This article was downloaded by: [UOV University of Oviedo]On: 28 October 2014, At: 06:34Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

International Journal of WaterResources DevelopmentPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cijw20

Water Management in FijiVinesh Kumar aa Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Health & Production Division ,Suva, Fiji IstandsPublished online: 22 Jan 2010.

To cite this article: Vinesh Kumar (2010) Water Management in Fiji, International Journal of WaterResources Development, 26:1, 81-96, DOI: 10.1080/07900620903392216

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900620903392216

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arisingout of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Water Management in Fiji

VINESH KUMARMinistry of Agriculture, Animal Health & Production Division, Suva, Fiji Istands

ABSTRACT According to The World Bank, Fiji has one of highest per-capita fresh water resourcesin East Asia and the Pacific. However, these water resources are not evenly distributed—they are notequally plentiful in all places, nor is water equally available at all times. Above all, Fiji is anarchipelago with a total of 332 islands (of which 110 are inhabited), hence managing water is amajor challenge in itself. This paper tries to give a comprehensive outlook of water management inFiji. It also outlines the key challenges for water management in Fiji and articulates broadrecommendations. The paper concludes that the challenges of ensuring that water is conserved andmanaged wisely are huge and no single agency can address them in isolation. Strengtheningpartnerships among stakeholders (governments, the private sector, non-governmental organizations(NGOs) and donors agencies) is the way forward.

Country Background

Location and Land Area

Fiji is a Melanesian island group located in the South Pacific at 1758 E longitude and 188 S

latitude (Figure 1). It is a group of islands or an archipelago with a total of 332 islands, of

which only 110 are inhabited. The group has two large islands—Viti Levu and Vanua

Levu—that have a higher population density and are hubs of economic activity.

Comparatively many of the smaller islands are made of coral reefs and are low in

elevation, thus unsuitable for habitation. The total land area of Fiji is 18,272 km2.

Topographically, Fiji is divided into three major classes: plains and valleys; low

mountains and hills; and high mountains. These landforms are depositional—littoral or

fluvial, erosional—fluvial erosion, mass movement or volcanic (Macfarlane, 2005).

Population

According to the latest population census of 2007, Fiji has a population of 837,271 people,

that is equally distributed amongst the rural (49%) and urban (51%) populations. Unlike

many developing and developed countries, Fiji has only 2.63% of its population above

70 years of age, whilst 83% of its population is below the age of 50 years.

According to the United Nations Development Programme Report 2007/2008 (UNDP,

2007), in 2005 Fiji had a Human Development Index of 0.762 and was ranked 92nd of the

0790-0627 Print/1360-0648 Online/10/010081-16 q 2010 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/07900620903392216

Correspondence Address: Emails: vinesh@nus.edu.sg; g0805144@nus.edu.sg

Water Resources Development,Vol. 26, No. 1, 81–96, March 2010

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

177 countries. Furthermore, it was ranked 50th in terms of the Human Poverty Index, with

a per-capita gross domestic product of US$6,049 (Figure 2).

Fiji lies in the oceanic tropical climatic zone. Hence, it has twomajor seasons: hot andwet,

and cool and dry. The temperature during the hot and wet season, which falls between

November andApril, ranges from 268C to 278C. The cool and dry season is betweenMay and

October, and during this time the temperature ranges from 238C to 258C. Rainfall distribution

is strongly influenced by the terrain of the islands because leeward sides of mountainous

islands tend to be drier and windward sides tend to be wetter. On Viti Levu, for example,

rainfall ranges from3,000 to 5,000mmon thewindward side, and from2,000 to 3,000mmon

the leeward side. Average rainfall across the country is around 2,000–3,000mm per annum.

It is important to note that the ‘wet season’ replenishes water supplies for the subsequent

‘dry season’. The wet season occasionally brings in tropical cyclones, hurricanes and

typhoons; floods and landslides are common during these times. Fiji has also experienced

some severe droughts. One occurred at the beginning of the 1986 dry season and extended

through the 1986/87 wet season; another occurred in 1997.

Water

According to the World Bank, Environment Department (2004), Fiji has 34,690 m3 per

capita of fresh water resources, which is one of highest in East Asia and the Pacific.

As compared with the year 2000, its per-capita total actual renewable water resources

(TARWR) increased by 4% (AQUASTAT, cited by United Nations Children’s Fund

(UNICEF), 2006). Interestingly, according to the Mundi Index (Indexmundi, 2006),

as of 1987, Fiji had a 28.6 km3 of total renewable water resources, which was fairly low

Figure 1. Map of Fiji islands.

