Disability Category: ______Mental Retardation____ Hannah Marshall-SPED 346-Handbook Part 1&2Definition:

Prevalence Causes PreventionThere are two percentages that go along with Mental Retardation. General Population with MR= 2.27%

School age population with MR: 1%

The reason for lower prevalence in the school age is due to the schools using low adaptive behavior as well as low IQ scores and they could also be indentifying students as learning disabled rather than intellectually disabled.

Prenatal causes include: Chromosome disorders for example down syndrome are when you have twenty-one chromosomes.Inborn errors of metabolism such as PKU (phenylketonuria) which is when your body has the inability to convert a dietary supplement that may result in an abnormal brain development. Developmental disorders affecting brain formation such as hydrocephalus which is when you have fluid inside your brain causing damage and can become severe if not treated. Prenatal causes:Anoxia which is when a problem occurs during delivery and the baby losses complete lack of oxygen. Low birth weight is when the baby is born at a low weight or premature. Infections such as syphilis and herpes can be passed during birth.Postnatal causes:Biological causes are infections from toxins like meningitis and encephalitis which is inflation of the brain. Physchosocicial causes such as child neglect or child abuse can result in MR.

Improve nutritional in order toreduce the risk factors for mentalretardation such as low birthweight

Avoid exposure to harmfulchemicals and substancesincluding alcohol, nicotine andcocaine during pregnancy;

Immunization of children withBCG, polio, DPT, and MMR toprevent disorders having thepropensity to damage the brainand thereby causing mentalretardation Rubella immunization;

Screening pregnant women forinfections such as syphilis andpromptly treating it

Prompt treatment for severediarrhea and brain infectionsduring childhood to reduce thechance and extent of braindamage.

Provide an enriching andstimulating environment forchildren from infancy to ensureproper intellectual development

American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) Definition – is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before age 18.AAIDD also states that the following five assumptions are essential to the application of the definitions.1. Limitations in present functioning must be considered within the context of community environments typical of theIndividual’s age peers and culture. 2. Valid assessment considers cultural and linguistic diversity as well as differences in communication, sensory, motor, and behavioral factors. 3. Within an individual, limitations often coexist with strengths 4. An important purpose of describing limitations is to develop a profile of seeded support. 5. with appropriate personalized supports over a sustained period, the life function of the person with mental retardation 9intellectual disability) generally will improve.Most schools classifications of intellectual disabilities according to the American Psychological Association’s classifications of mild (IQ of about 50 to 70), moderate (IQ of about 35 to 50), severe (IQ of about 20 to 35), and profound (IQ below about 20) mental retardation or intellectual disabilities, or close approximation.

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/Accommodations

Psychological and Behavioral characteristics-

Working behavior-involves the ability to keep information in mind while doing another task.

Self regulation-is referring to the ability to regulate ones behavior. People who are intellectually disabled have difficulties with knowing what you are thinking.

Gullibility- is the tendency to believe something that may or may not be realistic. This also relates to people with mild intellectual disabilities.

Each syndrome has their own characteristics such as:

Down syndrome-is linked to low expressive language and high visual skills.

William syndrome-has characteristics that are linked to low visual skills and high expressive language skills.

Fragile X Syndrome-is linked to low short term memory and high adaptive behavior.

Prader-Will syndrome- deals with low auditory processing, compulsive eating and high visual processing.

Teaching Strategies:

Curriculum based measurement can be used to monitor academic progress.

Interviews, observations, and self-reports, some of which are standardized, can be helpful in assessing adaptive behavior.

Standardized questionnaires are available to asses quality of life.

Accommodations for students with intellectual disabilities include modification in:

Scheduling

Presentation format

Response format

Alternate assessment for those who can’t be tested using the traditional methods.

Disability Category: ___Learning Disabled (LD) ____Definition:

Prevalence Causes Prevention

Just fewer than 5% of school-age students are identified as learning disabled, making learning disabilities the largest category of special education.

Learning disabilities have more than doubled since the late 1700s but have begun to decline since the late 1900s.

Boys with LD outnumber girls 3:1

Recent evidence has shown that the central nervous system dysfunctions cause learning disabilities.

Some indications believe that learning disabilities are inherited

Toxins are also agents that can cause malformation in the fetus which can lead to a LD.

Response to Intervention or Response to Treatment: Alternative means of identifying students as learning disabled based on a multitiered model of prevention.TIER I: Primary PreventionA core instructional program found byresearch to be effective for most students in general education.Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM)-where students are screened at the beginning of the school year using CBM.Progress Monitoring Those “at risk”involves using CBM once a week. After 5 weeks, those continuing to struggle on these CBM measures move into Tier 2.TIER 2: Secondary PreventionTier 2 involves small-group tutoring by a teacher or highly trained teacher 3 to 4 times a week, forty-five minutes per day, for fifteen to twenty weeks. Teachers monitor progress frequently using CBM. Multidisciplinary team determines whether student is learning disabled or intellectually disabled before recommending them for Tier 3.TIER 3: Tertiary PreventionFormally identified as needing specialeducation. Students are provided more intensive and individualized programming and progress monitoring

The Federal Definition-signed into law in 1975, minor wording changes-adopted again in 1997 and reauthorized in 2004. This reauthorization of the individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) did not change the 1997 reauthorization.GENERAL-The term “specific learning disability’ means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding orIn using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or doMathematical calculations.DISORDERS INCLUDED- Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, andDevelopmental aphasia.DISORDERS DO NOT INCLUDE-Such term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motordisabilities, or mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act Amendments of 1997, Sec. 602(26), p.13)The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities Definition-The NJCLD deemed it necessary to present their own definition due todissatisfaction with the following factors in the federal definition: Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception and social interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability The NJCLD definition differs from the federal government’s with respect to (1) no reference to psychological processes, (2) inclusion of intrinsic nature of learning disabilities, (3) inclusion of adults, (4) inclusion of self-regulation and social interaction problems, (5) omission of terms difficult to define, (6) purportedly less confusion regarding the exclusion clause, and (7) omission of spelling.

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/AccommodationsPsychological and Behavioral characteristics-

Interindividual Variation- is in any group of students with learning disabilities. One variation for example is heterogeneity. Heterogeneity is a trademark of children from all the categories of special education.

Intraindividual Variation- is the differences among one another, children with learning disabilities also tend to exhibit variability within their own profiles of abilities. Uneven profiles account for references to specific learning disabilities.

Academic Achievement problems- are what you have to have in order for a learning disability to exist. Students with reading disabilities are likely to experience problems with three aspects of reading those are; decoding, reading fluency, and reading comprehension.

Perceptual, perceptual-motor, and general coordination problems- studies indicate that a child with a LD will have visual and/or auditory disabilities. Visual perceptual problems might have trouble solving puzzles or remembering shapes. A child with auditory perceptual problems might have a difficulty discriminating between two words that are nearly alike.

