Social Studies 10-European History

Ancient GreeceChapter 5- Ancient Greece

I. Greek Culture Grew Up Around the Aegean SeaA. Geography Shaped Greek Culture

1. Greece has a rugged terrain2. There are no navigable rivers, but there are coastlines w/

inlets and bays3. The Sea

a. the Aegean Sea, along with the Black and Ionian Seas, were the link that united the Greek people

b. they were also a link to other societiesc. sea travel and trade was vital b/c of the Greek lack of

resources4. The Land

a. about ¾ of Greece is mountainb. the terrain caused the people to start independent

communitiesc. small, but fertile valleys; couldn’t feed a high

populationd. meat was rare; the main diet was grapes, olives, and

grain5. The Climate

a. Greece has a Mediterranean Climatei. moderate temperaturesii. rain only in winter

b. Greek men spent their leisure time at the agora (marketplace), gymnasium, political meetings, and civic + religious celebrations

c. b/c of open gatherings and small settlements, everyone knew each other

B. Rich Cultures Arose in the Bronze Age1. in the island of Crete, the Minoan civilization flourished2. Cretan civilization

a. the Minoans were a sea-faring people w/ great powerb. thrived on trade- they were safe on their island (no

fortification)c. quality of life was high; alarming equality for the erad. had plumbing and other advanced technologye. they disappeared between 1400 and 1200 BC for unknown

reasons3. mainland Greece in the Bronze Age

a. around 2000 BC Greek-speaking people moved to the mainland

b. they are often called Mycenaeans b/c of their leading city, Mycenae

c. Mycenae was built on a ridge, and well defendedd. Similar forts dotted the southern part of Greece

4. Bronze Age Societya. the nobles lived in great splendorb. this wealth was made by plundering villagesc. only the warrior-kings had weapons of bronze, the rest

had only stone or wood

5. The Trojan Wara. wars thrived in the Bronze Ageb. the most famous was the Trojan Warc. the Mycenaeans seized the great city of Troy

C. Dark Ages Interrupted Civilization1. Mycenaean civilization ended shortly after the Trojan War;

they were destroyed by the mysterious “Peoples of the Sea”2. The Dorian migration (1150-750 BC)

a. the Dorians spoke Greek; movement very advancedb. moved into the war-torn Greek southlandsc. the art of writing was lost

3. The poems of Homera. Dark Ages relied on spoken word

i. Bards- (wandering poets) told stories that glorified old heroes of Mycenae + Troy

ii. Epics- the poems the bards wroteb. Homer was great bard who wrote the Iliad + the Odyssey

4. The heroic ideala. arete- the ideal of striving for excellence, showing

courage, and winning fame and honor5. The Olympic games

a. the Greeks met at a field called Olympia to compete in many athletic competitions

b. the games lasted five days; the prize was an olive wreath

D. Greeks Worshipped Humanlike Gods1. the major Greek gods lived in Mount Olympus2. there were also minor and household gods and spirits3. there was no powerful priest class in Greece

II. Greek City-States Competed for PowerA. The Polis

1. polis- the Greek name for a city-statea. included a city and the surrounding countrysideb. acropolis- the meetingplace on a fortified hilltop

2. the polis was the central force in Greek lifea. citizenship was based on the ideal of free and rational

individualsb. there were no kings or emperors

B. Power Passed from Kings to Citizens1. the Greece of the warrior-kings greatly differed w/ the city-

states2. the use of iron weapons made the citizens warriors too; people

besides the rich could buy weapons and armora. hoplites- Greek citizens/soldiersb. phalanx- a Greek military formation with eight ranks of

soldiers who made a front wall with their spears3. The rise of tyrants

a. the people could now rise against the kings b/c they could afford weapons

b. these rebels were often lead by a man from the nobility who had lost a feud with another noble

c. these nobles who led the rebellions were called tyrantsd. the tyrants were great builders and very popular with

the peoplee. many city-states gained colonies during the time of the

tyrantsf. two very powerful city-states emerged, Athens & Sparta

C. Sparta Built an Army State1. Sparta was located in the southern part of Greece, in

Peloponnesus2. The Spartans, instead of looking for colonies, invaded

neighboring Messenia; the Messenians became slaves called helots

3. The Code of Lycurgusa. Lycurgus was a leader of Sparta who gave it its lawsb. It stressed self-discipline and endurance

4. after age seven, all males became part of the military5. even girls led active lifestyles6. for many years, they had the strongest military, but as a

result, they created very little art, literature or architecture

D. Athens turned to Democracy1. Athens took the opposite route of Sparta

a. they acted as free people, and created a democracyb. democracy- a government in which the people have the

final say2. Solon’s reforms

a. Solon avoided a civil war by introducing economic and political reforms

b. he canceled all debts, made farming profitable, and encouraged industry by requiring every father to teach his son a trade

c. he also allowed every male citizen to attend the assembly, and began a new legal system in which any citizen could bring charges against anyone who committed a wrong

3. Cleisthenes’s reformsa. introduced further reforms; enacted a series of laws

that made Athens a full democracyb. he increased the power of the Athenian assembly, and he

created the Council of 500 to propose laws & advise the assembly

c. Athens became a democracy, but women, slaves, and foreigners were not allowed to participate in it

E. The Greeks Turned Back the Powerful Persians1. the first historian, Herodotus, gave us the story of the

Persian War2. The first invasion

a. the Greeks settled in Ionia, which was conquered by Persia; when the Greeks of Ionia rebelled against the Persians, the Persian King Darius invaded Greece

b. the Persians met the small Athenian army at Marathon, and were defeated

c. then, a runner ran 26 miles back to Athens to tell of the victory

3. The second invasiona. Darius’s son, Xerxes, invaded Greece with an army and

navyb. The large Persian army met no resistance as it marched

toward Athens until it came to a narrow mountain pass at Thermopylae, where many Greeks, including Spartans blocked the way

c. The Persians found it difficult to defeat the Greeks, and eventually the Spartans told the rest of the army to

retreat; the Spartans attempted to hold the pass themselves, and were all killed

d. Then, Themistocles told the Athenians to pin their hopes on a sea victory; the small Athenian navy defeated the Persian navy at Salamis

e. Then, the Persian’s army was defeated by the Spartans at Plataea

4. Consequences of the Persian Wara. Athens basked in the glory of the Persian defeatb. The city suffered the most damage, and their pride

soaredc. After the war, Athens led an alliance of city-states

called the Delian League; soon Athens controlled all of the other members

III. Athens Led Greece in its Golden AgeA. Pericles Sought Glory for Athens

1. Pericles led Athens during its golden age2. He tried to strengthen Athenian democracy, build a commercial

empire, and to glorify Athens3. He used the Delian League to enlarge the wealth and power of

Athensa. He used the money to build a strong navy, beautify

Athens, buy gold, ivory, and marble, and build architectural masterpieces such as the Parthenon

B. Art Flourished in Athens1. Phidias was a great sculptor who worked on the Parthenon and

statue of Athens2. Classical art- as artstyle which valued the values of order

balance, and proportionC. The Greeks Invented Drama

1. During the golden age, 2 playwrights, Aeschylus and Sophocles competed for the ivory wreatha. Sophocles wrote the most famous Greek drama, Oedipusb. They both wrote tragedies

2. tragedy- a type of drama where the play portrayed men and women of strong character whose very strong characteristics led to their downfall

3. drama was a form of entertainment and public educationD. Athens Prospered in the Golden Age

1. the city of Athens itself was crowded + loud, smelly2. most citizens owned slaves3. women had few rights; were isolated from world + men4. most Athenians lived in plain, mud-brick homes5. their beautiful vases were their biggest export

Ancient RomeChapter 6- The Roman Republic (1000 -27 B.C.)

I. The Romans Built a Great CityA. The Myth of Romulus and Remus

1. Mars- god of war for Romans2. Mars fathers Romulus and Remus3. Each takes one hill south of the Tiber River4. Romulus kills Remus in a dispute; the name Rome comes from

RomulusB. Geography

1. Italy is well-situated in the Mediterranean; Rome was the midpoint of Italy

2. Tiber, Po, and Rubicon rivers3. Alps and Apennines

a. Alps- located in Northern Italyb. Apennines- run north and south, separating Italy’s east

and westC. The Latins (1000 B.C.) were predominately farmers and shepherds at

first; they were greatly influenced by the Greeks (750-600 B.C.)D. The Greek gods and goddesses were adopted by the Latins

(Jupiter=Zeus)E. Etruscan Influence (950-509 B.C.)

1. Intro: Rome was several Latin villages lying on the south of the Tiber River. Shortly after 600 B.C. the Roman villages were seized by an Etruscan warlord who imposed political unity among the villages.

2. Single government under a king was established (c. 600 B.C.)a. King had the most powerb. King was advised by the Senate, which was composed of

300 rich men who represented their families.c. Free men- bulk of the citizens were given voice in 2

assembliesi. curiae- units of 30 members based on warrior clansii. centuries- assignment to a century was based on wealth; made up of all citizens eligible for military service

d. real power was w/ the senate and king3. Classes

a. patricians- wealthy landowners, founders of Rome, predominant influence over society

b. plebians- merchants, artisans, and farmers; little wealth or power, could not marry patricians

c. The “Struggle of the Orders” referred to the struggle for power b/w the 2 groups

d. Clients- an institution under which a noble patron (patrician) provided legal protection and material assistance to his client (plebian), and the client in return performed various services, including following political directions

F. Revolution Against the Etruscans1. Intro: The Etruscans were losing dominance over their regions

to the Carthaginians and Greeks shortly before 500 B.C. They could not keep up economically.

2. Revolutiona. the Patricians took the lead in the revolution and

replaced the king w/ 2 consulsb. consul- elected annually from the Patrician ranks to

wield the imperium, that is the highest executive authority of the state

3. The Roman Republic (509 B.C.): The revolution marked the beginning of the Roman Republica. Republic- a govt. in which the citizens who had the

right to vote choose their leadersb. Romans were forced to struggle for their survival

i. allied w/ other Latin cities they formed the Latin League

c. struggled against the following:

i. Etruscansii. Gauls- who in 390 B.C. captured and sacked Romeiii. Samnites- mountain people from southeast of Rome

G. The Forum1. Intro: the center of Roman political life; it was built on

Palatine Hill2. Forum- the political, social, and religious center of Rome

(the temples of Jupiter + Juno were on top of capitalism; imperial palace on Palatine; forum in b/w

H. The Family1. Pater Familias- “father of the family”; oldest male; had

absolute control of family and slaves2. Gravitas- seriousness, the Romans were practical; stressed

loyalty, obedience, and disciplineI. Rome Built a Mighty Army

1. Intro: Rome success was due to its military organization, enlightened treatment of the peoples it conquered, and Rome’s ability to adjust its internal political system to retain and deepen the loyalty of its citizen body

2. The legiona. Rome developed a citizen armyb. Legion- the basic military formation; essentially a

massed formation of well-armed infantry soldiers; not unlike the Greek phalanx

c. It will use 4,000 troops during the Republic era; up to 6,000 under Marius and the professional army (107 B.C.)

d. Organized into 3 lines:i. hastati- first line made up of the youngest

(1,200)ii. princepes- second line more experienced veterans

(1,200)iii. triari- third line consists of the oldest troops

(600)e. the remaining 1,200 soldiers were from the poorest

citizens, who served as light infantry (velites)f. in addition, there were usually a few hundred fabri,

skilled artisans who repaired arms, armor, and supervised construction, were available for combat if needed

g. could be broken down into centuries (60), and cohorts (6 centuries); better than phalanx b/c it was more flexible

II. The Roman Republic Spread its PowerA. Plebians slowly won more power

1. SPQR- Senatus Populusque Romanus; “Senate and the Roman people”

2. Plebians’ gains were won gradually, often due to the ability of the plebian leaders to create an internal crisis; sometimes they seceded from the state, or led strikes until they won concessions

3. Patricians greatest fear was the possibility of plebian soldiers refusing to fight

4. Each crisis usually resulted in practical concessionsB. Rome’s Balanced Government

1. senatea. 300 men who served for lifeb. only an advisory body; its decisions were almost always

accepted b/c of the senate’s wealth and prestige

2. consula. 2 at a time; commanded army; directed the govt.; had a

one year term, and could veto each other3. assembly

a. tribal assembly- legislative body; part of which was the plebian assembly

b. assembly of centuries- function was to elect consuls, declare war, a court for capital charges

4. dictatora. in times of crisis, a dictator was elected, chosen for 6

months; he was given absolute powerb. ex: Cincinatus- a farmer chosen as dictator twice; an

ideal dictator5. important happenings and dates of the republic

a. 509 B.C.- the Republic is formedb. 494 B.C.- the Plebians gain the right to elect special

officials called Tribunes and the creation of a new assembly; the Assembly of Tribes

c. 450 B.C.- the 12 tribes, a written law that codified ancient legal customs and protected ordinary citizens from arbitrary decisions of Patrician justicei. protected debtorsii. permit intermarriage b/w Patricians and Plebiansiii. limit Patrician control over public landsiv. colonizing ventures land grants to poor plebiansv. “Non sub homine sed sub Deo et Lege” ( “Not under

men, but under God and the law (we are governed)”d. 367 B.C.- one consul to be a plebian, therefore he was

automatically qualified for the senatee. 287 B.C.- the “Plebiscita”- laws passed by Plebian

assembly are bound on all citizensC. Rome Won Control of Italy

1. neighborsa. Gauls sack Rome in 390 B.C.b. Etruscans and the Samnites (control of Campania)c. By 265 B.C., Rome had established mastery over all of

Italy south of the Po River2. Greek

a. King Pyhrrus of Epirus, a kinsman of Alexander the Great, arrived in Italy in 280 B.C.

b. Won all the major battles, but lost the war b/c his 20,000 troops were diminished by the Romans after 5 years of fighting

c. Even today, a war in which all the major battles are won, but the war is lost is called a pyhrric victory

3. Citizenshipa. freemen of Rome and Latium and any others who were

granted it, enabled a person to vote and be protected under the law codes

b. partial or half-citizens: not allowed to vote, but allowed to trade and intermarry w/ Roman citizens

c. allies- (socii) signed a formal treaty that left considerable local independence except for foreign affairs; obligation to provide military contingents and money for Rome’s wars

d. 2 and 3 were promised eventual Roman citizenshipe. in 212 A.D.: Emperor Carcala makes everyone citizens

D. Rome Fought Carthage (264 B.C. - 146 B.C.)1. Intro: by 265 B.C., Rome had become a major power in the

region. Rome would now become involved in “world” affairs around the Mediterranean

2. The First Punic War (264 B.C. - 241 B.C.)Causes:a. Carthage, originally a Phoenician colony became

independent c. 800 B.C.b. Greek city-states and their colonies were Carthage’s

main rivals in the Med. (Romans were farmers and shepherds)

c. Sicily:i. Carthage controlled western Sicilyii. 2 major Greek City-States

- Messesenia ( allies w/ Carthage- Syracuse ( asks Rome for help

iii. initially, Rome refuses (friends w/ Carthage), then changes its mind b/c Carthage could be a threat to southern Italy

Conflict:d. Rome needed a navy to attack the Carthaginian seaports

i. Rome copies a Carthaginian wreck to make their own ships

ii. 3 previous methods of fighting at sea: Ramming, Fire, Boarding

iii. the Romans used a raven to board; a long plank that would be dropped on to an enemy ship; at the end was a long “spike” that would drive into the deck; to would keep the enemy ship stationary while the Romans would cross and board the ship

e. Carthage sues for peace in 241 B.C.i. paid Rome moneyii. Sicily goes to Rome, becoming its first overseas tribute-paying province

3. The Second Punic WarCauses:a. after losing Sicily, Carthage, under the leadership of

Hamilcar Barca and his son Hannibal enlarge their colonies in Spain as their new base of power

b. Hannibal was raised at a very young age to hate the Romans, and grow up wanting to conquer them

c. Hannibal’s strategy:i. bring a major military force to Italy; gain allies

w/ conquered groups in Italy and they defeat Romeii. Hannibal brings his army over the Pyrennees and

the Alps (included elephants which were used as tanks)

iii. Hannibal gains support of the Gauls, but surprisingly most of the allies of Rome stay w/ Rome

d. Rome challenged Hannibal, but was defeated 3 times; Battles:i. Trebia River (218 B.C.)ii. Lake Trasimene (217 B.C.)iii. Cannae (216 B.C.) 70,000 Romans die

Defeat:

e. Hannibal ranged up and down the Italian peninsula for 15 years, but was unable to attack Rome (no siege works)

f. The Roman Marcellus lays siege to Syracuse (who had betrayed them and allied w/ Carthage) in 213 BC, the famous Archimedes defended the city unsuccessfully

g. Scipio attacked Carthage in 203 BC; defeats Hannibal at Zama, 202 BC; named “Scipio Africanus”

h. Carthage surrenders; Spain to Rome; navy destroyed; Numidia created; Carthage becomes a minor poweri. Marcellus’s invasion of Syracuse leads to the

Roman’s copying Greek artE. Rome Conquests in the East

1. Intro: With its success in the west, Rome now turns its attention to the East. At first, the Romans just wanted to consolidate, but they were tempted to the Greek civilization

2. Philip V of Macedona. Philip invaded the Greek peninsula and was threatening

Rhodes and Pergentumb. Rome comes to the Greek city-states’ aid and defeats

Philip in a war from 200-197 BCc. Rome gives Rhodes and Pergentum greater territory, frees

the Greek city-states and then leaves3. Antiodus III of the Seleucid Kingdom

a. 192 BC invades Greek peninsula w/ the help of Hannibalb. Again, Rome comes to the rescue and defeats Antiodus in

192 BCc. Rome again withdraws w/o annexing any landsd. Rome continually tries to help Greece ( Greece doesn’t

seem to notice4. Roman rule in the east

a. Rome had continually tried to give the east its independence and continually was betrayed

b. Finally, in 146 BC, the Romans destroy the city of Corinth (part of the Achaean League) as an example to all Greek city-states (Greeks were iconoclastic)

c. Greece and later the whole East would become a Roman province

F. Rome Destroys Carthage1. Third Punic War (149-146 BC)2. Cato “Carthage Delenda Est” (Carthage must be destroyed)3. Scipio Aemilius’s siege of Carthage prevails4. 133 BC, King of Pergentum gives western Asia Minor to Rome

III. Republican Government CollapsedIntro: Rome’s wars leading to domination in the Mediterranean area

generated profound problems that would inevitably have to be faced. Prior to 133 BC, these problems had been neglected by a populace that was intoxicated w/ military success, power, and wealth; the century that followed was dominated by crises emerging from the neglect. Before the end of the century, the Republic was in ruin. Four things will cause the fall of the Republic: 1) Rome’s economic changes 2) Social Changes 3) Rome’s allies felt ill-rewarded 4) Rome’s military success left a large border w/ a variety of people to rule

A. Gap b/w Rich and Poor1. traditional independent farms could not compete w/ cheap

imported grains which were tributes paid by conquered lands

a. also, many small farms in Italy were devastated by Hannibal

b. many of the men had to go to war, and were away from their farms for extended periods of time

2. Latifundia- enterprising Romans who had capital bought up many of the small impoverished farms and controlled public lands; they made them into large estatesa. produced cash cropsb. cheap labor was supplied by gangs of slaves taken from

the conquered landsc. Spartacus (73-71 B.C.)- led a slave revolt; put down

3. Social Changesa. economic changes dislocated many small farming citizens;

many became tenant farmers and had to compete w/ slave labor; others flocked tot he cities for jobsi. Proletariat- a class of urban, landless, jobless

citizensb. new social class emerged called the Equitas who were

wealthy but not of noble origin. They wanted but not of noble origin. They wanted increased political power.

4. Cultural Changesa. the wealthy became interested in art, architecture,

literature, and science; while the poor people became interested in new religions which offered individualism

5. Civil Wara. during the first century, the relative power of the

senate and the assembly varied, depending on whether the conservative and Patrician Optimates, or the liberal Populares, held governmental power

B. The Gracchi Brothers Tried Reforms (133-121 B.C.)1. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (grandsons of Scipio Africanus)

were the champions of the popularesa. Intro: The Gracchi were deeply troubled by the threat

posed to Rome’s military resources by the declining number of citizen farmers and by the economic and social conditions of the proletariat

b. Tiberius Gracchus: elected tribune in 133 B.C.i. calls for land reforms- can’t use more than 600

acres of public land (successful)ii. he used unconventional tactics to get the law

passed (wanted to run for tribune again)iii. gets killed by the senate as a result

c. Gaius Gracchus- elected tribune in 123 B.C.; calls for reformsi. pass new land lawsii. provide cheap grain for the massesiii. colonies for resettlement of impoverished citizensiv. he and 3,000 of his followers were assassinated in

121 B.C.C. Army Leaders Took Political Control

1. Intro: soldiers became indebted to their commanders instead of the state; consuls now had armies to back their political ideas

2. Marius- supported popularesa. elected consul in 107 B.C.; he raises a “volunteer” army

which was his own personal army w/ no ties to the senate

to fight in Numidia; Marius had the burden of taking care of the landless soldiers in his command

b. Marius’s army was converted from his volunteers into a professional army

c. He was elected consul from 104-101 B.C.3. Sulla- commander under Marius; will support Optimates; old

problems surfacea. allies fight for citizenship: Sulla commanded an army

that ended an uprising by the Italian alliesb. discontent in the conquered provinces: Marius and Sulla

compete for the opportunity to send their armies to crush a rebellion in Asia Minor; Sulla marches his army (68 B.C.)

c. Marius seizes power while Sulla is away (Marius dies in 86 B.C.)

d. Sulla routes the Marians when he returns and secures mastery over all of Italy

e. Sulla as dictator: Ends 6 month term and rules as long as he likesi. restores the power of the senateii. kills many of the supporters of Marius and his

family; Julius Caesar (a relative) escapes deathiii. power of tribunes and assembly of Tribes was

severely limitediv. reorganized provincial governments

f. Sulla retired and restored democracy in 79 B.C.D. Power of the Senate is Weakening

1. Although the senate was in power in 79 B.C., it was due to a strong military leader. It was clear that bold individuals, properly armed, might topple it as easily as Sulla restored it

E. Julius Caesar Rose to Power (100- 44 B.C.)1. Intro: Caesar’s aunt Julia was the wife of Marius. Sulla

spared Caesar and he was exiled in Asia for 3 years until Sulla’s death; returned to Rome in 70 B.C.

