

Figure 8 Overview of water strategies in Singapore and Perth

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4.1 Conservation Of Water In general, both Singapore and Perth take on a multi-pronged approach in managing the demand for water. With a broad objective to reduce wastage of water, the strategies fall under (i) Educating and Informing the Public, (ii) Legal and authoritative measures, and (iii) Support and incentives.

4.1.1 Educating and Informing the Public Both states have in place educational programs to campaign the importance of saving water. In Singapore, PUB is the major arm involved in educating the public. By highlighting the most water consuming activities as showering and washing in the kitchen sink, PUB focuses on targeting agents that will directly reduce water usage in these areas. To do this, Singapore extends their campaign to various partners such as primary schools and maid employment agencies to internalise water saving habits. Similarly, Perth has made it a point to educate their citizens about water and the severity of water problems in the country.

Something that sets Perth’s strategies apart from Singapore may be the additional focus in transparency of Perth’s water situation and encouraging people to accept the idea of recycled water. Perth has released information on water challenges as well as negative trends such as a decline in residents who take actions to save water used for gardening. For example, WA News is a source that provides news reporting the record low dam levels in Perth Metropolitan and Southern regional areas.

Such availability of information seem to have a positive correlation with the mindset and actions taken by citizens. From our interview with the residents in Perth, a large proportion are aware about the water supply shortage and the urgent need to start conserving water. With a clear rationale, residents feel more motivated to take charge and come up with their own water-saving initiatives. One of the residents we interviewed is Andrew Hardona, who installs a water tank on the rooftop of his house to reuse the rainwater that goes through his own filtration system. He explained to us that the need to save water is imminent from the decreasing rainfall over the years as supported by clear statistics online, and that is why he is doing his part for conservation of water too (personal communication, January 10, 2014).

In contrast, while residents understand the Singapore water story, information such as water challenges and effectiveness of water strategies are neither readily

How many of us remember learning about importance of water during Social Studies lesson in school? Australia has similar messages in their curriculum too! It seems like internalising water-conservation values into kids at a young age is most useful in building a community of people who value and cherish water.  

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available nor distributed for residents’ read. PUB’s website also lacks statistical information on the demand and supply of water. This is coupled with the observation that Singaporeans rarely show initiative in saving water. This may not be a cause-and-effect of the information provided though as it can well be due to the constraints of land space and different nature of problems faced. In other words, we do not expect Singaporeans to actually build their own water tank or filtration system, do we? (Read further to find out what is Singapore’s stand towards household water tanks!)

The lack of information can perhaps be attributed to the political culture in Singapore. Singapore is moving towards being more transparent with the public not just in water issues but all policies in general. With The Singapore conversation and social networking platforms for discussions on national issues, we can expect Singapore to move into being more informative and citizens taking on a more active role in all policies. This could be something to look forward to, especially in conservation of water since it is something that requires initiative on the residents part in order to be a full-fledged success.

 

4.1.2 Legal and Authoritative Measures Perth has taken a strong stand in the importance of saving water by imposing strict water restrictions and banning of water sprinklers in both household and corporate use especially during summer. Similarly, Singapore has water regulations in place to mandate that water fittings in households must meet the WELS grading system criteria. As such, we see that both Singapore and Perth made use of regulatory measures to control water usage, instead of leaving the control in demand of water to voluntary action on the residents’ part. Comparing the rules and regulations in both Perth and Singapore, it is interesting to note that Singapore have chosen to be less authoritative in controlling water usage. Instead, they have taken the soft approach in encouraging responsible use of water, which explains the strong focus in educational programs over the years. It is perhaps more urgent for Perth, to impose stricter regulations, due to the lack of emerging solutions in supply of water amidst the problem of low rainfall. As such, we observe that Perth has in place several compulsive measures such as water restrictions as well as the need for license in order to use a greater amount of water for corporate use. Due to the diverse use of water in Perth (irrigation, agriculture etc) as compared to Singapore, policies in Perth also have to be more detailed in segmenting the restrictions for different usage of water. Particularly, the ban on sprinklers is relevant

It is not unusual however, to spot households that place water pails below leaking taps, or reuse water used to wash rice rains for watering of plants. Although these are small actions, they are perhaps significant water-saving habits in Singapore’s context! 

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only to Perth’s context, and we do not see Singapore considering any of such water restrictions.

4.1.3 Support and Incentives  Besides internalising the importance of conserving water and mandating the reduced consumption of water, support must be given to assist residents in reducing water usage in their daily lives. Both Singapore and Perth makes it easier and cost efficient for citizens to switch to more water saving devices. There are also several awards in place to reward companies and individuals that have contributed to water sustainability and take ownership of the water resources.  

