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What is Anthropology?Unit 1
Human Diversity Anthropologists study
humans – wherever and whenever they find them◦ Rural Kenya◦ Turkish café◦ Mesopotamian tomb◦ North American shopping mall
Humans are some of the world’s most adaptable animals
Creativity, adaptability, and flexibility are basic human attributes◦ Human diversity is the
subject matter of anthropology
Human DiversityAnthropology:
study of the human species and its immediate ancestors◦ It is a uniquely
comparative and holistic science Holism: refers to the
study of the whole of the human condition: past, present, and future; biology, society, language, and culture
Human Diversity True/False:
Anthropologists study fossils and nonindustrial peoples
FALSE:◦ Examines all societies,
ancient and modern, simple and complex
◦ Constantly compares the customs of one society with others
Human Diversity Society – organized
life in groups Several animals have
societies◦ Wolves, ants, baboons
Culture is distinctly human
Culture: traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, that form and guide the beliefs and behavior of people exposed to them
Human Diversity Children learn culture
through a process called enculturation
Culture includes customs and opinions, developed over the generations, about proper and improper behavior◦ How should we do things?◦ How do we make sense of
the world?◦ How do we tell right from
wrong?◦ What is right and wrong?
Gives consistency in behavior and thought of people in a society
Human DiversityCulture is
transmitted through learning, not genetics◦ It does rest on
certain feature of human biology Ability to learn, think
symbolically, use language, employ tools and other products to organize their lives and adapt
Human Diversity Anthropology confronts and
ponders major questions of human existence as it explores human biology and cultural diversity in time and space
We are still adapting and changing as a species, both biologically and culturally
Adaptation, Variation, and ChangeAdaptation:
process by which organisms cope with environmental forces, such as those posed by climate and terrain◦ Both biological
and cultural
Adaptation, Variation and ChangeHow do humans adapt to high altitude and
oxygen deprivation?◦ Cultural: technology such as pressurized airplane
cabin with oxygen masks◦ Biological: genetic adaptation (over generations) –
larger “barrel chests” of native highlanders◦ Biological: long-term physiological adaptation
(during growth and development of the individual organism) – more efficient respiratory system to extra oxygen from “thin air”
◦ Biological – short-term physiological adaptation (occurs when an organism enters a new environment) – increased heart rate, hyperventilation
Adaptation, Variation, and Change Social and cultural
means of adaptation have become more and more important
Rate of cultural adaptation has increased in past 10,000 years
For millions of years, hunting and gathering was basis of human survival
Only took few thousand years for food production to replace foraging ◦ Food production: cultivation of
plants and domestication of animals I.E.: Farming/agriculture
Adaptation, Variation, and Change
Spread of industrial production has profoundly affected human life◦ Major innovations
spread at the expense of earlier ones
◦ Each economic revolution has social and cultural repercussions
Global economic links, larger systems (region, nation, world)
Adaptation, Variation, and ChangeGlobalization
creates new challenge for anthropology
Cultures of world peoples need to constantly rediscovered as people reinvent them in changing historical circumstances” (Marcus and Fischer 1986, p. 24)
General AnthropologyAnthropology, also called general
anthropology or “four field” anthropology contains four main subdisciplines or subfields◦ Sociocultural (also called cultural anthropology)◦ Archaeological◦ Biological◦ Linguistic
General AnthropologyWhy four subfields?
◦ Early American anthropologists wanted to know more of the history and cultures of Native Americans
◦ Brought together studies of customs, social life, language, and physical traits Still pondering where Native
Americans came from and their links between them and Asia
◦ Interest between biology and culture
General Anthropology Why is it still united?
◦ Each field considers variations in time and space
◦ Each subdiscipline influences the others Ex: Linguists may reconstruct
ancient languages by studying modern ones
Cultural anthropologists and archaeological anthropologists can exchange information to piece together how ancient societies may have lived
Biological anthropologists look at evolutionary changes that may have caused origin or tool use or language
Human nature cannot be derived from studying a single nation, society, or cultural tradition
Cultural Forces Shape Human Biology
Biocultural: combining biological and cultural approaches to a given problem
Culture is key environmental force in determining how human bodies grow and develop◦ Promote certain activities
and abilities while discouraging others
◦ Set standards of physical well-being and attractiveness
Subdisciplines of Anthropology Cultural anthropology:
comparative, cross-cultural, study of human society and culture◦ Engage in two types of
activities: Ethnography (based on
fieldwork): fieldwork in a particular cultural setting Gathers data that they
organize, describe, and interpret to build and present that account
Usually small communities Ethnology (based on cross-
cultural comparison)
Ethnography Ethnology
Requires field work to collect data
Uses data collected by a series of researchers
Often descriptive
Usually synthetic
Group/community specific
Comparative/cross-cultural
Subdisciplines of Anthropology Ethnology examines,
interprets, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnography
Compare and contrast to make generalizations about society and culture
Attempt to identify and explain cultural differences and similarities, test hypotheses, and to build theory to enhance our understanding of how social and cultural systems work
Get data from ethnography and other subfields
Subdisciplines of Anthropology
Archaeological anthropology is the study of human behavior through material remains◦ Includes tools, weapons,
camp site buildings, garbage, plant and animal remains
They analyze the data to answer questions about ancient economies and societies
Subdisciplines of AnthropologyArchaeologists
spend much of their time studying pot shards, fragments of earthenware◦ Textiles and wood are
not as durableEx: Groups with
similar pots may be historically related in some way
Subdisciplines of AthropologyMany archaeologists
examine paleoecology – looking at ecosystems of the past
Ecology is the study of interrelations among living things in an environment - ecosystems
Subdisciplines of Anthropology
Archaeologists infer cultural transformations from the ecological patterns◦ Example: observing
changes in the size and type of sites and the distance between them
Reconstruct behavior patterns and lifestyles by excavating (digging through several levels)◦ Over time settlements may
change in form as purpose
Subdisciplines of AnthropologyArchaeologists
also study cultures of historical and living peoples◦ Sunken ships off
the Florida coast◦ Looking at
contemporary life by studying garbage (Garbology)
Subdisciplines of Anthropology Biological or physical
anthropology: study of human biological variation in time and space
Five special interests within it:◦ Human evolution as revealed
by the fossil record (paleoanthropology)
◦ Human genetics◦ Human growth and
development◦ Human biological plasticity
(ability to change as it copes with stresses such as heat, cold, etc)
◦ Biology, evolution, behavior, and social life of monkeys, apes, and other nonhuman primates
Subdisciplines of Anthropology Physical anthropology linked
with zoology, biology, geology, anatomy, physiology, medicine, public health.
