PSYCH 101 EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDEChapters 1-4

Chapter-1 Outline

MODULE 1.1 FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY

I. Origins of PsychologyA. Roots in ancient philosophy

1. Socrates—“know thyself”2. Plato—rely on thought and reason3. Aristotle—rely on experience, observation4. Confucius—concerned with the nature of the human

B. Influences on modern psychology (nineteenth-century German physiologists)1. Fechner—psychophysics2. Helmholtz—perceiving color

C. Wilhelm Wundt—1879—transition from philosophy to science1. Founder of modern psychology2. First true psychological laboratory3. Leipzig, Germany

II. Major Early Schools of PsychologyA. Structuralism

1. Introspection2. Components or building blocks of the mind

B. Functionalism1. William James—United States2. The mind adapts us to our environment3. Understand the mind by understanding how it functions

C. Behaviorism1. John Watson—early 1900s2. Study only overt behavior3. Experience, environment mold us4. B. F. Skinner—operant conditioning—consequences are crucial to learning

D. Reinforcer—pleasant consequence; increases behaviorE. Punishment—unpleasant consequence; decreases behaviorF. Gestalt psychology

1. Max Wertheimer—contemporary of Watson2. Unified, organized patterns3. “Whole is greater than the sum of the parts”

G. Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis1. Austrian physician (early 1900s)2. Focus on the unconscious3. Sexual and aggressive impulses motivate4. Importance of early childhood experience5. Dynamic conflict between unconscious desires and acceptable behavior6. Psychoanalysis developed—“talk therapy”

III. Contemporary Perspectives in PsychologyA. Behavioral perspective

1. Modeled after school of behaviorism2. Observable behavior; emphasis on experience and learning3. Broader variation: social-cognitive theory4. Environment and cognitive factors

5. Values, goals, and expectations important6. Social cognitive theory: psychology should include study of mental

processes, not only behavior itself7. Behavior therapy—applying learning principles to treat psychological

problemsB. Psychodynamic perspective

1. Neo-Freudians include emphasis on self-awareness and choices2. Focus remains on unconscious drives and early childhood experience3. Criticized because scientific study difficult

C. Humanistic perspective1. Known as “third force” in psychology (besides psychodynamic and

behavioral)2. Each human has unique abilities and potential3. Free will, personal choice: crucial aspects of this perspective

D. Physiological perspective1. Biological processes influence behavior2. Nervous system (especially brain) and body chemicals at root of human

functioning3. Heredity an important consideration4. Subfield: Evolutionary psychology

a. Study non-human species as well as humansb. Genetic programming creates behavioral tendencies,

predispositionsE. Cognitive perspective

1. Cognitio means knowledge2. Study of mental processes; acquiring knowledge of ourselves and the

world3. How we learn, think, reason, remember, and use language4. Criticized by behaviorists as beyond scientific study

F. Sociocultural perspective1. Behavior and attitudes are influenced by culture2. Social and economic experiences have impact3. Ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, and disability are considered4. Increasing diversity of contemporary society

a. Whites no longer such a majorityb. “Race” not a very useful conceptc. Blurring racial boundaries

5. Good research includes sociocultural aspects—can’t generalize from limited samples

G. Summary of contemporary perspectives1. No one perspective is the “correct” one

a. Each focuses on different aspects of behavior and functioningb. None is complete; each has something unique to offer

2. Positive psychology—a growing movementa. Emphasis on human virtues and strengths

MODULE 1.2 PSYCHOLOGISTS: WHO THEY ARE AND WHAT THEY DO

I. Types of ResearchA. Basic—expanding our knowledgeB. Applied—research for a specific objective

II. Traditional Major Specialty Areas of PsychologyA. Experimental psychologists—use the experimental research method (to establish

cause and effect) for study of behavior and mental processesB. Comparative—study animals and their behaviorC. Physiological—study biological processes related to behaviorD. Clinical psychologists—study individuals with psychological disorders

E. Counseling psychologists—treat individuals with less severe psychological disorders

F. School psychologists—work directly with children to aid in their school experienceG. Educational psychologists—research and/or apply learning and instructional

advancesH. Developmental psychologists—study human growth and changes over the entire

lifespanI. Personality psychologists—study unique personal characteristics and behaviorsJ. Social psychologists—focus on the individual as a member of a group

K. Environmental psychologists—study the relationship between people’s behavior and their physical environment

L. Industrial/Organizational (I/O) psychologists—research and/or apply ways to improve the work setting

M. Health psychologists—study the relationship between psychological factors and physical well-being

N. Consumer psychologists—investigate people’s purchases and reactions to advertising

III. Emerging Specialty Areas in PsychologyA. Neuropsychologists—study the brain specifically for its relationship to behaviorB. Geropsychologists—investigate the psychological impact of agingC. Forensic psychologists—work with individuals involved in the legal systemD. Sport psychologists—study competition and ways to maximize athletic

performanceIV. Professional Psychology: Becoming More Diverse

A. Early psychologists (nineteenthcentury)1. White male, European background2. Women and minorities faced many barriers3. Ph.D. not awarded to women, though doctoral work may be completed4. 1920: first Ph.D. awarded to African-American