Hence, we see a balance in using both carrot and stick measures - legal restrictions as well as incentives to do our part to conserve water. 

 

4.2 Supply‐side Strategies 4.2.1 Usage of Local Catchment Areas While both states employ the use of local catchment areas to harvest stormwater, Singapore uses it on a larger scale than Perth. Dams only account for 31% of Perth’s supply of water but Singapore is one of the countries in the world to harvest urban stormwater on such a large scale basis. Another significant difference is that, while Singapore has plans to increase usage of this particular “tap” to keep water sustainable for the nation, Perth has plans to reduce its reliance on this soure of supply of water. Even with 17 reservoirs in place, “PUB aims to harness water from the remaining streams and rivulets…[to] boost Singapore’s water catchment area to 90% by 2060” (PUB, 2012). This is attributed to the fact that Australia has been experiencing temperature rise over the past few years and higher evaporation rates. There is also a decrease in inflow to public water supply dams of up to 50%. As such, this is also why Perth has been diligently looking for other alternative sources of water to keep water in the state sustainable.

4.2.2 Desalination Firstly, we shall consider the similarities for both countries. In both countries, the desalination plants are created through collaboration by both the public and private sector. For Singapore, that is the Public Utilities Board (PUB) and Hyflux Ltd., whereas for Perth, it is between the Water Corporation and Multiplex-Degrémont JVC. As mentioned in the description, the processes for both are largely the same as well.

It is also worthwhile to consider the way Singapore present the water strategies and support as compared to that by Perth. Singapore has commonly advocated green practices as an integrated solution to sustainability in Singapore. On the other hand, Perth focused on water strategies as one project by itself as seen from their strong and constant emphasis on water issues. 

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On the other hand, the reasons for the creation of the desalination plants in both countries are vastly different. For Perth, the main reason was mostly due to climate issues such as the “Millennium Drought” as well as the falling water levels in their dams (Porter, 2013). In comparison, Singapore’s main reason for building the plants was to achieve self-sufficiency in its water supply. (Woo, 2013)

4.2.3. Rainwater Tanks Unlike Perth, Singapore does not allow residents to install their personal rainwater tanks. In fact, before 2004, rainwater collections in Singapore were illegal except for the collection through pails. Presently, however, as long as the rainwater storage tank is smaller than 5 x 2 x 2, it is legal. Institutions or companies can also apply to install their own tank after fulfilling certain guidelines. There are a few reasons for Singapore’s decision to limit rainwater collection tanks. One is that Singapore’s national water agency, PUB’s water strategy is to have a centralized rainwater collection system where rainwater will flow to the drains and canals and accumulate in reservoirs for treatment into drinking water. Secondly, most of Singapore’s population lives in high-rise buildings and they have limited space to install these tanks within the boundaries of their homes, unlike Perth where most residents have private property. Thirdly, Singapore also has a much smaller land area. Hence, it would not make much sense for each household to install its own rainwater tank and fight for the already limited area of water collection. Moreover, with such a limited space to work in, PUB must also ensure that the installation of these tanks do not cause a risk to any infrastructure, whether public or private. (Kwok, 2013)

4.2.4. Greywater Recycling Greywater recycling is more prevalent in Perth than Singapore. There are numerous websites online promoting the use and installation of greywater systems in Perth. However, in Singapore, greywater is less advocated and there is almost no installation of any of the aforementioned systems. In fact, greywater recycling is considered an alternate source of water instead of a main measure to save water.

4.2.5. Groundwater Management There are probably no garden bores for personal use in Singapore as compared to about 26 percent in Perth, as mentioned in the strategies. The main reason for this is likely to be similar to the reason for installing rainwater tanks. Land in Singapore is more restricted and most people live in apartments instead of private property.

Singapore seems to be more reliant on the government’s efforts to produce water as compared to Perth where most people take the initiative to conserve their own water. Perhaps we should taking more initiative in our daily actions instead of waiting for the government to help us.  

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4.2.6 Recycled Wastewater   As recycling wastewater is fast becoming a technology and approach adopted by many countries all over the world to resolve their water shortage issues, our group feels that it may be interesting to note what are the differences and similarities seen in both city-states. This comparison aims to highlight the learning points that the two respective states can take from each other other in their journey of recycling wastewater i.e. from treating wastewater to the public’s acceptance of treated wastewater. We also hope that for countries or states who are currently interested in recycling wastewater, there will be relevant pointers for them to pick up so they can anticipate what are some of the challenges they might face and how should they overcome these challenges.  

4.2.6.1 Technology Technology employed by both states to recycle wastewater is highly similar. In fact, as mentioned by Associate Professor Jeff Charrois, Western Australia looks to Singapore as a leader in this department.  