Osteology (study of bones) helps examine skills, teeth, etc to chart changes in anatomy over time
Paleoanthropologist is a sort of paleontologist (scientist who studies fossils) who studies fossil record of human evolution◦ Often collaborate with
archaeologists
Subdisciplines of Anthropology
Different types of tools provide info on habits, customs, lifestyles of ancestral humans
Biological anthropology also investigates the influence of environment on the body as it grows and matures
Biological anthropology also includes primatology◦ Study biology, evolution,
behavior and social life of primates – apes and monkeys
◦ Primate behavior may shed light on early human behavior and human nature
Subdisciplines of Anthropologys Linguistic anthropology:
study of language and linguistic diversity in time, space and society
May never know when out ancestors acquired the ability to speak
Some make inferences about universal features of languages linked to uniformities in human brain
Others reconstruct ancient languages
Some study linguistic differences to discover perceptions and patterns of thought in different cultures
Subdisciplines of Anthropology Historical linguists consider variations in time
◦ Ex: changes in sounds, grammar, and vocabulary between Middle and modern English
Sociolinguists investigate relationships between social and linguistic variation◦ How do different speakers use a given language?◦ How do linguistic features correlate with social factors?
Middle English vs. Modern EnglishIntroduction of the Canterbury
Tales in Middle English◦http://youtu.be/QE0MtENfOMU
Middle English opening with modern English next to it:◦http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sourc
e/CT-prolog-para.html
Anthropology and Other Academic Fields Anthropology uses holism
and its unique blend of biological, social, cultural, linguistic, historical, and contemporary perspectives to study people
Anthropology is a science – a field of study that seeks reliable explanations, with reference to the material and physical world
Also has strong links to the humanities◦ Humanities include English,
literature, classics, folklore, philosophies, and the arts
Cultural Anthropology and Sociology
Share an interest in social relations, organization, and behavior
Difference in kinds of societies each traditionally studied◦ Sociologists –
industrial West◦ Anthropologists –
nonindustrial Each needed different
forms of data collection and analysis
Cultural Anthropology and Sociology
Anthropology and sociology now starting to converge
Sociologists in more non-industrial countries and anthropologists in industrial nations
Anthropology and PsychologyPsychological anthropology studies cross-
cultural variation in psychological traitsSocieties install different values by
training children differentlyAdult personalities reflect a culture’s
child-rearing practice
Applied AnthropologyApplied
anthropology: using anthropology to solve contemporary problems◦ Public health, family
planning, business, economic development, and cultural resource management
Look at things like:◦ Implications of disease
and illness Perceptions of good and bad
health
Applied AnthropologyAlso called public
anthropology◦ Cultural resource
management◦ Contract archaeology◦ Public education◦ Historic preservation
Cultural resource management – deciding what needs saving when entire archaeological sites cannot be saved
The Scientific Method Ethnology is the
comparative science that attempts to enhance our understand of how social and cultural systems work
Theory – set of ideas formulated to explain something◦ Effective ones can be applied
to multiple cases Association – an observed
relationship between two or more variables
Theories suggest of imply multiple associations and try to explain them
The truth of a scientific statement is confirmed by repeated observations
The Scientific Method In social sciences, associations are usually stated in the form of
probability than in absolute law Theories suggest patterns, connections, and relationships that
may be confirmed by new research
Have a research question Why do some societies have long postpartum taboos?
Conduct a hypothesis Delaying martial sex reduces infant mortality when diets are low in protein
Posit a mechanism Babies get more protein when they nurse longer; nursing in not a reliable method of contraception
Get data to test your hypothesis Use a (random) sample of cross-cultural data
Devise a way of measuring Code societies when they have a postpartum taboo or one year or longer, 0 when they do not; 1 when diet is low protein, 0 when it is not
Analyze your data Notice patterns in the data, use statistical methods to evaluate the strength of associations
Draw a conclusion In most cases, the hypothesis is confirmed
Derive implications Such taboos tend to disappear when diet gets better or new reproductive technology becomes available
Contribute to a larger theory Cultural practice can have adaptive value because they can enhance the survival of offspring
The Scientific MethodIn anthropology, it does not
have to be a single research question
Often, the data collected enables them to pose and test a number of separate hypotheses about attitudes and behaviors