82 V. Kumar

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

as of that period. This entry provides the long-term average water availability for a country

in cubic kilometres of precipitation, recharged ground water, and surface inflows from

surrounding countries. Furthermore, it also stated that ‘annual available resources can vary

greatly due to short-term and long-term climatic and weather variations’. This gives an

indication that there was a significant increase in the rechargeable ability of the water

resources. Hence, it can safely be concluded that Fiji has sufficient renewable water

resources for a while with the caveat that it is ‘managed’ well.

Variability in Water Resources

Though in total Fiji has a large water resource, in fact these water resources are not evenly

distributed—they are not equally plentiful in all places, nor is water equally available at all

times. The variability is very dependent on geographical location, variability in climate

conditions, and socio-economic and environmental developments. Furthermore, a

comprehensive study by Bronders & Lewis (1994), whereby they collected data during

three years of fieldwork on small islands in Fiji, indicated that water resource problems,

apart from climatological and geological constraints, are mainly due to water-use practices.

The rainwater-harvesting system is a heavily under-utilized source of fresh water.

The groundwater option is not an alternative, but a supplement to the existingwater resources.

These water resources can be divided into two major categories: groundwater and

surface water.

Groundwater

Groundwater in Fiji occurs on both the large islands as well as on small low-lying islands.

However, its occurrence and challenges differ according to the different physical

environments. ‘Groundwater is found in superficial and medium-depth strata on the larger

Figure 2. HDI-World indicator, position of Fiji (UNDP, 2007, Table 2).

Water Management in Fiji 83

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu and some large islands, in either fractured rock or

sedimentary formations’ (Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission, 2007a). There

are a number of groundwater aquifers across the country that vary in depth and volume.

Currently, Fiji has ten water-bottling factories that bottle these groundwaters and export

them. Though there is very little in the literature about the recharge ability of these aquifers,

recently a joint statement by all ten producers claimed that their source was completely

rechargeable:

the water from our sources is a completely renewable resource that is constantly

replenished by abundant rainfall each year. Moreover, the very livelihoods of our

companies rely on the health andwell being of ourwater sources. This ensures that the

nation of Fiji will benefit from our sources for generations to come. (FijiLive, 2008)

On the other hand, groundwater plays a very integral part on the small islands. Many of the

smaller islands have superficial groundwater lenses in sandbeds or coral formations, which

lie on marine water. Many of these sources are constantly under threat as frequently they

are not managed well. As stated previously, there is an uneven distribution of rainfall

across the islands, and rainwater-harvesting using roof systems is widespread on these

islands, but the psychology of rural people fails to take into account the possibility of

extreme climate events and drought when there is relatively abundant water for most of the

time (for instance, providing small-capacity storage instead of larger capacity). A few of

the 110 smaller islands rely constantly on government vessels to transport water from the

mainland. To make things worse, these vessels are often late and the people on these

islands have to ‘ration’ their water supplies with other families. In very extreme cases,

‘coconut water’ can also be used as a substitute.

In many settlements around Fiji, groundwater is the major source for drinking water.

The Ministry of Multi-ethnic and Provincial Development office over the years has

provided assistance for many of these projects. In many instances, boreholes are dug that

may run 60 to about 180 feet underground. Submergible electric water pumps are then

used to draw water from the boreholes. However, it is significant to note that most of these

boreholes are not regulated and in many instances the water quality is not inspected before

the commissioning of such projects (Nuku, 2009).

Surface Water

Fiji, comparably with other smaller Pacific nations, has many rivers, creeks, a few lakes

and some freshwater wetland. The majority of the urban water supply relies on surface

water. Fiji also uses surface water for hydro-electricity generation. The largest hydro dam

is the Monasavu hydro scheme, which was commissioned in 1983, consisting of four

20MW generators. It also has two smaller ones with a capacity of 8.8MW.

Surface water is also used by the agricultural sector, especially for irrigation and

processing. In a few instances it has caused conflict based on priorities between direct

consumers and agricultural users (Figures 3 and 4).

In general, given the rainfall and relatively intact forest cover that allows the capture

and retention of water in underground aquifers, and the presence of several important

perennial rivers and streams, the larger islands within the Fiji archipelago have adequate

supplies of water to meet the needs of the population.

84 V. Kumar

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

Water Institutions

Water institutions in Fiji can be categorized based on their usage and service delivery.

The Public Works Department (Fiji Water Authority) looks after urban water supply and

sanitation. Water used for irrigation is controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture. The City

Council, Municipal Council, and the Public Works Department are institutions that look

after urban drainage. The Ministry of Agriculture in limited areas puts in place measures to

mitigate flooding. The Fiji Electricity Authority is the only agency that operates hydro

dams to generate electricity (Figure 5).