4.2.6.2 Management of Recycled Wastewater Both states practice indirect potable use of recycled wastewater. Perth does so by injecting recycled wastewater into aquifers beneath the ground so that it gets naturalised to groundwater after a long time while Singapore, on the other hand mixes recycled wastewater (NEWater) with raw water in reservoirs before they are subjected to further treatment at our water plants.  

4.2.6.3 Public Perceptions towards Recycled Wastewater Despite the similarities between technologies employed and management of recycled wastewater, it is interesting to note that public perception of recycled wastewater differs vastly in both states. From interviews our group conducted with locals in Perth, we found that Perth citizens are generally not in favour of consuming treated wastewater even though they understand that recycled wastewater is certified safe for drinking after the intensive treatment.

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One of the interviewees, bus captain cum tour guide Alan Hallett (personal communication, January 11, 2014) feels that drinking treated wastewater is akin to “drinking sewage water” and thinks that should the government start to distribute recycled wastewater as direct drinking water, Perth citizens will resent the local government. Similarly, bus captain cum tour guide Andrew Hardona (personal communication, January 10, 2014) also expressed that he fears “health problems related to drinking water” and while he understands that treated wastewater is safe for drinking he still feels “uncomfortable” doing so. He also went on to say that his family and friends probably feel the same way as him.

On the flipside, through a study conducted by Forbes research, a high percentage of the respondents (98%) expressed acceptance toward NEWater. Also, of the respondents subjected to this study, 82% expressed that they are willing to drink NEWater directly out of the bottle (Howe & Mitchell, 2012).  

4.2.6.4 Strategies to Alter Public Perceptions Singapore similarly faced problems in the beginning with public perception and industries’ acceptance of NEWater. According to “Water Sensitive Cities” by Carol Howe and Cynthia Mitchell, “PUB had to educate and convince the public on safety and purity of NEWater. This was not an easy task as they were basically starting from ground zero.” (Howe & Mitchell, 2012). In spite of these challenges, PUB should be applauded for her dedication in overcoming these challenges ultimately. PUB’s immense success stemmed from the multi-faceted measures undertaken to address concerns of Singaporeans. Firstly, PUB focused on shifting the public’s attention away from source of the waste water and instead directed the public’s attention onto state-of-the-art technologies employed to purify wastewater.

Figure 9 Group picture with our interviewee – bus captain/tour guide Alan Hallett.

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Additionally, PUB ensured that this highly technical information when relayed to the public is so layman that it is comprehensible even to a young child.  

As terms such as “sewage” and “wastewater” were not well-perceived by the public, PUB was committed to renaming these terms. For a change, those terms were often referred to as “used water”. Similarly, waste water plants (Howe & Mitchell, 2012; Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2013) were also renamed as water reclaimation plants. This process of renaming is crucial as it helps to show that water is never wasted and reusing them is only part of Earth’s natural processes. Aiding the public in understanding this concept contributed to them becoming less opposed to accepting NEWater as an alternative source of drinking water (Howe & Mitchell, 2012).  

Additionally, PUB also invested great efforts into the packaging of NEWater in order to make it more appealing to the public.  

Figure 10 Different kinds of NEWater packaging. Retrieved from http://www.pub.gov.sg/products/NEWater/Pages/default.aspx

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Figure 11 Then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong drinking NEWater in 2003 when it was first launched. Retrieved from http://asia.cnet.com/blogs/how-to-have-sufficient-water-supply-for-your-country-62115047.htm

Prominent governmental officials such as then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong, were also engaged to drink NEWater publicly. This was yet another significant milestone in PUB’s campaign to encourage acceptance of NEWater as it “positioned the project as a national effort led by the country’s leaders”. (Howe & Mitchell, 2012) 

To ensure that NEWater does not get subjected to the “out of sight, out of mind” mentality by Singaporeans, PUB continues to maintain public education by integrating a NEWater visitor centre into the Bedok NEWater factory. By focusing on research in the fields of psychology, learning, interpretation and perception, the layout of the visitor centre incorporates the five senses with scientific logic. This sensory and logic integration iss integral in forging the intellectual and emotional connections between water and water treatment technologies. With this, the government is able to establish confidence and hopefully encourage Singaporeans to accept NEWater and trust that the process to manufacture it is completely safe.  

The visitor centre also relies heavily on electronic media for presentations due to the predisposition of young Singaporeans who are more receptive to the idea of using media tablets to access information. As of now the visitor centre has an average of more than 2,200 visitors per week, indeed proving it worthy of clinching the Best Sightseeing/Leisure/Educational Programme at the 20th Tourism Awards 2005 and the IWA Marketing & Communication Award in 2006. 