Disorders of Attention and Hyperactivity- is when a student is unable to stick with one task for very long, failing to listen to others, talking nonstop, blurting things out, and disorganized in school. One example of a hyperactivity disorder is ADHD.

Memory and Metacognitive problems- students with LDs have two types of memory problems: short term memory and working memory. Metacognition is the ability to monitor or adjust performance.

Social-Emotional Problems- children with LDs have significant social emotional problems. Such as, nonverbal learning disabilities. This is said to be caused by the malfunctioning of the right half of the brain.

Motivational problems-students with LDs have a problems dealing with all of the life challenges and problems that go along with LD that causes lack of motivation.

Teaching Strategies:

Cognitive training- instructional approaches to alternate metacognitive and motivational problems. Techniques in cognitive teaching are: self instruction, self monitoring, scaffolded instruction, and reciprocal teaching.

Effective instruction- is approaches for reading that are explicit and systematic and focuses on phonological awareness phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.

Effective writing instruction- is explicit and systematic. A good example is the self regulated strategy development model used as an approach that involves planning, knowledge, and skills.

Direct instruction-focuses more directly on academics then cognitive training. It follows these components: field tested scripted lessons, curricula based on mastery learning, rapid instructional pace, achievement grouping and frequent assessments.

Peer tutoring-students with LDs are tutored by classmates without disabilities who are trained by the teacher.

Accommodations:

Curriculum based measurement- is samples of performance on items from the curriculum in which students are being instructed. It typically focuses on oral reading fluency which is how many words the student can read a minute.

Informal reading inventory-is where a series of passages are read and graded in order of difficulty. This also shows the level of progress.

Testing accommodations- students with learning disabilities receive accommodations on tests that alter scheduling, presentation format, and response format. The most common accommodation is extended time limit during the test.

Disability Category: ____ADHD___

Definition:

Prevalence Causes PreventionEstimated between 3%-7% of school population have ADHD

Boys with ADHD out number girls about 3:1

ADHD is NOT recognized as a SEPARATE category of special education.

Five areas of the brains that might be affected with ADHD: prefrontal lobes, frontal lobes, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and corpus callosum.

Research has identified an imbalance in each of two transmitters: dopamine and norepinephrine.

Family studies, twin studies, and molecular genetic studies indicate that heredity may also be a cause of ADHD.

Exposure to toxins such as lead, as well as medical factors such as complications at birth and low birth weight can cause ADHD.

There is no known way to preventattention deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD). Avoiding alcohol, drugs, andsmoking during pregnancy may helpprevent a child from developing behavior similar to ADHD as well as many other health problems.

Research does not support the popularly held views that ADHD is caused by eating too much sugar, watching too much television, parenting, or social and environmental factors such as poverty or family chaos.

Scientists are studying cause(s) and risk factors in an effort to find better ways to manage and reduce the chances of a person having ADHD. The cause(s) and risk factors for ADHD are unknown, but current research shows that genetics plays an important role. Recent studies of twins link genes with ADHD

In addition to genetics, scientists arestudying other possible causes and riskfactors including: Brain injury, premature delivery, low birth weight, alcohol and tobacco, use during pregnancy, and environmental exposures such as lead.

The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)Most professionals rely on the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which usesADHD. The current DSM uses ADHD as the general term and subdivides individuals into (1) ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive Type;(2) ADHD, Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type; and (3) ADHD, combined Type (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

Diagnostic Criteria for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder has been developed by researches and includes a rating scale whichincludes eighteen criteria to be filled out by teachers, parents, and, in some cases, the child. Table 7.1 Page 229Predominantly Inattentive type: if Criterion A1 is met but Criterion A2 is not met for the past 6 months.Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type: if Criterion A2 is met but Criterion A1is not met for the past 6 months.Combined Type: if both Criteria A1 and A2 are met for the past 6 months.

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/Accommodations

Psychological and behavioral characteristics-

Barkley’s theory of ADHD-points to problems with behavioral inhibition, executive functioning, time awareness and management and persistent goal-directed behavior.

Executive functions-the ability to regulate one’s behavior through working memory, inner speech, control of emotions and arousal levels, and analysis of problems and communication of problem solutions to others.

Adaptive behavior skills- skills needed to adapt to one’s living environment( communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure, and work); usually estimated by an adaptive behavior survey; one of two major components of the AAMR definition.

Social behavior problems-many people with ADHD have social difficulties with their parents, siblings, and teaching, This nature of social rejection leads to social isolation.

Coexisting conditions- ADHD often occurs with other behavioral and/or learning problems, such as learning disabilities and emotional or behavioral disorders. People with ADHD usually run higher in population for substance abuse.

Teaching Strategies-

Classroom structure and teacher direction- there are two main things that teachers use in this strategy they are: reducing stimuli irrelevant to learning and enhancing materials important for learning, and a structured programs with a strong emphasis on teacher direction. First off the intensify of structure should be achieved only in a self contained classroom which most ADHD students are in general education classrooms. Most authorities believe that a structured program is important in the early stages of working with many students with ADHD but that these students gradually need to learn to be more independent in their learning. This strategy is still used in today’s professionals.

Functional behavioral assessment- involves determining the consequences, antecedents, and setting events that maintain inappropriate behaviors. Another way of using this approach may include self monitoring or self management programs where the student records their own behaviors.

Accommodations-

Curriculum based measurement- used to assess progress in academics and attention and behavior.

Time sampling-is primary useful when assessing the behavioral progress.

Testing accommodations- often include small groups or individual administration in a quiet location, extended time, and frequent breaks.

Disability Category: __Emotional Disturbance________

Definition:

Prevalence Causes PreventionMost studies show that 6-10% of school age population has emotional or behavior disorders.

Less than 1% is identified as emotionally disturbed.

Boys outnumber girls 5 to 1 when having this type of disorder.

Causes are multiple and complex, and seldom can a single cause be detected.

Biological disorders and diseases- medication helpful but not the only intervention neededPathological family relationships- parents need positive support resourcesUndesirable experiences at school-spiral of negative interactionsNegative cultural influences- increase in level of violence, drug abuse, and changing social standards

Supportive family, safe neighborhood,and good schools Basic needs provided for Nurturing and support Consistent parenting Positive role modeling Emotional & physical nurturing Monitor media exposure School positive attitude Minimal family transitions Parent education

Some factors, such as genetics,influence behavior over a long timeand increase the likelihood that agiven set of circumstances will triggermaladaptive responses. Disease, malnutrition, and braintrauma, can predispose children todevelop emotional or behavioralproblems. We do know that prenatalexposure to alcohol can contribute toomany types of disability, includingemotional or behavioral disorders.