Urban Water Supply

The urban water supply in Fiji has been under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public

Works (Water andEnergy),Works andTransport. Its core functions have been the provision

of advice, technical services, planning, design and construction of works projects for other

government departments and agencies. Furthermore, it provides for the management of

works and maintenance programmes associated with water supplies and sewerage.

However, in December 2006, the Ministry of Local Government, Urban Development and

Public Utilities (MLGUDPU) took charge of theWater and Sanitation Department (WSD).

Legislative transition in the water sector. Currently, Fiji has an interim administration

that is in the process of implementing radical changes in key governmental institutions

through the ‘People’s Charter’. Under this, a Commercial Statutory Authority called the

Fiji Water Authority (FWA) was proposed that was to replace the Water and Sewerage

Department. However, following a successful lobby by non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) and interest groups as well as based on the submission by the Minister for Public

Enterprises and Public Sector Reform, the government shelved the programme (Fij-online,

2006). Instead, a new Fiji Water Act that replaced the Water Supply Act of 1950 was

endorsed in July 2007, and a new Fiji Water Authority was established. Furthermore,

during the same year, His Excellency, the President of the Republic of the Fiji Islands

Figure 3. Surface water withdrawal by sector, 1987.

Figure 4. Surface water withdrawal by sector, 2000.

Water Management in Fiji 85

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

established new functions and powers of the Water Authority of Fiji and its Board (South

Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), 2007).

Recent legal developments have been: (1) the drafting of new legislation to establish the

Fiji Water Authority which will supply water to all towns in the country; and (2) draft

amendments to the Minerals Act, which (a) establish a requirement to obtain a permit to

extract groundwater (and to install bores and wells) within declared areas, and (b) limit

polluting activities in declared areas, for the purpose of protecting the quality of

groundwater. These drafts have been given cabinet approval to proceed, although they

have not been through the parliamentary process.

Water Supply

Current Capacity of the Water Supply in Fiji

Currently, the WSD of Fiji operates and maintains 32 public water supply systems

nationwide. The supply system is divided into two major categories: the city and town

regional water supply that consists of 13 sub-systems, and theminor public system consisting

of 19 subsystems. The whole water supply system of Fiji consists of 15 water-treatment

plants and 110 service reservoirs and has over 2,200 km of underground water reticulation

Figure 5. Water agency set up in Fiji. Note: The agencies or units in boxes not filled in are notformally members of the committee, but have important water-related roles.

86 V. Kumar

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

pipelines. The sizes of these pipelines range from 50 to 900mm nominal diameter. Table 1

provides information on some of the salient aspects of water supply in the country.

According to the WSD, currently it serves around 600,000 (nearly 75% of the

population) people nationwide (Water Supply Department, 2007). However, this

contradicts the World Health Organization (WHO)’s data that state that overall water

supply coverage was only 47% (43% urban and 51% rural) as of 2004 (WHO, 2004).

Practically, it is not possible for a 28% increase to have occurred over the last four years

given the political and economic developments. Hence, the estimates provided by the

WHO seem more credible.

As stated previously, the source of the supply varies from surface water to groundwater.

The capital, which has the highest demand, extracts its raw water from Waimanu River,

and in future it intends to extract it from Rewa River, one of the largest rivers in Fiji.

A large part of Fiji’s economy (approximately US$418 million annually in foreign

exchange) is driven by the tourism sector. Nadi is the tourist town of Fiji that has many

hotels and international resort chains. It is anticipated that developments in and around this

area are growing at a significant pace. Currently, the major water source for these areas is a

large dam at Vaturu, in the interior of Fiji, which was constructed in 1982. According to

water experts, this water resource is not seen as a limiting factor, but in the present author’s

view it might become so if it is not managed and protected from contamination.

Most of the distribution systems in the towns and cities are designed to handle 150 litres

of water per day per capita. However, most residents exceed this capacity, and on an

average may consume from 200 to 500 litres per day per capita.

According to the Asian Development Bank (2003) ‘the Water losses from leaking pipes

or inaccurate or missing meters approached 55% of water supplied’, and according to its

latest report (Asian Development Bank, 2007), this has reached 70% in 2007. In past years

the water supply sector has also been marred by scandals and inefficiency.

Water Losses in Fiji

Water loss occurs for the following reasons:

Table 1. Water supply of Fiji, water connections and capacity

Numbers of connections Capacity (m3/day)

Central EasternKinoya Urban 1,350 150,000Debua Urban 334 10,000AdiCakabou School 1,000Wailada Industrial

WesternLautoka Urban 5,200 45,000Nadi Urban 2,200 20,000Sigatoka Urban 120 4,000Ba Urban 250 6,500

NorthernLabasa Urban 780 6,000

Total 10,234 242,500

Source: Water Supply Department (2007).