 

In comparison, Perth has yet to fully develop its plans to promote the drinking and using of recycled wastewater. According to Associate Professor Jeff Charrois, Perth has only launched a visitor centre thus far to facilitate deeper understanding of how recycled wastewater comes about. With respect to the minimal effort undertaken by the Perth government, this is perhaps why citizens of Perth generally have a very different attitude toward drinking recycled wastewater when compared to Singaporeans.  

 

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5. Discussion‐Conclusion While both city-states are similar in many aspects of keeping water supply sustainable, there is evidently a lot that both states can learn from each other. A possible direction for Singapore to continue being a leading water hub can therefore be strengthening the measures and support given to demand management. In terms of demand management, Singapore can reference Australia’s success in internalising the values of conserving water to residents, while considering certain limitations due to differences in areas explained above. This can be done in three ways.

1. Greater transparency in water issues 2. Greater support and facilitation 3. Reaching out to the public to educate and inform

As for Perth, although there is now an alternative supply of clean water in the form of treated wastewater, Perth’s citizens’ refusal to consume treated wastewater directly also means Perth’s water supply is not sustainable. In times of water shortage, if Perth citizens refuse to consume treated wastewater directly, their survival can be threatened. If they choose to wait for the treated wastewater to be “naturalised” into groundwater, that will take far too much time. In addition, scientists also predict that due to over-extraction of groundwater and pollution from agricultural activity, it is likely that major aquifers will run low by 2030. (The Canberra Times, 2012). As such, we will like to propose that Perth look to Singapore not only as a leader in treating wastewater but also as a guide to model their strategies (to encourage acceptance of treated wastewater) after.  

Besides renaming terms such as “sewage” and “wastewater”, perhaps renaming recycled wastewater in Singapore as “NEWater” is also part of PUB’s effort to create the idea of “new” and “fresh” water for it. Therefore, helping it possess a higher rate of acceptance! On the contrary, it seems like Perth’s address of wastewater as it is may be another reason for the difference in perception towards the same recycled wastewater. This only further stresses the need for Perth to consider spending more effort on activities e.g. better packaging and stronger marketing, to more effectively promote their recycled wastewater as a drinking source. 

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About the Authors We are a group of students from the University Scholars Programme (USP) in Nanyang Technological University. Our team consists of Tan Yi Pin Bryan, Bryan Soh Weida, Goh Yanhan Calvin, Chin Suet Leng Shirley, Low Qin Yuan, Charmaine Choo Xinyi, Wong Jia Ping, He Yeqi and Nadirah Binte Isa. (From left to right)  

Photo was taken in Perth at the Fremantle War Memorial near Fremantle Market in Perth.  

 

 

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Our Reflections

The study trip was a meaningful and enriching experience. I am glad to have gained some

knowledge about the different sectors in Australia and, with this profound knowledge I have gained, I

can learn to apply it to the real-world. Most importantly, the trip has increased my sense of

belonging to USP.

This has been a very enriching experience as it was the first time I had actually gone on a study trip. It was interesting to see

how every place that we went as tourists could also easily double up as avenues for learning, be it through talks by the Professors at Curtin University, or just simply a conversation with the locals. Mind you it was not just for academic learning, but for personal learning and understanding as well. It was great fun

getting to know the USP community much better and I had definitely forged some

strong friendships along the way. It was a great way to start the year of 2014 (:

Being assigned this topic also meant that I was more into observing everything that is in any way related to “water”. This is a relatively refreshing experience… I realized tiny details like how half flushes were almost ubiquitous in Perth (funny

enough though, they do not exist in our hotel)…

This was an amazing journey on which I forged some great friendships and

deepened existing ones, one on which I learned so much more about myself and the

environment around me, and finally, one that I will never, ever forget. See you, Perth,

I’ll definitely be back!

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I really enjoyed the interactions with the Australians during the trip and also the part about experiencing something different apart from our usual routine in

Singapore. Another valuable takeaway would be the forging of new friendships in the USP family!  

I think what is admirable is the willingness displayed by the Australians as they

generously shared with us their thoughts on different sustainability issues. I am also

touched by the efforts made by every USP member of the USP family to make this trip a memorable one. 3 words to summarise

the trip: captivating, rewarding and inspiring.

On the last day, I couldn't bear to leave, as it marked the end of my holidays. Nevertheless, I had made many new friends and had loads of fun, while also learning more about Australia.

The USP trip to Perth was certainly an eye opener for me. Although I have been to Australia a few times,

none of the other trips were as enriching as this one. It also set me thinking about many questions I have

never pondered before. What touched me the most were the people. They were very friendly and helpful. Despite the numerous questions we posed to them, they never refused and even answered our queries with a smile. I really enjoyed working there with my

group mates too! Although the project seemed daunting at first, we quickly warmed up to each other

and ended up having fun while doing the project. I definitely enjoyed the trip and will remember it for a

long time to come.

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