2. His Early Careera. 74 B.C., junior officer in Third Mithviatic Warb. military tribune of Romec. 73-69 B.C.- Quaestord. 69 B.C.- worked on staff of Praetor in Spaine. 65 B.C.- Aedile (Crassus was consul)f. 60 B.C.- Praetor of Spaing. Marries granddaughter of Sulla, Pompeia. Marriage was

for political convenience3. First Triumvirate (60-52 B.C.)

a. Pompey- military leader who achieved great success and equaled Sulla’s triumphs and powerb. Crassus- a wealthy capitalist who successfully defeated

the slave revolt of Spartacusc. Caesar- a man of patrician origins but w/ family

connections that tied him to Marius and the popularesd. Initially the triumvirate was a successe. Divide power:

i. Caesar becomes proconsul of Gaul (59-49 B.C.)ii. Pompey- proconsul of Spain (stays in Rome)iii. Crassus- conquest of Parthia (dies in 53 B.C.)

4. Conquest of Gaul

a. Intro: Caesar, using his superior military skill, succeeds in bringing Gaul under Roman control through a series of campaigns over the course of almost 10 years. In the end, he gains the support of many of the people of Gaul and w/ them and his legions becomes a powerful military threat to Pompey and Rome

b. Caesar’s Siegei. ramps + towers were also used to penetrate defensive

wallsii. tunneling was also a means to breach a wall; sappers

would dig tunnels to get the wall to collapsec. Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul

i. arrives in Gaul in 59 B.C., as proconsulii. siege of Alesia (52 B.C.); Caesar defeats

Varcingetouxiii. Avarcium (52 B.C.)

F. Pompey- was a good general, but not a skillful politician1. Caesar gains military power2. Pompey afraid he was going to lose power3. Pompey’s wife, Caesar’s daughter (Julia) dies4. Cato and Cicero: convinces Pompey to join optimates against

Caesar5. He must make sure Caesar doesn’t return6. In 1st triumvirate, Crassus was the money, Caesar was the

politician, and Pompey was the military hero7. Caesar is eventually the only member of the Populares left:

Optimates PopularesCicero CaesarCato Crassus; dies in battleBrutus Pompey; switches sidesMilo (thug) Clodius (thug); killed by Milo

G. Caesar Made Himself Ruler of Rome1. “Crossing the Rubicon” (January 10, 49 B.C.)

a. Caesar disobeys the Senate and marches his army into Italy. The Rubicon river was the border b/w Italy and Cisalpine Gaul à which means civil war

b. Victoriousà takes Italy and Rome (Cato, Pompey, and Brutus flee to Macedonia to rally Pompey’s legions there)

2. Pompey abandoned Rome and went to Macedonia to rally his legionsa. The Illerda Campaign (49 B.C.)

i. Caesar’s 7 legions (5 from Gaul, 2 from Rome) defeat Pompey’s and gains control of Spain

b. the Pharsulus Campaign (48 B.C.)i. wins there; Cato commits suicide; Brutus is

captured; Pompey flees to Egypt3. Caesar in Egypt (48-47 B.C.)

a. Pompey asked for asylum in Egypt which was ruled at the time by Ptolemy XIII and his half-sister Cleopatra VII. On September 28, 48 B.C., Pompey was murdered by Ptolemy, who thought Caesar would be grateful to him

b. Caesar, angered, supports Cleopatra’s claim to the throne; she needs a husband to rule; she marries Caesar

and had a son, Caesarian; then Caesar continues to settle the civil war

4. Battle of Zellaa. “Veni, Vidi, Vici”

5. Final Campaigns in Africa and Spaina. Battle of Thapsus (46 B.C.)b. Battle of Munda (45 B.C.); defeats Pompey’s son

H. Caesar Returns to Rome (Pater Patrae) Father of the Country1. 44 B.C.- Senate appointed him dictator for a decade2. Caesar’s Reforms

a. granted Roman citizenship to many people in the provinces outside of Italy

b. expanded Senate to 900 members, to include reps from outside of Italy

c. landowners: 1/3 of their workforce had to be free men (not slaves)

d. public works projects to provide jobse. created 20 colonies in Spain, Gaul, and Africa for

Rome’s landless poor, reducing the number of people who needed govt. grain handouts

3. His actions angered the Patricians b/c they were losing control of the Senate

4. The Calendara. with assistance from Sesigenes, an Egyptian astronomer,

Caesar set the length of the year, and set leap year5. The Ides of March

a. March 15 on the Roman Calendar was called the Ides of March

b. Cassius, Brutus, and a small group of conspirators who Caesar trusted, killed him on March 15, 44 B.C.

I. Civil War Followed Caesar’s Death1. Second Triumvirate (43-33 B.C.)

a. Members:i. Octavian was Caesar’s grand nephew and adopted

son. He was 18 at Caesar’s death, and was weak and not ready to assume command.

ii. Marc Antony was Caesar’s trusted advisor and military commander. He was a proven general and politician. Marc Antony married Octavian’s sister, Octavia, as a political gesture

iii. Lepidus- a powerful politician and friend of Caesar’s; wanted revenge on the assassins of Caesar

b. 100 senators and 3,000 businessmen were killed as a backlash to Caesar’s killingi. Cicero was killed; he was an opponent of Caesar,

but did not plot to kill himii. Brutus + Cassius à commit suicide after defeat in

a battle2. War b/w Octavian and Marc Antony

a. Marc Antony gains control of the eastern empire; while there he falls in love w/ Cleopatra and divorces Octavia. Tries to have Caesarian and his children from Cleopatra made citizens of Rome.

b. Octavian grows strong by using propaganda campaign against Antony, gains support of the Senate

c. Octavian w/ the help of Admiral Agrippa defeats Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium (31 B.C.)

d. Cleopatra and Marc commit suicideJ. Octavian Becomes Sole Ruler of Rome (Returns 29 B.C.)

1. Octavian was now as powerful as Caesar, but remembered his uncle’s fate; was careful not to upset the Senatea. he is elected consul several times, but realizes this

must changeb. as an act of humility, he declines the consulship; this

gesture is rewarded w/ the title ‘princeps’ (‘first citizen’) and also ‘Augustus’ (‘exalted one’)

2. Through Careful political maneuvering, and proper use of his power, Augustus rises to emperor while keeping the senate around but w/ limited power

Chapter 7: The Roman Empire (29 B.C.-A.D. 476)

I. Augustus’ Rule Began the Pax RomanaA. Intro: For 207 years (27 BC-AD 180), the Roman empire (10,000 sq.

miles) was relatively peaceful. This period of peace and prosperity is known as the Pax Romana.

B. Augustus Set up a Sound Government1. Augustus’ challenge was to reconcile tradition (republic) w/

need (one-man rule)2. The Civil Service

a. set up by Augustus, salaried, experienced workers were hired to take care of Rome’s grain supply, roads, and postal service. Claudius (another emperor) declared à any class could work in civil service and promotions were often given according to performance, not class

3. A Public Building Program (instilled a sense of pride)a. created concrete à cheap, reliable, and strong

4. Military Affairsa. professional army, under direct command of the princeps

w/ regular pay and a pensionb. Praetorian Guard, only soldiers stationed near Rome à

9,000 personal body guards of the princeps5. Augustus wanted 31 days in his month à takes one away from

FebruaryC. Peace Continued After Augustus Died

1. Intro: A problem for Augustus was the matter of succession. Only the Senate or people could legally transmit his power.

2. Tiberius (Augustus’ second wife Liva’s son) was forced to marry Julia, became Augustus’ adopted son and succeeded him in 14 A.D.

3. Julian Emperors (14-68)- These 4 emperors were all descendants of Caesar and Augustusa. Tiberius (14-37)- administrates well; paranoidb. Caligula (37-41)- nutc. Claudius (41-54)- physically deformed; competent ruler;

conquered Britain; killed by wifed. Nero (54-68)- cruel, vain ruler; eventually ousted;

burns Rome down4. The Problem of Succession

a. there was no rule, law, or precedent to go by

b. who should choose? (senate, emperor, or military)c. 68-69- 4 emperors appointed by military

5. Flavian Emperors- used hereditary successiona. Vespecian (69-79)- erected Coliseum; first non-Patricianb. Titus (79-81)- opened Coliseum; Pompeii destroyedc. Domitian (81-96)- had considerable power, but no support

from Senate6. The Good Emperors (Adoptive Emperors) 96-180, empire at its

peak; the emperor adopted his heir before deatha. Nerva (96-98)- began custom of adoptionb. Trajan (98-117)- Spanish-born; empire at its greatest

extentc. Hadrian (117-138)- worked to consolidate, not conquer;

lands retainedd. Antonius (138-161)- uneventful; public works, education

programse. Marcus Aurelius (161-180)- faced widespread barbarian

invasions; wrote the philosophical work The Meditationsf. Pax Romana ends after Aurelius’s rule

II. Romans Extended Greek Culture (They 2 blend to form ‘Greco-Roman’)A. New Schools of Philosophy Arose

1. Epicurianism- founded by Epicurus (342-270 B.C.)a. pursuit of pleasures as the most important thing

2. Stoicism: Founded by Zeno (336-264 B.C.); 3 important ideasa. Duty, reason, and courage are virtuesb. Pain and pleasure are meaninglessc. Advocated justification for a single human community

(Rome) governed by a system of law that conformed to the laws of nature

B. Latin Literature Took Many Forms1. Augustus wanted to encourage patriotism (Virgil, Horace, Livy)

a. Livy’s Historyi. The History of the Roman Republic (753 BC- 9 AD)

b. Virgil’s epic poemsi. modeled after Homer’s Iliad- he wrote the Aeneid

c. the Silver Age of Literature (approx: 14-138 AD)i. the patriotism of Augustus was replaced by the

satire (writing that mocked society) of Juvenal and the criticism of all the emperors after Augustus by Tacitus in his work, the Annals

2. Majestic Buildings Adorned the Citiesa. their roads are a lasting legacy (still used today)b. the arch is an architectural device used by the Romansc. another was the dome; the Pantheon was a famous building

III. Some stuff about Jesus that’s obviousIV. Rome’s Empire Declined and Fell

A. Intro: Pax Romana ends at the death of Marcus Aurelius and the decline of the empire begins. 3 Stages of Decline: “Crisis of

the 3rd Century”- economic, military, and political ? empire was divided in 2; East and West (strengthens East, hurts West) ? Western half will be victim of savage barbarian attacksB. Crisis Weakened the Empire

1. Economic Decaya. success during the Pax Romana was due to:

i. trade flourished ii. plunder from conquestsiii. Roman farms supplied grain

b. Problemsi. barbarian raids and pirates upset trade in the

Westii. Rome’s industry manufactured goods not in demandiii. Farmed lands in Italy and Western Europe became

less productive b/c of overworked soil2. Military Decay

a. the Danube, Syrian, and Asia Minor à constant threatsb. Roman armies made up of barbarian mercenaries (little

loyalty)3. Political Decay

a. citizens of Rome and the empire had become indifferentb. the most skilled people were no longer holding office à

inefficient leadersC. Diocletian Reformed the Empire (Reign: 284-305)

1. Divides the empire into 12 dioceses, 4 tetrarchs, and 2 empires (2 different emperors)

2. Diocletian’s Reformsa. increased the army to secure the frontiersb. laws passed that son had to follow father’s occupationc. Edict of Prices- Price and Wages controlled by govt. (to

stop inflation)d. Persecution of Christians to restore traditional

religione. Diocletian drops the term of princeps (first citizen);

gives himself title of Lord and godD. Constantine Accepted Christianity and Founded a New Capital

1. Battle of Milvian Bridge- Constantine won, took control of empirea. Edict of Milan- granted to Christians and all free men

the freedom of religion2. He moved the capital to Byzantium in 330 A.D. (names it

Constantinople)a. the new capital is in the Eastern empireb. led to the downfall of the West and the flourish of the

East

Chapter 8- Byzantine Empire

-Old eastern Roman Empire-Constantinople (Byzantium) was the capital ( now Istanbul-Rome- Latin Language ( Byztantine- Greek

West: Petrine Doctrine (pope = leader)East: Patriarch is head of the church

-Art forms: tapestries, mosaics, and iconography-Dome: Hagia Sofia-Turks

-Seljuks c. 1000-start crusades

-Ottoman Turks-1453: conquer Constantinople (end of Byzantine Empire)

Middle AgesChapter 9- The Early Middle Ages (450-1000)

I. Roman Civilization CollapsedA. Collapse of Trade and Towns

1. population become increasingly ruralB. Loss of Literacy and Common Language

1. learning declined2. around the 800s- French, Spanish, and Italian evolve from

LatinC. Personal Ties Replace Citizenship- pledges of loyalty to warrior

lords1. 400-600: Germanic Kingdom replaced Roman provinces2. Family ties and personal loyalty (not public law) bound

Germanic society togetherD. Unifying Factors:

1. classical heritage of Rome2. beliefs of Roman Catholic Church3. customs of warriors Germanic Tribes

II. Christianity- the glue of Western European society in the Middle AgesA. Missionaries- during 300s and 400s, missionaries traveled to

Germanic and Celtic groups on the border of the Roman Empire1. Patrick of Ireland, missionary in Ireland c. 432

B. Monasteries1. grew in importance w/ the decline of cities; follow the

migration of people to rural areas2. wealthy, educated communities which operated schools and

libraries, and copied books; served as centers for art + learning

3. St. Benedict- established a set of rules for monks c. 540. Benedict’s Rule becomes the model for western monasteries

C. Gregory I expanded Papal Power1. 590- he negotiated treaties, raised armies, repaired roads,

serviced the poor, and acted as mayor of Rome2. expanded church influence through missionaries3. wrote Dialogues (on saint’s lives) and Pastoral Care (a

guidebook for Bishops_4. Gregory’s vision of Christendom- a churchly kingdom spanning

all of Western Europe and ruled by the Pope in Rome ( was soon to be realized

III. The MerovingiansA. In 481 at age 15, Clovis, a descendant of Merovag, became King of

the Franks. An excellent military leader, Clovis was cruel + ruthless. He vowed to become a Christian if he won a battle in 496. He kept his vow and forced 3,000 other Franks to be baptized. Until his death, the Franks conquered most of Northern Gaul and helped spread Christianity.

B. Clovis’s descendants, the Merovingians, lost power1. sons of a Merovingian king divided the kingdom b/w themselves2. the mayor of the palace had gained the power (c. 700)3. The mayor of the palace, Charles (the Hammer) Martel defeated

Muslims at Battle of Tours (732); died on 7414. Pepin III (the Short)- he wrote to the pope and asked to be

king (already had the power). In 751, the Merovingians were disposed and Pepin was crowned king in 754 by the Pope. Pepin defeats Lombards, and gives Pope the Papal States in 756. Pepin dies in 768.

Pepin Pope Stephen II

Problem: wanted to be king Problem: needs protectionSolution: pope anoints Pepin king by the grace of GodSolution: Pepin will protect Stephen from the Lombards; gives pope the papal states

IV. Charlemagne and the Carolingian Dynasty extended Frankish power (768-814)A. Pepin’s son Charlemagne became king in 768 (Carlus Magnus- Charles

the Great)B. Charlemagne defeated the Lombards in Italy, Saxons in Germany, the

Muslims in the Pyrenees, and the Avars in the Danube. Often forced people to be baptized; called “baptized by the sword”

C. Pope Leo III made Charlemagne “Holy Roman Emperor”- 800 A.D. (equal to Byzantine emperor)1. this increased the split b/w the Roman Church and the Greek

Orthodox Church2. in theory, the Holy Roman Emperor equals the protector of all

ChristendomD. Charlemagne divides kingdom into counties which were administered by

a Count1. Missi Dominici- the king’s emissaries; Pairs ( lay person and

religious leader2. They checked that the counties were ruled fairly

E. Charlemagne established his court at Aachen. He promoted education and learning in his court. He also encouraged the copying of ancient Latin manuscripts by monks. He invited the Jews into his kingdom b/c they were literate and could help administer the Kingdom

V. Fall of the CarolingiansA. Louis the Pious (814-840) ( religious, but ineffective ruler;

Charlemagne’s son and heirB. Louis died in 840, civil war broke out b/w his 3 sonsC. 3 sons divided empire in 843; Treaty of Verdan

1. Charles the Bald- (west) France2. Louis the German (east)- Germany3. Lothair- received title “Emperor”. Ruled territory from North

Sea down to Northern Italy. By 870, the kingdom was divided b/w Charles and Louis

D. New Invasions1. Muslims- attacked N. Africa and conquered Sicily, Sardinia,

Corsica, and the Mediterranean Coast2. Magyars- occupied Hungary3. Slavs- occupied Central Europe4. Vikings attacked Northern Europe

VI. Vikings (Northmen, Norsemen) Terrorized Europe (800-1000)A. Skilled Seafarers

1. from Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Denmark)2. swift, vicious raids via sleek warships

B. Settled far and wide b/c need for farmlandC. Viking Age Ended About 1000

1. gradually adopted Christianity2. warming trend increased farming3. invention of feudalism aid defense

VII. Feudalism Became the Basis for Govt. in Western EuropeA. Feudalism- was an agreement b/w legal equals (both parties being

noblemen) whereby a lord (landowner) granted land to his Vassals, who swore his loyalty and support to his lord; a political and military system based on the holding of land

1. emphasized local govt., local protection, and self-sufficiencyB. Lords and Vassals

1. vassal (lord’s servant) gave legal service and protection in exchange for a fief (piece of land granted by the lord) in a compurgation ceremony

2. investiture- symbolic gesture by which the fief was granted (ex: soil)

Feudal Contract 2 Cultures this Derives From:homage 1) Germanic Tribes (loyalty)fielty (oath-taking) 2) Rome (land ownership/ latifundia)investiture

3. Feudal Pyramid in Theory

a. a vassal could be a lord by granting fiefs to lesser nobleman beneath him

b. each vassal’s loyalty was only to the lord immediately above him

4. Feudalism developed when weak kings could not protect their landowners who had to make arrangements to protect themselves

4 Obligations of a Vassal to a Lord-military service-counsel-aid (financial)-hospitality

C. Vassals Served in War and Peace1. Knights (specialists in war w/ expensive equipment)2. Usually served their lord in battle for about 40 days each

year3. Peacetime jobs- Duties of Justice, bridge tolls, tax

collectors ( under feudalism, public power had become privateD. 3 Main Social Groups in Middle Ages

1. Nobles (fought)2. Church (prayed)3. Peasants (worked)

a. serfs- not slaves, but bound to the landb. free peasants- could leave the land and move to other

manorsE. Manorialism- economic system of the Middle Ages

1. manor- small estate by which a lord’s family gained its livelihood; basic economic unit of medieval times

2. self-sufficiencya. peasants provided grain and farm animals for lord’s

tableb. village priest received a tithe (church tax); 1/10 of

peasant’s incomec. waterwheel at mill turned grain into flour; lords owned

mills and ovensd. blacksmith; leathermaker would live on the manore. “Three Field System”- each year, 2 fields are plowed and

1 field is left to fallow

Chapter 10- The High Middle Ages

I. Farming Improved and Trade Revived

A. Heavier plow that cut deep into the dirt1. crops could be planted into deeper soil…creating larger

harvestsB. Horse Power

1. Oxen were cheaper and easier to maintain, but slow2. Team of horses could plow twice as much land in a day as oxen

(oxen wore yokes to plow)3. The Harness enabled farmers to use horses (yokes couldn’t be

used; choked the horses)4. W/ horses farmers could plow more land; leading farmers to cut

away more of the forest and allowing farmers to farm more land, increasing production

C. Three-Field SystemII. Towns

A. Due to the development in agriculture (heavy plow, horse harness, horse shoe, and 3 field system), greater amounts of food were available; allowing the population to increase; from 1000-1150, there was a 40% increase

B. Townspeople formed a new social class in Medieval Europe that was not directly part of the of the Feudal or Manor System; a new social and economic class

C. Fairs- religious festival that would bring pilgrims and others to the town; merchants would appear to sell their wears; 2 types of fairs:1. local fair- neighboring manors would meet and trade2. great fair- held certain times of the year; merchants from

different nations would attendIII. Guilds

A. Guilds- a guild is an association of people who worked at the same occupation; 2 types

B. Merchant Guild- these were the first guilds to appear; they would meet to make rules and details for business. Members controlled all trade in their towns; a merchant could not sell goods, unless he was a member of the guild. Highly successful merchants usually became town leaders. (evolved into Chambers of Commerce)

C. Craft Guild- these were skilled artisans (i.e. shoemakers, wheelwrights, blacksmiths, glass blowers, wine makers, tailors, etc.) who would meet to make rules and details for their particular craft.

