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The scientific inference to other mindsRobert Pargetteraa La Trobe University,

To cite this Article Pargetter, Robert(1984) 'The scientific inference to other minds', Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 62:2, 158 163

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Aus t ra las ian J ourna l o f Ph i lo sophyVol. 62, No. 2; June 1984

T H E S C I E N T I F I C I N F E R E N C E T O O T H E R M I N D SR o b e r t P a r g e t t e r

W h a t i s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i n f e r e n c e s t h a t w e a ll s o c o m m o n l y , a n d r ig h tl y ,m a k e f r o m c e r ta i n b e h a v i o u r a l e v i de n c e to t h e m e n t a l l iv es o f o t h e r p e o p le ?T h i s p a p e r e x p l o r e s f e a t u r e s o f th e t h e si s t h a t t h e s e in f e r e n c e s s h o u l d b e stb e v ie w e d a s b e i n g c o m m o n s c ie n ti fi c o r h y p o t h e t i c i n f e r e n c e s , o r a r g u m e n t st o t h e b e s t e x p l a n a t i o n . M o r e p r e c i se l y i t a r g u e s t h a t (i) v i e w i n g s u c h i n fe r -e n c e s as b e i n g o f t hi s f o r m a d e q u a t e l y a c c o u n t s f o r t h e s t r o n g r a t i o n a l b eli ef sw e a l l h a v e c o n c e r n i n g t h e m e n t a l l iv e s o f o t h e r s , a n d (i i) t h a t , s o v i ew e d ,s u c h in f e re n c e s a r e n o t s u s ce p t ib l e to t h e w e a k n e s se s c o m m o n l y t h o u g h t t ob e s e t s u c h i n f e r e n c e s w h e n t h e y a r e v i e w e d a s b e i n g a n a l o g i c a l i n n a t u r e .

S u p p o s e I w e r e t o s e e a m a n w i t h a d e e p c u t i n h is h a n d . T h e c u t is b l e ed i n g .T h e m a n i s c l u t c h i n g t h e c u t h a n d w i t h h i s o t h e r h a n d . H e l o o k s p a l e a n dt e n s e , a n d h e h a s b e a d s o f p e r s p i r a t i o n o n h i s b r o w . H e w r i n g s h is h a n d su p a n d d o w n , a n d u t t e r s s e n te n c e s s u c h a s ' M y h a n d is h u r t i n g ' , ' I a m i np a i n ' , a n d a l s o g r o a n s a n d g r u n t s .

O n e e x p l a n a t i o n o f th i s m a n ' s b e h a v i o u r is t h a t h e is i n p a i n , h i s p a i n b e in gm u c h t h e s a m e a s m i n e i n si m i l a r c ir c u m s t a n c e s . O f c o u r s e i t is n o t t h e o n l ye x p l a n a t i o n . H e c o u l d b e b e h a v i n g l ik e t h is f o r s o m e o t h e r r e a s o n a l to g e th e r .H i s b e h a v i o u r m a y b e c a u s e d b y ( o r a s s o c i a t e d w i th ) a v e r y d if f e re n t k in do f m e n t a l s t a te f r o m t h e k i n d I h a v e h a d w h e n I h a v e b e h a v e d s im i la rl y.I t i s e v e n p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r e i s n o m e n t a l s t a t e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s m a n ' sb e h a v i o u r a t a l l . H o w e v e r o n e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t h e i s i n p a i n , a n d t h a t h isp a i n is q u a l i t a t iv e l y s i m i l a r t o p a i n s t h a t I h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d .