THE FEDERAL DEFINITION: The federal rules & regulations governing the implementation of IDEA define the term emotionally disturbed as follows:1) The term means a condition exhibiting or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time & to a marked extent, whichadversely affects educational performance:a. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.b. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory relationships with peers & teachersc. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;d. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; ore. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.2) The term includes children who are schizophrenic. The term does not include children who a socially maladjusted unless it is determinedthat they are emotionally disturbed. THE NATIONAL MENTAL HEALTH AND SPECIAL EDUCATION COALITION:1) Behavioral disorder means disability characterized by behavioral or emotional responses in school so different from appropriate age,cultural or ethnic norms that they adversely affect educational performance. Includes academic, social, vocational, & personal skills.a. More than a temporary, expected response to stressful events in the environment;b. Is consistently exhibited in two different settings, at least one of which is school-related; andc. Unresponsive to direct intervention in general education or the child’s condition is such that interventions would be insufficient.2) Emotional and behavioral disorders can co-exist with other disabilities.3) May include children with schizophrenic disorders, Affective disorder, anxiety disorder, or other sustained disorders of conduct oradjustment when they adversely affect educational performance in accordance with section.

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/AccommodationsPsychological and Behavioral Characteristics-

Intelligence and achievement- typically, below average IQ (less than 90). Intelligence test aren’t perfect instruments for measuring what we mean by intelligence, and it can be argued that emotional or behavioral difficulties might prevent children from scoring high as they are capable of scoring. The IQ tests are a good predictor of how far a student will progress academically and socially, even in cases of disorders. Students with an emotional or behavioral disorder do not usually achieve at the level expected for their mental age. Many students with severe disorders lack basic reading and arithmetic skills and the few that do have those skills cannot apply them to everyday problems.

Social and emotional characteristics- aggressive, acting-out behavior (externalizing). Immature, withdrawn behavior and depression (internalizing). Including students with emotional and behavioral disorders in general education classrooms may sometimes be problematic since social interactions are a primary area of concern. Children who act out aggressively or impulsively with frequent negative confrontations often are not well liked by their peers.

Teaching Strategies:

Behavior control and academic instruction-is a required as a strategy and to especially keep them balanced. Behavioral control strategies are an essential part of educational programs for student with problems. Without effective control of behavior it is very unlikely that the academic and social learning that is needed will occur.

Importance of Integrated Services-Children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders tend to have multiple and complex needs. In addition to school problems they also have family problems that are a variety of difficulties in the community. Integrating these needed services into a more coordinated and effective effort is and an essential to teaching students with this disorder. S

Strategies that work-successful strategies at all levels. From early intervention through transition, balance concern for academic and social skills and provided integrated services. The strategies include: systematic data based interventions, continuous assessment and monitoring of progress, provision for practice of new skills, treatment matched to the problem, multicomponent treatment, programming for transfer and maintenance and commitment to sustained intervention.

Service delivery- it emphasizes inclusion when appropriate and the importance of a full continuum of alternative placements.

Instruction- it should be highly structured and relevant to the student’s life.

Special disciplinary-some considerations include functional behavioral assessment (FBA) and positive behavioral intervention and support (PBIS).

Disability Category: ____Speech Impairments/Communication Disorders ___________Definition:

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/AccommodationsPsychological and Behavioral Characteristics-

A child with a communication problem may present many different symptoms. These may include difficulty following directions, attending to a conversation, pronouncing words, perceiving what was said, expressing oneself, or being understood.

Problems with language may involve difficulty expressing ideas coherently, learning new vocabulary, understanding questions, following directions, recalling information, understanding and remembering something that has just been said, reading at a satisfactory pace, comprehending spoken or read material, learning the alphabet, identifying sounds that correspond to letters, perceiving the correct order of letters in words, and possibly, spelling. Difficulties with speech may include being unintelligible due to a motor problem or due to poor learning. Sounding hoarse, breathy or harsh may be due to a voice problem. Stuttering also affects speech intelligibility because the child's flow of speech is interrupted.

Strategies-

Facilitating the social use of language- Rather than intensify your effort in structure and content you must teach the student a way of solving problems by making oneself understood and making sense of what other people say. The classroom offers many possibilities for language learning and should provide almost continuous opportunities for the students and teacher to enforce language and obtain feedback in constructive relationships. Question asking- Some teachers ask too many questions or they not know how to modify the question for the child which then adds to the confusion of the child. Teachers can use alternative question asking strategies to help students’ thing through problems successfully. When students fail to answer the higher order question the teacher must then reword it into a simpler question. Teaching Literacy: Reading and Written Expression-Developing literacy is a common problem for students with speech and language disorders. It is very critical for the teacher, speech-language pathologist, and special education teacher to work together to provide an intervention in reading for these students. Metacognitive training, strategy training, and other approaches are used as strategies in this intervention. A strong relationship exists between communication and academic achievement. Language and communication proficiency, along with academic success, depend on whether students can match their communication to the learning-teaching style of the classroom. Students with communication disorders are capable of high academic success if they learn the classroom's social, language, and learning patterns. Teachers and speech-language pathologists should focus their attention on classroom interactions and the language and

Prevalence Causes PreventionExtremely varied, difficult to identify, and often occurs with other disabilities. 6% of school age children have a speech disorder.

Only 1% of school age children have a language disorder.

Specific causes are unknownSome have severe language delays during early childhood developmentVoice disorders may be caused by growths, infections, trauma, or physical disorders (such as cleft palate)Cause of stuttering is unknownA few known causes of communication disorders are: Hearing impairment - full or partial hearing impairment may cause difficulty in speech and language development. An assessment of hearing is one of the first steps in the investigation of speech and language problems. Physical disability - cleft lip and palate, or malformations of the mouth or nose may cause communication disorders. More involved disabilities, such as severe cerebral palsy, may preclude any speech at all and for these non-verbal children augmentative communication methods must be used. Developmental disability - some children (not all) with a developmental disability or Down's Syndrome may be slower to learn to talk and may need extra assistance. Children with learning disabilities may have communication disorders. Many learning disabled children have difficulty with receptive or expressive language. Without appropriate intervention children with communication disorders are at high risk for educational failure.

Early Intervention1. Early intervention is criticallyimportant for two primary reasons:The older the child is when intervention is begun, the smaller the chance that he or she will acquire effective language skills2. Without having functional language, the child cannot become a truly social being. Of all the skills in which a child may be lagging, language communication-is the most important, as it is the foundation of academic & social learning.

Family InvolvementEarly childhood specialists now realize that pre-linguistic intervention is critical for language development-that is, intervention should begin before the child’s language emerges. The role of the parent means a lot ofsimple play with accompanyingverbalizations. Talking to the child about objects & activities in the way most mothers talk to their babies. But also choosing objects, activities, words, & consequences for the child’s vocalizations with great care so the chances that thechild will learn functional language areenhanced.Fetal Alcohol Spectrum DisordersA high proportion of students with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) experience difficulties with social communication.