B. Current demographics among psychologists1. Women now majority of recipients of psychology degrees2. Ethnic minorities in psychology slowly increasing

MODULE 1.3 RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

I. Objectives of ScienceA. Description—clear, accurate and objective information; based on observationB. Explanation—tying information together to make sense of it (such as with

theories)C. Prediction—understanding and expectation regarding future eventsD. Control—managing events and circumstances for human well-being

II. The Scientific MethodA. Develop a research questionB. Frame the research question in the form of a testable hypothesisC. Gather evidence to test the hypothesisD. Draw conclusions regarding the outcome

III. Research MethodsA. Case study—thorough, careful study of one or a few individuals

1. Advantage: detailed and extensive information2. Disadvantage: not necessarily representative of others

B. Survey1. Information from a sample to reveal features of a population2. Interviews or questionnaires most often used3. To generalize accurately, sample must be representative

a. A few thousand people may sufficiently represent U.S. trends4. Advantage: broad range of information if done correctly5. Disadvantage: may be biases in responses

C. Naturalistic observation

1. Studying humans (or animals) in familiar, everyday environment2. Researcher observing must be inconspicuous3. Advantage: greatest likelihood of genuine, authentic behavior4. Disadvantage: least amount of control over events that will take place

D. Correlational—relationship between two variables, represented mathematically1. Advantage: helpful for prediction, suggests further study2. Disadvantage: does not establish causality, though may be (wrongly)

interpreted as such3. Correlation coefficients range from -1.00 to +1.00

a. The farther the value is from 0, the stronger the relationshipE. Experimental

1. Can truly establish cause and effect2. Involves independent and dependent variables3. Control group helps establish causality4. Random assignment helps assure no pre-existing differences5. Advantages and disadvantages

a. Advantage: learn why an effect actually happensb. Disadvantage: expectations (e.g., placebo effect) may influence

resultsIV. Ethical Principles in Psychological Research

A. Ethical standards protect research participantsB. Review committees at institutions verify ethical proceduresC. Some basic ethical guidelines for research

1. Informed consenta. Research participant knows what will happen in studyb. Willingly agrees, based on explanation given, to be part of studyc. Aware can withdraw from study at any time

2. Confidentiality—keep records on clients and research participants privateD. Animal research—protect animal from harm unless no other research alternative

1. Ethics review panel must give permission2. Benefits from such research must be substantial

V. Exploring Psychology: Anatomy of a Research Study: Shooter BiasA. Question: Will race or ethnicity of a target figure affect a police officer's decision

to shoot a suspect?B. Procedure: Experimental method

1. Pictures of targets flashed on a screen; participants had to decide which ones were armed and shoot only those

C. Results: Officers were quicker to shoot armed African American targets than armed Whites, and they were more likely to mistakenly shoot unarmed African Americans than unarmed Whites

MODULE 1.4 APPLICATION: BECOMING A CRITICAL THINKER LEARNING OBJECTIVE

I. Background Factors in Critical ThinkingA. How do we determine what is really the truth?B. Critical thinking—adopting a questioning attitude, willingness to challenge

conventional thinking of the dayC. Base beliefs on reasons, not on “gut feelings”

II. Features of Critical ThinkingA. Question everything

1. Do not blindly accept claims2. Keep an open mind, weigh the evidence

B. Look for clarification of termsC. Avoid oversimplifyingD. Avoid overgeneralizingE. Maintain distinction between correlation and causalityF. Consider assumptions on which claims are basedG. Carefully examine all sources for timeliness, credibility

H. Question evidence—is it sound, rational, objective?I. As a precaution, think of other ways the findings might be interpreted besides the

one presentedIII. Thinking Critically About Online Information

A. Anyone can create or post to Internet sitesB. Not all information is accurate; retain critical thinking approachC. Best sources still scientific journals, credible and respected agencies and

organizations

Chapter-2 OutlineMODULE 2.1 NEURONS: THE BODY'S WIRING

I. The Structure of the NeuronA. Basic building block of the nervous systemB. Cells specialized for rapidly communicating informationC. Neuron parts and functions

1. Dendrites—receive information from adjoining neurons (or sensory receptors)

2. Soma (cell body)—receives and stores information within the cell

3. Nucleus—governs and directs action of the cell4. Axon—transmits neural impulse down length of cell5. Terminal buttons—branching at end of axon;

contain neurotransmittersD. Types of neurons

1. Sensory neurons—bring information from outside world to your brain

2. Motor neurons—transmit responses from brain to muscles and glands

3. Interneuronsa. Connect neurons to other neuronsb. Join sensory and motor neurons in spinal

cordE. Synapses—chemical (neurotransmitter) connections

between all neuronsII. Glial Cells

A. Most numerous cells within the nervous systemB. “Glue” to help hold neurons togetherC. Assist and support activity of neuronsD. Form myelin sheath