D. Guild Functions1. enforced standards of quality2. fixed prices based on cost of labor, materials, and a

reasonable profit3. dues paid funeral costs and aid to families in need4. training new members ( you were only admitted to the guild of

you are a master of the tradea. apprentice- was a child whose parents paid a fee to a

master to train the child in a particular craft; could take 3 to 12 years

b. journeyman- after your apprenticeship and before becoming a master; when you made an article well enough to qualify as a “master piece”, then you are considered a master

IV. Town Dwellers Won New LibertiesA. Towns provided an alternative to living on the manor for free

peasants and even serfs

B. Serfs who lived a year and a day in a town were considered free men and were no longer bound to the land

C. Charters- documents signed and given by the king, giving the town independence from the rule of lords and the feudal system; see pg. 214

D. Life on a Manor was Harsh1. Housing was often wet and cold w/ dirt floors and no heat2. Many people, especially the peasants, suffered from constant

hunger and sickness3. Peasants (serfs) had to work 2 to 3 days a week on the Manor

Lord’s land in addition to working their own fields4. Peasants paid the brunt of the taxes

a. 6/10 sacks of grain went to pay taxes to the Church, Lord, etc.

b. 1/10 pigs would also go to the manor lordE. Feudal Justice and Trial Decisions (much different from Roman Law

and Justice system whish used trial by jury etc.)1. Trial By Battle - the accused and the accuser, or men

representing them, fought a duel. The outcome determined guilt or innocence (winner innocent, loser guilty)

2. Compurgation - or “oath-taking.” The accused and the accuser each gathered a group of people who swore that “their” man was telling the truth. The more people or more convincing people (especially people of high status) who effect the outcome.a. NOTE: Compurgators are similar to character witnesses in

today’s trials3. Ordeals - the innocent man would be less hurt than another in

a painful contest. Accused and/or accuser is put through an ordeal, usually involving a physical test of pain and survival, which would determine your guilt or innocence. Examples of ordeals were: carrying a piece of hot iron in hand, walk through fire, sticking hand in boiling water and grabbing a stone at the bottom of the container. After the ordeal (if you survived) the wounds or injuries would be judged of guilt or innocence, i.e. if wound heals quickly (innocent); if you are maimed or die (guilty).

V. Royal Governments Grew StrongerA. Norman Conquerors Ruled England

1. A Norman Conquesta. Intro: Anglo-Saxon king, Edward the Confessor (1042-

1065) died w/o an heir; Godwin of Essex’s son, Harold Godwinson, elected king by the nobles

b. Investiture of 1066:i. Harold of Hardrode, King of Norway, coveted the

English throneii. William, Duke of Normandy will also attempt to

conquer Englandiii. Harold and William chose the same time to invade.

King Harold crushed the Scandinavians only to meet disaster in October 1066, at the Battle of Hastings ( where William’s Norman knights overpowered the Anglo-Saxons; Bayaeux Tapestry

c. William I (1066-1087)- Becomes king of Englandi. all rights belonging to the Anglo-Saxon kingsii. introduced feudalism to Englandiii. kept 1/6 of all lands as the royal domain and gave

the other fiefs to his Norman followers

iv. all sub-vassals owed first allegiance to the king (to tighten king’s control over everyone in his kingdom)

2. Henry I (1100-1135) and Henry II (1164-1189)a. Formation of an Effective Central Administration

i. Intro: they replaced Trial by Ordeal w/ the concept of juries and federal judges

b. Henry Ii. Circuit Court System- sending itinerant judges at

set intervals to shines throughout to shires throughout England to try cases

c. Henry IIi. common law- comparing notes of itinerant; judges

were able to enact a common set of principles for judging cases

ii. jury systems- summoning groups of people to tell under oath what they knew about some matter of public interest-by the 13th century, comparable groups of men known as Petit juries began to be used to decide, on the basis of evidence presented before

them, the guilt or innocence of those accused of violating the law

iii. curia regis- (court of the king) feudal meetings of the kings’ lay and ecclesiastical vassals; they were expected to judge cases, and advise the ruler

iv. Henry II established the first of England’s great central courts, at Westminster, to handle many cases previously heard in the Curia Regis

v. As royal judicial activity increased, the king and his agents began to challenge the jurisdiction of the feudal, manorial, ecclesiastical, and town courts

vi. Constitution of Clarendom (1164)-ordered clergymen accused of crimes to be tried in royal instead of ecclesiastical courts-Thomas a Becket- resisted the attack on what he considered the Church’s liberty-agents of the king murdered Thomas a Becket by a ‘misunderstanding’

B. Capetian Dynasty Ruled France1. France’s noble want to maintain their feudal power and choose

a weak king who poses little threat to their power2. Hugh Capet (987-996) elected king in 987 by the French nobles3. The Capetians only advantage was the location of their kingdom

on the Seine River w/ Paris as a center of trade4. Capetian Power will grow slowly outward from Paris over a 200

year periodVI. Germany

A. German kings failed to unite their Lands1. Otto the Great (936-973)

a. attempted to revive Charlemagne’s empire: Holy Roman Empire ( title given by Pope John XIII

b. future German kings lost power to the nobles2. Frederick Barbarosa

a. Frederick I

b. A strong German king who ruled the Holy Roman Empirec. His attack on Italy led to the formation of the Lombard

Leagued. Defeated by the Lombard League at the Battle of Legnano

(1st time heavy cavalry is defeated by footsoldiers; 1176)

3. Germany failed to unite in the Middle Agesa. a system of electing kings kept the king weak and the

nobles strongb. German kings had few royal lands to use as a power base

(i.e. Capetians had Paris and the surrounding area)c. Trying to revive Charlemagne’s empire led to continual

war w/ Italian cities and the PopeVII. The First Crusade Won Jerusalem (1096-1099)

A. Most successful of all of the crusades

4 Christian Armies Gathered at ConstantinopleBohemond- Norman kingdom of SicilyGodfrey- Vienna (Holy Roman Empire)Raymond of Toulouse- Lyon (HRE)Robert of Normandy- Normandy

B. 1099- Christians under leadership of Godfrey capture Jerusalem and created 4 feudal states1. County of Edessa2. Principality of Antioch3. County of Tripoli4. Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem

C. Later Crusades Accomplished Little1. Second Crusade (1147-1149)2. Third Crusade, “King’s Crusade” (1189-1192)- Frederick

Barbarossa, Holy Roman Empire; King Philip Augustus, France; King Richard the Lionheart, Englanda. 1192- Richard and Saladin agree to a truce; Christian

pilgrims have free access to the holy city of JerusalemD. Summary: The crusades generated on interaction b/w the East and the

West, which educated the Europeans to new ideas, products, and styles of life. The crusades extended European commercial power. In the end, no land was gained, and a bitter image of Westerners would remain in the east

VIII. Learning Revived and SpreadA. Learning Revived

1. Scholars Gathered at Universitiesa. University of Paris and Oxford- Theology; University of

Bologna- Law; University of Salerno- medicineb. Scholars spoke Latin, allowed to attend at any age; off

June to September for the Harvest and Planting season2. Scholars Rediscovered writings

a. exposed to the lost western writings (Roman and Greek) through the Crusades

3. St. Thomas Aquinas (Born 1225, Italy)a. Aquinas was a theologian and a philosopher who used

Aristotle’s logic and reason to answer philosophical questions

b. His book Summa Theologiae (1267-1273)c. Consisted of 21 volumes answering 631 Philosophical

Questions

4. Poems praised knightly heroes , Chansons de Geste, “Song of Deeds” ( of the epic genrea. “Song of Roland”, king Arthur and knights; Tristan and

Isolde; ill-fated loveB. Knights Lived By a Code of Chivalry

1. Knight was expected to serve:a. his feudal lordb. his heavenly lord (God)c. his Lord’s lady and any noble lady’s honord. the poor and the weak

2. Church legislation tried to limit warfarea. “Peace of God”- Cluny monastery, you would be

excommunicated if you waged a war that endangered churches, monasteries, clerics, pilgrims, merchants, peasants and women

b. “Truce of God”- 50 or 60 years later; no war from Sat. noon to Monday morning and on Holy Days

3. Knight’s Educationa. pageb. squirec. knight

4. Tournaments: mock battles to test skillsC. The Idea of Romantic Love Started

1. Troubadors- wandering minstrels who poetically sang about kings and their noble ladies “The Lyric”

2. Eleanor of Aquitaine was the most celebrated woman of her time3. Women’s roles changed; they became less powerful and subject

to men’s adoration and care

Chapter 11- The Origin of the European Nations

I. England and France Develop as NationsA. England’s king lost the French lands

1. Intro: Henry II (1154-1189) inherited more than half of France from his great-grandfather, William of Normandy. He added lands on southern France by marrying Eleanor of Aquitane; finally, Henry II defeated King Louis VII of France, acquiring more lands

2. Richard I (Lionheart)- (1189-1199)a. he ruled for only 10 years, he led the 3rd crusade

(king’s crusade ( along w/ Barborossa of Germany & Philip II of France) and was able to hold on to his French lands

3. John (1199-1216)a. politically able but was a complete failure as a

military leaderb. Philip II- Philip Augustus of France

i. for years watched as Henry II defeated his father Louis VII and he vowed he would avenge his father

ii. became king in 1180 at age of 154. Philip regains control of French lands

a. 1204 ( Philip regains control of Normandy, and by the end of reign he restored almost all of English held land in France to French control

B. The Barons Rebelled Against King John1. Intro: “John’s losses were England’s gains”

2. John vs. Pope Innocent IIIa. Innocent III excommunicated John and put England under interdict (excluding a person or area from participation in the sacraments)b. John gives in ( becomes a vassal of the pope

3. Inordinate fiscal demands on his subjects; “high taxes”4. As a result of John’s tyrannical actions, the great nobles and

the clergy of England came together to organize a rebellion in 1214

C. The Magna Carta Limited Royal Power1. Intro: John meets nobles at Runnymeade; 4 days later, on June

15, 1215, John signed the Magna Carta2. Guarantee of Basic Rights

a. contained 63 clauses meant to protect the Barons from unjust taxes and to safeguard their Feudal rights and privileges

b. Clause 12 ( can’t demand taxes “No taxation w/o representation”

c. Clause 39 ( “due process”; had right to jury, fair triald. Summary: The Magna Carta limited the king’s trading

power, taxes could be levied only w/ the consent of the Great Councils of nobles, established free trade for merchants throughout England, provided trial by jury of equals for all freemen, prohibited the buying and selling of justice

3. The idea of Limited Monarchya. principle established that the king was not above the

law, but had to obey it just like his subjectsD. Parliament Became Part of English Government

1. King Edward I (1272-1317); grandson of Johna. Edward regains power and control of England from the

nobles. He recognized that he could use the growing middle class, burghers, to raise taxes and therefore could not be dependant on the nobles for revenue

b. Edward I was the first king to see advantages of including townspeople in the meeting of the kings’ “Great Councils”

2. Model Parliamenta. 1295 Edward I needed additional taxes for a war w/

France; he needed support of all influential people (barons, knights, bishops, and for the first time, commoners)

b. Edward calls 2 burgesses from every borough, and 2 knights from every country

c. November, 1296, Model Parliament met; Knights, Burgesses, Bishops and lords all met at Westminster eventually become:i. Knights + Burgesses ( House of Commonersii. Nobles + Bishops ( House of Lords

3. The Strength of Parliamenta. a national assembly that generally put their loyalty to

England ahead of local tiesE. Philip Augustus (1180-1223)

1. Philip seized the English-held lands in France while Richard I was on Crusade. When the last Capetian king dies in 1328; the only lands held by the English in France were Aquitaine and Gascony in the Southeast

2. Philip Augustus used trained officials in govt.; not feudal lordsa. Sent out inspectors form middle-class who reported to

the King’s Council; which conducted govt. affairs (called bailiffs)

b. Chamber of Accounts collected and supervised taxesi. Capetians encouraged growth of taxes and the Royal

Domain, which increased tax revenueii. They supported growth of the middle-class for

revenues and support against noblesc. Parlement of Paris- served as the Supreme Court

i. created by Louis IX3. By 1300s, the power of the Capetians kings was supreme.

However, the 3 sons of Philip IV died w/o heirs and the dynasty ended in 1328

4. French kings expanded their power greatlya. bailiffs- royal officials in France (middle-class)b. Louis IX (1226-1270)- established a supreme court

weakened feudal tiesc. Philip IV and the Estates General (1302- first met)

i. unlike English Parliament, there are no limits on the king

ii. Three Branches: (1) 1st Estate- church leaders; (2) 2nd Estate- great lords; (3) 3rd Estate- middle-class

F. Nation-States Began to Arise1. Nation-State- a group of people who occupy a definite territory

and are united under 1 govt. and culture2. Nationalism- feelings of devotion toward one’s nation

II. The Church Faced a Crisis in the 1300sA. Boniface VIII overreached himself

1. papal bulls (official statements) ignored by French king Philip IV who tried to kidnap the pope (failed, but pope died from shock)

B. The papacy moves to Avignon, France1. Clement V moved in 13092. Papal home for 67 years “Babylonian Captivity”

C. The Great Schism1. Urban VI chosen pope- 13782. 13 French cardinals choose a new pope3. both popes excommunicated each other4. The Schism (or 2 pope system) lasted from 1378 to 14175. Council of Constance (1414-1417)- forced all 3 popes to resign

and it chose a new pope- Martin V( end of SchismD. The Scholars Challenged the Church

1. John Wycliffe in England (1300s)a. viewed the church as a community, not hierarchy (1378)b. on the Eucharist ( doctrine transubstantiation)c. anti-poped. bible is only guide, not Church ( translated the bible to

English )e. no conviction of heresy ( b/c England didn’t like French

pope)2. John Huss of Bohemia (1400s)

a. bible more important than popeb. preached in Czech, not Latin (inspired Czech national

figures)

c. excommunicated (1411) and burned at the stake (1415)III. The 1300s Brought Plague and War

A. The Black Death struck in 1347- Genoase ships from Sicily w/ cargo from Asia1. black swellings and high fever- many died w/i 24 hours of

contagion2. due to flees infected by rats; poor sanitary conditions3. b/w 1347 and 1353, 25 million people or 1/3 of Europe’s

population died from the plague4. new outbreaks of the plague appeared sporadically for the next 3

centuriesB. Peasants Rose in Revolt

1. decline in population enabled serfs to demand wages and doomed the manorial system, feudal system; weakened church

2. 1381- English peasants revolteda. although the lords put down the revolt, the economies and

the societies of the Middle Ages was disappearing fastC. Hundred Years’ War b/w England and France

1. 1337-1453- on and off (116 years)2. was fought over English kings’ claim to land in France3. four stages:

a. 1337-60: England’s Edward III captured French king and gained much French land

b. 1361-91: French reconquered their lost lands (Charles V the wise)

c. 1397-1420: English conquer northern half of France; Battle of Agincourt; Henry V forces French king (Charles VI) to sign the humiliating Treaty of Troyes (Henry V marries Charles VI’s daughter + Henry will assume Charles’ throne after death, but Henry dies first); now Henry ‘s son is an heir, but so is Charles VI’s son, Charles the Dauphin

d. 1421-53: In 1429, Joan of Arc gradually pushed the English out of all of France except Calliers; Charles is crowned Charles VII

D. New Weapons Changed Warfare1. longbow- range of 300 yards

a. French knights lost to mere foot soldiers in the 100 Years’ War at the Battles of Crecy, Puntes, and Agincourt (50,000 vs. 5,800)

2. the cannon made castles obsolete (Crecy)E. National Feelings Increased in Europe

1. in the 1300s, faith in Europe and the Church was replaced by nationalism (loyalty to one’s own land and people)a. Joan of Arc broke the siege of Orleans and persuaded

Charles the Dauphin to be crowned Charles VII (1429)IV. New Monarchs Ruled in Western Europe

A. “New Monarchs” replaced feudal kings1. had 3 important sources of power that feudal kings lacked

a. broad taxing powersb. professional armyc. professional officials ( townspeople)

B. France1. Charles VII won back almost of France from England

a. known as “Charles the well-served” due to good advisorsb. set up royal council; 1st permanent royal army, and had 2

main taxesi. Taille (land tax)

ii. Gabelle (salt tax)2. Louis XI (1461-83)

a. the “Spider King” ( used trickery, bribery, and espionage)b. acquired Burgundy w/ the death of Duke Charles the Bald

(who favored the English) in 1477c. called Estates General only once; didn’t need subject’s

consent to collect taxesC. England

1. War of the Roses 91455-1485)a. Dukes of York (white rose) vs. Duke of Lancaster (red

rose)b. 1485- Battle of Bosworth Field- Henry Tudor beat Richard

III and started the Tudor DynastyHenry Tudor (claimed both blood lines)

2. Henry VII made peace in Englanda. taxed imported goods- tonnage and poundageb. avoid costly wars, kept no standing armyc. had parliament outlaw lord’s private armiesd. The Court of Star Chamber- met in secret

i. questionable evidenceii. used by Henry to destroy threats to his power;

people torturedD. Spain

1. Reconquista (1061-1400s)- Christian attempt to reconquer Spain from the Muslims (Moors)

2. Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille married in 1469 and set out to conquer the last Muslim kingdom, Granada, in 1482; Granada fell to the Christians in 1492

3. The Spanish Inquisitiona. Isabella revived the Medieval Church’s Inquisition in Spainb. Tried to root out heresy ( 1 king, 1 law, 1 faithc. Tortures, burnings at the stake

4. Expulsion of the Jewsa. 1492- convert or leaveb. 150,000 Jews left (mostly middle-class)

5. 1504- Ferdinand seized NaverreV. A New Empire Arose in Russia

A. Geography1. Ural Mts. Divide Europe and Asia

a. Northern Asia- Siberia2. European nation is mostly flat3. Dependant on rivers for transport and trade

B. Scandinavians migrated southward to lands occupied by Slavs; the Scandinavians and the Russian prince Rurik founded Russia in 862 w/ the capital at Novgorod

C. The Capital was soon to be moved to Kiev to increase trade along the Dneiper River

D. 987- Vladimar adopts Byzantine ChristianityE. 1240-41- Mongols conquer Russia

1. ruled Russia from 1240-14802. the “Mongol Yoke”

F. Moscow’s Princes United Russia1. Moscow- 1st settled in 1100s2. Located near the Vulga, the Dneiper, the Don Rivers

3. Ivan I- prince of Moscow and the tax collector for the Mongols from 1328-41

4. 1328- Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow5. By 1400s, Moscow had become one of the strongest of the Russian

States under the MongolsG. The Prince of Moscow becomes czar

1. Ivan III (1462-1505)- began calling himself czar (Russian for caesar of emperor)

2. 1480- Ivan III refused to pay tribute to the Mongols; freed Moscow from the “Mongol Yoke”

3. built up the walled fortress area in Moscow called the Kremlin4. Ivan III was the 1st czar of a united Russia; also known as

“Ivan the Great”H. Ivan IV ruled through terror

1. a.k.a. “Ivan the Terrible”2. many victories against the Mongols3. hated boyers (Russian nobles)4. organized a separate class of people: brutal police force

(oprichniki)

The RenaissanceChapter 15: The Renaissance and Exploration (1300-1600)

Overview: The Renaissance or “rebirth” of classical ideas (Greek and Roman) which were now looked at in new way as a result of modern thinking.I. The Renaissance Began in Northern Italy

A. Intro: These ancient ideas had been forgotten (or censored by the Church) in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. The increase in trade and cultural contact due to better farming techniques, the Crusades, and other factors caused these ideas to be relearned from the Muslims and others.