Communication Disorders Defined Communication involves sharing information between two individuals or among more than two individuals. Communicative functions include requesting, rejecting, commenting, arguing, reasoning, and so on. Communication disorders may involve language or speech or both, and they impair communicative functions. Language sending & receiving ideas-expression & reception-through arbitrary system of symbols according to rules. Speech is the neuromuscular activity of forming and sequencing the sounds of oral language.Definitions of the American Speech-Language-Hearing AssociationI. Communication disorder is impairment in the ability to receive, send, process, & comprehend concepts or verbal & graphic symbolsystems. A communication disorder may range in severity from mild to profound. A communication disorder may result in a primarydisability or it may be secondary to other disabilities.

A. A speech disorder is an impairment of the articulation of speech sounds, fluency, and/or voice.B. The disorder may involve (1) the form of language (phonology, morphology, & syntax), (2) the content of language (semantics),and/or (3) the function of language in communication (pragmatics) in any combination.

II. Communication VariationsA. Communication difference/dialect is a variation of a symbol system used by a group of individuals that reflects & is determined byshared regional, social, or cultural/ethnic factors. A regional, social, or cultural/ethnic variation of a symbol system should not beconsidered a disorder of speech or language.B. Augmentative/alternative communication systems attempt to compensate & facilitate, temporarily or permanently, for theimpairment & disability patterns of individuals with severe expressive and/or language comprehension disorders. Communicationmay be required for individuals demonstrating impairments in gestural, spoken, and/or written modalities.

communications used in the school to help students learn to communicate in these environments.

Accommodations- Dynamic assessments-An interactive assessment process that involves ongoing analysis of student learning in response to an intervention. Curriculum-based language and communication assessment (CBLA)-It measures the communication skills required to participate in school curriculum and the strategies the student employs to conduct curricular tasks. Progress monitoring- Are assessments that are dynamic and should follow a cycle of teaching, testing, and reteaching. This progress monitoring assessments also includes the CBLA talked about above. The Assessment of student outcomes should be implemented to confirm that learning has occurred.

Disability Category: ___ Deaf/Hearing Impairments _______

Definition:

Hearing impairment means impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance but that is not included under the definition of deafness in this section.

Children who can’t hear sounds at or above certain loudness are classified as deaf others with a hearing impairment. A loss of 90dB or greater is the cutoff for deafness. Deaf is a term denoting a partial or total lack of hearing. It may be present at birth (congenital) or may be acquired at any age thereafter. Congenital vs. adventitious deafness-refers to being born deaf vs. acquiring deafness after birth. Prelingual deafness vs. postlingual deafness- refers to deafness occurring before vs. after speech and language development.

Prevalence Causes PreventionAbout 0.13% of students from 6 to 17 years of age are identified as hearing impaired. Those classified as hard of hearing are more prevalent than those identified as deaf.

Difference in definition, populations studied, and accuracy of testing may affect the estimates of the number of children with hearing impairments.

The department of education has strong evidence that indicates students who are hard of hearing are more prevalent than those who are deaf.

Conductive hearing impairment-refers to an interference with the transfer of sound along the conductive pathway of the middle or outer ear. Sensorineural hearing impairment- a hearing impairment usually severe, resulting from malfunctioning of the inner ear. Mixed hearing impairment- a hearing impairment resulting from a combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing impairments. Atresia-absence or closure of a part of the body that is normally open.External otitis- an infection of the skin of the external auditory canal; also called the swimmers ear. Otitis media- an infection of the middle-ear space caused by viral or bacterial factor. Connexin 26 gene-a gene, the mutation of which causes deafness. The leading cause of congenital deafness in children.Congenital cytomegalovirus- the most frequent occurring viral infection in newborns, that results in numerous disabilities including deafness.

Screening test- measures otoacoustic emissions, low intensity sound emitted from the cochlea when stimulated. Pure tone audiometry- a test whereby tones of various intensities and frequencies are presented to determine a person’s hearing loss. Speech audiometry- a technique that tests a person’s detection and understanding of speech, rather than using pure tones to detect hearing loss. Specialized tests- for young children and children who are hard to test include conditioned play audiometry, tympanometry, and brain stem evoked response audiometry.

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/AccommodationsPsychological and behavioral characteristic:

Spoken Language and Speech Development- the most severely affected areas of development in the person with a hearing impairment are the comprehension and production of the English language. The distinction is important between production and comprehension because, people who are hearing impaired can be expert in the form of their own language which is known as sign language. Sign language-is a manual language used by people who are deaf to communicate and is also a true language with its own grammar. Grammatical complexity of Sign language- is handshapes, location, and movement that are combined to create grammar and is as complex as any compared spoken language. Nonuniversality of sign language- a person who is deaf visiting a foreign country has difficulties communicating with other who are deaf, much as a hearing person would. This is because sign language, like spoken languages, evolves over time through common usage. Developmental milestones of sign language- indicates that children who are deaf reach the same language development milestone as a children who can hear reach in spoken language, and do so at about the same time. Neurological foundations of sign language- sign language is a true language that comes from studies that show sign language has the same neurological factors as does spoken language. Intellectual Ability- professionals believe that the spoken language individuals who are deaf were a given sign that they all had intellectual disabilities. But, if they use the American sign language, they are using a true language since it has its own grammar rules. Academic achievement- children who are deaf have large academic achievement problems. Which, is caused because the academic achievement relies on English language skills, and that is the most effect when a child is deaf. Social Adjustment-social development and personality development in the hearing population depends on heavy communication and in this situation it isn’t any different to those who are deaf. People who are deaf can face problems in finding others with whom they can connect with which leads to loneliness. Deaf Culture- these six factors are a part of the true culture of the deaf culture: linguistic differentiation-heart of the deaf culture, attitudinal deafness- refers to a person who thinks he is deaf, behavioral norms- the deaf community differs from those in the hearing society, endogamous marriage- deaf culture people prefer to marry in the group and is frowned on when deaf people marry those who hear, historical awareness-is significant people and events that pertain to the deaf community and voluntary organizational networks- are very important to have in a deaf community such as the national theater of deaf.

Strategies:

Auditory verbal approach- focuses on using audition to improve speech and language development. Auditory oral approach- is similar to the verbal approach but adds the using of visual cues such as speech reading and cued speech. Total commutation/Simultaneous communication- is a blend of oral and manual techniques; the latter being a type of signing English system in which the English word order is preserved. This approach is commonly used in most education programs. Bicultural-bilingual approach- which consists of three features: ASL is considered the primary language, people who are deaf are involved in the development of the program and curriculum, and the curriculum involves instruction in Deaf culture. Technology advances-make it easier for people with hearing impairments to communicate with and have access to information from the hearing world. Some of those are: hearing aids, telephone adaptations and computer assisted instruction. Service delivery models- students who are deaf or hard of hearing can be found in settings from general education classrooms to institutions. Students with hearing impairments are now included to a very high degree in general education classes, they are still served in special schools or settings more than most of the other disability categories.