M o r e o v e r , t h is w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e t h e b e st e x p l a n a t i o n a v a i l a b le to m e .A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e o t h e r p o s s i b le e x p l a n a t i o n s , t h i s a p p e a r s i n th e l ig h t o fe v i d e n ce f r o m m y o w n c a s e to b e a v e r y g o o d e x p l a n a t i o n , w h i le t h e a l te r na -t i v e s s e e m f a r f r o m p l a u s i b l e . W h a t c a n I a l t e r n a t i v e l y h y p o t h e s i s e ? T h a tG o d is w o r k i n g th e m a n l ik e p u p p e t . T h a t I a m u n i q u e a n d a l t h o u g h I b e lie ve( d u e t o i n t r o s p e c t i o n ) t h a t m y m e n t a l s t a te s a r e t h e c a u s e s in m y c a s e , w itho t h e r s t h e r e i s a c o m p l e t e l y d if f e r e n t c a u s a l m e c h a n i s m o f a k i n d o f w h ic hI h a v e n o k n o w l e d g e a n d w h i c h d o e s n o t i n v o l v e m e n t a l s t a te s . T h a t th e rea r e m e n t a l s ta t e s o f th e m a n r e s p o n s ib l e f o r t h e m a n ' s b e h a v i o u r , b u t t he ses t a te s a r e o f a c o m p l e t e l y d i f fe r e n t n a t u r e t o m i n e d e s p i te t h e s i m i la r it y int h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d d e s p i t e th e s i m i l a r it y i n t h e b e h a v i o u r . T h e s e a r e th ek i n d s o f e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t a r e a lw a y s r e j e c t e d i n s c ie n c e a n d o t h e r a r e a s o fr a t i o n a l e n q u i r y a s b e i n g m o s t u n a c c e p t a b l e . I t is h o w e v e r m o s t a c c ep t ab l et o p o s t u l a t e a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n a c a u s a l s t o r y v e r y si m i l a r t o o n e I a lr e a d yk n o w a b o u t , a n d t h is is i n f a c t w h a t I d o i n t h e c a s e o f t h e o t h e r m a n ' s p a in .

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Robert Pargetter 159It is also natural and necessary for me to make reference to my own casein order to express the nature of the explanation. 1

Now if I am right in thinking that this is clearly the best explanation Ihave available at the present time, and it is clearly a very good explanation,then I am certainly justified in strongly believing that the man I am observingis in pain, and that his pain is qualitatively similar to the pains I experience.I am justified in believing this because it is rational to believe an hypothes isif it is the best available explanation of the evidence.

What I have just described about the man's pain can be extended to hismental life in general. I can explain his behaviour by suppos ing he has a mindlike mine. I know that my mind is the explanation of my behaviour in general,and the hypothesis that he has a mind, with mental events qualitatively similarto mine, certainly explains his behaviour very well. In the absence of anyreally plausible alternative, it would seem rational to believe that this man,and in fact people in general, are minded.

On this account, my reason for believing in the existence of other mindssimilar to my own is in all important respects the same as the scientific realist'sreason for believing in the existence of sub-atomic particles, and for believingin such scientific accounts and theories as the kinetic theory of gases. Suchscientific inferences operate on the principle of rationality: if an hypothesisis the best available explanation of all the available evidence of a person ata particular time, then it is rational for that person to believe that hypothesis atthat time.

While, as is co mm on with all varieties of inductive inference, a completelysatisfactory analysis of this mode of inference has not been given, it is gener-ally accepted that use of this principle of rationality, and thus the use ofscientific or hypothetic inferences, can provide strong inductive (non-deductive) arguments . We m ay not be able to lay dow n completely adequatecriteria for selecting the best explanation from any set of alternative expla-nations. But in practice there is surprising agreement when such choices needto be made. Besides, it is very widely agreed tha t this principle o f rationalityis correct, and certainly such arguments are not in any way inferior in kindcompared with other kinds o f inductive infe rence} In fact the contra ry wouldseem to be the case. Hence it would seem that the above could well accountfor the clearly justified belief that each o f us has, namely tha t other peopleare minded, and that their minds are qualitatively similar to our own.

The well kno wn inductive account of our knowledge o f other minds is thefamed analogical inference to other minds. There are two classical objectionsto this solution; the first is tha t it is an analogica l inference based on a singleinstance, and the second is tha t it is an analogical inference to an uncheckableconclusion.