B. Italy Offered New Opportunities1. Northern Italy was unusually urbanized; there were more and

larger cities than in most other areas of Europe2. Florence, Genoa, Venice, and Milan were independent city-states

run by wealthy merchants who became powerful due to individual merit, not simply birth

3. Merchants took pride in sponsoring artistsC. Three Early Geniuses of the Renaissance

1. Giotto Di Bordonea. frescoes- technique of painting on wet plasterb. 1304- paints the Arena Chapel in Padua, Italyc. painted, lifelike “3-d” figures

2. Dante Alighieri (1266-1321)a. Greatest work was the Divine Comedy written in the

vernacular (or common language). His writings greatly enriched the Florentine dialect, and eventually becomes the national language of Italy.

b. He also venerates classical writings such as Virgil and Cicero

c. Letters to Beatrice3. Petrarch (1304-1374)

a. wrote beautiful love lyrics in the vernacularb. he invents the Italian sonnet (ex: Sonnets to Laura)c. he also venerates classical writer, Cicero

D. New Values Shaped the Renaissance

1. Education of the Individuala. Middle Ages artists were considered skilled artisans and

never credited for work as an individualb. Reniassance artists now fame as an individualc. 2 new art forms:

i. portrait paintingsii. the autobiography

2. Period of Classical Learninga. Humanists- scholars who studied classical textsb. Broader educational reform- Classical literature became a

larger part of educational curiculum, stressing practical learning

3. Enjoyment of Worldly Pleasuresa. fine clothes, perfumes, jewels, etc.b. move away from Middle Age piety; increased interest in

earthly and human subjects in Renaissance art and literature

E. The Renaissance Man and the Renaissance Woman1. the ideal man excelled in classical education, social graces,

athletics, music, art, dancing, singing, military skills, and writing poetry “universal man”a. guidebook for young people was Baldessome Castigliano’s

The Courtierb. the best example of the ‘Renaissance Man’ was Leon

Battista Alberti2. the ideal woman had similar qualities (attended school), but

inspired man’s art and poetry (Beatrice + Laura); not supposed to seek fame as men did (i.e. Isabella d’Este- well educated; sponsored many great artists, very talented)

II. Florence Led the Way in ArtsA. Intro: Guattrocento (1400s)- the full flowering of the Renaissance w/

dozens of the most talented painters and sculptors in history competing for fame in the cities of Northern Italy; the leading city was Florence

B. Cloth and Banking Enriched Florence1. Florentines made their wealth chiefly through 2 industries-

textiles and bankinga. textiles- 1/3 of the city’s population was employed by the

cloth guilds- mostly woolb. banking- wool merchants and guilds deposited their profits

into Florentine banks which in turn loaned the money to borrowers; the Florin was the unit of money used

2. for Florence’s leading merchants, pursuit of wealth and political power went hand in hand

C. The Medici Ruled Florence1. Cosimo de Medici

a. fortune from trade and bankingb. controlled Florence’s city council (1434) for more than 30

yearsc. built Western Europe’s first public library, also

beautified the city w/ his own personal $2. Lorenzo Medici

a. Cosimo’s grandson; he ruled w/ absolute powerb. Continued tradition of beautifying the city

D. Artists of Florence1. Lorenzo Ghiberti

a. 1401- begins work on the Baptistry doors paid for by the Wool guild

b. 50 years to complete, one of the greatest works in the history of man

2. Brunelleschia. 1420- working on the Cathedral of Florence; he constructs

a gigantic dome over the cathedralb. when completed, stood about 370 feet

3. Donatello (1386-1466)a. he first worked for Ghiberti at age 17b. went to Rome to study classical sculpturesc. like the ancient Greeks and Romans, he wanted to show

the strength and grace of the human form; ‘life-like’d. Donatello’s David

4. Masaccioa. developed perspective: Atmospheric and Linear

perspectiveb. expanded upon Giotto’s earlier technique of giving

painting ‘depth’c. considered “Father of Modern Painting”d. compare pages 191, 326, 330

III. Three Artistic Giants Led the RenaissanceA. Intro: In the 1500s, France and Spain fought for control of Italy and

the Italian city-states. The city-states struggle to maintain their independence

B. Niccolo Machiavelli- served as a diplomat for Florence, and through his observations and experiences wrote The Prince, a book about how a ruler can gain and keep power through any means necessary1. “the end justifies the means” if they serve the state2. “a prince…must, if necessary, be prepared to do evil”

C. The Popes Support Art1. after the death of Lorenzo de Medici, the pope became the

greatest art patron; the period on Rome in the early 1500s is known as the High Renaissance. Artists dealt primarily w/ religious matter, but the treatment of the subject was invariably secular and human. Greatest of the pope patrons were Nicholas V, Julius II (1503-1513), and Leo X

D. Michelangelo Excelled in Many Arts1. Michelangelo Buonanti (1475-1564)

a. sculptor, painter, architect, poetb. Florentine, but did most of his work in Rome for the popes

2. Surpassed Donatello in Sculpturea. surpasses the Greeks by conveying a strong individual

presence in his sculptureb. his David- 16 feet tall (pg. 333)c. Pieta (pg. 332)d. Moses e. “Tomb of Gulliano de Medici”

3. Michelangelo Painted Sculpturea. his greatest painting was the fresco ceiling of the

Sistine Chapeli. commissioned by Pope Julius IIii. took from 1508-1512 to complete

b. “The Last Judgment”4. Michelangelo as Architect

a. Plaza Farnese Courtyard; used 3 orders of columnsb. St. Peter’s Basilica à Dome

E. Raphael, Greatest Painter of all Time (Raphael de Santi, 1483-1520)1. contemporary of Michelangelo’s; his favorite subjects were relgious2. greatest work is the Papal Library, commissioned by Pope Julius II. Raphael reveals the veneration felt for the pagan glory of Greece during the Renaissance. “The School of Athens” includes famous characters of Greece and the Renaissance.

F. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) a true Renaissance Man1. Leonardo da Vinci

a. he was an illegitimate child from near Florence, where he spent his early career

b. most productive years spent in the employment of the Duke of Milan; traveled to Rome at age 61, and in his final years w/ King Francis I of France where he would eventually die

2. he was a versatile genius; master of painting, science, and engineering

3. his book, the Codex Licister, was written backward à it can only be read w/ a mirror

4. as a painter, he is probably unsurpassed in any age, he dealt primarily w/ religious subject matter, but his treatment of it was invariably secular and humana. “The Virgin of the Rock” he creates w/ an exquisite grace

and beauty, the Virgin Mary and the Baby Jesusi. Mary is depicted as the loveliest of womenii. Christ child is a plump, playful baby boy

b. “The Last Supper” à a study in human psychology; it depicted the reaction of the 12 disciples to Christ’s words “one of you shall betray me”

c. “Mona Lisa” à not religious; it is a portrait of a real woman, Lisa Gherdini dei Giocanda; her smile/smirk, hands are all believed to be probing the universal human nature of womanhood. A mathematic note: the angle of her smile is the segment of the same arc as the top of her forehead

Chapter 16: The Reformation and Scientific Revolution (1450-1650)

I. Martin Luther Began a Religious RevoltA. Intro: New Ideas of the Renaissance and new technology of the printing press were the most important forces of change.B. The Catholic Church Faced Problems

1. Popes were defending the papal states from French and Italian armies; were neglecting on spiritual needs of the Church2. Many priests and monks were poorly educated; some even illiterate3. Some priests had wives

C. Many People Were Devoutly Religious1. People had high standards of piety and literacy; many people resented the illiteracy of the priests2. Two Groups of Reformers:

a. The popular religious leadersi. Savanarola- his fiery sermons won him many supporters in Florence; thus he was able to seize control from Piero de Medici and rule from 1494-1498, until he was burned at the stake

b. The Renaissance Writers- Christian Humanists:

i. Erasmus- Holland (1466-1536) wrote In Praise of Folly, which poked

fun at greedy merchants, heartsick lovers, and pompous priestsii. Thomas More- England; in 1516 wrote Utopia a book on a nearly perfect society based on reason and mercy and void of war, crime, greed, and corruption

D. The Printing Press Spread New Ideas1. Intro: Printing press had the same effect on society of the times as T.V. and Computers do today2. Mainz (Myntz), Germany between 1440 - 1450 became the first Europeans to use movable type

a. Johann Gutenberg- Printed Bible in 1455, first full size book printed w/ movable type

3. Printing press spread throughout Europe:4. Rome 1467, Venice 1469, Paris 14705. 4 ways the Printing Press prepared the way for religious revolution:

a. Many writers criticized the Pope (Erasmus)b. Encouraged popular piety

i. Albrecht Dûrer - German artist whose religious woodcuts increased piety (The Knight. the Death, and the Devil) Depicted characters from the Bible in local settings and current timesc. Made bible available for all christians to read Therefore a person (Luther) could make their own interpretation instead of relying on priests and the churchd. Ideas spread more quickly than ever before: “Pen is mightier than the sword”

E. Luther Challenged the Church (1483-1546)1. A very scrupulous monk2. his personal reading of the Bible convinced him that faith in God alone was all that was necessary for salvation3. 95 theses on church door in Wittenberg - 1517

a. criticized Johann Tetzel who sold indulgences to rebuild St. Peter’sb. criticized the church in many waysc. someone printed his “Theses” and within six months, Luther was a household name in Germany

F. The Pope Tried To Silence Luther1. Wanted full reform of the church2. Salvation by faith alone (not good works)3. Bible is only authority (not pope)4. The Priesthood of Believers: all people were equal; no need for priests to interpret the Bible5. 1520 Leo X threatened excommunication and then did so

G. Charles V Opposed Luther1. 1521 - Holy Roman Emperor Charles V supported the pope and condemned Luther as a heretic and an outlaw in the Edict of Worms after Luther’s trial at the Diet of Worms2. Support for Luther:

a. German prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony gave Luther refuge in 1521 after the Edict of Worms; Luther translated the Bible from Latin into Germanb. Luther’s followers became known as Lutherans

i. priests and nuns abandoned their habits and married - priests became ministers

ii. Luther, while initially only wanting to reform the Church, ended up starting his own religious group

c. Many German princes and common people liked Lutheri. Luther condemned peasant revolts and urged brutal suppression; 100,000 peasants were massacred (1524-25)ii. many in the lower classes (who had initially followed Luther due to the idea of Christian freedom felt betrayed by Lutheriii. resentment at sending German money to Rome d. German princes saw Luther’s teachings as a good excuse to seize church property in Germanyiv. some princes actually shared Luther’s beliefs but most princes’ support stemmed from political motivesv. princes and others who protested against German princes who supported the pope became known as Protestants

Summary of the Protestant Reformation

H. Underlying Causes Of The Reformation1. The Renaissance, based on the philosophy of humanism, led people to question the authority of the Church and to place greater faith in human reason2. The Rise Of Nation-States led some monarchs to resent the power of the pope in their countries. A growing sense of Nationalism prompted people to feel more loyal to their king than to the pope3. Economic Restriction, peasants utilized the teachings of religion to support their demands. They asked for the abolition of serfdom where it still existed, limitations on the tithe paid to the Church and rents and services paid to the Lords, an end to the seizure of common land by the nobles, and an extension of their traditional right to hunt, fish, and cut wood in the forests for their own use.4. Worldliness and Corruption Within The Church caused a crisis of faith among believers because of abuses of power by the clergy and the pope such as indulgences and resentment to pay huge sums of money to Rome for construction of buildings etc.

I. Results Of The Reformation1. Formation of New Christian Religions: Religions that denied the universal authority of the pope and rested on the Bible as the source of truth were called Protestant

a. Martin Luther à Lutheranismi. “Justification by Faith”; Salvation by faith alone (not good works)ii. Bible is only authority (not pope); Denies the authority of the popeiii. The Priesthood of Believers: Priest not needed to mediate b/w God &individual

b. John Calvin Calvinismi. Predestination- the belief that a few people are predestined to be saved - “The Elite” or “The Elect”; everyone else will be damnedii. Theory of the Elect- “The Elect”, or those who would be saved from punishment for sins, would known by their moral lives and by the success they achieved through hard work. Popular among middle class who saw business as a sign of salvation

c. Henry VIII of Englandi. Act of Supremacy (1534)- king is made head of the Church of England (Anglican Church)

d. John Knox Led the Scottish Reformationi. Scottish preacher brought Calvinism to Scotland and made it the official religion, Presbyterianism

2. Great Power For Civil Authorities: Monarchs and Civil Authorities were able to increase their power at the expense of the Catholic Church3. Religious Wars: Differences in religion was a major cause of the conflicts, competition over trade and rivalry for power also were factors

a. 1588, Protestant England engaged in a Naval war with Spain. Spanish Armadab. Peace of Augsburg (1555) ends war b/w Charles V and Protestant German Princes; Prince is allowed to choose b/w Lutheranism or Catholicismc. Thirty Year’s War (1618-1648) civil wars in Germany and France

II. Protestantism Spread in Northern EuropeA. Henry VIII (of England) broke with the pope (1529)

1. Son of the “new monarch” Henry VII (Tudor)2. Publicly condemned Luther and his ideas, earning him the title “Defender of the Faith” from the pope3. His wife, Catherine of Aragon, failed to bear him a son that survived infancy had one daughter Mary

a. Henry feared that the still new Tudor dynasty might end with his death and lead to another “War of the Roses” type of dynastic struggle

4. Henry decided to get a new queen - a young girl named Anne Boleyn had one daughter Elizabeth 15335. The Church didn’t allow divorce but Henry hoped the pope might declare that Henry’s marriage had never been legal6. Clement VII refuses because Holy Roman Emperor Charles V is holding him prisoner in Rome (due to a war between them) and Catherine is Charles’s aunt7. King Henry sought Parliament’s help

a. 1529 “Reformation Parliament” stripped away the pope’s power in England and legalized Henry’s divorce from Catherineb. Henry married Anne Boleync. Act of Supremacy - king is made head of the Church of England (Anglican Church)

i. king had to approve all priests and bishopsd. Thomas More, England’s Chancellor, refused to take an oath supporting the Act of Supremacy and was beheaded

8. Henry seized Church property and closed the monasteries9. Henry VIll’s six marriages

a. Catherine of Aragon divorced in 1529b. Anne Boleyn married in 1533, beheaded in 1536 Jane Seymourc. Son Edward VI, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard (beheaded), Catherine Parr

10. All three of Henry’s children eventually sat on the thronea. Edward VI - staunch protestantb. Mary - Catholic who briefly returned the English Church to the Popec. Elizabeth I - returned England to Protestantism

B. Calvin Formalized Protestant Ideas1. studied law and philosophy2. gave structure to Luther’s idea of setting up a systematic protestant philosophy in his book Institutes of the Christian Religion3. Calvin’s doctrine of predestination - the belief that a few people are predestined to be saved - “the elite”; everyone else will be damned4. Calvin believed in a theocracy - a type of government in which the Church leaders control the government (very different from Lutheranism which supported governments by earthly rulers)

a. Calvin’s ideas helped to spur some revolts against “ungodly” rule

5. Calvin set up a theocracy in Geneva, SwitzerlandC. Knox Led the Scottish Reformation

1. Scottish preacher brought Calvinism to Scotland and made it the official religion2. each community church was run by a small group of elders or Presbyters3. 1567- Protestant nobles following Knox overthrew Scottish Queen Mary4. Stuart and replaced her with 1-year-old son, James VI, who they controlled

D. Protestant Churches Spread Widely in Europe Particularly in Northern Europe

1. Lutheranism was adopted in Northern Germany. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in the 1500s2. Calvinism spread from Geneva to parts of France as well as to Scotland and the Netherlands3. England formed its own Protestant Church, the Church of England

III. The Catholic Church Made ReformsA. Saint Ignatius of Loyola began the Jesuits

1. Spiritual exercises - Ignatius’s daily plan for prayer and meditation2. 1540- founded the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits)3. Concentrated on 3 areas:

a. educationb. missionary activityc. preventing Protestantism from spreading in southern Germany and Poland

B. Reforming popes led the church in the mid-15OOs 1. goals:

a. to strengthen and purify the Church b. to combat Protestantism

2. Pope Paul III (1534 - 49)a. Ordered a council of cardinals to investigate simony, indulgence, selling, and other abusesb. approved the Jesuit order, Ignatus Loyollac. called a council of Catholic bishops and cardinals in 1545 -Council of Trent

i. pope’s interpretation of the Bible was finalii. Christians saved by faith and good worksiii. Bible and Church tradition were both guides to Christian life

IV. Scientists Challenged Old Assumptions

A. Intro: The Scientific revolution developed more slowly and quietly than the reformation. Scientists challenged the ancient Greek and roman philosophers and the Bible.B. Copernicus and Kepler Studied The Solar system

1. Intro: Ptolomey (150 A.D.) Alexandrian Greek Astronomer believed that the Earth was the center of the solar system; scholars accepted this idea for 1,400 years2. Nicolaus Copernicus- Polish scholar

a. 1543 published a book: On The Revolutions Of Heavenly Bodies, It argued that the earth and other planets moved around the SUN not the earthb. Earth is constantly spinning or rotatingc. His arguments were based on logic and geometry, not by observationd. Few people knew of his ideas

3. Johannes Keplar (1571 - 1630) German Scientista. Made careful observations of the planets and concurred w/ Copernicus that the earth did in fact revolve around the sun.b. Keplar’s Law of Planetary Motionc. 3 principal mathematical equations that described how each planet moved around the sun

C. Galileo Used A Telescope1. Galileo Galilei (1564-1 642) observations of the heavens

a. 1610 Galileo Galilei, an Italian Scientist, published a book called ‘Starry messenger’b. Galileo is the first astronomer to use a telescope to observe the stars

i. Discovered that the moon’s surface was rough, like earth’s, and not smooth as was thoughtii. The sun had spots therefore not a perfect yellow orb

D. Other Inventions of Scientists:1. Thermometer- Galileo

a. With Mercury- Fahrenheit2. Mercury Barometer- Evangelista Torricelli3. Human Anatomy:

a. Andreas Vesalius Diagrams of human anatomyb. William Harvey in 1628 published: Essay on the Motion of the Human Heart and Blood; Heart pumping blood through veins (valves), arteries (no valves)

4. Scientific Method-a. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)- The Advancement of Learning, tried to classify the sciences in logical orderb. Rene Descartes (1596-1650)- Discourse on Method, successful method of application of his system analysis

i. Latin- “Cogito ergo sum”; English- “I think, therefore I am”ii. System of deduction based on four rules:-to accept as true nothing that is not self-evident-to break each problem into as many parts as possible-to reason always from the simple to the complex-to make exhaustive notes of all the data to make sure that nothing is omitted

Unit 2.1Spain

Chapter 17

I. Spain Built an Oversees Empire A. Conquistadors- Spanish conquerors hunting for fortune in the New World

B. Cortes conquered the Aztecs1. Hernando Cortes and 600 Spaniard soldiers (1519)2. Aztec Empire- 11 million people3. Cortes is thought to be Quetzcoatal (an Aztec God) by Montezuma, the Aztec ruler; so he is invited into the city as his guest4. Cortes’s successful conquest is due to:

a. advice of Doña Marina; she spoke Aztec and other languages and learned Spanish quicklyb. legend of Quetzcoatalc. better weapons, horses, steel swords, crossbows, and light artilleryd. Indians are divided and hate their Aztec rulerse. smallpoxf. eventual reinforcements from Spain

5. Cortes founds the Spanish colony of New Spain after conquering the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1521

C. Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incas of Peru (1532)1. the Incan ruler was Atahualpa2. 1533, Pizarro controlled all Incan capital of Cuzco

D. Spaniards Explored Widely1. Hernando de Soto claimed Florida and the Mississippi River for Spain2. Francisco Coronado explored the Rio Grande3. Pedro de Valdivia and Ines Suarez founded the city of Santiago and conquered much of Chile

E. Colonists Enslaved the Indians1. viceroy- the king’s representative in a Spanish colony; nobleman from Spain2. encomienda- large estate granted to Spanish settlers on which Indians were worked

II. Spain was a Catholic BulwarkA. Intro: Philip II ruled an empire consisting of Spain, its American colonies, the duchy of Milan, the kingdom of Naples, Franche-Couté, and the 17 provinces of the Netherlands

1. immense wealth from gold (750,000 pounds by 1600) and silver (16,000 tons by 1600) translated into having a superb army in the 1500s, “When Spain moves, the whole world trembles.”2. Philip II (1556-98)- a staunch supporter of Catholicism3. Philip II seized Portugal and its colonies in 1580 when the Portuguese king w/o an heir4. The Escorial- Philip II’s palace of north of Madrid; also included a monastery; 84 miles of corridors

B. Spain Battled for Catholicism1. Ottoman Turkish navy is crushed at the Battle of Lepanto by Spanish-Venetian ships (1571)

a. Philip II’s half-brother, Don John of Austria, was the Christian navy’s commander

2. 1588- defeat of the Spanish armadaa. Philip II’s greatest Protestant enemy was England under Elizabeth I, she openly assisted the Dutch rebels w/ money and troops; also urged English sea captains to raid Spanish treasure ships for goldb. Elizabeth I’s English navy wins over 130 Spanish ships and 31,000 men; England remains Protestant

C. Spain’s “Golden Age” of Great Art and Literature

1. El Greco- painted saints w/ long limbs and intense colors2. Velasquez- painted Spanish royal families3. Miguel de Cervantes- wrote Don Quixote de la Mancha, a satire of chivalric values

a. first modern European novelD. Spanish Economy Weakened

1. weak kings followed Philip II2. by 1650, Spain had a tremendous debt to foreign creditors for imported supplies3. inflation

a. gold and silver values droppedb. guilds of the Middle Ages still dominated manufacturing

- this led to a shortage of quality consumer goods and the need for high-priced imports from the Netherlands, England, and France

4. no large middle-class; most Jews and Moors were expelled in 1492

III. The Netherlands Won Independence from SpainA. the Dutch Revolted Against Spanish Rule

1. Philip II had inherited the Netherlands from his father, HRE Charles V2. Catholic, mercantile, and feudal Spain had very little in common w/ Protestant, capitalist Netherlands3. Philip II sent his sister Margaret to govern the Low Countries (Netherlands) in 15594. “Sea Beggars” (angry Calvinists), violently protesting Margaret’s rule, destroyed many Catholic Churches in the Netherlands (1566)5. Philip II sent 20,000 troops under the Spanish Duke of Alva to destroy Protestantism in the Netherlands

a. thousands of executions of suspected heretics6. Prince William of Orange (a.k.a. William the Silent) led the revolt against Spain - he opened the floodgates of Alkmoar and elsewhere, using the seawater to drive out the Spanish7. after a 10-year long war b/w Catholics (Spanish), and Protestants (Dutch); in 1579, the Dutch gained control of the northern part of the Netherlands (7 provinces)8. 1581- the United Provinces of the Netherlands is declared by the province of Holland and 6 other provinces9. for the time being, the southern part of the Netherlands (now Belguim) remained under Spanish control10. the United Provinces of the Netherlands becomes a rare place of religious toleration for Jews and eventually for people of all faiths

B. The Dutch Established a Republic1. each province had a governor called a stodtholder2. each of the 7 provinces sent a representative to a weak central legislature, the States General

C. The Dutch Built a Trading Empire1. the Dutch took the lead in developing capitalism in the 1600s

a. capitalism- economic system in which individuals invest capital in the hope of making a profitb. Dutch ships (privateers) carried commodities all over; 10,000 ships by 1600- larger than any other nation

c. the Dutch replaced Italians as Europe’s bankers as Atlantic Trade became more important than old Mediterranean Sea routes

i. Amsterdam Exchange Bank- safest, soundest bank in Europe in 1600s

2. The Dutch East India Co.a. 1602- resulted from Amsterdam’s richest merchants pooling their money together; its well-armed fleet helped the company to displace the Portuguese from the East Indies, Ceylon, and the Cape of Good Hope w/i 20 years, and to get the profitable spice trade for itselfb. any Dutch citizen could buy or sell shares in this profitable company

3. the Dutch system of trade, profit, and investment (soon to be followed by Britain and France) became known as the Commercial Revolutiona. the Commercial Revolution marked the beginnings of capitalism

D. Dutch Artists Developed a New Style1. Amsterdam became the “Florence” of the 1600s due to its wealth from banking and trade2. Rembrandt van Rijin (1609-69)

a. “Night Watch”- group portrait; mastery of light and shadow

3. Franz Hale- painted less somber works than Rembrandt; for example, he showed great merrymaking in 1 picture of a tavern scene4. Jan Vermeer- painted everyday tasks done by Dutch people at home5. Dutch art, unlike the art of Michaelengelo or Velasquez, emphasized the group and hard work, not the individual. Dutch art is characterized by group portraits of families, civic leaders, and military units, reflecting the Netherland’s civic spirit and prosperity

England and Great Britain

Chapter 18

Intro: Henry VIII had 3 children

Catherine of Aragon à daughter, Mary TudorAnne Boleyn, daughter Elizabeth; married in 1533, beheaded in 1536Jane Seymour à Son, Edward VI

Edward VI (1547-53)- followed in his father’s policy of strengthening the Protestant religion in EnglandMary Tudor (1553-58)- was married to Philip II of Spain; ruled briefly tried to reinstate Catholicism in England; known as “Bloody Mary” because of inquisitions. People disliked her for her violent acts and her marriage to a foreign kingElizabeth I (1558-1603)- came to the throne at age 25, she had been a Protestant ruler Edward and a Catholic under Mary; she chose to start a state religion, that Catholics and Protestants could acceptI. Elizabeth I Faced Many Challenges (1558-1603)

A. Ascended the throne after her half-sister, Mary Tudor, died in 1158B. Religious Issues Divided England à Elizabeth I gets Parliament to pass 2 acts to strengthen the Church of England

1. 1559- Act of Uniformity- people must attend Church of England services or pay a finea. to appease the Protestants, priests were allowed to marry

and say mass in English and Latinb. to appease the Catholics, Church would retain all the

trappings and priests would wear robes and vestmentsc. Note: it would take the Pope 10 years to excommunicate

Elizabeth b/c of her policy of moderation2. 1559- Act of Supremacy, Elizabeth would govern both the Church

and the StateC. Mary Queen of Scots, plotted to overthrow Elizabeth

1. Intro: Mary was a granddaughter of Henry VII, and therefore had a legitimate claim to the throne. She was Queen of Scotland and cousin to Elizabeth. She received support from Spain, France, Italy, and the Pope to overthrow Elizabeth and restore Catholicism to England

2. Mary did not receive the support of the Scottish people who were converting to Presbyterianism under John Knox. She is forced to seek safety in England after a Scottish Presbyterian revolt in 1567.