Accommodations:

Assessing Academic Skills- the assessment for students who are deaf or hard of hearing include measures to monitor student’s progress and to evaluate the student’s outcomes. Performance on measures documenting academic outcome has significant implication for students, these assessments, however, may not be appropriate for students who are hard of hearing or dear. All educators must consider these barrier carefully when making decisions as a result of a child’s outcome that is hard of hear or deaf. Use of sign language- using the sign language professions can use the CBM to monitor progress in reading fluency, reading comprehension, writing, and math. Testing Accommodations- the most common accommodations for deaf student are sign interpretation for directions and for test questions, extended time, and small group or individual administration. Students who are deaf or hard of hearing should also receive response accommodations such as signing responses to an interpreter.

Disability Category: ______ Visually Impaired/Blind _____

Definition:

Prevalence Causes Prevention

Blindness is primarily an adult disability.

10 times more prevalent in adults.

One of the least prevalent disabilities in children.

Less than .5% of students from age 6-17 are visually impaired.

The most common visual problems result from error of refraction:

Myopia-(nearsightedness) Hyperopia-(farsightedness) Astigmatism-(blurred vision)

Some conditions that affect both adults and children:

Glaucoma-is a group of diseases causing damage to the optic nerve.

Cataracts- cause clouding of the lens of the eye.

Diabetic retinopathy- is results from interference of the blood supply to the retina.

Some conditions that affect children: Cortical visual impairment- a poorly

understood childhood condition that involves dysfunction in the visual cortex.

Retinopathy of prematurity-a condition resulting from an excessive amount of oxygen at birth that causes tissue to form behind the lens of the eye.

Optic nerve hypoplasia- a condition resulting in the underdevelopment of the optic nerve.

Retinitis pigmentosa- causes tunnel vision and night blindness.

Improper muscle functions that can cause visual problems:

Strabismus- eyed being turned inward or outward(cross eyed)

Nystagmus- rapid involuntary movements of the eye.

Prevention : Keep healthy blood sugar

levels- high blood sugar can cause damage to the retina).

Check blood pressure regularly- high blood pressure can cause blood vessels to burst which lead to visual impairment.

Have regular eye exams Protect your eyes from UV

rays- the lens allows the eye to focus on the retinal.

Consume a diet rich in antioxidants- antioxidants are responsible for removing free radicals, fragments degradation in the eye.

I dentification: Snellen chart- is the use of

determining visual activity. The chart consists of rows of letter or Es arranged in different positions. Each row corresponds to the distance at which a normally sighted person can discriminate the letters.

Functional vision assessment- involves observing the student interacting in different environments to see how well the student can identify objects and perform various tasks.

Visual impairment including blindness means impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness.

The terms partially sighted, low vision, legally blind, and totally blind are used in the educational context to describe students with visual impairments. They are defined as follows:

“Partially sighted” indicates some type of visual problem has resulted in a need for special education; “Low vision” generally refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily limited to distance vision. Low

vision applies to all individuals with sight who are unable to read the newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even with the aid of eyeglasses or contact lenses. They use a combination of vision and other senses to learn, although they may require adaptations in lighting or the size of print, and, sometimes, Braille;

“Legally blind” indicates that a person has less than 20/200 vision in the better eye or a very limited field of vision (20 degrees at its widest point); and

Totally blind students learn via Braille or other non-visual media.

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/AccommodationsPsychological and behavioral characteristics:

Language development- is largely unaffected, although subtle development delays can occur, especially in infancy. The child who is blind can still hear language and might even be more motivated than the sighted child to use language.

Intellectual ability- It is known by numerous tests and comparisons done that there is no reason to believe that blindness results in lower intelligence. Children who are visually impaired should foster a sense of exploration to learn and teachers should provide intensive and extensive instruction which includes repetition that the child needs to help develop their conceptual abilities.

Orientation and mobility- is the ability to have a sense of where one in relation to other people, objects, and landmarks and to move through the environment. People with visually impairment can process spatial information either sequentially or as a cognitive map. Some people with visual impairment have the obstacle sense, the ability to detect objects by noting subtle changes in high frequency echoes.

Academic Achievement- studies show that some students who are blind experience low academic achievement, which is most likely due to low expectations or lack of experience to Braille. Phonological awareness is important for learning to read print or Braille.

Social adjustment-any of the problems that people with visual impairment are largely due to sighted society’s reactions to blindness. Some people with visual impairment engage is stereotypic behaviors which are believed to attempt to stabilize arousal levels. Some examples of these behaviors include; repetitiveness, body rocking, poking or rubbing eyes, repetitive hand or finger movements, and grimacing. Professionals disagree about whether to intervene with these behaviors or not.

Strategies

Ability to read Braille- people believe that the use of Braille is very important for people to use if visually impaired but has seemed to slip to low levels. Braille bills have helped to ensure that students receive instruction in Braille. Teacher must also be proficient with using Braille in order to help these types of students.

Use of remaining sight- large print books are used for visually impaired and can have font all the way up to 30pt. But, the bad thing about these books is that they are bigger than normal books and need a lot of storage space. Magnifying devices is also a recommendation instead of large print books. These can be handheld or mounted for the students use. Not only are they used for visually impaired these devices and be used for low visions students to.

Listening skills- are very important to visually impaired students. People believe that listening skills will develop automatically to those children who are blind. However, in most cases these children must be taught how to listen first.

Orientation and Mobility training- includes learning to use a long cane that helps the student with support and balance, guide dogs which show the visually impaired person where they are going and can alert owners of dangerous areas, tactile maps can be use to show representations of things around them like buildings and sidewalks, human guides are not normally recommended but can be used at times when you don’t have any of the other mobility items and technology aids which are used for communication and information access These include Braille note takers, personal data assistant, and screen readers for computers.

Service delivery models- the four major educational placements for students with visual impairments are: residential schools, special class, resource room, and general education classroom. Itinerant teacher service is the most common service delivery model and compared to other areas of disability residential placements.

Accommodations: Curriculum based measurement-is an effective method of

measuring the academic progress of students with visual impairments in the particular curriculum to which they are exposed.

Assessment of functional skills- O&M instructors can monitor travel skills using GPS devices

Testing accommodations-Professionals can assess academic outcomes using Braille versions of tests. Testing accommodations include testing in Braille, large bring and having extended time.

Disability Category: _______ Autism ______ Definition:

Prevalence Causes Prevention0.6% has an autism disorder

27% of students 6-17 are identified and receiving special education

Autism increased in recent decades

Males outnumber females 3:1

1 out of 110 persons has an autism

spectrum disorder.

Early causal theories- were influenced by psychoanalytic thinking and blamed parents, often mothers, for causing autism by being too cold and unresponsive.

Neurological basis- several areas of the brain are implicated, such as the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampus, corpus callosum, brain stem, and cerebellum. This has led authorities to view autism spectrum disorder as a disorder of neural networks.

Genetic basis- evidence indicates that heredity as well as spontaneous genetic mutations is involved in causing autism. There is evidence that no single gene results in autism. Even if they aren’t diagnosed as autistic, family members of those with autism are more likely to exhibit autistic-like characteristic at a subclinical level.