1. Fatty, protective covering on many neuron axons2. Forms over time, usually by age of 123. Nodes of Ranvier (gaps in myelin sheath)—neural

impulse may jump from node to node4. Multiple sclerosis (MS)—destruction of myelin

sheathIII. How Neurons Communicate

A. Ions involved: sodium, potassium, and chlorideB. Resting potential—neuron not activated; cell has slightly

negative chargeC. Depolarization—stimulation leads sodium to enter cell;

electrical charge now changed from negative to positiveD. Action potential—neuron fires down length of axon; called a

neural impulseIV. Neurotransmitters

A. Synapse is tiny gap between one neuron and the next

B. At synapse, the impulse changes from electrical to chemical

C. Neurotransmitters are these chemical messengers across synapse

D. Chemicals from adjacent neurons may either excite or inhibit cell firing

E. Some important neurotransmitters1. Acetylcholine—for muscle contractions, and

learning and memory2. Dopamine—related to muscle activity, also involved

in emotional functioning3. Glutamate—keeps central nervous system aroused4. Serotonin—regulates emotion, satiety, and sleep5. Endorphins—body’s natural painkillers; similar

chemically to narcotic drugs

MODULE 2.2 THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: YOUR BODY'S INFORMATION SUPERHIGHWAY

I. Central Nervous SystemA. Consists of brain and spinal cord

1. Spinal cord is a column of nerves about as thick as one’s thumb, encased in the spine

a. Transmits information between brain and peripheral nervous system

b. Spinal reflexes are the quickest possible response to stimuli, bypassing the brain and involving only two or three neurons

B. Peripheral nervous system—components of nervous system other than brain and spinal cord

II. Peripheral Nervous System:A. Somatic nervous system

1. Comprised of sensory and motor neurons2. Links communication between central nervous

system and sense organs, musclesB. Autonomic nervous system—two further divisions

1. Sympathetic nervous systema. Prepares body to meet physical demands or

stressb. Increases heart rate, breathing, blood sugar

2. Parasympathetic nervous systema. Slows bodily activity, conserves energyb. Fosters bodily processes, such as digestion

MODULE 2.3 THE BRAIN: YOUR CROWNING GLORY

I. The BrainA. Hindbrain—lowest part of brain

1. Evolutionarily the “oldest”2. Medulla—breathing, heart rate, swallowing3. Pons—conducts information; influences wakefulness

and sleep4. Cerebellum—controls balance and coordination

B. Midbrain—above the hindbrain1. Connects hindbrain with forebrain2. Reticular formation

a. Neural network that connects to thalamus

b. Involved in attention, alertness and arousalc. Filters out irrelevant information

C. Forebrain—largest part of the brain, located at top and front

1. Thalamus—relay station, routes information to appropriate brain area

2. Basal ganglia—control movement and coordination3. Hypothalamus

a. Under the thalamus; size of a peab. Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperaturec. Involved in reproduction, emotional statesd. Directs activity of the endocrine system

4. Limbic system—memory and emotional processinga. Amygdala—aggression, rage and fearb. Hippocampus—important role in formation

of memoriesII. Cerebral cortex

A. Part of the forebrainB. Thin outer layer of cerebrumC. Two cerebral hemispheres (connected by corpus callosum)D. Each hemisphere—four lobes

1. Occipital lobes—vision2. Parietal lobes

a. Includes somatosensory cortexb. Touch, pressure, pain, temperaturec. Area proportional to sensitivity of skin tissue

3. Frontal lobesa. “Executive center”b. Accesses stored memoriesc. Used to solve problems, reason, carry out

coordinated activitiesd. Involved in emotional statese. Motor cortex—voluntary movement

4. Temporal lobes—hearingE. Consists largely of association areas—higher mental

functions

MODULE 2.4 METHODS OF STUDYING THE BRAIN

I. Methods of Studying the BrainA. Recording and imaging techniques

1. EEG (electroencephalograph)—records electrical activity in the brain

2. CT (computed tomography) scan—measures reflection of an X-ray beam passing through body

3. PET (positron emission tomography) scan—radioactive isotope reveals more active parts of brain

4. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)—gives picture of body’s soft matter; disrupted atoms give signals as they realign