3. Mary was beheaded in 1587 for plotting to kill Elizabeth and take the throne for herselfD. Philip II of Spain threatened England

1. English “Sea Dogs” were encouraged by Elizabeth to attack Spanish treasure fleets coming from America

a. Sir Francis Drake- the greatest “sea dog”; circumnavigated the globe; attacked Cadiz and Logoes (1587)2. The invincible Spanish Armada (1588)

a. Elizabeth’s refusal to marry Philip, her sponsoring of the ‘Sea Dogs’, her support of the Dutch Protestants in their revolt against Catholic Spain, and her execution of the Catholic Mary provoked Philip into declaring war on England

b. Spanish fleet: 130 ships and 31,000 menc. the English victory is due to “fire ships”, speed,

superior cannons, and storms at sea; destroy half the Spanish fleetE. Elizabeth’s Financial Woes

1. small income; House of Commons balked at new taxesF. Joint-Stock Company: organization in which individual investors buy shares of ownership (or stock) and collect proportional shares of any profit earned

1. Sir Thomas Smyth planned to settle Virginia, but didn’t due to conflict w/ Spain in late 1500s

2. 1600s- British East India Companya. spice trade was very profitable

G. Parliament vs. Elizabeth I1. Puritans were an active minority in the House of Commons that

called upon Elizabeth to strip the Church of England of its “Catholic” rituals and lavish ornamentation inside the Churches

II. The Elizabethan Golden AgeA. London became England’s economic, political, and artistic center

1. many criminalsa. petty thieveryb. 200 Capital crimes listedc. debtor’s punishment- imprisonment

2. William Shakespeare’s Drama and Poetrya. symbolizes the Golden Age of English literature; perhaps the

best writer everb. had a great understanding of human naturec. wrote 38 plays: Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet

3. James Burbage built London’s 1st playhouse (1576) “The Theatre”4. Globe Theater built by Burbage’s 2 sons, was the scene of the great

plays of Shakespearea. 1/10 of London’s population attended some play each weekb. groundling- a theater-goer who paid a penny to sit or stand in

the ground to watch a play

III. England’s Civil WarA. Elizabeth dies w/o an heir

1. Elizabeth I (Tudor) never married and died (March, 1603) w/o an heir, thus ending the Tudor Dynasty

2. Elizabeth’s Scottish cousin, James Stuart becomes king James I (1603-1625) of England, starting the Stuart dynasty

3. James I loudly voiced his belief in the Divine Right of Kings (kings were chosen by God and are only answerable to God) - this angered Parliament

4. 1611- King James Bible is published; elegant, powerful translation by English-speaking Protestants

5. King James will make a wise, but unpopular, political alliance w/ SpainB. The English Founded American Colonies

1. Jamestown (1607) - 1st English settlement in the Americas (Virginia)

2. Plymouth (1620)- founded in Massachusetts by PuritansC. England Reached the Brink of War

1. Charles I (1625-1649) became the 2nd Stuart king after James I (his father) dies; he was also a firm believer in divine right and had many clashes w/ Parliament

2. when Parliament refused to grant Charles money for a war w/ Spain in 1626, Charles dissolved it, and demanded loans from nobles and his knights, or face Court of Star Chamber

3. 1628- Petition of Righta. a document signed by Charles I in exchange for money

needed to continue warsb. it limited the king’s power

i. no imprisonment w/o causeii. no new loans or taxes w/o Parliament’s consentiii. no quartering of soldiers in private homes w/o

owner’s consentiv. no martial law in peacetime

c. a year later, Charles dissolved Parliament again

4. from 1629-1640, Charles ruled w/o Parliament, laying unpopular fines and fees on the people (didn’t revolt b/c of the relative prosperity)

5. Charles I chose William Laud, a lover of ceremonies, as Archbishop of Canterbury, head of the Church of England; Puritans were very offended

a. 1639- land tried to force the Scottish Presbyterians to follow the Church of England

b. 1640- the Scots raised an army and threatened to invade England; Charles now must call Parliament (Short) back to raise money

c. throughout 1641, Long Parliament passed laws to limit the king’s power

i. Parliament called for the dismissal of key ministers, including Laud

ii. end Court of Star Chamberiii. demanded that Parliament meet at least once every 3

yearsd. revolts in London force the king to flee to the north

D. Cavaliers and Roundheads Fought a Civil War1. Cavaliers (Royalists)- supporters of Charles I were mostly

English nobles and high church officials2. Roundheads- Puritan townspeople who supported Parliament; mostly

merchantsa. had the great resources of Parliament; needed a leader

3. Oliver Cromwella. became General of the Roundheads, 1644b. the New Model Army- strict discipline and good leadership

made it an effective fighting machine4. Effects of the War

a. at 1st, most people were unaffected by war; in the end, many villages and crops were destroyed; 100,000 battle casualties

b. on both sides, people had become more radical in their ideas5. 1646, Charles I- defeated and a prisoner in Scotland

a. Cromwell’s New Model Army refuses Parliament’s order to disband; some members of Parliament then join the king

b. 1648, Cromwell defeats Parliament supporters and captures King Charles I, then expels 143 M.P.s from Parliament (Pride’s Purge)6. 1/30/1649- Charles I (Stuart) publicly executed for treason by

Cromwell and the PuritansE. Cromwell Ruled as Military Dictator

1. 1653, Cromwell’s soldiers expel remaining M.P.s from Parliament building- set up a constitution (1st written Constitution of a modern European nation w/ Cromwell as Lord Protector; established a republic (commonwealth)2. Puritans closed theaters and stopped sporting events; all

entertainment becomes illegal; many people dislike the Puritan dictatorshipF. Conquest of Ireland

1. Ireland had fallen under English rule during Henry VIII’s reign, and was a constant problem for Elizabeth, James, and Charles

2. 1649, after the execution of Charles, the Irish rose to revolta. August 1649, Cromwell invades w/ a protestant armyb. English seize town of Dragheb, massacre of 9,000

inhabitants; special satisfaction in killing priestsc. many more massacres; land and crops destroyedd. 616,000 Irish die from plague and famine b/w 1641-1655

G. Summary of Cromwell’s Life

1. comes to power as a dictator, by Pride’s Purge (although he wanted a republic)

2. wrote 2 constitutions, but Parliament didn’t accept them, so he dissolved it

3. Irish and Scottish rebellions crushed4. Dutch War and Navigation Act of 1651; buys merchant’s support,

but force was used5. 1658, Cromwell dies; briefly succeeded by his son, Richard

IV. Parliament Won Political PowerA. Charles II Restored the Monarchy

1. 1659, Army General George Monds recalled Protestant2. The Restoration

a. Parliament asks Prince Charles Stuart to return from exile to become king

b. Charles II (1660-1685)-“Merry Monarch”; restored much of the merrymaking to England; Theater, sporting events, etc.

i. John Milton, a Puritan, wrote propaganda for Cromwell; his greatest poem was Paradise Lost, an epic poem about the “fall” of man, tries to explain suffering and pain

3. Charles II was a moderate ruler; he never tried to restore the Divine Right of kings

4. Habeus Corpus- 1679, law which says that all prisoners must be brought to trial or set free if no evidence indicating guilt; an important guarantee of personal freedom. Prevented false arrest and imprisonment

5. beginning in 1670, Secret Treaty of Dover; King Louis XIV of France paid a lump sum of money each year to Charles in exchange for a promise from Charles that he would eventually become a Catholic, but his openly Catholic brother and heir was. Charles in 1673 issues a Declaration of Indulgences, suspending laws against Parliament and dissenters; Parliament responds w/ the Test Act 91673) banned all Catholics and dissenters from civil service or military officeB. Political Parties develop

1. James II (1685-88) becomes king of England; claims to rule by ‘divine right’

2. Political Partiesa. Whigs (assassins in Scottish)- opponents of James II; want

a weak king and a strong Parliamentb. Torries (Irish bandits)- supporters of James II; wanted a

strong king, and direct lineageC. James II Lost His Throne

1. James II lost much Torrie support by appointing Catholics to high office, violating the Test Act of the Restoration of Parliament

2. 3 reasons James II was opposed:a. 1687, Declaration of Indulgences; all govt. posts open to

Catholicsb. stationed 13,000 troops outside London (many feared

revival of Catholicism as the state religion)c. 1688- James II’s second wife has a son à fear Catholic

dynasty3. Whigs and Torries join forces; invite Protestant daughter Mary

to take over the throne to save Protestantism (she was William of Netherland’s wife)

4. 1688, Glorious Revolution; William’s army faces no opposition; General John Churchill deserts James II (who flees to France); William and Mary take the throneD. The English Won a Bill of Rights

1. 1689, William and Mary accept many limits on royal power and recognize Parliament as the leading partner in ruling England

2. Bill of Rights- the king was forbidden to raise an army, levy taxes w/o the consent of Parliament, no suspending of Parliament’s laws, etc. (see p. 405). This marked the transfer of power from the king to Parliament. It also established the Council of Ministers, the forerunner of the Cabinet

a. Toleration Act- freed dissenters from penaltyE. Political Ideas Grew From Conflict

1. after the beheading of Charles I, Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan; man is evil and must be curbed by a powerful govt.; an absolute monarchy was best

2. after the Glorious Revolution, John Locke, wrote Treatises on Government; man is reasonable and has the right to rebel against any govt. which fails to protect 3 basic human rights: life, liberty, and the property; govt. was a contract in which the rulers promised to safeguard people’s natural rights (combo of feudalism and democracy)

Chapter 20

IV. Britain Developed New Forms of LeadershipA. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 gave England a constitutional

monarchy; in 1707, the kingdom of Scotland and England unite, creating the Great Britain w/ the most progressive govt. in Europe w/ the King and Parliament developing new ways of working together

B. Britain was a limited Democracy1. the cabinet was a committee that acted in the monarch’s name,

but represented the majority party in the House of Commons (Parliament)

2. King William needed Parliament’s support so he tried to connect the cabinet ministers to the majority party of Parliament, so it could be highly effective

C. The Rise of the Prime Ministers1. leader of the majority party in Parliament; directs govt. and

heads the cabinet2. the position emerges after the last Stuart monarch, Queen Anne,

died in 17143. the German prince of Hanover, George I, was next in line for the

throne, and he and later his son, George II, came to rely heavily on the Prime Minister

4. Sir Robert Walpole, Great Britain’s 1st P.M., served George I and II from 1721-41, as 1st Lord of the Treasury. He came to dominate the cabinet, king, and Parliament, and he was the unofficial ruler of G.B., and is considered 1st modern P.M., although he never uses the title

D. Limited Democracy1. only 5% of the population could vote (men owning 40 shillings

worth of land) for members of the House of CommonsE. Britain Built a Worldwide Empire

1. mercantilism in G.B. wanted, needed, and encouraged colonies2. 1763, conclusion of 7 Year’s War, G.B. was the strongest

colonial and naval power in Europe w/ colonies in North America + Asiaa. most important colonies in America were in the Caribbean

(produced sugar cane)b. North America provided furs and timber

3. Navigation Acts of 1660 and 1663

a. American colonies had to sell to Britain, and could not buy from other nations w/o high tariffs

b. British enforcement of the Acts was almost impossible b/c of clever smuggling

4. Stamp Act (1765)a. King George III imposed the Stamp Act to pay for 7 Years’

Warb. tax on official stamp on wills, deeds, and other legal

documentsc. “No taxation w/o representation” was colonists’ response

to what they believed were unfair taxes

Unit 2.2Germany and Austria

Chapter 17

V. Religious Wars Split GermanyA. The Settlement b/w Lutherans and Catholics in Germany in 1555, the Peace of Augsburg, was not lasting1. Calvinism not accepted as an option2. prince decided religion of area à people had no say3. increasing tension b/w Catholic and Lutheran princesa. Lutherans joined together into a Protestant Union- 1608b. Catholic Princes founded the Catholic League- 1609B. Germans Fought the 30 Years’ War (1618-1648)1. King Ferdinand II becomes king of Bohemiaa. he is Austrian, not Czech like the peopleb. he is a Catholic; people à Lutheranc. he is a Hapsburg à nephew of Charles V and cousin of Philip II, disliked by people of Bohemia2. 1618- Protestant mobs riot in Praguea. Ferdinand II sends an army the crush the riotb. Ferdinand becomes HRE in 1619 (success of efforts to reinstate Catholicism in Bohemia seen as a threat to Lutheran princes)c. some German Protestant princes send their armies against the emperor; aid from France and Richelieu3. 2 Major Phasesa. Hapsburgs’ Triumphi. Hapsburg armies from Austria and Spain beat troops hired by the German Protestant princesii. leaders of Czech uprising were killediii. Denmark’s Christian IV joins w/ the Protestants in 1625, helping the Protestant sideiv. Czech soldier and adventurer, Albrecht von Wallenstein, committed many atrocities (mercenary of Ferdinand II)v. by 1629, he drives the Danes out of the Germanyb. Hapsburgs’ Defeatsi. Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus, drives Hapsburg armies out of North Germany from 1630-1632 until killed in battleii. Richelieu fearful of Hapsburg power, sent French troops to join Swedish, and German Protestants in Germany in 1635; this turned the tide of battle against the Hapsburgs for good4. Results of the 30 Years’ Wars: Germany was ravaged

a. population declined from 20 million to 13.5 million, many died from hunger and diseaseb. the economy was destroyedc. Germany lost what little unity it once hadd. Hapsburgs - both Spanish and Austrian - declinede. France becomes the strongest European nationC. The Treaty of Westphalia ended the war1. 1648- Ferdinand II’s son agreed to a treaty which favored his Swedish, French, and Protestant enemies2. Major Termsa. France took Alsace on the West bank of the Rhineb. Swedish took parts of Northern Germanyc. German princes independent of HREd. Calvinists were permitted in Germanye. the Dutch Republic (United Provinces) won recognition as an independent state

Chapter 19

III. Austria and Prussia Rose to PowerA. Weak Empires Ruled Central Europe1. few clear, natural borders; thus much warfare and migration2. unlike Western Europe, where serfs and middle-class townspeople increase their freedoms and power, in Central Europe, the landowning aristocracy increased their hold over serfs3. Polanda. the nobility elected the Polish king, and made him a figureheadb. they often elected a foreign king b/c of intense jealousies among themselvesc. king had very little $, land, and no standing armyd. ultimately, the Polish nobility ran the country, and their selfishness and perversity made Poland defenseless against aggression4. Ottoman Empirea. the sultans who followed the strong Suleiman the Magnificent in the 1600 and 1700s were generally weak rulersb. govt. in Istanbul was corrupt and the army was poorly equippedc. eventually, nationalist movements would tear apart the empire5. HREa. at the end of the 30 Years’ War, Germany was separated into about 360 states and 2,500 imperial knights held sovereign rights to estates (avg. - 100 acres)b. theoretically all were part of the HRE, but the empire was no longer a viable political entityc. of the many states, the Electorate of Brandenburg (Prussia) had been ruled since 1415 by the Hohenzollern dynasty and was destined to rule Germany6. Power vacuum in Central Europe: Who will fill it? Hapsburgs or Hohenzollerns?B. Austria regained power in the 1700s1. the Austrian Hapsburgs, although weakened by the 30 Years’ War, was still the strongest German kingdom2. the Hapsburgs ruled various kingdoms, in addition to Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, and scattered German and Italian lands3. HRE Charles VI (1711-1740) persuaded Empire’s other rulers to promise that hey would not challenge his only heir, Maria Theresa, when he died; this agreement was called the Pragmatic Sanction (1739)C. The Hohenzollerns ruled Prussia1. Three reasons for Hohenzollern successa. four excellent successive rulers in the dynasty and all wanted to be an absolute ruler and a power in Europe

b. their territories from the Vistula to the Rhine rivers provided bases for diplomatic and military operations throughout Germanyc. absolutism second only to guarantee of order and prosperity2. Three Goals of the Hohenzollernsa. absolutismb. territorial aggrandizement (extending, increasing scope of)c. become a power in Europe3. The Great Electora. the Hohenzollern prince of Brandenburg, Frederick William (1640-1688) received the honorary title of elector in 1640i. he limited the power of the junkers (gentry)ii. replaced nobility w/ his own bureaucracy and founded the Prussian Civil Serviceb. Frederick William- “The Great Elector” built up Brandenburg’s army * the army was brought directly under the monarch’s control; organized a General Staff to control army w/; was the best trained, best equipped army in Europe, and maintained control just by its presence despite its small size (30,000), served as the collecting agency and police force of the stateD. Future Hohenzollerns Further Built up Prussia’s army1. Great Elector’s son, King Frederick I (1688-1713)a. a timid and sensitive cripple; did not exercise autocratic control over the govt.b. but he showed his father’s faith in military might and increased his army to 40,000c. he lent Emperor Leopold 8,000 troops in the War of Spanish Successiond. in return, Leopold agreed to recognize East Prussia as a kingdom (outside of HRE) in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713)i. said Frederick is sovereign ruler over the territory as a kingdom and recognized Frederick as king of Prussia (Hohenzollerns’ will not become king of all of Prussia until 70 years later) by virtue of his sovereignty over East Prussia to appease Polish king who ruled West Prussia2. Frederick William I (1713-1740)- “the Sergeant King” + “the Penny Pincher”a. became king at age 25; violent teenager, vulgar in speech and action, deeply piousb. Potsdam Giant Regiment of grenadiers, king’s personal guard all over 6’8” tallc. doubled the size of the army (40,000-85,000); 4th largest army in Europed. only members of Prussia’s landowning nobility could become officerse. Prussia became a military society w/ best trained army in Europe3. Frederick II (1740-1786) “Frederick the Great”a. was the “the great” by virtue of his military prowess, his success in establishing Prussia as a great power, and his intellectual capacityb. wanted Austria’s iron-rich lands of Silesia and invaded in 1740, when Maria Theresa became the Hapsburg Monarchc. started the War of Austrian Successioni. other nations also attacked Maria Theresa’s landii. Hungary and Britain aided Austriaiii. Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748)- Austria lost Silesia to Prussia, but kept all other landsE. Alliances Shifted in Europe1. 1756- Diplomatic Revolutiona. traditional alliances- France and Prussia vs. Britain and Austria2. the new line-up, beginning in 1756a. Austria, France, Russia, and Saxony vs. Britain, Hungary, and Prussiab. Austria’s foreign minister, Count Kaunitz realized that Austria’s greatest enemy was no longer Bourbon France but Hohenzollern Prussia3. The 7 Years’ War (1756-1763): the first true world war

a. France vs. Britain over N. America and S. Asiab. Frederick’s strategyi. he could defeat any one of his enemies on their own, but together they could crush himii. would maintain a policy of keeping his enemies apart, not allowing them to uniteiii. an alliance w/ Russia under Peter III saved Prussia from annihilation in 1762c. Resultsi. Peace of Paris (1763)ii. Prussia kept Silesia, but gained nothingiii. France lost Canada and India to Britainiv. Britain was the only real “winner”d. Frederick in retrospecti. gambled in 2 wars (War of Austrian Succession and War of Bavarian Succession) and survived a 3rd (7 Years’ War) winning universal recognition of Prussiaii. he stimulated the weakening of German nationalism

