Running head: WESTERN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY DYADS

Western Washington University Dyads: Hand Touches and Hand-Plus Touches

Cassandra Chrisman

Western Washington University

Western Washington University Dyads: Hand Touches and Hand-Plus Touches

Research on touching between dyads had a slow start in the field of social psychology. It

was not until Nancy Henley’s research in 1973 that set the stage for a multitude of research and

work done on touching between dyads. Although one of Henley’s main findings was based on

status and power between men and women and socioeconomic status, many more findings have

emerged to help build on the foundation of touching (Henley, 1973).

One of the main questions surrounding the construction of this study, was whether or not

gender plays a role in touching behaviors among people. While most studies only focus on mixed

gender dyads (DiBiase & Gunnoe, 2004), same gender touching dyads are important to help

expand on this growing field of research. Greetings are a common form of communication

between people (Major, Schmidlin, & Williams, 1990). Not only do mixed gender dyads greet

each other with touches, as do same gender dyads. This important aspect of researching touching

behaviors is why both types of dyads should be represented.

Social setting is another important component which plays a part in the touching behavior

between individuals (Willis & Dodds, 1998). DiBiase and Gunnoe (2004) conducted a study in a

night club, which has many confounding variables. Included in these are the possibilities of

alcohol consumption as well as an observer who looks obvious staring at people holding a

clipboard in a dance club. To reduce as many variables as possible, a public social setting is ideal

for observing touches between dyads when not focusing on relationship.

In Stier and Hall’s (1984) review of articles, many differences between mixed gender and

same gender dyads were listed. Among them, female dyads were commonly more involved in all

types of touching over male dyads (Stier & Hall, 1984). However, touching behavior between

mixed-gender dyads occurs more often than touching between same-gender dyads (Hall &

Veccia, 1990).

In this study, it was hypothesized that female to female dyads engage in more touching

behaviors than male to male dyads. It was also hypothesized that mixed gender dyads will

engage in touching behavior more than same gender dyads.

Method

Participants

Among the 436 participants observed at Western Washington University in the study,

185 were males and 251 were females. The total number of dyads observed was 218 with 40

being male to male dyads, 117 being female to male dyads, and 61 being female to female dyads.

Although the age was not recorded, the estimated age of the participants was between 18 and 30

years. The mean age for females was 23, while the mean age for males was 20 years. Subjects

were observed in five locations around WWU’s campus. The sampling techniques were not a

representative sample, but were a convenience sample because the results could only be

representative of the Western Washington University population. All of the participants observed

during the study were not informed of their participation. All observers were certified by the

National Institutes of Health and observed all participants while following the moral standards as

put in place by the NIH.

During observation, a number-two pencil and a data sheet were used to record the

number of hand touches between dyads. On the printed data sheet were five columns to record

the information. The columns were labeled dyad number, gender, social setting, hand touch, and

hand-plus touch. In the “Dyad Number” column were ten spaces to record ten dyads. The

stopwatch on a cellular phone was used to time two minutes for each touching dyad. To help

look inconspicuous, textbooks and papers were placed around the observers’ area. Each observer

dressed like WWU students by wearing college apparel and baseball caps to help blend in.

Procedure

Our Psychology 301 class recorded touching behavior between same gender and mixed

gender dyads in various social settings at Western Washington University. The social settings,

defined as places where individuals have the opportunity to interact, were decided upon by the

lab class. These settings included the fountain area in Red Square, the Skybridge in Haggard

Hall, the Viking Union bus stop, the Atrium Café dining area, and the Underground

Coffeehouse. Out of the 46 researchers in our class, we decided who went to each location by

signing up for one of the specific locations each wanted to go to. There were approximately four

to five researchers at each of the five social settings. Observations took place between 11:30-

1:00 p.m. and 3:30-5:00 p.m. All data collected in the later observation time were thrown out due

to lack of data because it was during the end of the day when there were few people on campus.

The weather outside during the 11:30-1 p.m. time period was partly sunny.