Water Management in Fiji 87

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

. Unmetered uses include fire-fighting and training; flushing water mains; sewers.

. Stolen unmetered water.

. Leaks in water mains.

. Leaks from hydrants.

. Leaks from valves (supply system).

. Water meter measurement errors in properties.

. Unmetered water tanks.

. Evaporation from uncovered reservoirs.

. Unmetered filling of swimming pools most often through fire hydrants.

. Reservoir overflows.

. Incorrect bulk meter readings.1

Reliability of the Service

Over the past two years the reliability of the water supply has reached 100% (especially

in the capital and surrounding areas). However, in recent years power blackouts and

pump breakdowns have caused some disruptions, especially in the greater capital areas.

One concern is that the supply capacities of the storage tanks for these areas can only last for

12 hours. To mitigate the immediate effects, water is carted to these areas in portable tanks.

Elsewhere the problem remains, as occasionally the media highlights disruptions in the

supply due to collapse of the main supply line or ‘burst’ in the underground pipelines. It can

take significant time and resources just to locate these leaks as they occur at a certain depth

underground, let alone meet the cost of repairs. According to Deputy Permanent Secretary,

Information, Major Leweni, he was ‘privy to a study in 2005 on the water supply

infrastructure which revealed that the infrastructure had been in place for almost 40 years’.

Hence, time and again these problems are likely to arise, unless and until significant efforts

are placed not only in extension, but also in repair and maintenance-upgrading of the

existing systems.

Sewerage and Wastewater

The sewerage systems in Fiji are maintained by the Public Works Department in the towns

and cities. Note that only certain parts of the water supply area are connected to the

centralized waste treatment plants. For example, in the Suva-Nausori area (capital), which

has the highest population density, only one-third of the population is connected to the

centralized system, whilst others (270,000) are served by the septic tanks. The topography

of these areas is rugged and the soil structure is impermeable, hence much effluent flows

directly into streams and coastal water. Overflowing sewage from sewers—which in some

localities are undersized and subject to blockages—and from poorly maintained sewage

pumping stations also contribute significantly to water pollution (Asian Development

Bank, 2002).

Urban and Rural Drainage

The respective Municipal councils are responsible for the urban drains in their towns and

city boundaries. The major drains and stormwater outlets are maintained by the Public

Works Department. In recent years, inefficient drainage system designs and the condition

88 V. Kumar

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

of these drains have been blamed for the frequent flash floods in the major urban centres.

There are flaws in the design of many drains around the country, which lead to a slow

discharge of stormwater away from these areas. Rapid and unplanned growth in many

parts of the urban centres can be blamed for this. Many of these drains were designed

during the Colonial era and have not kept pace with surrounding developments.

The Ministry of Agriculture maintains the rural and farm drains around Fiji. It works

along with other stakeholders such as the Fiji Sugar Cooperation, sugarcane farmers, rice

growers, vegetable and livestock farmers.

Department of Mineral Resources (in the Ministry of Lands and Mineral Resources)

This department has the authority for licensing the abstraction of groundwater to be used

for the production of bottled mineral water. Fiji has large underground aquifers which are

under pressure/threat from commercial operators-bottling companies. Currently, Fiji has

ten water-bottling factories that bottle the groundwater and export it. Fiji is one of the

largest producers of bottled mineral water in the Pacific. The brand ‘Fiji Water’ has made a

huge impact in the United States market and currently claims to be the only water bottling

company in the world to join the Carbon Disclosure Project Supply Chain Leadership

Collaboration—to disclose fully the carbon footprint of its products. The department has

policies in place that ensure that these sources are not over-exploited and remain

sustainable. It also assists in safeguarding the aquifers from possible pollution and in the

creation of buffer zones around them.

Constraints

The bottling companies over the years have grown to a scale whereby they have a huge

impact on the economy and there seems to be a power shift whereby the industry has

assumed ‘total control’. An example is reflected in a case in July 2008 when Fiji’s Cabinet

approved a US$0.10/litre export duty on all mineral water exports and a same amount on

excise duty on mineral water sold for domestic consumption. Mahendra Chaudry, the

former Finance Minister, said the main reason for the new tax was to stimulate

conservation of Fiji’s natural resources. ‘Mineral water is a scarce resource which will

deplete and a fair share of returns has to be passed on to the nation’, he said. However, the

bottling companies staged a nationwide strike which forced the government to revert its

decision and speculators also said that this also cost the then Finance Minister his job.

Another interesting issue this case highlights is ‘the regulator becoming regulated’, which

at times is ‘dangerous’. Many commercial entities may manipulate regulations in their

favour and lead to the ultimate destruction of the whole industry.