The point that this is the best available explanation is also argued by Phillip A. Olstein in'God, Other Minds, and the Inference o the Best Explanation',Canadian Journal of Philosophy,4, 1974. It should be noted that at this stage I am approaching the matter from the view ofan interactionist theory of mind. The significance of this assumption will be discussed later.z Alvin Plantinga is then wrong to dismiss this approach to the other minds problem withoutcareful consideration. See God and Other Minds, Ithaca N.Y., 1967, p. 269.

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1 6 0 T h e S c i e n t i f i c I n f e r e n c e t o O t h e r M i n d sI t h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t t h e s e o b j e c t i o n s d o n o t r e a l l y i m p i n g e o n t h e

s t r e n g t h o f th i s i n d u c t iv e s o l u t i o n . 3 H o w e v e r o n e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g a b o u t t hes c ie n t i f i c i n f e r e n c e t o o t h e r m i n d s i s t h a t i t b y p a s s e s t h e s e o b j e c t i o n s c o m -p l e t e ly . T h e s t r e n g t h o f a s c i e n ti f ic i n f e r e n c e d e p e n d s s o l e l y o n t h e e x p l a n a t o r yp o w e r o f i t s c o n c l u s i o n . N o w t h e e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s th a to t h e r p e o p l e h a v e m i n d s q u a l i t a t i v e l y s i m i l a r t o m y o w n i s n o t i n a n y w a yi m p a i r e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s o n l y o n e m i n d ( m y o w n ) o f w h i c h I h a v ed i r e c t k n o w l e d g e . N o r i s i t i m p a i r e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t I c a n n o t c h e c k o n t h ec o n c l u s i o n a f t e r u s in g t h e i n f e r e n c e t o a r g u e t h a t s o m e o n e e l se i s m i n d e d .W h a t I c a n c h e c k o n i s t h a t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s d o e s e x p l a i n th e b e h a v i o u r o fo t h e r p e o p l e in a s a t i s f a c t o r y w a y , a n d t h i s is t h e o n l y c h e c k r e q u i r e d f o rt h e j u s t i f i a b l e u s e o f a s c i e n t i f i c i n f e r e n c e .T h e r e i s a n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y w h i c h f a c e s t h e a n a l o g i c a l in f e r e n c e t o o t h e rm i n d s . A n a n a l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e c a n o n l y r e a s o n a b l y b e u s e d i n c a se s w h e ret h e r e a r e s u f f ic i e n t r e l e v a n t s i m i l a r i t ie s a n d n o r e l e v a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e nt h e c a se o r c a s e s w h e r e t h e p r o j e c t e d p r o p e r t y i s k n o w n t o h o l d a n d t h e c a seo r c a se s w h e r e t h a t p r o p e r t y i s b e i n g i n f e r r e d t o h o l d . N o w t h e r e a r e m a n ys i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e b e h a v i o u r o f o t h e r s a n d m y o w n b e h a v i o u r . B u t t he r ea r e a l s o m a n y d i ff e re n c es b o t h b e t w e e n m e a n d o t h e r p e o p l e , a n d b e t w e e nm y b e h a v i o u r i n c e r ta i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d o t h e r p e o p l e ' s b e h a v i o u r i n s i m i l a rc i r c u m s t a n c e s . N o w w h i l e i n fa c t w e b e l i ev e t h a t t h e s e d i ff e r e n c es a r e n o tr e a l l y v e r y i m p o r t a n t , i t i s v e r y h a r d t o s e e h o w , w i t h o u t b e g g i n g t h e q u e s t io n ,w e c a n a r g u e t h a t t h e s e d i f f er e n c e s a r e n o t r e l e v a n t a s f a r a s a n a n a l o g i c a li n f e r e n c e i s c o n c e r n e d . B u t t h e d i f f i c u l ty i s e v e n m o r e s e r i o u s t h a n t h i s . A n ya r g u m e n t t o o t h e r m i n d s i s a n a t t e m p t t o ju s t i f y t h e b e l i e f t h a t I a m n o tu n i q u e . A s w e h a v e j u s t n o t e d , t h e r e m u s t n o t b e a n y r e l e v a n t d i ff e re n c eb e t w e e n t h e c a s e o r c a s e s w h i c h f o r m t h e e v i d e n t i a l b a s e a n d t h e c a s e o r c as esi n f e r r e d t o i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n . B u t w i t h e v e r y v e r s i o n o f t h e a n a l o g i c a l i n f e r-e n c e t o o t h e r m i n d s t h e r e i s a d i ff e r e n c e : t h e e v i d e n t i a l b a s e is a b o u t m y c a s e ,m y i n s ta n c e s o f p a i n a c c o m p a n y i n g p a i n b e h a v i o u r , e t c . , w h i l e t h e c o n c l u s i o ni s a b o u t c a s e s w h i c h a r e n o t m i n e . H o w , a s i s r e q u i r e d f o r a s a t i s f a c to r ya n a l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e , c a n I r u l e t h a t s u c h a d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t a r e l e v a n t o n e,t h a t i s , t h a t i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o b e l i e v e t h a t I a m n o t u n i q u e , w i t h o u t b e g g i n gt h e q u e s t i o n . F o r t h e a r g u m e n t i n q u e s t i o n i s b e i n g u s e d t o j u s t i f y t h i s v e ryb e l ie f , n a m e l y t h a t I a m n o t u n i q u e . 4