Hand touches (touching an individual using one or both hands on part of the body of

another individual) and hand-plus touches (touching an individual using one or both hands along

with touching another body part) were recorded between the dyads by the observer. Assigning

gender was based on physical appearance of that individual. Male participants were coded as a

“0”, while female participants were coded as a “1”. Dyads were chosen at random by the

observer and after a touch was initiated between a dyad, the observer recorded touches for a

period of two minutes total. To further support the research, observers recorded dyads of mixed

gender as well as same gender dyads.

Fountain area in Red Square. Observers located in social setting number one obtained a

considerable amount of information in a shorter amount of time than at any other social setting.

This was because it was located at the center of Western Washington University’s main campus

area and the population was rather consistent. Unlike the four other social settings, it was rather

easy to not look like researchers conducting a study because there were so many students in the

area. As with many of the other social settings, ten minutes before the hour, people passing

through the location increased. Out of the 60 observed dyads, 12 were male to male and 12 were

female to female. Between female to male dyads that were observed touching, the total number

was an overwhelming 36 pairs.

Skybridge in Haggard Hall. At social setting number two, four observers were spread out

around the location. Due to the fact that the weather outside was partly sunny, the students that

remained inside were generally focused on studying and not socializing. During the observation,

the researchers were located in various areas as to be able to see the people all around them. The

busiest times during the observation were ten minutes prior to a new hour because of people

coming and going from class. Many people seemed to be working in groups from classes rather

than being there to socialize with better acquaintances because they were in the library. The

groups were not necessarily people who knew each other and touched each other on a regular

basis. This added to the problem of obtaining data because touches were few and far between.

Between the four observers in the Skybridge, the total number of male to male dyads was seven,

female to male dyads totaled eighteen, and the total number of female to female dyads was

fifteen.

Every dyad observed did not last the full two minutes because people were coming and

going most of the time. Most of the people observed, touched at the beginning as if it was their

acknowledgement and then did not touch again for the remainder of the meeting. There were

three large groups that did not move during the entire duration of the observation period, which

took up more space for “touching” dyads.

People that were located around the observers for extended amounts of time seemed to

“notice” the observer staring even if it was not directly at them. Due to the fact that the observers

were all Western students observing fellow Western students, friends of some of the observers

would engage in conversation while they were observing. These people were not included in the

data if they engaged in touching behavior because one could not know whether they knew if the

study was going on.

Viking Union bus stop. While in the area of the bus stop outside of the Viking Union,

observers blended in by appearing to be fellow bus riders or just students hanging out in the area.

Along with being around the bus stop, students walking to and from the Viking Commons dining

hall and around the corner walking through Vendor’s Row, were also observed. With the weather

being fairly sunny, students waited outside for the buses to come which allowed the observers to

see more students than if the weather had been worse.

Among the fifty dyads that were observed at the Viking Union bus stop area, 8 were male

to male, 26 were female to male, and 16 were female to female. While there were many people at

or around the bus stop, it was difficult for researchers to observe touching dyads because they

were either standing alone, or the bus would come and take students, leaving few to observe. As

with the Skybridge, it was difficult to observe dyads for the full two minutes because they would

leave the observers field of view before the full two minutes had ended.

Atrium Café dining area. During lunch hours, the dining area as well as the market in

social setting four tended to get over populated with students. Observers located at this social

setting placed themselves throughout the area to help detect more touching dyads. To help obtain

more data, researchers took turns walking around the market recording dyads that were touching

while getting food. Five male to male dyads were observed touching while three female to

female dyads were observed touching. In contrast, twelve female to male dyads were observed

engaging in a touching behavior out of the twenty total dyads observed in the Atrium Café.

Underground Coffeehouse. Social setting number five was a coffeehouse filled with

mismatched couches and study tables with recliner chairs. The common atmosphere at the

Underground Coffeehouse is commonly relaxed and quiet. Due to the fact that the study

occurred between the time of 11:30 a.m. and 1 p.m., the location was rather unpopulated with

participants let alone, touching participants. Most of the hand touches and hand-plus touches that

were recorded were high-fives that took place near the entrance and exit. If the observation had

taken place later in the evening possibly on a Friday or Saturday, more touching dyads would

have most likely been observed. A total number of forty eight dyads were observed though; eight

male to male dyads, twenty-five female to male dyads, and fifteen female to female dyads.