There is a need for the development of rules to limit extraction to sustainable levels as

well as to create a buffer zone to protect the aquifers.

Water Pricing in Fiji

For domestic users, Fiji has a tri-band pricing mechanism. The first band is 60 lpcd, or

17 m3 per month. The second band is 33 m3 per month. The pricing details can be seen in

Table 2. According to a study by the Asian Development Bank (2002), the present tariff

bands are so wide that 60% of domestic consumption is satisfied in the first band rather

than just basic needs, which should be interpreted at 60 lpcd, or 10m3 per month. The

Water Management in Fiji 89

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

second band is too high to provide any effective demand-management role on average

domestic consumption. Furthermore, it has also concluded that sewerage charges are far

too low and cannot recover operations and maintenance costs.

Hence, the existing tariff structure fails to generate sufficient revenues even to meet

the operations and maintenance costs. Though the current system favours the poor and

average-income households, in the longer term it may compromise the availability and

quality of the water supplied. This is directly as a result of inadequate funds to maintain

the system.

Currently, meter reading is done quarterly (every three months), whilst billing is done

monthly. This itself at times leads to other problems such as the inability of customers to

pay a one-off large amount due to a large variation in the estimates. This leads to mutual

adjustments and rebates that cannot be intuitively justified.

Currently, there seems to be a flaw in the existing institutional arrangements for

collecting tariffs. The Water Rates Office collects tariffs and these funds are transferred to

the consolidated account of the government not to the Water Supply Department’s

account. Hence, the water supply department has to rely for funds for operations and

maintenance from annual budgetary allocations.

The following scenario was recorded based on the finding of a study by the Asian

Development Bank (2002):

In 1998 Water Sales for WSD were estimated at F$19.4 million and collections at

F$12.1 million. This represents a collection efficiency of 64%. Over the next three

years while billings increased to F$23.1 million for 2001, collections were only

F$13.2 million which includes arrears from previous years. Consequently at best the

collection efficiency is now some 56% and accumulated arrears of outstanding bills

is F$18.2 million.

Table 2. Water and Sanitation Department (WSD) current water tariff structure

CategoryConsumption

bands m3/3 monthsConsumption

bands m3/month Tariff (F$/m3) Tariffb US$/m3b

Water(i) Domestic 1–50 1–17 0.153 0.072

51–100 18–33 0.439 0.207Over 100 Over 33 0.838 0.396

(ii) Commercial All units All units 0.529 0.250

Sewerage(i) Domestic All units All units 0.200 0.095(ii) Commercial All units All units 0.200a 0.095

Average tariffs Water Sewerage Average(F$/m3)Domestic 0.284 0.200 0.484 0.229Commercial 0.529 0.226 0.755 0.357average 0.363 0.210 0.563 0.266

Notes: a The sewerage tariff is assessed for all major industries and is based on a tariff of F$0.200/m3 andaverage F$0.266/m3.b F$1.00 ¼ US$0.45.

Source: Asian Development Bank (2002).

90 V. Kumar

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

Source of Surface Water Pollution/Contamination

Non-point source. Fiji has a fair amount of industrial and agricultural activity. Most

widespread of all is the sugar industry. Awide range of pesticides andweedkillers are used by

this industry. Many sugarcane farmers (about 21,000 in total) are illiterate or unaware of the

possible contamination of the waterways because of their negligence. In many instances

farmers normallywash their knapsack sprayers and fertilizer bags directly into thewaterways.

Poor cultivationmethods and constant land clearing triggers soil erosion and excessive silting

in the waterways. Vegetables and other cash crops are also grown in the lower plains and

along the major riverbanks in Fiji which are constantly subjected to flooding. Hence,

chemicals and fertilizers constantly get washed into these natural waterways.

According to the GEF Hotspot Analysis Diagnostic Report, Fiji Islands (Pacific Islands

Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), 2007b), other non-point sources for

contamination of surface water are as follows:

. Soil erosion resulting from exposure of the soil, leading to increased sediment

discharges, high turbidity and colour problems due to extensive or

inappropriate clearing of the native forest as part of logging operations or

for agriculture; poorly designed or constructed unsealed roads and unplanned

development activities and fire are used to clear undesired weeds in farming

and forestry areas.

. The erosional effects of tropical forest clearing for agriculture and urbanization,

of road construction and other activities in surface water catchments. A steep

island topography causes floods, landslides, and sometimes major losses of

vegetation and significant soil erosion.

. Runoff from agricultural land containing nutrients (from fertilizers) and

sometimes toxic agro-chemicals (pesticides and herbicides).