The diagnosis of autism is often made my psychiatrist using criteria established by the APA that focus on communication skills, social interventions, and repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior.

6 months: no big smiles or other warm, joyful expressions.

9 months: no back and forth sharing of sounds, smiles, or other facial expressions.

12 months: no consistent response to own name, no babbling, and no back and forth gestures, such as pointing, showing , reaching, waving, or gaze.

16 months: no words 24 months: no two

word meaningful phrases.

Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, which adversely affects a child’s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements,resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences.

Autism does not apply if a child’s educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance, as defined in paragraph (c) (4) of this section. (iii) A child who manifests the characteristics ofautism after age three could be identified as having autism if the criteria in paragraph

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/AccommodationsPsychological and behavioral characteristics:

Impaired social interaction- many of the social interaction problems that individuals with autism exhibit involve deficits in social responsiveness. The child with autism might not show a different response to parent, siblings, or their teachers compared to other strangers. They might not smile in social situations, or they might smile or laugh when nothing appears to be funny. Also their eye gaze often differs significantly from that of others. They sometimes avoid eye contact with other or look out of the corner of their eyes. These characteristics persist and prevent the child from developing typical attachments to their parents or friendships with their peers.

Impaired communication- most children with autism lack communicative intent or the desire to communicate for social purposes. Those who develop speech usually show abnormalities in intonation, rate, volume, and content of their oral language.

Repetitive and stereotyped behavior- behavior that consists of repetitive, ritualistic motor behaviors such as twirling, spinning objects, flapping the hands, and rocking. Another characteristic is extreme fascination with objects and a very restricted range of interests.

Impaired cognition- the difference of visual and spatial abilities relative to language and conceptual abilities. Most individuals with autism display cognitive deficits similar to those of people with intellectual disabilities. Some cognitive processing procedure seems to be peculiar to autism. Autistic savants- might have relatively severe autism, in that they show serious developmental delays in overall social and intellectual functioning. People with this condition also show remarkable ability or apparent talent in particular skills.

Abnormal sensory perceptions- some people with autism are either hyperresponsive or hyporesponsive to particular stimuli in their environment. Some people with autism are totally opposite of hyperresponsive. They are very unresponsive to auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli. Some people with autism experience a neurological mixing of the senses, or synaesthesia. Synaesthesia- occurs when the stimulation of one sensory or cognitive system results in the stimulation of another sensory or cognitive system.

Strategies and accommodations:

Direct instruction of skills- effective instruction for students with autism spectrum disorder usually requires a highly structured, directive approach that uses basic principles of behavioral psychology for analyzing tasks and how best to teach them. Applied behavior analysis is a highly structured approach that focuses on teaching functional skills and continuous assessment of progress. ABA is also a comprehensive approach that emphasizes positive reinforcement or rewarding of desired behaviors.

Instructions in natural settings- educators of these students are increasingly emphasizing applying behavioral psychology in natural setting and in natural interactions. These kinds of settings are places where children without disabilities can enjoy.

Behavior management- students with autism sometimes display highly inappropriate behaviors, such as biting, hitting, or screaming. The functional behavior assessment and positive behavioral intervention and support may reduce or eliminate these behaviors. FBA involves determining the consequences and setting events that maintain such behaviors.

Coaching- a technique where a friend or therapist offers encouragement and support for the student.

Service delivery models- the emphasis on teaching children with autism spectrum disorders in more natural context of everyday interactions and environments. In this model, general educators and special educators work together to meet the individual needs of students with autism. Some of the effective instruction use with children with autism requires one on one teaching or teaching in very small groups. This model is increasing taught in neighborhood schools and general education classrooms.

Progress monitoring- the language of individuals with autism significantly affects their long term life outcomes, and should be a focus of intervention for most of the students. The sources included while monitoring these students include natural language samples collected in various communicative contests, parent report via questionnaire or interviews, and direct assessment through standardized measures. The content of language assessments should be comprehensive, including measures of phonology, vocabulary, syntax, and pragmatics.

Disability Category: ________Deaf/Blind Dual Sensory Impairments; Multiple Disabilities _____

Definition:

Prevalence Causes Prevention

About 10,000 people age birth to twenty-two years old are deaf-blind.

About 35,000-40,000 adults are deaf-blind.

Genetic/Chromosomal syndromes- Some of these syndromes are inherited, and some result from damaged genetic and/or chromosomal material. Dozens of these syndromes are now known to be associated with deaf-blindness. The most common are CHARGE syndrome, Usher syndrome, and Down syndrome. CHARGE syndrome- a genetic syndrome resulting in deaf-blindness characterized by physical anomalies, often including coloboma, cranial nerves, heart defects, atresia, retardation in growth and mental development, genital abnormalities, ear malformation and/or hearing loss. Usher syndrome- an inherited syndrome resulting in hearing loss and retinitis pigmentosa, a progressive condition characterized by problems in seeing in low light and tunnel visions. There are three different types of Usher syndrome, differing with respect to when it occurs developmentally and the range of the major symptoms of hearing impairment, vision impairments, and balance problems. Down syndrome- a condition resulting from an abnormality with the twenty-first pair of chromosomes. The most common abnormality is a triple rather than a pair. This syndrome is characterized by intellectual disability and such physical signs as slanted appearing eyes, hypotonic, a single palmar crease, shortness and a tendency toward obesity.

Prenatal condition- like Down syndrome two prenatal conditions are rubella and congenital cytomegalovirus which can cause intellectual disability and/or deaf-blindness.

Postnatal conditions- among the most common postnatal conditions that can cause deaf blindness are meningitis and TBI. Meningitis is an infection of the covering of the brain and can also cause intellectual disability.

Outcomes for individuals with deaf-blindness depend on at least three factors:

The quality and intensity of instruction the person receives are critical- teachers of students with deaf-blindness must make the most of every opportunity for learning.

The degree and type of visual impairment and auditory impairment can vary dramatically in individuals with deaf-blindness- the term deaf-blindness covers those with visual impairments ranging from low vision to those who are totally blind. The most severe impairments, the greater the impact on a person’s ability to adapt.

The vast majority of students who are deaf-blind have other disabilities and medical conditions- for example, they can be intellectually disabled, autistic and/or have physical disabilities.

IDEA defines deaf blindness and deafness as the following:

Deaf-blindness means concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.

Deafness means a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Multiple disabilities is a disability category under IDEA. As you might expect, children with multiple disabilities have two or more disabling conditions that affect learning or other important life functions. To qualify for special education services under this category, both of the student's disorders must be so significant that her educational needs could not be met in programs that are designed to address one of the disabilities alone

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/Accommodations

Psychological and behavioral characteristics-

Problems accessing information- for people who are deaf-blind and the access to the usual sources of information is more difficult than for those who are sighted. And because communication depends largely on the availability of information, restricted access to information can have a negative impact on the ability to communicate.