B. Experimental methods1. Lesioning

a. Part of experimental animal’s brain is destroyed

b. Researcher investigates effects of the brain tissue loss

2. Electrical recording—electrodes in neurons/brain

tissue reveal changes3. Electrical stimulation—observe results of mild

electric current passed through brain

MODULE 2.5 THE DIVIDED BRAIN: SPECIALIZATION OF FUNCTION

I. The Brain at Work: Lateralization and IntegrationA. Lateralization

1. Division of functions between left and right hemispheres

2. Left brain: language, logical analysis, mathematical computations

a. Broca’s area: production of speechb. Wernicke’s area: understanding meaning in

languagec. Aphasia: loss or impairment in language

communication3. Right brain: spatial relations, recognizing faces,

emotional expressionB. Integration: Both hemispheres share work in performing

most tasksII. Handedness—hand dominance related to hemispheric

specializationA. Left-handers may not follow typical patternB. Genetic factors seem to play a roleC. Prenatal hormones may also influenceD. Twice as many males as females left-handed

III. Brain Damage and Psychological FunctioningA. Head trauma—laceration or concussionB. Stroke

1. Flow of blood to brain is blocked2. Cerebral hemorrhage—bleeding into the brain

C. Brain plasticity—healthy part of brain may take over lost function

IV. Exploring Psychology: Research on Split-Brain Patients: Does the Left Hand Know What the Right Hand is Doing?

A. Corpus callosum may be severed as a treatment for severe epilepsy

B. Patient holds a familiar object in the left hand—can use it but not name it

1. The left hand connects to the right hemisphere, which lacks language capabilities

C. Perception studies—researchers flash pictures to either left or right visual field

1. Patients can only describe the picture if flashed to the right visual field (which connects to the left hemisphere)

D. Split-brain patients appear quite normal in everyday behavior

MODULE 2.6 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: THE BODY'S OTHER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

I. The Endocrine SystemA. A grouping of glandsB. Glands release secretions called hormonesC. Regulates bodily processes such as growth, reproduction,

and metabolismD. Maintains homeostasis—an internally balanced state

II. Important GlandsA. Hypothalamus—secretes releasing factors that act on

pituitary glandB. Pituitary gland

1. “Master gland”—influences hormone activity of other glands

2. Also promotes physical growth via GH (growth hormone)

C. Pancreas1. Produces the hormone insulin2. Regulates amount of glucose in the blood

D. Pineal gland1. Secretes melatonin2. Regulates sleep-wake cycles

E. Adrenal glands1. Lie above the kidneys2. Adrenal cortex

a. Secretes hormones that promote muscle development

b. Stimulates liver to release sugar in times of stress

3. Adrenal medulla—releases epinephrine and norepinephrine to deal with stress

F. Gonads—sex glands1. Ovaries in women

a. Produce egg cells for reproductionb. Secrete female hormones estrogen and

progesterone2. Testes in men

a. Produce spermb. Secrete male sex hormone testosterone

III. Hormones and BehaviorA. Testosterone is linked to aggressive behaviorB. Thyroid hormones—influence metabolism; related to

behaviorC. PMS—hormone sensitivity appears to play a role

MODULE 2.8 APPLICATION: LOOKING UNDER THE HOOD: SCANNING THE HUMAN BRAIN

I. Memory and Cognitive ResearchA. Specific brain circuits may relate to specific memories

II. Personality ResearchA. Different patterns of brain activity in people who are more

or less extraverted or neuroticIII. Personnel Selection

A. Scans may indicate suitability for particular types of tasksIV. Diagnosing Psychological Disorders

A. Scans may be used to detect signs of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and ADHD

Chapter-3 OutlineMODULE 3.1 SENSING OUR WORLD: BASIC CONCEPTS OF SENSATION :