Russia

Chapter 19

II. Peter the Great Changed RussiaA. Russia was isolated from Europe1. 1480- Ivan III had freed Moscow from the Mongols and declared himself czar2. Ivan IV’s (“the terrible”) death in 1584 was followed by a struggle b/w the boyars3. 1613- representatives from 50 Russian cities chose Michael Romanov, grandnephew of Ivan III, as next czar4. Romanov Dynasty would last from 1613-19175. unlike Western Europe in which serfdom ended by the 1300 and 1400s, Russia still had serfs until 1700s. Society in the 1600s was dominated by the boyars6. unlike Western Europe, Russia didn’t have a Renaissance due to isolation from Mongol rule (1240-1480- “Mongol Rule”); similarly, there was no Age of Exploration or Scientific Revolution in Russia7. geographically, Russia was also isolated à its only seaport, Archangel, was often icebound8. unlike Western Europe, which followed Roman Catholicism of Protestant Christianity, Russia followed Byzantine Christianity, which increased separationB. Peter I dreamed of modernizing Russia (reigned as czar from 1682-1725)1. Peter I became czar in 1696 at age 242. he was 6’9” tall, had a violent and uncontrollable temper, and had many liaisons w/ peasant girls after he put his 16 year-old wife in a nunnery; married Catherine, a peasant girl from Livonia, as his 2nd wife3. he was also a very able ruler, he was a genius and handled much of the day to day operations of the govt.4. 1698- age 25- traveled around Western Europe to learn of customs and scientific ideasC. Peter “the Great’s” many changes1. increased status of womena. no veils, must agree to marriage2. adopted European calendara. Russia was using a calendar based on Sept. 1, 5508 B.C. as the date of creationb. Peter changed to the European calendar on Jan. 1, 17003. nobles’ head shaved (or taxed); tax was a % of your total wealth

4. introduced potatoesa. became a staple cropb. provided more caloriesc. could grow in Russia’s colder climate5. subsidized the growth of manufacturing and iron mininga. brought in Western European advisorsb. iron and copper mining are the most successful enterprises6. newspapersa. even literate Russians knew little of the events outside their countryb. to combat this ignorance, Peter started Russia’s first newspaperD. Peter I was an Absolute Ruler1. Russian Orthodox Churcha. when Patriarch Hadrian, the head of the Russian Orthodox Church died in 1700, Peter neglected to appoint another for 20 years, then abolished the postb. he created a group of high priests called the Holy Synod, with himself as the leader; the church became a state church2. Peter reduced the power of the boyers (nobility)a. rarely gave high govt. posts to powerful boyar familiesb. he recruited men from lower families; they were loyal, owed him everything3. Peter modernized his armya. when he came to power, the army was mostly part-time cavalry with sabersb. the rest of Europe had well-trained + equipped infantry, who served full-timec. to modernize, Peter hired European officers to train his troops in European tactics with European weaponsd. Russian soldiers now worked full-timee. by the time Peter died, 200,000 men were in his armyf. Peter laid heavy taxes on nearly everyone in Russia to support the armyE. Peter Expanded Russia’s Empire1. Peter used his army to crush peasant revolts and to win a warm-water seaport2. to trade with Europe, a strip of land was needed for a warm water porta. Arkangelsk, Russia’s only port, was often ice-bound3. Peter tried to take Azov on the Black Sea from the Turksa. he lost his first campaign (1695) b/c of the need for warshipsb. his second campaign (1696) was successful, but the city was recaptured a few years laterc. Next, he tried to take a piece of land on the Baltic Sea from the Swedesi. this war was called the Great Northern War (1700-1721)ii. the Swedish king Charles XII scored victories earlyiii. then in 1708, the Swedes invaded the Ukraine, and they fell victim to the winter cold; they were left starved and demoralizediv. in 1709, Peter turned his army on the weakened, frostbitten Swedes, and annihilated them at the Battle of Poltavad. the remaining 12 years of war went well for Peteri. Charles XII died in battle in 1719ii. Peter successfully invaded both Finland and Swedeniii. the treaty of peace in 1721 gave the Russians a broad piece of land on the Baltic SeaF. Peter Built a New Capital1. in 1703, before he actually won the land from the Swedes, Peter began to build a city on Swedish lands occupied by Russian troops2. the site was at the mouth of the Neva River; it was called St. Petersburg3. many died from poor working conditions and disease there4. in 1712, it was declared the new capital of Russia5. Peter I died in 1725, at 52 years old

Enlightenment

Chapter 20

I. European Thinkers Expressed New IdeasA. Intro: The Age of Enlightenment brought together the ideas of the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. They had a more secular outlook. People believed everything had to be tested by the standard of reason.B. Newton Discovered the Law of Gravity1. Isaac Newton was a scientist who believed that all physical objects were affected equally by the same forces2. he came up with the idea that all objects attract one anothera. he called the attraction ‘gravitation’b. in 1687, he published the Mathematical Principles of Natural PhilosophyC. The Philosophes (thinkers who applied reason to all aspects of life) Believed in 5 central ideas1. Reasona. believed to be some kind of divine forceb. it was the absence of intolerance, bigotry, or prejudice in one’s thinking2. Naturea. the philosophes referred to nature frequently, it was all that was good and reasonableb. believed that were natural laws to economics and politics, just as there were natural laws of motion3. Happinessa. believed a person who lived by nature’s laws would find happinessb. rejected the Medieval notion that people should accept misery in this world to find joy in heaven; they wanted well-being now4. Progressa. were the first Europeans to believe in progress for societyb. they believed people could use a scientific approach to perfect society and humankind5. Libertya. the philosophes envied the liberties the British received after the Glorious Revolutionb. in France, there were restrictions on speech, religion, trade, and travelc. through reason, liberty could be attainedD. Voltaire Fought Prejudice and Intolerance1. Real name: Francois Marie Arouet2. Candide (1758), his classic, a short satirical novel3. he wrote 20,000 letters to 1,700 different people ranging from contemporaries to king Frederick II (the Great) and Catherine II (the Great); he also wrote plays, poems, novels, and essays4. ended all letters w/ “crush the infamous thing”; the ‘thing’ is prejudice, superstition, and intoleranceE. Salons were Intellectual Centers1. in the 1700s, Paris was Europe’s cultural and intellectual centers2. salons- informal, intellectual, social, and cultural gatherings hosted by the wealthy; usually women3. Marie Theresa Geoffrin- was the most influential salon hostess in the 1700sF. Diderot’s Encyclopedia: Diderot had the leading scholars, scientists, economists, and enlightenment figures contribute articles on current thinking of different topicsG. New Music1. Baroque Period (late 1600s - early 1700s)a. style was ornate, dramatic, and complexb. fugue and counterpoint were developedc. famous composers

i. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)ii. George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)2. Classical Period (1750-1820)a. less ornate than baroqueb. emphasized unity, clarity, and balancec. new musical formsi. symphonyii. concertosiii. sonatas increased after starting in baroqued. famous composersi. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: wrote the operas The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giavoni, and the Magic Fluteii. Beethoven (1770-1827): started as classical, finished in Romanticiii. Haydn- “Father of the Symphony”II. Writers Advocated Liberty and Reasons

Intro: Liberties were seen as necessary for happinessA. Economic Liberty- Adam Smith (Father of Modern Economics)1. The Physiocrats- French economists who argued that mercantilist ideas about wealth were wrong; they argued that tariffs and govt. regulations and intervention hurt business. They would inspire Adam Smith2. the physiocrats and Adam Smith (Scottish Economist) believed in “Laissez Faire”3. The Wealth of Nations (1776) was written by Smitha. Adam Smith defended the idea of a free economyb. Three Natural Laws of Economicsi. Law of Self-Interest- people act for selfish reasonsii. Law of Competition- competition forces sellers to make a better product (i.e. US car manufacturers)iii. Law of Supply and Demand: increased supply = decreased demand; decreased supply = increased demandc. Smith argued that the most goods will be produced at the cheapest price in a totally free economy, that govt. regulation artificially stops the 3 natural laws from workingB. Political Liberty: Montesquieu and Rousseau1. Montesquieu, On the Spirit of Laws (1748)a. advocated the separation of powersb. he said Rome collapsed b/c of lack of political libertiesc. analyzed the British govt. which he believed was the best in the worldi. he makes a mistake in the analysis of the govt., but creates an excellent form of govt. from his mistakeii. 3 separate powers in govt.

-executive: king and his ministers (executes and enforces laws)-legislative: Parliament or Congress (makes laws)-judicial: judges (interprets laws)

iii. power should be a check to power2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The Social Contract (1762)a. championed freedom and equality for all menb. ‘state of nature’ of man was subjugated by strong people (absolute monarchy, oligarchy, theocracy, etc.) in a civilization; causing freedom and equality to be destroyedc. therefore all men must be equal to avoid inequalityd. like Locke, Rousseau argued for people’s consent w/ any rulee. unlike Locke, Rousseau wanted a broad democracy which followed the “general rule” (that people should be sovereign)

Unit 2.3France

Chapter 17

IV. France’s Crown Changed HandsA. Spain beat France in the 1500s in controlling Italy1. Philip II of Spain weakened the Valois dynasty which had ruled France since 1328 (Capetians died during the 100 Years’ War)B. Catherine de Medici- Henry II’s wife, ruled in their 4 son’s names after Henry died in 15581. in 1689, 1/6 of France’s population were Hugeonots (French Calvinists)2. b/w 1562 and 1589, 9 civil wars b/w Bourbon and Guise (part of the Catholic League), 2 noble families which wanted to each replace the declining Valois Dynasty3. the St. Bartholeme’s Day Massacre (Aug. 24, 1572); Catherine de Medici had Admiral de Colyinh (Charles IX’s closest advisor, but a Protestant) killed and inspired the Catholic mob to attack Hugeonots (about 12,00 killed)C. The Valois Dynasty Ended1. when Charles IX died in 1574, Henry III, his brother, ruled for 15 years before the dynasty ended due to great civil war2. the Duke of Guise, supported by Spanish Philip II, ruled briefly; this outraged many Frenchmen (both Catholic + Protestant)3. Politiques- were French Catholic leaders who wanted peace religious toleration, and a strong monarchy to stop the religious war4. the Duke of Guise and the important Henry (Valois ‘king’) were each killedD. Henry IV Brought Peace1. Prince Henry of Naverre, heir to the French throne and one of the House of Bourbon, gained support as king of both the Protestant and Catholic politiques2. to placate the Catholic majority, Henry IV converted to Catholicism in 1583- “Paris is well worth a mass”3. 1598- Edict of Nantes: religious toleration for Hugeonotsa. Hugeonots were granted complete freedom of conscienceb. the right to publicly practice their religion in specified places (1 house of worship in each city except Paris)c. the right to hold public office4. The Duke of Sully, the finance minister helped Henry IV to strengthen the monarchy through mercantilist policies ; seek colonial (quebec); grant subsidies to industry ; build roads, canals, etc.5. Henry IV had restored peace

E. Cardinal Richelieu Ruled France1. Henry IV’s son inherited the French throne in 1610 (Henry was assassinated by a fanatic); Louis XIII, being rather witless, wisely allowed the Catholic Cardinal Richelieu to rule for him and strengthen the French monarchy form 1624-16422. Richelieu’s 2 goals:a. to increase the power of the Bourbon monarchyi. to weaken the independence of Hugeonot cities; Richelieu had La Rochelle and other Hugeonot cities forced into taking down their walls (Edict of Alais; 1626)ii. to weaken the power of the French nobles:

-ordered the destruction of many nobles’ castles-had a spy network-used members of the middle-class as powerful agents of the king ot collect taxes and administer justice-the Bourbon kings increasingly became absolute monarchs who had no need for the military services of the French nobility

b. make France the strongest nation in Europei. Richelieu was very successful against the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburg families during the 30 Years’ WarF. French Thinkers Question Authority1. France’s religious wars during the 1500s turned many French thinkers into skeptics about religion2. Francois Rabelois (1483-1553)a. 2 satires on European societyb. “Do as You Wish”3. Michael de Montaigne (1533-82)a. Essays- about himself and friendship (makes essay a literary form)b. stressed religious tolerance4. Rene Descartes (1596-1650)a. mathematician and philosophyb. the founder of modern philosophyc. Discourse on Methodi. believed that nothing should be accepted in faith, “seek truth in the sciences”d. proof for his own existence; “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am)e. System of Deductioni. to accept nothing that is not self-evidentii. to break each problem into as many parts as possibleiii. to always reason from the simple to the complexiv. to make exhaustive notes of all the data to make sure nothing is omitted

Chapter 19

I. FranceA. Intro: Monarch must: subjugate nobility, beurocratic centralization of govt., standing army under control of monarch 1. Bourbon Dynasty: Henry IV à Louis XIII, who appoints Cardinal Richelieu à Louis XIV takes overB. Louis XIV (1643-1715)1. the “Sun King”; all of France (Europe) centered around him2. “I am the State” (L’etat, a est vol)3. mother Anne, and Prime Minister Cardinal James Mazarin ruled in Louis’ youthC. Mazarin1. won favorable terms for France at the Treaty of Westphalia (1648)2. the French rebellion by nobles was put downa. 1651: some nobles stormed into Louis’ palace in Paris; Louis learns to hate Paris

D. Jean Baptiste Cobert à Finance Minister for Louis XIV1. encouraged mercantilism (had to export more than import)2. encourage French manufacturing w/ tax breaks and subsidies; imported skilled workers3. France soon gained a favorable balance of trade4. high tariffs5. encouraged colonization in Canada6. by 1683, France was the industrial leader in Europe, thanks to Cobert7. Louis XIV later hurt France’s economic prosperity in revoking the Edict of Nantes (1598) and encouraging 200,000 Hugeonot workers and businessmen to flee FranceE. Versailles1. new location of Louis’ court (1682)2. set the artistic standard for Europe’s kingss3. the most dazzling of the rooms in the palace was the Hall of Mirrors4. accomodated 1,000 nobles and more than 4,000 servants in crowded rooms5. system of etiquetteF. France led Europe in the Arts (baroque and rococo)1. Jean Baptiste Lully- chief court musician and opera writer2. Moliere (Jean Baptiste Puochin)a. wrote satirical plays about French society like The Miser3. Pierre Conelle and Baptism Racine- authors who modeled their tragedies in the ancient Greek way4. many art works were monuments to king’s powerG. Louis Fought Costly Wars1. the other nations of Europe often joined together to stop French aggression to preserve a balance of power2. 1700- the childless king of Spain, Charles II, left his Spanish empire to Louis XIV’s grandson Philip; threat of an increase in the power of the Bourbon dynasty3. War of Spanish Successiona. France and Spain vs. England, Austria, Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal, and several German states, such as the duchy of Saxonyb. Treaty of Utrecht (1713)i. Louis XIV’s grandson, Philip V could remain kingof Spain if France and Spain were not unitedii. France kept Alsaceiii. Britain got Gibraltar from Spainiv. Britain got Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay territory from Francev. Austrian Hapsburgs got Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, Naples, and Milan from Spainvi. German state of Prussia and Italian duchy of Saxony get increased recognition4. a new balance of power emergesa. Bourbon Spain and France vs. Britain, Austria, and the Netherlands5. Louis died in 1715 after having levied enormous taxes on the French people to pay for the building and too many wars; his great-grandson, Louis XV took the throne at age 5

Chapter 21

Intro: during the reign of Louis XV, France lost a lot in the 7 Years’ War; Louis XVI,

tragic figureI. France’s Monarchy Faced CrisisA. The Old Regime had 3 States

1. First Estate à Roman Catholic Clergy represented 1% of population, but controlled b/w 10% and 20% of the land. Controlled education and the press.a. Upper Clergy à bishops and abbots from the aristocracy; rich and powerfulb. Lower Clergy à priests and monks from the middle-class; modest wealth2. Second Estate à the nobility represented 2% of popul., 20% of land; not taxeda. nobles at Versailles à most powerful and influenced; absentee landowners; played at Versailles w/ kingb. nobles of the Robe or Gown à bought their position, members of the Bourgeissee; people who challenged them were challenging the king3. Third Estate à everyone elsea. Bourgesie à most frustrated; they were business professionals, bankers, merchants, shopkeepers, and lawyers. They were the middle-class b/w nobles and peasants. Were rich and well-off, but had no power; couldn’t reform and move toward capitalismb. proletariat à the city workers; laborers and unskilled workersc. the peasants à majority of the population (16-90% of pop., 30% of land); the farmers, many of them sharecroppersi. most direct taxationii. still bound to the land economicallyiii. public worksd. the Third Estate paid the heaviest of all the taxes to the govt., landlord, and churchB. Louis XVI Was a Weak Ruler1. wife Marie Antoinette of Austria was resented by the poor2. in May 1789, Louis called the Estates General into power to gain the nobles’ approval to being taxeda. the Estates General had not met since 1614; each group of the Estates General elected or selected their reps.b. the 3rd Estate had the most reps. even w/ the other 2 put together; but each estate had only 1 vote (under Medieval rules)C. Third Estate Forms a National Assembly1. The 3rd Estate demanded equal representation; debate began at the first formal session on May 5, 1789a. the 1st 2 estates wanted the 3 estates to have 1 vote eachb. the 3rd estate demanded voting be by person2. on June 17, the 3rd Estate, led by a sympathetic clergyman named Abbe Sieyes declared the 3rd Estate was now the French National Assembly, which spoke for the peoplea. on June 20, the members of the 3rd Estate took the Tennis Court Oath- vowing to never disband until they get a constitutionb. finally, Louis XVI, a few days later, ordered the 3 estates to meet jointly, and vote by headD. The Storming of the Bastille1. on July 14, 1789, Parisians stormed the Bastille2. the use of force by the Parisians at the Bastille was the beginning of the French RevolutionE. The Great Fear Swept France1. rebellion spread from Paris and a panic swept the countryside2. peasants terrorized nobles’ estates and many nobles fled the country (emigres)3. August 4, noblemen in the assembly renounced their feudal rights and privileges, ending feudalism4. Oct. 5+6. Parisian women, angry over the rising bread prices, marched on Versailles, demanding Louis XVI + Marie Antoinette to come to ParisII. Revolution Brought Reform and TerrorA. The National Assembly Adopted Many Reforms

1. voted to end feudalism, serfdom, church taxes2. on August 27, Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen adopted by the National Assemblya. Natural rights; liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppressionb. followed English Bill of Rights by hundred years and preceded American Bill of Rights by 2 yearsc. document which guaranteed many basic rights and freedoms3. in 1791, an new constitution was ratified; reforms:a. judicial à new court system, no tortureb. economics à laissez-faire; abolished unionsc. financial à tax on land, trade, + industry; a uniform tax code w/ no exemptions; assigna = money that’s church-land-backedd. religion à church land nationalized; monasticism abolished; clergy elected by people; paid by state; clergy had to swear oath to state, not popee. political à 83 departments; 3 branches of govt. (j,l,e)f. voting à age 25 + male; pay 3 days wages to vote, then you were an active citizen (4 million); if not, passive (2 million); 70,000 for public office (had to pay a lot)g. king à king handled foreign relations; couldn’t declare war or sign a treaty w/o consent of legislatureB. Louis XVI approves constitution + Declaration1. after approving the Constitution, national assembly disbands + gave way to a newly elected legislative assembly2. Louis and his family try to flee France to Austrian Netherlands, but are caught3. his failed escape discredits him and the idea of a constitutional monarchy; radicals increase their powerC. France Was Split by Factions; the legislative assembly was divided into 3 groups1. conservatives (“on the right”); were against further change and called for a limited monarchya. emigres- extreme rightists who fled France during the Great Fear and plotted to restore the Old Regime2. radicals (“on the left”); were for sweeping changes; called for a republic ruled by the common mana. Sans cullote of Paris- extreme leftists whose radical leaders set up a new city govt. known as the Paris Commune3. moderate (“centrist”); fell somewhere in b/wD. France Went to War w/ Austria and Prussia in 17901. after defeat by the Austrians and Prussians + as the armies advanced toward Paris, panic in the city2. Parisian radicals imprisoned the king and persuaded the Leg. Ass. to abandon the Constitution of 1791, and called for new elections3. Jacobin Club- the most radical of the Parisian bourgeoise political clubs; its favored an end to the monarchy à wanted a republica. Jean Paul Marat à editor of radical newspaper called The Friend of the Peopleb. George Jacques Danton à a leader of the Paris communec. Maximillian Robespierre- lawyer4. The National Convention replaced the Legislative Assembly. The National Convention was led by the Jacobins: Marat, Danton, Robespierrea. first act was to declare France a republicb. next, they deposed the king on charges of treasonc. finally, a few days later à Louis XVI, guillotinedd. ended the monarchye. gave every adult male the right to vote

f. Danton assumed emergency leadership + quickly sent troops to check the Austrian-Prussian advance

Restoration

Nobles & Monarchy (Old Order) American & French Revolutionclass system civil liberties + rightsfeudalism à absolute monarchy representative forms of govt.religion used to control the masses nationalism exploited to use massesunequal/unfair taxation elimination or reform of class systemencourages controlled confusion equal justiceunfair/unequal justice system equal taxationarmies controlled the masses promotion of general educationaristocracy promotion based on meritchurch controls power church loses power

human suffrage

Chapter 23

I. European Leaders Sought StabilityA. Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)1. restore old ways (prior to Napoleon) and create such a stability that revolution would not be possible2. 5 great powers:a. Austrian Empire (Emperor Francis I, Metternich)b. Russian Empire (Czar Alexander I)c. Kingdom of Prussia (Frederick William III)d. France (Louis XVI, Tailleran)e. Great Britain (Castlereagh)3. all 5 wanted a new balance of powerB. Age of Metternich (1815-1848)1. Metternich, chief minister of Austria2. dominant player at Council of Vienna3. had greatest influence on Europe at the timeC. 3 Main Goals of Congress of Vienna and Metternich:1. containment- the encirclement of France (contain revolution)a. strengthen nations bordering France to prevent further French aggressionb. Netherlands is united, Switzerland is made independent and neutral, Kingdom of Sardinia strengthened, German Confederation of the Rhine recognized2. compensation- Balance of Powera. Russia gains Polandb. France is allowed to be preservedc. Austria is given Venetia, Tuscany, + N. Italian statesd. Prussia gains Aix-La-Chapelle & Cologne3. legitimacy- restoration of the monarchs removed by Napoleona. House of Orange restored in the Netherlandsb. House of Savoy restored in Sardiniac. Bourbon monarchs restored in Spain (Ferdinand VII), France (Louis XVIII), and Kingdom of the 2 Siciliesd. Pope restored to Papal StatesII. New Ideals Effected Politics and ArtA. Nationalism- belief that a person’s greatest loyalty should be to a nation-state

Sect.1 European Leaders Sought Stability

I. Congress Of Vienna (1814-1815)Restore old ways (prior to Napoleon) and create such a stability that

revolution would not be possible

5 Major/Great PowersAustrian Empire-Emperor Francis 1Real leader: Klemis MetternichRussian Empire-czar AlexanderKingdom of Prussia-King Frederick William 3France-King Louis XVIII, TallyrandGreat Britain & Ireland-Castlerey

->All five wanted a balance of power

II. Age of Metternich(1815-1845) ->Dominated the Congress of Vienna ->His structure of peace is named after him

III. Three Main Goals of the Congress of Vienna:

1.Containment: the encircle ment of France-Strengthen the nations bordering France to prevent further French

aggressions-Restores, strengthens, unites the Netherlands-Switzerland is made independent and neutral to act as a buffer state-The kingdom of Sardinia is restored & strengthened-Recognize the German states at Rhine and borders of France

2. Compensation: to restore the balance of power-Russia gets Poland-Austrian Empire gets Verona Lombardy, Tuscany and Vinieta-Prussia gets Aix-La Chapelle & Cologne

3. Legitimacy: restoration of monarchs removed by Napoleon-House of Orange in Netherlands restored-House of Savoy is restored in Sardinia -Bourbon Monarchs are restored in Spain-King Ferdinand 7, in France-Louis XVIII, and in Sicily(Kingdom of Two Sicily’s)-Pope is restored to Temporal power in Rome and Papal states

IV. New political Philosophies

1Conservation- anti-revolution, pro monarchy, less likely to change -dominated the Congress of Vienna

2.Liberalism- Continue with current political system but called for parliaments with limited representation

3.Radicalism- supported the ideas of the revolution and called for a democratic govt., for drastic, violent change if necessary

Goals & Desires of the Balance of Power:-Compensation-Stability

-fairness-system of alliances-limit power of large nations -increase power of small nations -Combat Revolution

Problems Maintaining the Balance of Power:Revolution:

-Democracy-Nationalism-Dictators

Constant shifting of alliances: -gains/loses of power

Inequality is always going to exist

Instruments used by governments to regulate the Balance of Power:-Alliances-Nationalism-Armies

->Holy Alliance: Austria, Russia & Prussia agreeing to prevent reform or revolution in their countries

Sect.2 New Ideas Effected Politics and Art

Nationalism- belief that a person’s greatest loyalty should be to a nation-state

Nation-State: a group of people who share similar traditions, history , language; make up a nation. Usually they live in the same geographic area as well. if such a group is united under its own government it is known as a nation-state.