Problems communicating- most authorities agree that the biggest obstacle faced by people with deaf-blindness is communication. Without a strong commitment by teachers and other professionals and parents to providing a variety of opportunities for communication. The child who is deaf-blind can easily becomes socially isolated.

Pattern of isolation- is very difficult to reverse. It is critical that professionals and parents work together to provide an environment that’s as supportive and rich in communication opportunities as possible.

Importance of language rich environment- a good example of this is from Helen Keller. This testimony in the movie is very powerful and shows how she overcomes overwhelming odds. This example is used to gain the importance of language rich environment because Helen was also deaf-blind and can relate to the students with this disability.

Problems navigating the environment- people who are blind or who has low vision can have significant difficulties with mobility. For people who are deaf blind these problems are even more mentioned. People who are both deaf and blind are restricted in their ability to make use of auditory signals for navigating the environment.

Teaching strategies and accommodations-

Importance of direct teaching- many students with disabilities are more reliant that those without disabilities on having teachers teach them directly. Because of these students restricted sensory input, this need for direct teaching of information is even more pronounced for students who are deaf-blind than it is for children with other disabilities.Importance of structured routines- it’s critical that teachers and other professional and parents provide a sense of security for students who are deaf-blind. One of the best ways to create this sense of security is through the use of structured routines. Communication- the hands play a critical role in communication for most students who are deaf-blind. The hands become the voice or the primary means of expression. Professions use a number of models of communication that involve touch with people who are deaf-blind.Hand over hand guidance- involves the adult placing his or her hand over the child’s hands while exploring an object or signing. Some children are resistant to this technique, apparently because they don’t like the feeling of loss of control over their hands. Some children will wait for someone else’s hand to be placed over theirs rather than reaching out on their own. Adapted signs-signs adapted for use by people who are deaf-blind. Tactically based rather than visually based, such as American Sign Language for those who are deaf but not sighted. Touch cues-tactual signals used to communicated with persons who are deaf-blind. Can also be used to signify a variety of messages. Orientation and mobility-the ability to have a sense of where one is in reaction to other people, objects, and landmarks and to move through the environment. Training is even more important than for those who are only blind because they are at even greater risk of being unable to navigate the environment. Consideration for students with usher- they might start out with good vision, but their vision decline to the point which they are legally blind. Parents and teachers of children with Usher syndrome might neglect the importance of preparing the child for the fact that they will one day be substantial visual impaired. Early training in Braille and O&M- most authorities agree that Braille and O&M training should not wait until the student can no longer function as a seeing individual.

Disability Category: __________ Traumatic Brain Injury ___________

Definition:

Prevalence Causes PreventionAbout .5% of school age children acquire TBI

As many as 4% may have TBI by end of high school.

Male are more prone than females

Children less than five years old- accidental falls are the dominant cause of TBI, also vehicular accidents and child abuse cause substantial injuries as well.

After age five and through adolescence- vehicular accidents account for the majority of TBI. Assaults and gunshot wounds are increasingly prevalent among young adults at older ages.

Closed head injuries- may be caused by a variety of events besides vehicular accidents, including a fall or abuse such as violent shaking of a child by an adult.

In accidents, damage can be reduced by use of seat belts, child safety seats and motorcycle helmets, and presence of roll bars and airbags. Education programs exist to lower the number of crashes. In addition, changes to public policy and safety laws can be made; these include speed limits, seat belt and helmet laws, and road engineering practices.

An increase in use of helmets could reduce the incidence of TBI. Improved equipment design can enhance safety; softer baseballs reduce head injury risk.

Falls can be avoided by installing grab bars in bathrooms and handrails on stairways; removing tripping hazards such as throw rugs; or installing window guards and safety gates at the top and bottom of stairs around young children.

Playgrounds with shock-absorbing surfaces such as mulch or sand also prevent head injuries.

Child abuse prevention is another tactic; programs exist to prevent shaken baby syndrome by educating about the dangers of shaking children.

Gun safety, including keeping guns unloaded and locked, is another preventative measure.

Traumatic brain injury means an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Traumatic brain injury applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem-solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech. Traumatic brain injury does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma.

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/AccommodationsThe following characteristics are essential features of appropriate education for students with TBI:

1. Transition from a hospital or rehabilitation center to the school.

2. A team approach involving regular and special educators, other special teachers, guidance counselor, administrators, and the student’s family.

3. An individualized education (IEP) concerned with cognitive, social/behavioral, and sensorimotor domains.

4. Educational procedures to help students solve problems in focusing and sustaining attention for long periods, remembering previously learned facts and skills, learning new things, dealing with fatigue, and engaging in appropriate social behavior.

5. Emphasis on the cognitive processes through which academic skills are learned, not just curriculum content.

6. Plans for addressing long-term needs in addition to immediate and annual IEP goals.

It’s critical that educator understand the implication of the brain injury for structuring the student’s psychological and social environments in school.

Students with TBI might acquire a language disorder after a period of normal development, or acquire a more severe language disorder than existed before the injury.

Motor speech disorder- is a loss of ability to understand and formulate language due to brain injury.

Social and emotional problems- the emotional and behavior effects of TBI are determined by more than the physical damage. They also depend on the student’s age at the time of the injury and the social environment before and after the injury.

These accommodations are intended to "level the playing field" for students with TBI. Using these strategies will give the student a better teaching environment in the classroom.

Assist the student in finding qualified, volunteer note takers and/or laboratory assistants

Permit lectures to be taped and provide copies of lecture notes where appropriate

Try to avoid using overly complicated language on exam questions

In dealing with abstract concepts, paraphrase them in specific terms and illustrate them with concrete examples, personal experiences, hands-on models, and visual structures such as charts and graphs

Make required readings available prior to the first day of class to allow students time to start assigned readings early or to scan or have their books put on tape

Prepare a syllabus with clear expectations, reading assignments, and exam dates to provide needed structural and organizational assistance

Students should not be exempt from examinations or be expected to master less content or a lower level of scholastic skills because of a TBI. Alternative means of assessing their course achievements may be necessary. Students themselves often have many excellent suggestions on testing and evaluation strategies

Allow the student the same anonymity as other students

Disability Category: _________Orthopedic Impairments (OI) ______

Definition:

Physical disabilities are physical limitation or health problems that interfere with school attendance or learning to such an extent that special service, training, equipment, materials, or faculties are required.

May be congenital or acquired. May be acute or chronic, episodic or progressive. e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis. May be accompanied by other disabilities, such as intellectual disability and emotional or behavioral disorders, or special gifts or talents.

e.g. cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures

Major categories are neuromotor impairments, orthopedic pr musculoskeletal disorders, and other conditions that affect health or physical abilities.

IDEA definition of OI is: a severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly, impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures).