Results

Of the 218 dyads observed, males engaged in hand touches more than females collapsed

across all settings (Males M = 0.85, SD = 1.13; Females M = 0.84, SD = 1.24; see Figures 1 and

2). Overall, the mean hand-plus touch for females was more than the mean hand-plus touch for

males across all settings (Females M = 0.55, SD = 0.80; Males M = 0.49, SD = 0.75; see Figure

2).

The data collected around the fountain in Red Square (Social Setting 1) and the

Underground Coffeehouse (Social Setting 5) was more substantial than the other three social

settings. Females in Red Square hand touched on average more than males (Females M = 0.98,

SD = 1.37; Males M = 0.82, SD = 0.97; see Figures 3 and 4). In contrast, the male mean hand-

plus touch was 0.67, which was more than the female mean hand-plus touch of 0.55 (see Figures

5 and 6).

The mean hand touch for males at the Underground Coffeehouse was 1.41 with a

standard deviation score of 1.72 (see Figure 7). This mean was substantially higher than the hand

touches by females at the same location (M = 0.91, SD = 1.74; see Figure 8). At the

Underground Coffeehouse, females hand-plus touched on average more than males (Females M

= 0.62, SD = 0.97; Males M = 0.32, SD = 0.97; see Figures 9 and 10).

Female-female dyads touched on average more than male-male dyads (Female-female

dyads M = 2.90, SD = 1.44; Male-male M = 2.75, SD = 1.51; see Table 5). In contrast, male-

female dyads engaged in touching behavior more than male-male dyads, but not more than

female-female dyads (Male-female dyads M = 2.76, SD = 1.52; see Table 5).

In Red Square, male-male dyads hand touched more than female-female dyads (Male-

male dyads M = 1.17, SD = 0.96; Female-female dyads M = 0.96; SD = 1.04; see Table 6).

However, female-female dyads engaged in more hand-plus touches than male-male dyads

(Female-female dyads M = 0.79, SD = 0.66; Male-male dyads M = 0.25, SD = 0.44, see Table

6). MIXED GENDER DYADS

Male-male dyads engaged in more hand touching in the Underground Coffeehouse than

did female-female dyads (Male-male M = 1.13, SD = 0.62; Female-female dyads M = 0.53, SD

= 0.90; see Table 7). As with hand-plus touches in Red Square, female-female hand-plus touches

in the Underground Coffeehouse occurred more than male-male hand-plus touches (Female-

female dyads M = 0.53, SD = 0.78, Male-male dyads M = 0.06, SD = 0.25; see Table 7).

MIXED GENDER DYADS

Discussion

The results confirmed the first hypothesis that female-female dyads engage in more

touching behaviors on average than do male-male dyads. However, the second hypothesis was

only partially correct in that mixed gender dyads touch more than male-male dyads but not more

than female-female dyads. The differences between the mixed-gender dyads and male-male

dyads were unsubstantial though.

The findings from this study support the research from Hall and Veccia (1990) which

states that same gender female dyads touch in general more than same gender male dyads. These

results also confirm other studies’ findings. In Major, Schmidlin, and Williams (1990), their

results state that female-female dyads touch more than male-male dyads.

In both social settings, Redsquare and the Underground Coffeehouse, females initiated

hand-plus touches more than male-male dyads. This reinforces research that has shown that

females engage in more hand-plus touches than males do (Hall & Veccia, 1990).

Although in this study mixed gender dyads touched more than male-male dyads, they did

not touch as frequently as female-female dyads. This finding only partially supports research on

mixed and same gender dyads and touching behaviors. Most current research illustrates that

mixed gender dyads touch more often than same gender dyads (Hall & Veccia, 1990). This was

not the case in this study because mixed gender dyads only touched more than male-male dyads,

not female-female dyads. Along with that, the results between male-female dyads and male-male

dyads were unsubstantial. Some studies conclude that differences are larger than the differences

found in this study between same and mixed gender dyads (Major, Schmidlin, & Williams,

1990).