Point source. It is interesting to note that all four sugar mills in Fiji (Lautoka, Rarawai,

Penang and Labasa) are located near waterways. Since there are flaws in the

environmental regulations and enforcement, it is anticipated that all the mills perhaps

discharge a significant amount of their water pollutants into these waterways. One of the

mills located in the northern part of Fiji known as Labasa has come under much scrutiny as

a large waterway beside the mill has turned into a ‘deadzone’ (the waterway has no marine

life and has a very foul smell—it is basically dead).

Fiji also has a gold-mining industry. The largest mine is located in the district of Tavua.

‘Notoriously’, it is known to discharge harmful chemicals into Nasivi Creek—notably

cyanide. There have been reported cases of livestock deaths due to chemical poisoning in

the lower ends of the creek. It could be for economic reasons that tough measures are not

taken against the mining industry.

Other industries such as motor servicing, the battery industry, and oil companies are

also a major threat to Fiji’s water sources.

A survey to identity and quantify the volume of unwanted persistent organic pollutants

(POPs) and associated contaminations in Fiji found that stockpiles of pesticides are the

major environmental threat.

Another source of water pollution in Fiji is microbial pollutants. This is generally due to

unsafe disposal (untreated waste water), vector control, and solid waste management in

Fiji. These discharges occur from outfalls (point-source pollution) and from more diffuse

Water Management in Fiji 91

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

flows from on-site sanitation systems within urban areas of surface water catchments.

The rapid urbanization process is putting great pressure on both surface water (and

groundwater) supply catchments used for urban and nearby rural water supplies. A study

of water quality in the Ba River (Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission

(SOPAC), 2007b) and estuary found them to be seriously contaminated, with the dominant

source of faecal contamination being Ba Town. Other sources of microbial pollutants

direct faecal contamination of catchments and streams from animals (e.g. cattle, pigs).

Commercial livestock farming, especially the dairy farms and pig farms, usually dump

their waste into the waterways. Another common source are the improvised pigpens

located along the riverbanks or on the coasts around the country.

The Ministry of Environment is responsible for the regulation of the point-source

pollution, whilst the Ministry of Agriculture is deemed responsible for the non-source

pollution. Though both Ministries have put some effort and measures to contain the

problem, it needs a collaborative effort from other sectors and the general public. A lack of

funds for enforcement and litigation are some of the key constraints. Public awareness

and creation of endowment amongst the resource owners could alleviate this problem to a

great extent.

According to a draft national water policy formulated by the National Water Committee

of Fiji that was approved by Cabinet (December 2005) as an interim policy, the following

policy measures need to be adopted in order to protect the water quality in Fiji:

. Water sources of good quality must be protected from depletion and pollution by

adequate protection mechanisms, consistent with the rights and interests of those

who may be affected.

. The control of point sources of pollution of water must be applied

comprehensively to ensure that receiving waters in Fiji are protected from all

artificial discharges, including sewage and discharges from industry and mining.

. Measures for controlling water quality degradation from non-point sources, such

as soil erosion and catchment activities, need to be strengthened.

. Small-scale and fragile water sources (such as shallow island aquifers) which

have value for drinking and domestic use should receive particular attention for

their protection.

. The impact of rivers on the quality of coastal waters should be recognized and

investigated and, where necessary, measures taken to prevent coastal degradation.

Water Quality Monitoring in Fiji

Fiji does not have specific water quality standards. However, it currently uses the WHO

Drinking Water Quality Guidelines. Urban water quality in Fiji is monitored by the Public

Works Department’s (now WSD), National Water Quality Laboratory, located at the

Kinoya waste treatment plant. Another government agency that assists in urban water

quality monitoring is the Public Health Department of Ministry of Health. The Ministry of

Health also tests water quality from the private and the rural sectors. The Institute of

Applied Sciences, which is affiliated to the University of South Pacific (USP), also

randomly samples urban and rural water supplies. Its services are also utilized by the

private bottling companies and hotels. Another intergovernmental organization, the South

Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), is also engaged in research and water

92 V. Kumar

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

hygiene management in Fiji. It has been shown that higher fluoride levels occur in the

Suva water supply system than elsewhere around the country.

Some Cases of Water Borne Diseases in Fiji

On 1 July 2005, Radio New Zealand reported that ‘Fiji’s Public Works Department has

admitted that its water supply system could be responsible for more than 10,000 cases of

stomach ailments in the country.’ Furthermore, according to a Fiji television report, cases

of gastroenteritis estimated to have occurred between 1995 and 2000 were at a rate of over

2,000 a year, or nearly 170 a month.