I. SensationA. Process by which we receive,

transform, and process stimuli presented to sensory organs

B. Sensory receptors—in sensory organs

1. Detect stimuli from the outside world

2. Very sensitive to certain types of stimuli

3. Form of light, sound, odors, etc.

C. Psychophysics—how we experience such stimuli

II. Absolute and Difference ThresholdsA. Absolute threshold

1. Smallest amount of stimulus reliably detected

2. Variation in sensitivity among individuals

B. Difference threshold1. Just-noticeable difference

(jnd)2. Weber’s law—must change

stimulus by a constant proportion for change to be detected

3. Constants are given for various senses

III. Signal DetectionA. Signals are stimuli such as sounds

or tastesB. Detection depends on

1. Intensity of signal2. Background factors3. Attention and motivation of

receiver4. Physical condition of

organismIV. Sensory Adaptation—becoming less

sensitive to unchanging stimuli

MODULE 3.2 VISION: SEEING THE LIGHT

I. Light: The Energy of VisionA. Physical energyB. Electromagnetic radiation

1. Visible spectrum is small portion of entire spectrum

2. Wavelengths correspond to the experience of different colors

II. The Eye: The Visionary Sensory OrganA. Contains the sensory receptors to

detect lightB. Parts of the eye

1. Cornea—transparent covering on the surface of the eye

2. Iris—muscle surrounding pupil

a. Adjusts reflexively to permit entry of light

b. Colored part of eye, usually blue or brown

3. Pupil—size of opening is controlled by iris

4. Lens—changes shape to adjust to distance of object (accommodation)

5. Retinaa. Receives the image

created by light striking it

b. Contains photoreceptors—rods and cones

6. Bipolar cells—interconnecting cells

7. Ganglion cells—each projecting axon is one nerve fiber

8. Optic nervea. Large bundle of

ganglion nerve fibersb. Transmits visual

information to the brain

c. Creates blind spot9. Fovea—part of the retina

a. Contains only conesb. Site for sharpest

visionIII. Feature Detectors: Getting Down to Basics

A. Nerve cells in visual cortexB. Respond to specific features of the

visual stimulusIV. Color Vision: Sensing a Colorful World

A. Color receptors (cones) transmit different messages to the brain

B. Hermann von Helmholtz—trichromatic theory

1. Three types of color receptors—for red, green, and blue-violet

2. Other colors result from combinations of these three

C. Ewald Hering—opponent-process theory

1. Afterimages—image seen on neutral surface after other visual stimulation

2. Three sets of color receptors

that work in either-or pairs

MODULE 3.3 HEARING: THE MUSIC OF SOUND

I. Sound: Sensing Waves of VibrationsA. Energy that travels in waves

(vibrations)B. Must have a medium in order to

existC. Characteristics

1. Amplitude (loudness)—the height of a wave

2. Frequency—number of complete waves, or cycles, per second

3. Travels much more slowly than light

4. Measured in decibels (dB), an indication of perceived loudness

5. Perception of pitch is related to wave frequency

II. The Ear: A Sound MachineA. Sound waves are captured and

converted to neural formB. Ear components

1. Eardrum—membrane that vibrates in response to sound waves

2. Ossicles—three tiny bones in middle ear

a. Hammer (malleus)b. Anvil (incus)c. Stirrup (stapes)

3. Oval window—membrane connecting to inner ear

4. Cochlea—fluid-filled snail-shaped bony tube

5. Basilar membrane—vibrates within the cochlea

6. Organ of Corti—gelatinous structure lined with hair cells

7. Hair cells—auditory receptors

8. Auditory nerve—transmits auditory messages to brain

C. Location of sound determined by disparity between two ears’ messages

III. Perception of Pitch: Perceiving the Highs and Lows

A. Place theory1. Developed by Hermann von

Helmholtz2. Perceived sound related to

vibration location on basilar membrane

3. High frequencies—vibration

near oval window4. Low frequencies—further

down basilar membraneB. Frequency theory

1. May best account for perception of lowest-frequency sounds

2. Basilar membrane vibrates at same frequency as sound wave

C. Volley principle—helps explain how mid-range sounds are detected

IV. Hearing LossA. Conduction deafness

1. Damage to middle ear—eardrum or ossicles

2. Hearing aids may help this problem

B. Nerve deafness—damage to hair cells or to auditory nerve

C. For protection avoid excessive noise, wear earplugs

MODULE 3.4 OUR OTHER SENSES: CHEMICAL, SKIN, AND BODY SENSES

I. Olfaction: What Your Nose KnowsA. Chemicals in the air that the nose

can respond toB. Lock-and-key fitting of molecules

into odor receptorsC. Olfactory nerve—transmits odor

information to brainD. Olfactory bulb—brain destination;

odor information does not travel through thalamus

E. Pheromones—chemical substances that play a role in behavior

II. Taste: The Flavorful SenseA. Four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty,

and bitterB. Flavors are a result of combinations

of tastesC. Taste cells—taste receptorsD. Taste buds—pores or openings on

tongue (and surrounding area)E. Taste sensitivity partly geneticF. Supertasters—very dense network

of tastebudsIII. The Skin Senses: Your Largest Sensory

OrganA. Code information regarding touch,

pressure, warmth, cold, and painB. Sensory receptors distributed

throughout bodyC. Somatosensory cortex—brain region

processing skin sense informationD. Specific receptors for warmth and

coldE. Gate-control theory of pain—pain

messages may be regulated via a neural gateway

F. Acupucture may release endorphins—natural painkillers

IV. The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses: Of Grace and Balance

A. Kinesthesis tells us about body position and body movement

B. Vestibular sense monitors body position in space

1. Aids in keeping one’s balance

2. Informs whether we are moving quickly, slowly

3. The ear’s semicircular canals—movement of fluid relates body position information

4. Dizziness: semicircular canal fluid still moving though we have stopped

MODULE 3.5 PERCEIVING OUR WORLD: PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION

I. Perception—the Brain Organizes and Interprets Sensations

II. Attention: Did You Notice That?A. Attention—the first step in

perceptionB. Selective attention—limit attention

to certain stimuliC. Habituation—results from exposure

to a constant stimulusIII. Perceptual Set: Seeing What You Expect to

SeeA. Ambiguous stimuli interpreted

differently based on expectations and preconceptions

IV. Modes of Visual ProcessingA. Bottom-up processing—begin with

specific features of shapes in environment

B. Top-down processing—begin with knowledge and experience about patterns

V. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization

A. Figure and ground—figures have shapes; ground does not

B. Gestalt laws of grouping: proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, connectedness

VI. Perceptual ConstanciesA. Shape constancy—shape seen as

the same across various perspectives

B. Size constancy—size perceived as same regardless of distance from perceiver

C. Color constancy—color perceived the same despite changes in lighting

D. Brightness constancy—brightness seen as the same though illumination may change

VII. Cues to Depth PerceptionA. Binocular cues—need both eyes

1. Retinal disparity—slightly differing image relayed to brain from each eye

2. Convergence—based on degree of muscular tension needed to focus on an object

B. Monocular cues—one eye sufficient1. Relative size: larger objects

perceived as closer2. Interposition: obscured

object perceived as farther away

3. Relative clarity: distant objects are blurrier

4. Texture gradient: closer objects appear coarser

5. Linear perspective: parallel lines appear to converge in distance

6. Shadowing: light and dark are cues to projections and indentations

VIII. Motion PerceptionA. Projected image of object moves

across retinaB. Changing size of object

IX. Visual Illusions: Do Your Eyes Deceive You?A. Perceptual cues may lead to

misinterpretationB. Stroboscopic movement—apparent

movementX. Cultural Differences in Perceiving Visual

IllusionsA. Experience plays a role in visual

perceptionB. Carpentered-world hypothesis—an

environment dominated by straight lines and angles

XI. Exploring Psychology: Controversies in Perception

A. Subliminal perception1. Perception of stimuli below

the level of conscious awareness

2. Two-thirds of Americans believe subliminal suggestions do work

3. Does seem to occur in some cases; influence is subtle

B. Extrasensory perception1. Perception that occurs

without benefit of the known senses

2. A major focus of study in parapsychology

a. Telepathy—the ability to exchange thoughts without use of the senses

b. Clairvoyance—the perception of events that are not available to the senses

c. Precognition—the ability to foretell the future

d. Psychokinesis—the ability to move objects without touching them

e. Ganzfeld procedure—way of testing for ESP

3. As yet no reliable, replicable findings of ESP that have withstood scientific scrutiny

MODULE 3.6 SUMMARY

I. Gaining Control Over PainA. Pain does protect us from dangerB. Endorphins produced by body can

help diminish experience of painII. Pain management strategies

A. Distraction—directing attention away from pain

B. Bottleneck pain at neurological gate—rubbing, heat and cold may block gateway

C. Do something enjoyable—priming positive emotions reduces pain intensity

D. Changing thoughts and attitudes—remain positive, focus on what can help

E. Obtaining accurate information—about pain source and treatment

F. Meditation—focused attention yields a relaxed, contemplative state

G. Biofeedback training—learning to control tension and other responses by the body

Chapter-4 Outline

MODULE 4.1 STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

I. Consciousness—whatever you are aware of at any point in time

II. States of ConsciousnessA. Focused awareness

1. Consciousness is selective2. We choose to direct our

attention and effort3. Extraneous information is

filtered outB. Drifting consciousness

1. Focused awareness difficult to maintain long term

2. Mind may start to drift from thought to thought

3. Daydreaming—a waking state but of dreamy thoughts

C. Divided consciousness1. We may perform two

different tasks simultaneously

2. We perform best on routine tasks when we don’t pay too much attention

3. Automatic pilot—performing mechanical tasks that do not require focused awareness

D. States of unconsciousness1. Relatively unaware of our

external surroundings—as in sleeping and dreaming

2. Still responsive to personally meaningful stimuli

3. Deep unconsciousness—as from anesthesia or coma

4. Altered statesa. State of awareness

unlike normal waking state

b. Daydreaming, meditation, hypnosis, influence of mind-altering drugs

c. Also may result from repetitive physical activity

III. Exploring Psychology: Driving While Distracted

A. Driving while using a cell phone carries the same risk as driving drunk

1. Using a hands-free device does not  lower this risk

B. Other serious distractions include

eating, putting on makeup, and attending to children

MODULE 4.2 SLEEPING AND DREAMING

I. Sleep and Wakefulness: A Circadian RhythmA. One-third of human life is spent

sleepingB. Circadian rhythm—daily pattern for

sleep-wake cyclesC. Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in

hypothalamus regulates sleepD. Melatonin is hormone that makes us

feel sleepyE. Human eye is sensitive to light,

even in blind individualsF. Jet lag—local time conflicts with

internal body clockII. Stages of Sleep

A. Stage 11. Brain waves small and

irregular, varying frequencies

2. Light sleep; sleeper is easily awakened

B. Stage 21. Onset two minutes after

Stage 1 sleep2. Bursts of brain wave activity:

sleep spindlesC. Stage 3—Deep sleep; 50 percent or

fewer of brain wave patterns are delta waves

D. Stage 4—Deep sleep; 50 percent or more of brain wave patterns are delta waves

E. REM (rapid-eye-movement) sleep1. Stage of sleep associated

with dreaming2. Follows Stages 3 and 2 after

reverting from deep sleep3. High level of brain activity,

body movement blockedIII. Why We Sleep

A. Species’ average length of sleep time varies

B. Universal need for sleep suggests survival necessity

C. Sleep serves a variety of functions—protection, restoration, energy conservation, knowledge consolidation, disease prevention