How did nationalist ambition interfere with the Congress of Vienna’s goals of Legitimacy and Restoration?

The aristocracy felt closer ties to themselves than with the middle and lower class members of their own country.

1. In 1815 many national groups were not united under government but ruled by other nations

II. Early Independence Movements In EuropeIn 1821 Greeks revolted against ottoman rulers. They gain Allies: the

nations of Great Britain, Franc e and Russia help Greece & its nationalistic movement. The 3 countries’ fleets defeat the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Navarino(1827).

-support nationalist cause for economic reasons

1. 1830- Traety of Adrianople grants Greece full independence

2. Belgium gained Independence from the Netherlands (1830)

3. Mazzini sparked Italian Nationalism:a.Began w/ Napoleon 1805 Kingdom of Italy b.Nationalist movement group Young Italyc.Problems for unity-Outside powerful forces against it -North was wealthier, South-poorer, less culture and education, foods

different

4.Germany a.39 nations - German Confederationb.Powerless Federal Diet in Frankfurtc.Auistria largest member

II. Romanticism -was a reaction to 1700’s enlightenment

A. 4 Main Characteristics: 1.Heavy emphasis on emtion and passion - Express feelings over thinking

(Enlightenment)Johann Wolfgang Goethe German Scientist, Novelist: “What I know anyone can know, but my heart is my own peculiar to itself.”

2.Emphasis on the Individual King Arthur writing

3.Celebration of Nature Amandine Aurora Dupe - writer Penn name -> George

4.Glorified the Past

-Romanticism fueled Nationalism Lord Byran, Delcioux- “Liberty on the Baracades” Painting Music- Ludwig Van Beethoveen: 9th symphony is an example of Romantic music

Sect.4 Reform and Revolution Swept Europe

I. Frech Overthrew last Bourbon King Charles X

1. Tried to rule as an absolute monarch by stripping powers away from the Chamber of Deputies

2.Liberal leaders crown Louis Phillippe “Citizen King” (1830)

II. Britain’s middle class won right to vote -Reform Bill of 1832:

a liberal bill that demonstrated that non-violence and democracy

1.Established a new election district

2.Doubled the # of British voters to wealthy renters of property and merchants

3.Working calss had no political power and limited social power -- no vote

I.1848 was a year of Revolution 1. working class radicals and middle class liberals dissatisfied 2. 3 major reasons for revolution: 1)Demand for Democratic Government 2)Unification - Germany and Italy 3)Nation-States (Austrian Empire, Hungary)

3. January 1848-50 revolts occur in 4 months 1)Kingdom of Two Siclies 2)France - wanted democracy

3)Hungary(Louis Kossuth) and other groups in Austrian empire 4)German States want united Germany

IV. Conservative Governments make concessions

Italy Armies are able to force Austrian out for a brief time; the Austrians take back everything but Piedmont shortly after

-becomes the leader of Italian unification

1)Prussia Frederick William IV

2)Austria Metternich resigns (sent into exile)

->Austrians form a republic briely, restore control over Hungary & Slovic states

Counter Revolution; Monarchs staged an armed counter revolution against the increasingly divided rebel groups

VI. France changes again 1)February 1848 - Paris riots and Louis Philippe’s govt.

2)Unstable Government: *Alphonse de Lamartine vs. Louis Blanc

VII. Naoleon III (Napoleon’s nephew) 1)Louis Napoleon Bonaparte won the december 1848 Presidential

Election

2)1851 - dissolved Parliament and soon declared himself Emporer Napoleon III (Disfranchise Act)

Section 3: Italy and Germany Form United Nations

I. Cavour and the Making of Italian Unity

A. Congress of Vienna left Italy Divided 1.Kingdom of Sardiniaincluded: Sardinia, Piedmont, Nice, Savoy

2.Austrian Empireincluded: Lombardy & Vinietia

3.Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Lucca

4. Papal States included:

B. Mazzini’s Republican Government in Rome lasted only briefly during 1848 Revolution

C. Italian Nationalists increasingly looked to Kingdom of Sardinia led by the House of Savoy for leadership

D.Camillo Benso 1.Just before Rev. of 1848, fpounded Il Riorgiment(the

ressurection) which preached Italian unification 2. 1850 made minister of commerce and agriculture

3. 1852, King Victor Emmanuel II named Count Camillo di Cavour as his Prime Minister

E. Unlike the Romantic Mazzini, Cavour was calculating in uniting Italy

1. Strove to make Sardinia the model state 2. Built R.R.’s throughout Italy à economic unity = political unity

Unit 2.4Industrial Revolution

Chapter 22: The Industrial Revolution (1700-1850)Section 1: Many Factors Aided Industrial Growth

I. Agricultural Revolution- the use of new scientific techniques in farming to increase farm production

2. Enclosure Movement- period in Great Britain in which wealthy landowners bought the open fields of villages, fenced them in, and then rented the land to tenant farmers.

a. enabled landowners to consolidate farms (efficiency of crops)

-cuttting down labor, increase food production

b.Results: greater food production

2. Early Scientific Farmers

a. Jethro Tull - seed drill

b. Charles “Turnip” Townshed - Crop Rotation(certain crops can refurnish the soil) Ex: Turnips - will produce,

will make a profit, return nutrients to the soil

c. Robert Bakewell - selsctive breeding of livestock-Only bred the best & healthiest live stock to produce more, better

cattle in the next generation. Breed the cows whon produce the most. The hope is the next generation will show dominant characteristics

3. Effects on Populationa.More food->improved nutrition->increased populationb. Small farmers move to city for industry

Advances In Medicine ie. Edward Jenner - Vaccine for small pox

II. Advantages That Helped Great Britain Industrialize

1.Abundant Natural Resources:a. (Before steam) Water Power (water wheel- clean, safe, cheap,

constant) b. Coal (steam engine- efficient, generates heat, burns long.

Polution, dirty when mining)c. Iron Ore (iron- ships , machines, tools, boilers. Cheap, moldable,

durable, quality of strength)d. Good Food Supply (See Agricultural Revolution)e. Large work force (See Agricultural Revolution) 2.Great Britain was an Island Nation 1)Excellent harbors & ports (importing, exporting) 2)Easy to Keep secrets 3)Large Navy 4)Large Trading/Merchant Fleet 5)Colonies to export manufactured goods & import from

*Large shipping fleet and overseas trade gave Britain access to new raw materials globally, new marketts to sell goods in, and investment capital from rich shippers.

3. A nation which welcomed new ideas *Royal Society - World famous scientific “club”

4. The Bank of England founded 1694: Worlds First Modern Bank: lent money at low interest rates

5. Political stability - no revolutions or war in 1700’s in Britain. Most wars were fought in Europe or colonies therefore industries unaffected by devastaion of war.

Section 2: Britain led in Rise of industry

INVENTION / DATE INVENTOR WHAT INVENTION DID

Flying Shuttle (1733) John Kay Doubled the speed of weaving

Spinning Jenny James Hargriaves Spinners could spin many threads (1764) at the same time

Water Frame(1768) Richard Arkwright Water power to spinning wheels

Spinning Mule Samuel Crompton Stronger thread (1779) H20 frame- Mule

Power Loom (1785) Ed Cartwright H20 - Loom

Cotton Gin (1793) Eli Whitney Took seeds from cotton

A. These 6 inventions increased British cotton cloth production by 5,000 % between 1785-1850

B. Watt’s Steam Engine 3. Existing Newcomen steam engines were inefficient and expensive to operate.

2. James Watt & Matthew Boulton (a wealthy investor) were entrepreneursEntrepreneurs - Person who organizes, manages, and takes on risk of

business

Section 3: Industry grew and spread to new lands

I. Roads and Canals

1. Canal - a human made waterway used for transportation

2. John Mc Adam - Scottish engineer, built better roads

II. Rail Age (1800’s)

1. Richard Trevithick - made a engine small and powerful. Built first locomotive engine in 1804 (high pressure steam)

2. George Stephenson - built first railroad line (1821) 27 miles from Yorkshire to Stockton - Father of the Steam Locomotove - 1814, constructs 1st, Blutcher - 1829 - Rocket (first real success)

3. 4 Major effects of the railroad:1) Sped Industrial Growth

2) Provided new jobs

3) Raised Agricultural Production

4) People were more open to traveling long distances for work and pleasure

Section 4: Industrialization Spred to Other Nations

I. Ideas leave Great Britain

1. Samuel Slater - Built a spinning machine in U.S. from memory

2. Moses Brown - financed the first factory in pawtucket, Rhode Island. 1790 or 1791

3. William Cockerill and sons built spinning machines and factories in Belgium (1799)

I. Britain dominates the world in Industry

1. Britain became known as the “Workshop of the World”-Britain dominated the world in cloth, iron, & coal production and

railroad development through 1850-By 1900, U.S. and Germany began to outproduce Britain

III. Industry Changed Ways of Life

1. More people live in cities than ever before

2. Problems arose as cities grow:

Sickness: 1)Cholera Epidemics

2)Average Age of Working Poor:*Manchester - 17yrs.*in Rural areas - 38yrs.

3. The Industrial Revolution Changed Working Conditions

a.Despite bad living conditions, people went to cities for jobs

b.Average Worker - 14 hour day, 6 days a week

c.Danderous working conditions esp. Mines

III. Children suffered in mills and mines

1. 6-7 year old started work in mines to crawl into tight spaces

2. Orphans often worked in factorie s for room and board

3. 1831 Parliamentary Committee investigating child labor

a. 1833 Factory Act- illegal to hire children under 9; limits on working hours for children

b. 1842 Mine Act - limits the conditions on children working in mines

IV. Class Tensions Arose1. Middle class expanded

2. Rich upper class and upper middle class vs. working poor(no vote)

3. Only those w/ wealth property could vote and hold political office; those who ruled believed in Laissez-Faire government

4. Riots common in the cities: *Peterloo Massacre - at St. Peter’s field outside manchester,

workers gathered to hear reformers speak on a Sunday(no work) in 1819. Army soldiers sent to disband them, but kill 11 people.

V. Start of the Unions

1. As individuals, the workers of the lower class had no political power and very little social power

2. As a united group of workers who organize for better working conditions and higher wages could effect change

3. Unions were more helpful to unskilled workers than skilled workers

Communism and other related crap

Chapter 24

II. Workers Gained Some InfluenceA. Socialism- an idealogy and state of society1. idealogy- a comprehensive set of beliefs or ideas about the nature of human society + its future desirable state2. state of society- equality, social justice, cooperation, progress, + individual freedom + happiness; the problem is how they seek to meet these goals à by the abolition of private enterprises + replace it w/ public ownership3. basic premise- the wealth of a country should be shared equally among all its citizens4. Proudhon, Owen à New Lamark; tests socialisma. Builds housing for workers, bans child labor, provides education

b. Initially, a successc. Tries w/ New Harmony, Indiana à fails5. Nations’ wealth should be shared; no private propertyB. Marx called Owen and others “Utopian Socialists” and urged workers to revolt à “scientific socialism”1. 2 types:a. “Utopian”i. promotes cooperationii. change system from w/i (reform)iii. socialism promoted by middle/upper classb. “Scientific” Socialismi. advocated revolution of worldwide workersii. supported by proletariat (industrial workers)2. Marx Rejuvenates the Idea of Communism (derived from Plato, Hebrew prophets, and New Testament)a. Communism- humans can fill their cooperative roles w/i society w/o fears of exploitationb. Capitalism- an illusion of freedomC. Communism1. The Marxist-Leninist political + socio-economic doctrines that guided the USSR until its disintegration in 19912. Collective ownership of means of production3. Central economic planning (govt. ownership + control)4. Rule by a single party5. Autocratic control supported by the military

Chapter 28

I. Russia Struggled to ReformA. Unlike Western Europe, Russia was still dominated by serfdom in the 1800s (80% were serfs)B. The czar was an autocratC. Decembrists Revolted in December 18251. 30 army officers w/ 3,000 disorganized soldiers2. revolted for a constitution3. occurred in St. Petersburg4. crushed by the czar, Czar Nicholas ID. Nicholas I (1825-55) resisted change1. Thought serfdom was wrong, but needed nobles’ support2. During life, put down 500 peasant revolts3. Uses censorship + a secret police to fight against change + reform4. Crimean War (1853-56)a. Against Ottomans, British, + Frenchb. War showed Russia’s weaknesses politically, technologically, + militarilyE. Alexander II (1865-1881) “Freed the serfs”1. 1861- abolition of serfdoma. buys ½ the farmable land from landlords to sell to peasantsb. Mir: a peasant community which owned + worked the land, and paid taxes together

c. Note: peasants remained as tied to the land as before; they could not afford to leave; they were ‘freed’ from the bonds of serfdom, but not from the bonds of poverty2. Zemstvos- local elected councils which dealt w/ education, road maintanence , and other local matters which were set up by Alexander II3. Nihilism- belief that the existing society + govt. must be destroyed so that a better society can be created4. Narodniki- students who went among the peasants to teach + help them, and to spread the ideas of revolution (most were sent to Siberia)a. They were later responsible for the assassination of Alexander II in 1881F. Alexander III (1881-94) upheld autocracy1. Completely rejected reforma. Decreased power of the Zemstvosb. Increased censorship and power of secret police2. Wanted to strengthen the autocracy3. Wanted to strengthen orthodoxya. Supported worship in one church, Russian Orthodox Church4. Wanted to strengthen nationalisma. “Russification”b. Russian language and culture encouraged5. Permitted Pogroms (riots against Jews)G. Nicholas II became czar in 1894II. Russia Moved Toward RevolutionA. Russia moved toward revolution1. Moderates- wanted to limit czar’s power and create a constitutional monarchy2. Revolutionaries were divideda. Social revolutionariesb. Social democrats (Marxists à revolution)i. Mensheviks: largest of group; believed that Russia needed to industrialize first to have a revolution (be patientà more workers)ii. Bolsheviks: smaller; believed in immediate revolution by a small, determined Marxist group that would establish a “Dictatorship of the Proletariat” led by Lenin (Vladimar Ilyrich Ulyanov)B. The Czar made Serious Mistakes1. Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)a. Gave Japan Korea + some of Chinab. First Asian victory over a European powerc. Ended w/ the Treaty of Portsmouth (Roosevelt)2. 1905 Revolutiona. “Bloody Sunday”; peaceful protestb. czar agrees first Russian Parliament (Duma)c. the Bolsheviks can now spread their wordd. czar dissolves a few months latere. Bolsheviks go undergroundC. WWI Ended Romanov Rule1. Russians driven back by Germans2. Nicholas leaves for army; leaves Czarina Alexandria to lead3. Czarina and Rasputin’s Influencea. Rasputin gains entrance to the palace by being a faith healer to Nick III, a hemophiliacb. Appoints supporters in high placesc. Killed by Prince __________4. February, 1917- rebellious soldiers and workers seize control5. March 2, 1917- Czar Nicholas abdicates to the Duma6. Duma appoints a provisional govt. until a constitution can be created under leadership of Alexander Kerenskya. Forced to continue unpopular WWI by allies

b. Presured to return czar by conservatives; left-wing was mad b/c they worked for the revolution, but didn’t take power7. Provisional Govt. Faileda. Right-wing threatens govt. w/ army à Kerensky arms Bolsheviks, thinking united they can defeat the conservatives à Bolsheviks become the Red Guard8. Workers and soldiers joined soviet (elected worker’s council) started in 1905 throughout RussiaIII. The Bolsheviks Led a Second RevolutionA. Bolsheviks led a 2nd Revolution1. Lenin returns in April from exile in Germany by the Germans in hope of Russia leaving the war2. Lenin took control on October 24, 1917a. Bolshevik’s Red Guard seized govt. officers, provisional govt. leaders were arrested by St. Petersburg Sovietb. November 1917 Elections- Social Revolutionary Party won a majority in a new assemblyi. Bolsheviks closed assembly and Lenin started a dictatorship by the Bolsheviksc. Farmland was divided among peasantsd. Workers’ councils would run the govt. owned factoriese. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) w/ Germanyi. ¼ the land, 1/3 population, + ½ industry goes to Germany3. Civil War divided Russia (1918-1920): White armies vs. Red Armya. “white armies”- various anti-Bolshevik groups were divided and wanted to restore property to former ownersb. Red Bolshevik Army à led by Leon Trotskyc. 15 million Russians diedd. July 1918- czar and family were shot by the Bolsheviks4. Lenin Restored Ordera. Cheka (Bolshevik Secret Police) increased efforts against so-called “enemies of the revolution”b. Kronstadt Revolution by sailors in March 1921 (who wanted elections, free speech, + end to the Cheka) was crushed by the Bolsheviksc. Lenin’s New Economic Policy (1921)i. Allows trading of goods for profit and some private ownership; compromise w/ capitalismd. 1922- Russia was renamed the USSR; capital moved to Moscowe. Bolsheviks rename their party the Communist Party after the Marxian term5. Trotsky and Stalin Struggled to Succeed Lenin, who died in 1924a. Trotsky (Lev Davidovich Bronstein)i. The obvious successor (Lenin’s right-hand man)ii. Popular founder of the Red Army iii. Assassinated in 1940b. Stalin (Joseph Djugashinli)i. Party Secretaryii. Expelled Trotsky form USSR in 1929IV. Stalin Became DictatorA. Stalin Became Dictator1. Whereas Lenin and Trotsky had wanted world revolution, Stalin was content to have “socialism in one country”a. Stalin blended Marxism w/ extreme Russian nationalism2. Stalin’s 5-Year Plana. Aimed to have Russia’s industry catch up w/ the West quickly (we are 50 to 100 years behind; must make up in 10 years)b. Caused amazing growth in the production of minerals and heavy machinery, but neglected consumer goods in order to do soc. Developed Siberia’s mining capacities

3. Stalin’s Agricultural Revolutiona. Abolished all private farms and organized collective farms which had modern machinery à “collectivization”b. Over 10-20 million peasants were either executed or sent to Siberia for resisting4. 1932- after discovering her husband’s many atrocities, Stalin’s wife Nadia killed herself à Stalin offered to resign, but fearful advisors asked him to stayB. The USSR Became a Totalitarian State1. Totalitarian state- country in which a dictator or small group controls every part of the lives of its citizensa. Stalin was an absolute dictatorb. The secret police arrested and executed millions of suspected traitors2. Stalin targeted religiona. In 1929, the govt. closed many churches, synagogues, + mosquesb. Schools taught the backwardness of religion3. Stalin turned against the Communist Party itselfa. The during the late 1930s, thousands of old Bolsheviks were brought to trial and executed for ‘crimes against the soviet state’b. Among them were every member of Lenin’s govt. but himself4. Factory and farm managers were in danger if their targets were not met5. Stalin was responsible for the USSR’s rise in global powera. w/o improved industrialization, Russia would not have been able to defeat the Germans in WWIIb. The Soviet Union became a modern powerc. Standard of living rosed. Education and technology improved