The Fiji Times (11 February 2006) reported that in the Labasa area the number of cases

of influenza and diarrhoea increased sharply, believed by health officials to be a result of

flooding around the country. One farmer was reported to be in a serious condition with

leptospirosis, a waterborne disease caused by the urine of livestock contaminating water;

and there have been reports of typhoid.

According to a report by Kingston (2004), the two government departments (WSD and

Ministry of Health) that carry out sampling and quality tests do not share information or

data. This lack of synergy may lead to task duplication; however, in contrast, the practice

will assist the departments to compare the consistency of their results.

Water Management Challenges in General

Hence, from the above, it can be concluded that the challenges in water management in

Fiji are as follows:

. Increasing pressure on water resources due to upgrading and expansion of water

sewerage systems around the country.

. Growing industrial, energy, mining, and commercial developments that demand

more water.

. Increasing threats to water quality due to:* increased urbanization;* intensified agriculture, forestry and exploitation of natural resources; and* improper waste disposal.

Future Direction

National Level Collaboration

Firstly, there should be a collaborative effort from all sectors in recognizing the fact that

surface water and ground water are critical for human well-being which will also provide

growth for the country and will maintain the value of the natural environment.

Secondly, everyone (those in the commercial sector down to the grassroots population)

has also to realize the fact that water resources are finite and these sources can be

exhausted if not managed efficiently.

Thirdly, the effective management of water must be on the basis of the hydrologic

unit—meaning, for surface water, the catchments of streams and rivers and for

groundwater the aquifer system. Only in this way will the impacts of water exploitation in

any location be adequately recognized and attended to. Surface water and groundwater are

Water Management in Fiji 93

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

part of a unified water cycle and should be managed consistently as elements of the water

resources of Fiji.

Water Conservation and ‘Right’ Pricing

One way one can conserve water in Fiji is by pricing it ‘right’. As stated previously, most

of the funding for water and wastewater comes from the revenues generated by pricing.

Current pricing is not even enough to cover operations and maintenance, let alone capital

expenditure. Therefore, Fiji must have water pricing that accurately reflects the true costs

of providing high-quality water and wastewater services to consumers both to maintain

infrastructure and to encourage conservation.

Increasing water supply to meet continually higher demands generally has been the

case in the past, is no longer a viable option for the future because of economic,

social and environmental constraints, as well as physical availability of water. Water

pricing has to be a part of the overall solution in balancing demand and supply.

(Biswas, 2007, p. 222)

According to the European Union, the main and important goals of European Union water

policy are the protection and improvement of the aquatic environment and the contribution

to sustainable, balanced, and equitable water use. Water pricing is one in a series of

possible tools to help achieve these goals (Roth, 2001).

Another school of thought is by environmental economists who argue that the more one

draws from the nature, the less is available for future generations. The sustainability

criterion suggests that, at a minimum, an allocation must leave future generations no worse

off than current generations. Environmental economists have long advocated bringing the

price mechanism more fully in line with ‘full costs’ so that ‘users’ might respond to

‘market signals’—reflecting the true and full costs of production and consumption. Since

water is basic to life, and certainly to one’s quality of life, the pricing of water can be a

powerful means of signalling this importance and scarcity to water users.

Another hard-to-digest fact is that nothing is free in this world. In fact, what seems free

is being paid for by someone somewhere. It is an accepted attitude in developing countries

that people ‘don’t care, it comes free’. People do not utilize resources wisely and

efficiently if they do not have to pay for them.

Water Quality Protection

Fiji has an abundance of fresh surface water and groundwater sources and the increasing

rate of rechargeability suggests that there is less probability of a physical shortage of

water. However, when one looks at both the point and the non-point sources of pollution in

Fiji, it is more likely that the shortage would be due to pollution, or in other words,

shortage of clean water. But the challenge of protecting the water source is difficult as

these are a number of polluters and it is not easy to isolate one from another. Hence, a

collaborative effort is required from the whole community.

The Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) (2006) outlines the

following principle, which is in line with the protection of water quality:

94 V. Kumar

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

. Water sources of good quality must be protected from depletion and pollution by

adequate protection mechanisms, consistent with the rights and interests of those

who may be affected.

. The control of point sources of pollution of water must be applied

comprehensively to ensure that receiving waters in Fiji are protected from all

artificial discharges, including sewage and discharges from industry and mining.

. Measures for controlling water-quality degradation from non-point sources, such

as soil erosion and catchment activities, need to be strengthened.

. Small-scale and fragile water sources (such as shallow island aquifers) which

have value for drinking and domestic use should receive particular attention for

their protection.

. The impact of rivers on the quality of coastal waters should be recognized and

investigated and, where necessary, measures taken to prevent coastal degradation.