IV. Dreams and DreamingA. Why do we dream?

1. Dreams may help us find solutions to problems

2. Activation-synthesis hypothesis—cerebral cortex

tries to integrate experiences generated by random electrical brain impulses

3. Brain area for logical thought less active during dream state

4. Sigmund Freud: dreams are wish fulfillment

a. Dreams represent unconscious wishes, usually sexual or aggressive

b. The “royal road” to the unconscious

c. Manifest content—events that actually occur in a dream

d. Latent content—what the dream really means, since dreams are symbolic

e. Difficult to verify empirically

B. Lucid dreams: dreamer is aware of dreaming

V. Sleep DisordersA. Insomnia

1. Most common sleep disorder2. Inability to fall asleep,

remain asleep, or return to sleep after being awakened

3. Array of causesa. Substance abuse,

physical illnessb. Psychological

disorders—depression, worry

c. Sleep cannot be forced

B. Narcolepsy—falling asleep suddenly during the day

C. Sleep apnea—frequently stopping breathing during sleep

D. Nightmare disorder—frequent, disturbing nightmares

E. Sleep terror disorder1. More likely to affect children,

especially boys2. More intense than

nightmares3. Does not occur during REM

sleep—occurs during deep sleep period

F. Sleepwalking1. Also more often in children

than adults2. Sleeping individual walks

about, eyes open3. No harm in wakening

sleepwalkerVI. Sleep Deprivation

A. Normally need 7 to 9 hours sleep per day

B. Infants and children: more time proportionally in REM sleep

C. Insufficient sleep1. Slows reaction times2. Impairs concentration,

memory, and problem-solving ability

3. Harder to retain newly acquired information

4. Impairs academic performance

5. Common cause of highway accidents

6. Weakens body’s immune system

MODULE 4.3 ALTERING CONSCIOUSNESS THROUGH MEDITATION AND HYPNOSIS

VII. Meditation

A. Focused attention; relaxed, contemplative state

B. Narrow attention to a single object or thought

C. Transcendental meditation—repeat a phrase or sound (mantra)

D. Mindfulness meditation—focus on moment-to-moment thoughts and sensations

E. Relaxed but still alertF. May help

1. Expand consciousness

2. Achieve a state of inner peace

3. Relieve stress and chronic pain

4. Treat psychological disorders

VIII. HypnosisA. An altered state of

consciousnessB. Focused attention,

deep relaxation, heightened susceptibility to suggestion

C. Experiences under hypnosis:

1. Hypnotic age regression—reliving past events (usually childhood)

2. Hypnotic analgesia—loss of awareness of pain

3. Posthypnotic amnesia—inability to recall what happened during hypnosis

4. Posthypnotic suggestion—planting a suggestion during hypnosis that individual follows (usually without awareness) after trance