W i t h t h e s c ie n t i f i c i n f e r e n c e a c c o u n t w e h a v e n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o b l e m .

3 Fo r a discussion o f these ob jection s to th e classical analog ical inference, see A . H yslop andF. C . Jackson , 'The Analogical Inference to Other m inds', Am erica n Philosophical Qu arterly, 9,1972.4 This objec t ion seems to app ly to any s t ra ight analogical inference app roach to other minds .It also applies to R. I. Sik ora 's multiple case argument from analogy, see 'The Argument fromAnalog y is N o t an Argum ent fo r Othe r Minds ' , Am erican Phi losophical Quarter ly , 14 , 1977.Hys lop and Jackson (op. ci t . ) seem to be worried by this and mak e use of the lack of plausibleal ternat ive explanat ions of the be haviour o f others to s trengthen their inference; while AlecHyslop sim ilarly has cause to appeal to such m etaphysical principles as the uniformity of nature,'Other Minds as Theoretical Entities ' , Austra las ian Journal o f Phi losophy , 54 , 1976. To theextent that such m oves are used these auth ors hav e moved a wa y from the classical analogicalinference towards a scientific inference approach.

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Robert Pargetter 161A l l t h a t c o n c e r n s us is t h e e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s , a n d n o n eo f t h e d i f fe r e n c es a f fe c t t h e p o w e r o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t o t h e r p e o p l e h a v em i n d s q u a l it a t iv e l y s im i l a r t o m i n e t o e x p l a i n th e b e h a v i o u r o f o t h e r s . T h i sle ad s t o t w o i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s o f t h e s c ie n ti fi c i n f e r e n c e a p p r o a c h w h i c hd i st in g u i sh e s it f r o m , a n d m a k e s i t s u p e r i o r t o , t h e c l a s s ic a l a n a l o g i c a l i n f e r -e n c e a p p r o a c h . F i r s t, t h e s c i e n ti fi c i n f e r e n c e a c c o u n t a l l o w s f o r a h o l is t ica p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o b l e m o f b e l i e f i n t h e m e n t a l l iv e s o f o t h e r s . W h a t t h eh y p o t he s is ex p l a in s i s t h e w h o l e b e h a v i o u r a l p a t t e r n o f o t h e r p e o p l e i n t h e irv a ri ed c ir c u m s t a n c e s . A l t h o u g h I o b s e r v e i m p o r t a n t s im i l ar it ie s b e t w e e n t h eb e h a v i o u r o f o t h e r s a n d m y o w n b e h a v i o u r w h e n I a m i n s i m i l a r c i r c u m -s ta n ce s, I a ls o w i s h t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e b e h a v i o u r o f o t h e r s i n c i r c u m s t a n c e sd i ff e re n t i n k i n d f r o m t h o s e i n w h i c h I h a v e b e e n . A l s o I w i s h t o e x p l a i nt he b e h a v i o u r o f o t h e r s i n s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c es a n d w h e r e t h e i r b e h a v i o u r m a yg re a tl y v a r y f r o m a n y b e h a v i o u r o f m i n e . B u t I c a n e x p l a i n t h e g e n e r a lb e h a v i o u r o f o t h e r s b e c a u s e m y h y p o t h e s i s i s t h a t o t h e r s h a v e c o n t i n u i n gm e n t a l li v e s, a n d w h i l e t h e n a t u r e s o f th e s e l i v e s a r e s p e c i f ie d w i t h r e f e r e n c et o m y m e n t a l l if e , m y h y p o t h e s i s i s n o t o f t o t a l s i m i l a r it y o f s u c h l iv e s t om y o w n . S o o n e o f t h e s t r e n g t h s o f t h e s c ie n ti fi c i n f e r e n c e a p p r o a c h is t h a tit e x p la i ns g e n e r a l s i m i la r i ti e s in t h e b e h a v i o u r o f o t h e r s t o m y b e h a v i o u r ,b u t a l so a l l o w s a n d e x p l a i n s i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e re n c e s .