Institutional Strengthening

There are a number ofwater agencies in Fiji that normallywork in isolation or withminimum

collaboration. It has to be noted that most problems in this era are classed as ‘complex

problems’ that touch upon several arenas simultaneously and require governmental responses

that involve multiple jurisdictions and departments for effective resolution. Hence, the water

agencies need to strengthen the coordination arrangements betweenwater-use sectors and the

various administrative units that dealwith thosewater resources. This relation or inter-agency

will create synergy and maximize resource utilization.

Stakeholder Involvement and Commitment

The challenges of ensuring that water is conserved and managed wisely are huge and no

single agency can address them in isolation. Strengthening partnerships among

stakeholders (governments, the private sector, NGOs, and donors agencies) is crucial

for any policy implementation. Such cooperation can be factored into the action agendas

and stakeholders’ partnership agreements, which can be established to foster a sense of

commitment and responsibility into any community-awareness programmes undertaken

by government. These partnerships can complement each other and in many instances pool

scarce resources for a common goal. These collaborations can be at country, regional, and

global levels.

Conclusion

Water management in Fiji is a complex issue that permeates other sectors and cannot be

easily solved. Hence, a many-sided approach is the only way to improvement. Education,

training, investment in existing water resources, and safeguarding the groundwater

resource for future use are potential solutions to the problem. Not only the water agencies

with their special and vested interest, but also an integrated community approach are the

way forward for the woes of water management in Fiji.

Water Management in Fiji 95

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4

Note

1. Adopted from Water Demand Management Workshop Nadi, Fiji Islands, Skylodge Hotel, June 1999.

References

Asian Development Bank (2002) Fiji case study—Suva-Nausori, in: Water Supply Fiji Islands, pp. 11–16

(Suva: Asian Development Bank).

Asian Development Bank (2003) Loan to Help Deliver Better Water and Sewerage Services in Fiji, 18 December

(Manila: ADB).

Asian Development Bank (2007) Asian Water Development Outlook (Manila: Asian Development Bank).

Biswas, A. K. (2007) Water as human right in the MENA region: challenges and opportunities, International

Journal of Water Resources Development, 23(2), pp. 209–225.

Bronders, J. & Lewis, J. (1994) Water resources problems on small islands in Fiji. Paper presented at the ‘Water

Down Under 94’ Conference, Groundwater/Surface Hydrology Common Interest Paper, pp. 405–409

(Adelaide: National Conference Publication—Institution of Engineers).

Fiji Times (2006) Water borne diseases on the rise. Fiji Times, 11 February, p. 4.

FijiLive (2008) Fiji Water Bottlers Stop Production, Protest Over New Export Duty. July. Available at

http://www.fiji.gov.fj (accessed 3 March 2009).

Fij-online (2006) Available at http://www.fiji.gov.fj (accessed March 2009).

Indexmundi (2006) Total New Able Water Resources—Fiji. Available at http://www.indexmundi.com/fiji

(accessed March 2009).

Kingston, P.A. (2004) Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality in the Pacific Islands. Situation Analysis and

Needs Assessment Country Reports (WHO: Geneva).

Macfarlane, D. C. (2005) Country Pasture Profiles. 2005. Available at http://www.fao.org (accessed March

2009).

Nuku, W. (2009) Interview by Vinesh Kumar, District Officer, Tavua/Nadarivatu (13 March).

Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) (2006) PfWG Fiji Report of Initial MissionDiscussion

Paper SOPAC Programme for Water Governance (Fiji) (Suva: SOPAC).

Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) (2007a) Available at http://www.pacificwater.org

(accessed March 2009).

Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) (2007b) GEF Hotspot Analysis Diagnostic Report,

Fiji Islands (Suva: SOPAC).

Roth, E. (2001) Water Pricing in the EU: A Review. Euro-Mediterranean Information System on Know-How in

the Water Sector International Portal. Available at http://www.emwis.net/topics/waterpricing/water-pr

icing-eu-review (accessed 9 February 2009).

UNDP (2007) UNDP Human Development Report 2007/2008. Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/

global/hdr2007-2008 (accessed March 2009).

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2006)UNWorld Water Development Report No. 2, 2006 (UNICEF).

Water Supply Department (2007) Annual Report (Suva: Water Supply Department).

World Bank, Environment Department (2004) Environment at a Glance 2004, Fiji. November. Available at

http://siteresources.worldbank.org (accessed March 2009).

World Health Organization (2004) The World Health Report 2004, Fiji. Available at: http://www.who.int/whr/

2004/annex/country/fiji/en/.

96 V. Kumar

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UO

V U

nive

rsity

of

Ovi

edo]

at 0

6:34

28

Oct

ober

201

4