IX. Theories of HypnosisA. No consensus as to

what hypnosis is or does

B. Possibly a trance state

C. Possibly just role-playing (but evidence does not support this notion)

D. Ernest Hilgard: neodissociation theory

1. Altered state of consciousness—consciousnes

s splits or divides

2. Split off portion follows hypnotist’s suggestions

3. “Hidden observer” part of mind still monitors all events

4. Cold pressor test—shows hypnotic influence

MODULE 4.4 ALTERING CONSCIOUSNESS THROUGH DRUGS

X. Use of DrugsA. To change state of

waking consciousness

B. Psychoactive drugs—chemical substances that act on brain (mental state is affected)

1. Includes both legal and illegal drugs

XI. Drug AbuseA. Repeated use causes

or aggravates personal, occupational, or health-related problems

B. Maladaptive or dangerous use of a chemical substance

C. Impairs one’s ability to function effectively

XII. Drug DependenceA. Individual compelled

to use or unable to resist drug despite harm that it causes

B. Physiological (chemical) dependence—body chemistry has been changed due to repeated use

1. Withdrawal

syndrome—painful symptoms when drug use abruptly stopped

2. Tolerance—need to increase the amount of drug taken to achieve same effect

3. Drug addiction—chemical addiction; physiological dependence involved

C. Psychological dependence—individual unable to control reliance on drug, but no physiological dependence involved

XIII. Depressants—reduce activity of central nervous system

A. Alcohol1. Most widely

used and abused depressant

2. Intoxicant—chemical substance that produces drunkenness

3. Impairs judgment, ability to concentrate, ability to evaluate consequences of behavior

4. Disinhibits—undesirable behaviors no longer blocked

5. Alcoholism—chemical dependence on alcohol

a. Few alcoho

lics fit “skid-row bum” stereotype

b. Very heavy use—body, especially liver, severely damaged

c. Moderate use of alcohol appears to have health benefits

B. Barbiturates1. Calming or

sedating drugs

2. Legitimate medical uses such as managing high blood pressure and epilepsy

3. Highly addictive: street drugs that induce state of euphoria, relaxation

4. Include pentobarbital, phenobarbital; (Quaalude is similar)

5. Induce drowsiness, slurred speech; impair motor activity and judgment

C. Tranquilizers1. Depressants

used to treat anxiety, insomnia

2. Less toxic than barbiturates

3. Dangerous in high doses, especially when combined with alcohol, other drugs

4. Include Valium, Xanax, Halcion

5. Potentially physiologically and psychologically addictive

D. Opioids (narcotics)1. Highly

addictive drugs; have pain-relieving and sleep-inducing properties

2. Include morphine, heroin, codeine, Demerol, Percodan

3. Produce a “rush” of euphoria; reduce awareness of problems

4. Legitimate medical use to treat pain

5. Similar to endorphins naturally produced by body

XIV. Stimulants—heighten activity of central nervous system

A. Amphetamines1. Synthetic

chemical

form only2. Increase

heart rate, breathing, blood pressure

3. Low doses: heighten alertness, reduce feelings of fatigue

4. High doses: intense, pleasurable rush

5. Boost brain neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine

6. Include Benzedrine, methamphetamine, Dexedrine

7. High doses may cause amphetamine psychosis, coma, death

B. Cocaine1. Natural

stimulant from coca plant

2. Increases brain levels of norephinephrine and dopamine

3. Increases arousal, feelings of extreme pleasure

4. High is shorter than that produced by amphetamines

5. Regular use damages heart, other organs

6. Highly physically and psychologically addictive; produces intense cravings

C. MDMA (Ecstasy)1. Produces

mildly euphoric and hallucinogenic state

2. Increases bodily arousal; undesirable psychological and cognitive effects

3. Physical consequences; high doses may cause death

D. Nicotine1. Mild

stimulant, highly addictive

2. Increases physiological arousal but also feelings of calmness and relaxation

3. Physiological and psychological dependence

4. Smoking is the major preventable cause of death in the US and the world

E. Caffeine1. Mild

stimulant, found in coffee, tea, chocolate

2. Physiological dependence, but most can

be controlled3. Enhances

alertness; may increase risk of miscarriage

XV. HallucinogensA. Alter sensory

perceptions (psychedelics)

B. May induce relaxation but also paranoia or panic in others

C. Psychological but not physical dependence

D. LSD—“trip” produces vivid hallucinations and other sensory distortions

E. Mescaline, Psilocybin, PCP

F. Marijuana1. Most widely

used illicit drug in Western world

2. Alters perceptions; may induce hallucinations

3. Can lead to psychological dependence; possibly physical dependence as well

4. Lower doses: relaxation, heightened awareness of bodily sensations

5. Higher doses: nausea, disorientation, paranoia

XVI. Understanding Drug AbuseA. Social and behavioral

context1. Peer pressure2. Unemployme

nt3. Cultural

norms and attitudes

B. Physical factors1. Genetics2. Neurotransmi

ttersC. Psychological factors

1. Hopelessness, sensation-seeking

2. Self-medication, to relieve anxiety

D. Cognitive factors: positive expectations and attitudes

XVII. Drug TreatmentA. Most effective

programs use a variety of approaches

B. Detoxification—eliminating chemical dependency

C. Confront underlying psychological problems

D. May use therapeutic drugs (such as methadone) as well

XVIII. Exploring Psychology: Binge Drinking

A. Large quantity of alcohol consumed on one occasion

B. Strong predictor of later alcoholism

C. Individual at risk of death from overdose

MODULE 4.5 APPLICATION: GETTING YOUR Z'S

XIX. Suggestions for Developing Healthier Sleep Habits Include

A. Adopt a regular sleep schedule (go to bed and get up at about the same time every day)

B. Allow yourself to wind down naturally before trying to sleep

C. Have a routine before going to bed

D. Use your bed primarily for sleeping; not, for

example, for reading or studying

E. If you can’t sleep, get up and go somewhere else to relax

F. Avoid daytime naps if you miss sleep at night

G. Don’t bring problems to bed

H. Use relaxing mental imagery

I. Engage in regular exercise during the day

J. Avoid caffeine and nicotine, especially in the afternoon

K. Think positively about your ability to sleep and to cope