Prevalence Causes PreventionStudents with orthopedic disabilities .14%

Students with other health problems .76%

Orthopedic impairments includes impairments due to the effects of congenital anomaly (e.g., clubfoot, absence of some member, rheumatoid Arthritis, etc.), impairments due to the effects of disease (e.g., muscular dystrophy, bone tuberculosis, etc.), and impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures).

Cerebral palsy- is a condition characterized by paralysis, weakness, and lack of coordination and/or other motor dysfunctions caused by damage to the brain before it has matured.

Quadriplegia- a condition in which all four limbs are paralyzed.

Paraplegia- a condition in which both legs are paralyzed.

Spasticity-stiffness or tenseness of muscles and inaccurate voluntary movement.

Choreoathetoid-the term applied to abrupt, involuntary movements and difficulty balancing.

Atonic- floppiness or lack of muscle tone.

Accidents- failure to wear seat belts and other safety devices account for many disabling injuries.

Substance abuse and un healthful practices- also driving under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, careless storage of drugs during pregnancy, and a host of unsafe and un healthful practices that could be avoided cause many disabilities.

Teenage pregnancy- teenage mothers are more likely than older women to be physically battered. Preventing teen pregnancies would keep many babies from being born with disabilities. Inadequate prenatal care also contributes to the number of babies born disabled.

Child abuse- is a significant contributing factor in creating physical disabilities. Children who are already disabled physically, intellectually, or emotionally are more at risk for abuse than are non disabled children.

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/AccommodationsPsychological and behavioral characteristic-

Academic achievement- many students physical disabilities have erratic school attendance because of hospitalization, visits to physicians, bed rest, and so on. Some learn well with ordinary teaching methods, other requires special methods because they have intellectual disability or sensory impairments in addition to physical disabilities. Because of frequent interruptions in schooling, some fall considerably behind their age peers in academic achievement, even though they have normal intelligence and motivation.

Personality Characteristics- children and youths with physical disabilities are as varied in their psychological characteristics as nondisabled children, and they are apparently responsive to the same factors that influence the psychological development of other children. How children adapt to their physical limitation and how they respond to social interpersonal situations greatly depend on how parents, siblings, teachers, peers, and the public react to the children.

Public reactions- public attitudes can have a profound influence on how children with physical disabilities see themselves and on their opportunities for psychological adjustment, education, and employment. Public policy regarding children’s physical disabilities has not met the needs of most of these children and their family. To the extent that other people can see children with physical disabilities as people who have certain limitation but are otherwise just like everyone else, children and youths with disabilities will be encouraged to become independent, productive members of society.

Children’s and families’ reactions- children’s reactions to their own physical disabilities are largely a reflection of how others respond to them. They are more likely to see themselves as normal if they are treated that way, and encouraged to participate in regular activities. They will also have realistic self perception and set realistic goals for themselves only to the extent that other is honest and clear in appraising their conditions.

Special seating arrangements may need to be made to develop useful posture and movements. This can include special chairs or desks.

Activities are focused on development of the students gross and fine motor skills.

Having suitable augmentative communication and other assistive devices. Augmentative communication is communicating without speech (nonverbal).

Awareness of the affects the medical condition might have on the student. For example, is if the student gets tired easily

If your student is in a wheelchair sit at eye level if the conversation is going to be a long one.

Always ask before you give assistance.

Disability Category: _______Other Health Impairments (OHI)- _______ Definition:

Legal definition- IDEA states that: Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that—(I) Is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and adversely affects a child’s educational performance. What’s central to all the disabilities falling under “Other Health Impairment” is that the child must have: limited strength, vitality, or alertness due to chronic health problems; and an educational performance that is negatively affected as a result. OHI disabilities that are included: ADD and AH/HD, diabetes , epilepsy , heart conditions , hemophilia , lead poisoning , leukemia , nephritis , rheumatic fever , sickle cell anemia , and tourette syndrome.

Prevalence Causes Prevention449,093 students between the ages of 6 to 21 years of age were identified as having other health impairments.

This graph represents approximately 7.5 percent of all students having a classification in special education.

The causes of other health impairments are: infections, genetic factors, and environmental influences.

Infections- numerous diseases are caused by infections. They do not cause particular health impairments to the average child, but some infections produce long lasting consequences and can lead to death. A common infection such as streptococcus throat infection can result in rheumatic fever and heart problems. Infections cause HIV, cancers, and tuberculosis. Seizure disorder can result from brain infections such as meningitis and encephalitis.

Genetic factors-there is genetic predispositions that are part of the reason for development of diabetes, asthma, attention deficit disorder, and specific cancers. In addition, environmental factors or infections can work in conjunction with genetic factors to cause a condition. Diabetes is a disease of genetic susceptibility. That means the child can be born with genetic that makes him prone to diabetes.

Environmental influences- teratogens are environmental influences that prohibit normal growth of the fetus. They include exposure of the mother to infections, radiation, drugs, tobacco, or alcohol. Prenatal substance exposure increases a child’s risk for developing other conditions such as AD/HD, seizure disorder, and HIV.

Some Other Health Impairments can be treated with medication while others may be genetic and UN preventable.

Determining the presences of Other Health Impairments- The first part of the process is to take a medical history. If you are working with a child, any information about symptoms that you have noticed should be documented in writing and given to the parents. They need to share the information with the doctor. After a diagnosis and plan of treatment is made, the child may have the ability to return to school, but with some modifications in his/her classroom. For students with cognitive and behavior changes, a full evaluation including intelligence testing, achievement testing, and behavior rating scales are needed to decide if the student will qualify for special education.

Characteristics Teaching Strategies/AccommodationsThere are numerous complex challenges facing children with health impairments. Common issues are: “loss of sense of control, lack of understanding about the condition, fear, worry, anxiety, stress, anger, and guilt, changes in family dynamics, isolation, isolation, medical noncompliance, boredom, depression, pain, decreased self-esteem, negative body image, and impact on identity and social interactions, including those at school” Some general characteristics faced by individuals with other health impairments may include but not limited to:

Fatigue Mobility issues

Issues involving attention

Coordination difficulties

Muscle weakness

Frequent absences or lateness’s to school

Stamina

Inability to concentrate for long periods of time

As IDEA’s definition of OHI makes clear, health impairment affects a student’s educational performance. In fact, for a child to qualify for special education services in the public schools, the OHI must affect the child’s educational performance.

When a child is found to be eligible for special education, he or she will also be eligible to receive related services in school which can be very valuable and relevant to the child’s needs. Related services are provided as required to enable children with disabilities to benefit from their special education. Two in particular come to mind for children who have an OHI:

Medical services, which are provided for diagnostic and evaluative purposes only, and which are defined as services provided by a licensed physician to determine a child’s medically related disability that results in the child’s need for special education and related services.

School health services and school nurse services, which are defined by IDEA as health services that are designed to enable a child with a disability to receive FAPE as described in the child’s IEP. School nurse services are services provided by a qualified school nurse. School health services are services that may be provided by either a qualified school nurse or other qualified person.