There are some limitations to the present study. One limitation is that observers predicted

the ages of the participants. It would have been more useful to ask participants directly their age

to insure accuracy. Another limitation to the study is the inability to apply the results to all age

groups. Due to the fact that most of the participants ranged in age from 18-30 years, the results

may not reflect all cohorts.

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics for Male Hand Touches

Mean

SD

Range

Minimum

Maximum

Red Square

.82

.965

5

0

5

Skybridge

.63

.609

2

0

2

VU Bus Stop

.74

.989

5

0

5

Atrium Cafe

.41

.503

1

0

1

Underground Coffeehouse

1.41

1.717

7

0

7

Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Male Hand-Plus Touches

Mean

SD

Range

Minimum

Maximum

Red Square

.67

.877

3

0

3

Skybridge

.16

.369

1

0

1

VU Bus Stop

.69

.780

3

0

3

Atrium Cafe

.41

.734

2

0

2

Underground Coffeehouse

.32

.610

2

0

2

Table 3 Descriptive Statistics for Female Hand Touches

Mean

SD

Range

Minimum

Maximum

Red Square

.98

1.372

7

0

7

Skybridge

.98

.863

3

0

3

VU Bus Stop

.47

.681

3

0

3

Atrium Cafe

.94

1.056

3

0

3

Underground Coffeehouse

.91

1.735

10

0

10

Table 4 Descriptive Statistics for Female Hand-Plus Touches

Mean

SD

Range

Minimum

Maximum

Red Square

.55

.769

3

0

3

Skybridge

.21

.410

1

0

1

VU Bus Stop

.79

.811

3

0

3

Atrium Cafe

.44

.856

3

0

3

Underground Coffeehouse

.62

.972

5

0

5

Table 5

Descriptive Statistics for Overall Touching Dyads

Mean

SD

Male-Male Dyads

2.75

1.505

Male-Female Dyads

2.76

1.515

Female-Female Dyads

2.90

1.440

Table 6

Descriptive Statistics for Touching Dyads in Red Square

Mean

SD

Male-Male Dyads

Hand Touches

1.17

.963

Hand-Plus Touches

.25

.442

Male-Female Dyads

Hand Touches

Hand-Plus Touches

Female-Female Dyads

Hand Touches

.96

1.042

Hand-Plus Touches

.79

.658

Table 7

Descriptive Statistics for Touching Dyads in the Underground Coffeehouse

Mean

SD

Male-Male Dyads

Hand Touches

1.13

.619

Hand-Plus Touches

.06

.250

Male-Female Dyads

Hand Touches

Hand-Plus Touches

Female-Female Dyads

Hand Touches

.53

.900

Hand-Plus Touches

.53

.776

Figure Caption

Figure 1. Differences in hand touches between males and females collapsed across five social

settings.

Figure 2. Differences in hand-plus touches between males and females collapsed across five

social settings.

Figure 3. Frequency of male hand touches in Red Square.

Figure 4. Frequency of female hand touches in Red Square.

Figure 5. Frequency of male hand-plus touches in Red Square.

Figure 6. Frequency of female hand-plus touches in Red Square.

Figure 7. Frequency of male hand touches in the Underground Coffeehouse.

Figure 8. Frequency of female hand touches in the Underground Coffeehouse.

Figure 9. Frequency of male hand-plus touches in the Underground Coffeehouse.

Figure 10. Frequency of female hand-plus touches in the Underground Coffeehouse.

References

DiBiase, R., & Gunnoe, J. (2004). Gender and culture differences in touching behavior. Journal

of Social Psychology, 144, 49-62.

Hall, J. A., & Veccia, E. M. (1990). More “touching” observations: New insights on men,

women, and interpersonal touch. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59,

1155-1162.

Henley, N. M. (1973). Status and sex: Some touching observations. Bulletin of the Psychonomic

Society, 2, 91-93.

Major, B., Schmidlin, A. N., & Williams, L. (1990). Gender patterns in social touch: The impact

of setting and age. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 634-643.

Stier, D. S., & Hall, J. A. (1984). Gender differences in touch: An empirical and theoretical

review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 440-459.

Willis, F. N., & Dodds, R. A. (1998). Age, relationship, and touch initiation. Journal of Social

Psychology, 138, 115-123.