T h i s h a s a ls o r e v e a l e d t h e s e c o n d f e a t u r e o f t h e s c ie n t if i c i n f e r e n c ea p p r o a c h . W h i l e t h e h y p o t h e s i s is t h a t o t h e r s h a v e m i n d s l ik e m y o w n , t h e'l ik e ' r e f e r s t o a g e n e r a l s i m i l a r i t y i n k i n d a n d n o t t o a n e x a c t s i m i l a r i t y . T h es im i la ri ty t h a t is i m p o r t a n t i s t h a t w h i c h i s r e q u i r e d t o u n d e r s t a n d r o u g h l yw h a t t h e h y p o t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g o t h e r p e o p l e is , a n d t o a l l o w o n e t o d e c i d et h a t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s a f f o r d e d b y t h e h y p o t h e s i s a r e g o o d o n e s . I t is t o r e v e a lt he n a t u r e o f t h e c a u s a l p r o c e s s t h a t is b e i n g p r o p o s e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h ea n al og ic a l i n f e r e n c e c a n n o t b e s o g e n e r o u s i n i ts r e q u i r e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n gt h e d e g r e e o f s i m i l a r i t y w i t h o u t s e r i o u s l y w e a k e n i n g t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h ei n f e r e n c e .

I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h e n t h a t t h e s c ie n ti fi c i n f e r e n c e a p p r o a c h n o t o n l y g iv e su s a g o o d a c c o u n t o f o u r b e l i e f i n o t h e r m i n d s , b u t a l s o s h o w s u s w h y w ea re a b le to m a k e o t h e r r e l a t e d i n f e r e n c e s j u s t if i a b l y . I i n f e r a b o u t s o m e o t h e rp eo p le t h a t t h e y h a v e a b n o r m a l m i n d s , I m a k e i n fe r e n ce s a b o u t t h e m e n t a le x pe ri en c es o f a n i m a l s , a n d I c a n i m a g i n e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e r e I m i g h t i n f e rt h a t a l i e n b e i n g s h a v e m e n t a l l i v e s . I n s u c h c a s e s , t h e a n a l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c ea p p r o a c h e i t h e r is h o p e l e s sl y w e a k o r i s j u s t i n a p p l i c a b l e . T h e v e r y m a r k e dd if fe re n c es i n b e h a v i o u r p a t t e r n s , t o t h e p o i n t o f v e r y l it t le s i m i l a r it y , w o u l dp r e v e n t a ll b u t t h e w e a k e s t o f a n a l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e s . B u t t h e s c i e n ti fi c i n f e r e n c ea p p r o a c h n a t u r a l l y a c c o u n t s f o r s u c h i n f e r e n c e s b e c a u s e o f t h e e x p l a n a t o r yp o w e r o f t h e r e s p e c t iv e h y p o t h e s e s . S u c h h y p o t h e s e s g i v e c a u s a l a c c o u n t so f b e h a v i o u r b y i n n e r m e n t a l s ta t es . T h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e s ta te s c a n b e l ik e n e dt o s ta te s o f m y o w n , n o t j u s t b e c a u s e o f s im i l a ri ti e s i n b e h a v i o u r , b u t a l s ob ec a us e o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t h a v e a c c o m p a n i e d s u c h b e h a v i o u r . S o i fa n a n i m a l o r a l ie n b e i n g i s i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t I h a v e m y s e l f f o u n d a c -c o m p a n i e d b y p a i n , a n d b e h a v e s i n a m a n n e r w h i c h m a y o n l y h a v e s li g ht