3rd Trimester

Chapter 25- The Age of Imperialism

I. Nations Competed for Overseas EmpiresImperialism- the policy, practice, or advocacy of extending the power and dominion of a

nation esp. by direct territorial acquisitions or by gaining indirect control

over the political or economic life of other areasA. Intro:1. initial European expansion/Imperialism (c. 1450-1763)a. began c. 1450 w/ Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal and would go up the 1763 (end of 7 Years’ War)b. 7 Years War (French-Indian Wars in N. America; French vs. British East India Co. in India)- war b/w Prussia and Austria; includes all the major powers in Europe + is fought on 3 continents: Europe, Asia, + Americai. France lost Canada and India; Prussia held on to Silesia; Austria gained nothing ii. only major prizes went to Great Britain- India and Canada2. Lull in expansion (1763-1871)a. Europe was busy w/ Revolution, Counter-Revolution, Industrialization, + Nation-BuildingB. “New Imperialism” (1871-1914)1. 4 reasons or parts of Imperialism

a. Industrializationi. liberal businessmen believed they could secure additional raw materials and markets for their industrial empiresii. as historians have shown, in most cases the nations actually gained little and in Italy’s case lost money in the processiii. traders dealt w/ nativesb. nationalismi. national prestigeii. measure of statusiii. provided naval bases and additional men for their massive militariesc. evangelizing religioni. missionaries spread the New Testamentii. sensationalized the activities of Livingstone + Stanley to attract people and $$$$$$d. conquesti. missionaries and traders led the way, then they ask for govt. help, militaries intervened, then took control of govt. and it becomes a colonyii. industrialized vs. non-industrializedC. Imperialism Fostered Rivalries1. New Imperialists2. race for colonies was more for pride and status than for economy3. A-H, Germany, Italy, and Russia; also U.S. and JapanD. Leading Figures1. David Livingstone (1813-1873)- Scottish missionary in Africa; ended East African slave trade2. Henry Stanley- an American newspaper reporter, went looking for Livingstone in Zanzibar in 1871; found him at Lake Tanganyka3. Joseph Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936)- wrote stories and poems about Imperialism and the superiority of Europeans; he saw imperialism as a mission to “civilize” non-Europeans; anti-Irisha. “White man’s burden”b. “Backwards” peoplec. “Lesser Breed”4. Cecil Rhodes- Englishman who got rich from diamonds in S. Africa would become leading imperialists in southern Africa

Chapter 26: The Turn of the Century

I. Section 5: Europe Faced Rising TensionsA. European nations developing and changing1. Great Britaina. Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)- Prime minister of England, Conservative, Reform Bill of 1867, which was amended by liberal, gave voting rights to a bulk of proletariat class. Bill created a growing sense of allegiance to the British National Government; promotes British Nationalism b. William F. Gladstone (As opposed to Bill Sadstone)i. Liberal member of Pariliament ii. Became Prime Minister in 1865

-Reform Bill of 1884 gave voting rights to most of the rural males, therefore, by 1884almost every male householder or renter in Great Britain could vote

-Ireland: had been controlled by England since William & Mary (c. 1689). Controlled directly from London since 1801

Irish Home Rule Bill- Sought measures of Independence for Ireland, conservatives opposed on the grounds opposed on grounds that others in Great

Britain's empire would want self rule, Liberals supported it in hope of giving Irish more representation, they may become supportive

-1918 Woman Suffragec. David Lloyd George- i. 1906, Liberal party comes under his control through backing of the labor party, Champion of Liberal Causes

-Parliamentary Reform Act of 1911: Stripped the House of Lords of most of its former power; it could only

delay bills, not reject them; makes the House of Commons Supreme; also put through a program for accident, sickness, and unemployment insurance2. Francea. Second Empire of Napoleon III ended w/ Franco Prussian War 1870-1871b. The Third Republic was proclaimedc. Many opposed the Republic:i. Monarchists (Orleanists, Bourbons and Bonapartists), Professional Military, Roman Catholic Hierarchy, and large numbers of peasant proprietorsii. here was a rise of anti-Semitismd. 1890's- Dreyfus Casei. Anti-republican forces rallied around a group of military officers who falsely accused Captain Dreyfus of being Jewishii. Rising militant nationalism and anti-Semitismiii. Emile Zola, a novelist, helped get Dreyfus acquitted (After 12 years on Devil's Island)iv. The Dreyfus case strengthened the Republic and discredited its enemiese. Between 1871-1914, France increased its Imperial holdings and joined other nations in a dangerous international rivalry that combined nationalism and militarism. Used anti-German sentiment to build up its military3. Germanya. Second Reich, created by Bismarckb. A 2 house system was a limited democracy i. Reichstag- lower house, members elected by universal manhood suffrageii. Bundesrat- Upper house, members appointed by Germany's 25 states (usually Dukes and Princes)c. Kaiser Wilhelm I chose his chancellor, Otto Van Bismarck, in 1862i. Neither the Reichstag nor the Bundesrat had power over the chancellord. Bismarck was free to do as he pleased with or without the approval of Parliamente. Bismarck's goal was not to help the workers but to avoid revolutioni. 1880's- Bismarck gives Germany first large scale welfare system

-Laws included insurance to help workers and an old-age pensionii. By passing these laws, he hoped to take power away from the socialistsf. Kaiser William II, came to power and forced Bismarck's resignation in 1890B. Crisis Shook Europes Fragile Peace1. Nationalism continueda. France, Great Britain and Germany were fairly stable by 1900b. Nationalism was still a deeply troubling issue around Europe: Ireland from GB, Norway from Sweden, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Ottoman empires were all multi-nationalc. Austria-Hungary was the most troubled with many multi-national groups wanting independencei. Serbs, Croats, Rumanians, etc. all spoke slavic languagesii. Russia called itself the defender

Chapter 27- World War I (1914-1918)

I. Conflicts Divided EuropeA. European Alliances

1. Germany + Bismarck: “Security and Retrenchment”a. France: he know that the French wanted revenge, he also knew that the French could not act alone against Germany; that they would need help from Britain or Russiab. Austria-Hungary: 1879 Dual Alliance- military alliance w/ A-Hc. Great Britain: nurtured a friendly relationship by refraining from naval and imperialistic rivalries (initial expansion under Bismarck was limited to areas the British were not interested in)d. Russia: 1873, 3 Emperor’s League (Russia, Germany, A-H); it failed; 1887 Reinsurance Treaty; friendship + neutrality b/w Germany + Russiae. Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, A-H, Italy2. Germany and Kaiser William (Wilhelm) IIa. Bismarck reluctantly resigns in 1890b. Kaiser reverses Bismarck foreign policyi. the Reinsurance Treaty w/ Russia is allowed to lapse

-Kaiser had interest in extending Germany into the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire; this would be a threat and an infringement on Russia-1894, Russia forms an alliance w/ France; something which Bismarck had

worked hard to avoidii. alienation of Great Britain

-Berlin-to-Baghdad Railroad threatened the British interest in the Near East (Suez) and India

-Germany also became very active in China; Tsingtao (port) on the Shantung peninsula

-Naval Policy, Kaiser always wanted a large navy; he appoints von Tripitz minister of Marine, to build a navy to rival the army built by Roon and Moltke and to challenge British naval superiority

-in response to the German Naval Program, Britain launched its own huge, costly naval building program

-1904, Britain signed treaty of friendship w/ France, and in 1907, w/ Russia in the Triple Entente, which was a defensive alliance; only a maximum alarm would bring them together

-entente: friendly understandings rather than alliancesc. conclusions:i. in 17 years, the Kaiser reversed all Bismarck had done by the encirclement of Germany by Europe’s 3 great powersii. industrially, Germany became a leader in most areas, surpassing Britain in manyiii. by 1907; 2 rival camps existed in Europe: Triple Entente vs. Triple AllianceB. Imperialism Created Hot Spots in the World1. Near East of Mid-East (or Far-East, what the hell, it’s all the same)a. Berlin-to-Baghdad Railroadb. German Imperialism in the Balkan +Mid-east area2. Chinaa. Germany in Shantung Peninsula3. Africaa. almost every European country involved in rivalry there4. The Balkans were a powder kega. Austria-Hungaryi. many problems w/ nationalist groupsii. Ottoman Empire’s decline seen as an opportunity to extend the sphere of influence on Balkan peninsulab. Russiai. was delighted w/ Austria-Hungary’s problems w/ nationalistsii. Ottoman Empire’s decline seen as an opportunity to extend sphere of influence to the Black Sea and Bosporous + Dardanellesc. Russia and A-H were on a collision course

i. 1908: Austrian annexed Bosnia + Herzegovina (2 large Slavic areas)ii. Serbian officials (who wanted the areas for themselves) + Russia offered Serbia full supportiii. Russia was unprepared for war and when Germany stood behind A-H, Russia backed down (humiliating)d. after constant humiliations over the years by various countries, by 1913 no one was willing to yieldC. Warlike Mood in Europe

exaltation of a professional military class? predominance of the military in the administration policy of

a state? a policy in which military preparedness is of primary

importance

1. every European nations, w/ exception of Britain maintained a large-standing army; militarism- the glorification of armed strength, won support of many civilians, too2. military leaders would urge for war before the other European nations could catch up militarily 3. many military leaders believed that war was inevitable and needed to solve the many problems4. many military leaders experts also predicted that a war would last no longer than 6 months b/c of the advanced weapons of destruction at their disposalD. Anarchy1. anarchy- an absence of govt.; a state of lawlessness or political disorder due to absence of governmental authority; a utopian society made up of individuals who have no govt. and who enjoy complete freedom2. June 28, 1914, archduke Franz Ferdinand is assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip (a Serbian nationalist and member of the Black Hand, a secret society of Slavic extremists or anarchists)E. Conclusions1. the causes of WWI were a combination of the following:a. militarismb. alliancesc. imperialismd. nationalisme. anarchyII. Europe Plunged into WWIA. Austria urged an Ultimatum to Serbia1. ultimatum- a set of demands that if not met, would end negotiations and lead to war2. July 23, 1914, A-H ultimatum terms:a. Serbia was to stop all anti-Austrian activityb. allow Austrian officials into Serbia to investigate the killing and judge those accused of the crimec. 48 hours to reply3. Serbia choices:a. to accept: it would humiliate Serbia and allow Austrian officials to rule Serbiab. to not accept: would lead to war w/ A-Hc. Serbia rejects ultimatum, and on July 28, 1914, A-H declares war4. Germany had promised Austria-Hungary full support in any war that might develop; Kaiser William on July 5 had set no limits on his supportB. Russia1. Russia was defender of “protector” of the Slavic people and promised Serbia protection

2. Russia mobilizes for war against A-H and its ally, GermanyC. Germany1. on August 1, 1914, as a reaction to Russia’s mobilization, Germany declares war on them, and 2 days later declared war on France, Russia’s ally2. Germany now involved in a 2 front war (Bismarck’s Nightmare)D. France1. had built a series of fortresses along the French-German border2. Elan- spirit in battle; the French believed that to attack the enemy boldly was all that counted in battle (Plan 17); there was no need for defensive tactics, b/c French generals believed that the army that attacked more vigorously would winE. The Fighting of WWI1. Germany used the von Schlieffen Plan (1890s) to fight a 2 front wara. destroy France quicklyb. then hit Russia before she can fully mobilizei. Germany invaded neutral Belgium to get to France b/c speed was essential if this plan had any chance of succeeding2. French elan did not prevent the Germans from pushing the “Western Front” to near Paris (Gen. von Kluck commands Right Wing)3. Germany (under von Moltke) diverted troops to the “Eastern Front” due to an unexpected quick Russian mobilization4. Battle of the Marne (Sept. 6-12, 1914)a. first major clash on the “Western Front”b. stopped the German advance and saved Paris (French Gen. Galaeni)c. made the Schlieffen Plan impossible to carry out5. Stalemate on the “Western Front”a. trench warfare à “No-mans Land”; space b/w opposing trenchesb. propoganda; rationing; civilians involved in total wari. total war- war in which nations put all their resources into the war effortIII. The War Dragged on For YearsA. WWI was an industrialized war1. machine gun à trenches2. poison gas (chlorine + mustard gas) à trenches; first used in Yerbes; created by German scientist Haber3. tank invented by the British and first used in 1916 at the Somme; it was plagued w/ problems and did not become a factor until the end of the war4. airplane à first used for recon; later used as a bomber, fighter, and weapon against ground troops (first bombing à 5/25/17 on London)5. U-Boats à submarines (to combat, used merchant convoys)B. Death Toll Mounted in the West1. Battle of Verdun (Feb. 21- July 11, 1916)a. German offensive designed to end the warb. Erich von Falkenheim was the German generalc. Henri Phillippe Petain was the French generald. “They shall not pass”e. 650,000 men were killed (350,000 were French)f. Germans gain 4 miles in the 5-month battle2. Battle of the Somme (July 1, Mar. 18, 1916)a. British attacked to relieve the pressure on the French at Verdunb. each side lost over 500,000c. British advance 5 miles3. both battles are examples of WWI as a “war of attrition”4. Tacticsa. Full-line Assault à long front, one general; easy targets for machine guns and artilleryb. only 1 general was casualty of the war à due to suicide (Samsonov)C. The Eastern Front

1. Russia had invaded both Austria and Germany at the outbreak of the war w/ great success2. Battle of Tannenberg (1914)a. Germans beat back the invading Russiansb. Generals; Germany à von Hindenberg; Ludendorf; Russian à Samsonov3. although the Russians are constantly beaten and pushed back, suffering huge casualties; the Germans must tie up much of their forces in the east diverting then from the WestD. Ottoman Front1. the Gallipoli campaign (1915)a. Allies attempt to open up the Bosporous and Dardanelles straits to supply the Russiansb. the sea and later land invasions both fail miserably after a year, the Allies pull out (ANZACs were used [Australian/New Zealand Army Corps])2. British organized Arab revolts in the Ottoman Empire to divert troops from the Eastern and Western fronts (Gen. Allenby, Capt. Thomas Lawrence [of Arabia])E. Italian Front1. Italians joined Allies in 1915; saying the Triple Alliance was a defensive treaty, and the Germans and Austrians had violated the treaty by being the aggressors2. Italians are not much help; army, equipment, and training are lacking but divert Austrian troops from the Eastern FrontF. Japan took German possessions in China (Shantung) and PacificG. Britain and France took most of Germany’s African coloniesH. 1917- Russian Revolution; Russia eventually left the war1. Germany had allowed Lenin to return to Russia, in return, he promised to sign a treaty w/ Germany2. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk w/ Germany (1918); Russia ends war and gives up ¼ of Russia’s European territory to Germany (Baltic provinces); Finland, Poland, UkraineI. The U.S. enters the war in 19171. 1915 sinking of the Lusitania ended unrestricted submarine warfare (Naval Prize Rules)2. 1917- Germany again returns to unrestricted submarine warfare3. January 19, 1917 Zimmerman telegraph; Germany asking Mexico to attack the U.S. (by Western Union)J. The War’s End1. to counter the submarine threat, the Allies use the convoy formation to protect shipping and deter submarine attacks2. Russia’s departure from the war allowed Germany to divert troops to the Western Front and for the first time in the war have the numerical advantage on the Western Front3. U.S. troops arrive approx. 225,000 a month; Germany’s troops are depleted and a poor potato crop leads to food shortage and public unresta. U.S., British, and French troops push the Germans back and start to advance into Germanyb. 11/9/18 à Kaiser William II abdicatesc. new German govt. signs armistice w/ French Marshall Foch; 11/11, Germany surrendersK. War’s Cost1. killed 21 million soldiers and 6 million civilians2. promotes bitterness and pessimism in the 1920s and 1930s, “Lost Generation”IV. Peace stood on Shaky FoundationA. Wilson’s 14 points; key parts:1. self-determination: determination by people of a territorial unit of their own future political state2. creation of League of Nations

B. 1914 Versailles Conference1. conflicting demandsa. Britain, France, and U.S. dominated the conference2. “Big Three”a. Woodrow Wilson à for the U.S.b. David Lloyd George à for G.B.c. George Clemenceau à for FranceC. 1919 Versailles Treaty dictated harsh peace terms for Germany; the treaty was supposed to be just and peaceful, but was harsh and vengeful; Terms of the Treaty of Versailles:1. Germany territorial losses: (13% of land)a. Alsace-Lorraine à Franceb. 15 year-right to work in mineral-rich Saar Basin à Francec. “Polish Corridor” à Polandd. colonies in Africa and Pacific go to Britain, France, and Japan as mandatese. mandate- an order or commission granted by the L of N to a member nation for the establishment of a responsible govt. over a former German colony or other conquered territory2. military restrictions on Germanya. limited army (only 15,000)b. banned subs and airplanesc. Germany could not place troops in the Rhineland3. Germany must accept full war guilt and pay $31 million in reparations (article 231)

Chapter 30- the Inter-war Period

I. Europe Recovered from WWIA. by 1918, every major European nation was nearly bankrupt1. Japan and US profited from WWI2. Europe’s influence in world affairs declinedB. New Democracies were created after WWI1. Very unstable:a. Fragile coalition- temporary alliances of several parties to form parliamentary majoritiesb. Long-term goals become impossiblec. In difficult times, people are often tempted to sacrifice democratic coalition govt. for strong leadership (dictator, one-party rule, etc.)C. The Newly Created German Republic was weak1. Weimar republic2. Germany had few democratic traditions and many political parties3. Weimar govt. had signed the treaty of Versaillesa. Many Germans didn’t recognize the treaty; they hated it and blamed the govt. for signing it4. Tremendous debt- $37 billion fighting WWI5. 1923a. inflationb. govt. refuses to pay war debt à strategic factories were seized by France and Belgiumc. Nazis try to take over Bavaria (fails, but strengthens party)D. The Dawes Plan brought Stability1. $200 million in American loans to German govt. in 1924 and a realistic schedule for paying off reparations of WWIE. Treaties Raised Hope for Peace1. Locarno Pact (1925)- Gustav Stresseman (Germany’s foreign minister) and Aristide Briand (France’s FM) signed a treaty promising no future wars on either

side; respect existing borders of France and Belgium; and Germany admitted to the League of Nations2. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): Frank Kellogg- American secretary of State arranged agreement w/ France’s Brianda. Resulted from Spirit of Locarnob. Countries that signed the treaty “renounced war as an instrument of national policy”c. Problem was it could not be enforcedi. League of Nations had no armed forces of its ownII. Society Faced Rapid Changes “War gets the pot of progress abroil. War quickens the imagination and rewards ingenuity, which is turned to the solution of basic problems.”A. Technology Made the World seem smaller1. The automobile- improvements such as Electric fuel pump, air tires, and more powerful engines would make them much more practical and user-friendly2. Airplanes- begin to be used for travel, which cut down on time3. Radio- developed by Marconi (1895) and improved during WWI; was now available to the public relatively affordable; radio stations begin to pop upB. Science challenged Old Ideas1. Marie Curie- Polish-born French scientist; won a Nobel prize for her ground-breaking research on radioactivity; would die in 1934 from radiation poisoning2. Albert Einstein- German physicist, advanced theories of relativity: idea that time and space are not absolute; that they are actually changing (quantum physics)3. Sigmund Freud- suggested that the unconscious mind drives human behaviora. Interpretation of dreams- 1900b. “Thoughts for the times on war + death”- 1915III. Wall Street’s Crash Opened the DepressionA. 1929 Stock Market Crash1. Black Thursday: Oct. 24, 1929 at the NYSE2. Over-selling led to a collapse of stock prices and financial panic3. The “Great Depression” Begana. Unemployment à 3.2% à 1929; 25% à 1933B. the World Economy had Weaknesses1. overpopulation and under-consumption2. the Farmer’s Plight- world surplus of crops3. speculation in stocksC. the Depression Spread Worldwide1. U.S. Stock Market Crash à American investors called back loans to Europe à Austria’s Creditenstalt2. Bank failed à other banks and businesses failed à world manufacturing fell by 38% and international trade dropped by 65%D. F.D.R. and the New Deal1. “Fireside Chats”- radio addresses; President talked of large public works projects to provide jobs paid by govt. to start economic recoveryE. Ramsey MacDonald’s “National Govt.” in G.B. increased tariffs and taxes; lowered interest rates to encourage industrial growthF. “The Popular Front”- In France, was a coalition govt. of moderates, socialists, and communists that were united in opposing groups wanting dictatorshipsIV. Fascist Leaders Formed Totalitarian DictatorshipsA. Many people lost faith in democratic govt. during the Great Depression and turned to either Communism or Fascism for a solutionB. Totalitarianism System- a single political party w/ a revolutionary ideology controls the govt. It appeals for active support from the masses, and is dominated by a dictatorial leader. No opposition is tolerated. Propaganda, force, and terror are openly used to ensure control and further the goals of the

govt.; the liberal ideology (democracy) of limited govt. and individual right is formerly rejected in a Totalitarian System; both communism and Fascism were Totalitarian states that were a threat to liberal democracy1. Communism à Left-wing Totalitarianism2. Fascism à Right-wing TotalitarianismC. Fascism1. Believed in extreme nationalism (stronger nations must conquer the weak)2. Glorified the state and its authoritarian leader3. Uniforms, salutes, war cries, songs, + mass rallies all glorifying the nation and its people4. Like Communism, Fascism supported one-party dictatorships and scorned both democracy and individual rights5. Unlike Communism, Fascism was allied w/ purely nationalistic aristocrats and industrialists (Capitalists)D. Mussolini1. Italy “lost” more than it gained in WWIa. Gained little territory in Treaty of Versailles: Trieste & Tyrol; but wanted further acquisitions east of the Adriatic and the Ottoman and German possessions in Asia and Africa; blow to Italian national prideb. Unemployment and war debt; many soldiers were unemployed