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162 T h e S c ie n t i f i c In f e r e n c e t o O t h e r M i n d ss i m i la r it ie s t o m y b e h a v i o u r i n s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s , I c a n n o n e t h e l e s s j u s ti -f i a b ly i n f e r t h a t i t is i n p a i n a n d t h u s b o t h e x p l a i n i ts b e h a v i o u r a n d j u s t if ym y b e l i e f t h a t i ts m e n t a l s t a t e a t t h a t t i m e is i m p o r t a n t l y s i m i la r to m y m e n t a ls t a t e w h e n I a m i n p a i n .

I t m i g h t b e o b j e c t e d t h a t t h e r e is o n e f a t a l p r o b l e m f o r t h e s c i en ti fi c i n f e r-e n c e to o t h e r m i n d s . T h i s p r o b l e m is t h a t i t t o o , l ik e th e a n a l o g i c a l i n fe r e n c e ,m a k e s e s s e n ti a l r e f e r e n c e t o o n e ' s o w n c a s e , 5 a n d t h e r e is a l w a y s t h e p o s s ib i li tyt h a t I a m u n i q u e . I n o n e r e s p e c t t hi s s e e m s a m i s p l a c e d o b j e c t i o n . O f c ou r s e,t h e r e i s a p o s s ib i l it y t h a t I a m u n i q u e ; t h a t is w h y I m u s t u s e a n i n d u c ti v ea r g u m e n t . B u t b e in g a n i n d u c ti v e a r g u m e n t I m u s t m a k e s u re th a t I u s e t het o t a l a v a i l a b l e e v id e n c e , a n d t h is w ill i n c l u d e e v i d e n c e a b o u t m y o w n c a sew h i c h i s i m p o r t a n t a n d r e l e v a n t e v i de n c e .B u t t h e c r u c i a l r e p l y t o t h is o b j e c t i o n is t h a t w h e t h e r o r n o t e v i d e n c e c o n -c e r n i n g o n e ' s o w n c a s e i s m i s u s e d i n t h e c l a s s i c a l a n a l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e , i t i su s e d i n a p e r f e c t l y p r o p e r w a y i n th e s c ie n ti fi c in f e r e n c e a c c o u n t . I t is u se di n t w o w a y s . F i r s t, i t is u s e d t o d e s c r i b e , b y a n a l o g y , t h e h y p o t h e s i s . I t ish y p o t h e s i s e d t h a t o t h e r s h a v e m i n d s l ik e m y o w n . T h e h y p o t h e s is is f o r m o r et h a n m e r e i n n e r s ta t es r e sp o n s i b le f o r b e h a v i o u r a n d a c t io n s . M i n d s a r e n o tj u s t c o n t e n t l e ss t h e o r e t i c a l e n t i ti e s. R a t h e r t h e h y p o t h e s i s is t h a t o t h e r p e o p l eh a v e m e n t a l l iv e s s i m i l a r t o m i n e . N o t i c e t h a t t h is d e s c r i p t i o n b y a n a l o g yis n o t a n a n a l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e . T h e a n a l o g y i n n o w a y a r g u e s f o r th e t r u tho f t h e h y p o t h e s is .

T h e s e c o n d u s e t h a t i s m a d e o f th e e v i d e n c e a b o u t m y o w n c a s e is t h a ti t r e v e a l s t h e c a u s a l li n k e m p h a s i s e d i n t h e h y p o t h e s i s , a n d i l l u s tr a t e s h o ws u c h a l in k w o u l d w o r k i n t h e ca s e o f o th e r s . I e x p l ai n m u c h o f m y o w nb e h a v i o u r in t e r m s o f c a u s a t i o n b y m e n t a l e v e n t s . I n m y c a s e t h e y s e e m e x-c e l le n t e x p l a n a t i o n s . T h u s I c a n s e e h o w , i f o t h e r s a r e m i n d e d ( as h y p o t h -e s i s e d ) , t h e n I w o u l d h a v e e x c e l l e n t c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r .

T h i s r a i s e s t h e r o l e i n t h e i n f e r e n c e p l a y e d b y t h e b e l ie f , b a s e d o n i n tr o -s p e c t io n , t h a t i n m y o w n c a s e m y m e n t a l l i f e a n d m e n t a l e v e n ts a r e c a u s al lyr e s p o n s i b le f o r m u c h o f m y b e h a v i o u r . T h i s is a n i n t e r a c ti o n is t v i e w o f th er e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m e n t a l a n d t h e p h y s i c a l , a l t h o u g h i t is c o m p a t i b l ew i t h e i th e r a d u a l i s t o r m a t e r i a l is t t h e o r y o f t h e m e n t a l . I n t e r a c t i o n i s m h a sw i d e s p r e a d a p p e a l t o t h o s e w h o h a v e n o t p o n d e r e d t h e in tr ic a ci es o f t h e m i n d -b o d y p r o b l e m , a n d s t i l l e n jo y s m u c h p o p u l a r i t y a m o n g t h os e w h o h av e .H o w e v e r , s o m e h o l d b e l ie f s b a s e d o n a n e p i p h e n o m e n a l v i e w o f t h e m e n ta l ,w h e r e e i th e r a ll m e n t a l e v e n t s a r e e p i p h e n o m e n a l o n t h e p h y s i c a l , a n d a ret h u s c a u s a l l y i n e rt , o r w h e r e th e p h e n o m e n a l p r o p e r t i e s , w h i c h g iv e t h e m e n t a lm u c h o f i t s c o n t e n t , a r e e p i p h e n o m e n a l o n p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a re th u sc a u s a l l y i n a c t iv e . A r e s u c h v i e w s o f t h e m e n t a l c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e u se o ft h e s c ie n ti fi c i n f e r e n c e a p p r o a c h t o a c c o u n t f o r o u r b e l i e f s c o n c e r n i n g t h em e n t a l l iv e s o f o t h e r s ? 6

T h e e p i p h e n o m e n a l i s t b e l ie v e s t h a t i n h is o w n c a s e th e m e n t a l ( a n d i ts5 See H yslop (op . c i t . ) .Hyslop (op . c i t . ) seemswo rried about how an epiphenomenalist can justifiably believe n otherminds, and ultimately suggests this is resolved by using the belief that nature is uniform!

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Robert Pargetter 163phenomena l qualities) is causally related to behaviour , in that the mental isa by-product of the physical or neural state that is causally responsible forthe behaviour. Now provided he accepts an accoun t of ca usation which hascausal relations not being mere accidental correlations, the epiphenomenalist'sbelief abo ut his own case will fill an analogous role to the belief of the inter-actionist when it comes to the scientific inference to other minds. The epi-phenomenalist will find the best explanation of the behaviour of others tobe the existence of inner states causally responsible for that behaviour whichwill (given his beliefs abo ut causation) also cause menta l events in others (orthe phenomenal properties of these mental events) like in his own case. Sothe proffered account o f the rationality o f our beliefs concerning the mentallives of others is independent of the choice between interactionist and epi-phenomenal accounts of the mental.

In summary, the view that my clearly justified belief that other people haveminds, and that their minds are similar to mine, seems to be best accountedfor as the result o f a simple scientific inference . Such a view wou ld have ou rbelief in other minds justified by a very strong inductive argument. Thisargument seems immune to the objections commo nly made against the fam-iliar analogical inference account of our belief in other minds, and it is alsoobvious that such an argument can be extended to account for other beliefswhich we have abo ut more exotic mental lives. 7La Trobe University Received April 1983

7 This paper has benefitted from useful comments by Alec Hyslop, J. J. C. Smart, and, inparticular, Frank Jackson.

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