WHAT IS LEARNING? HOW DO WE LEARN?

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

OPERANT CONDITIONING

SOCIAL LEARNINGCOGNITIVE LEARNING

WHAT IS LEARNING? LEARNING happens when any experience brings about a relatively permanent change in behaviorNew neural connections

Conditioned = learned Behaviorism

central role in behavioral, thought, emotional patterns

Memory & learning are 2 diff’t things! 4 MAIN WAYS IN WHICH WE LEARN

LEARNING STYLESFavor a way of interacting w/, taking in, & processing stimuli

More likely to learn when take in & work w/ info in EVERY way! Audio - hearingVisual – seeing Tactile/kinesthetic – doing (mvmt)

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

=

LEARNING BY ASSOCIATIONClassical Conditioning

old response becomes attached to a new stimulus (TIMING IS KEY!!!)

Association mental connection btw 2 ‘things’ thought of 1 automatically brings up

otherStimulus

anything that provokes a response Response

the rxn to a stimulus

PRINCIPLES OF CC• NEUTRAL STIMULUS – doesn’t cause a rxn

• UCS = stimulus that elicits a natural/ unlearned response

• UCR = unlearned/natural rxn to a stimulus

• CS = originally neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a learned response

• CR = the learned rxn that the CS elicits

EXTINCTION – disappearance of the CR b/c removal of the reinforcementCR ‘dies out’

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY – CR reappears when the CS is presented again after extinction

HABITUATED - the stimuli no longer provokes a rxn

GENERALIZATION - same rxn to similar stimuli

DISCRIMINATION - respond diff’t to diff’t stimuli

PAVLOV & HIS DOGS1st identified by Ivan Pavlov in the early 1900s when conducting digestive process research on dogs

His research kept getting disrupted b/c the dogs would salivate before they saw the food

Dogs salivated just when they heard the cart in the hall or when they saw the person who usually fed them

What causes the dogs to salivate when there’s not meat present?

• Pavlov set up an experiment! Can dogs learn to produce a certain response when the ‘natural’ stimulus isn’t present?

• Dogs naturally salivate when they see meat. Meat is the UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS. –Not taught to salivate when they see meat

• Pavlov rang a bell. This was the NEUTRAL STIMULUS–Dogs don’t naturally salivate when they hear a bell

• Pavlov rang a bell & then gave the dogs meat. They salivated! The pairing of the bell (NS) & getting meat (UCS) was repeated several times.

Eventually, Pavlov just rang the bell when he had no meat. Now, the bell itself was enough to make the dogs salivate!

The bell was the CONDITIONED STIMULUSThe previous neutral bell now has meaning… an association was made!

When they salivated b/c of the bell, this was a CONDITIONED RESPONSEDogs salivated when there’s no food

They learned that the sound of the bell meant that they were going to be given meat!

WATSON, LITTLE ALBERT, & THE WHITE RAT

Babies have 3 nat’l emotional responses to stimuli - fear, rage, & love

Little Albert was taught to fear white rats… he had no natural fear of them. But he did have a natural fear of loud banging. When the white rat & the loud banging was paired together, he learned to fear both.

He was also fearful of all white furry things (cotton balls, white bath towels, kittens, etc). He had the same response w/ similar objects.

NS - ratUCS – loud bangUCR - cryingCS – rat CR – crying Assoc?

TASTE AVERSIONSAssoc. = nausea + certain food

Evolutionary

PHOBIASIrrational, intense, persistent fear of an object or situation

Danger of object or situation is exaggerated

Causes a biological response

Range of intensity

3 typesSituationsAgoraphobiaSpecific

PTSDUndergo traumaRespond to similar stimuli once out of the threatening situation

Emotional arousal, fight-or-flight rxn, dreams

HELPING PEOPLEget rid of fearful/unwanted responses to stimuli?

-- rxn + rxnSYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION – use a sequence of events to gradually reduce the unwanted response

COUNTERCONDITIONING – replacing the negative response with the expectation of pleasure

OPERANT CONDITIONING

LEARNING BY CONSEQUENCESA CERTAIN BEHAVIOR IS REINFORCED (will do it again) OR PUNISHED (won’t do it).

We don’t just react to our environ, we actively choose behavior in order to avoid punishment & gain pleasure

analyze what happens when we act a certain way

manipulate behavior to get pleasure & avoid punishment/pain.

HOW DOES THIS WORK? Change frequency of a behavior

person acts first, then learns whether that’s a wanted or unwanted behavior based on the rxn of others

behavior & its consequences. Wanted behavior is reinforcedunwanted behavior is ignored or punished

REINFORCEMENTprocess of applying a reinforcer (pleasant stimulus) to encourage a behaviori.e. giving praise, cookie, gradesIncreases behavior

Behavior that is reinforced (+ or -) is more likely to be repeated

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENTBEHAVIOR PRESENT A PLEASANT STIMULUS BEHAVIOR ENCOURAGED

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic rewardSomething that is desiredEx. candy, feeling of accomplishment, sticker, praise,

• NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

• BEHAVIOR REMOVAL OF AN UNPLEASANT STIMULUS ENCOURAGES BEHAVIOR

• Something negative, is removed after the desired behavior occurs

• Ex. Seat belt alarm, leaving amovie if it’s bad, removing a rock in shoe, turning down volume if too loud, etc.

PUNISHMENT-- consequence discourages the behavior frequency of behavior

opposite of + & -- reinforcement Behavior that is punished is less likely to be repeatedPresent an unpleasant

stimulusRemove a pleasant stimulus

EFFECTIVE CONSEQUENCESAsk what they did wrong (or right)

Take ownership Talk about why punishment is

happening… specify the behavior & why it’s wrongprevents confusion, fear, rage, etc…

Give behavior optionsPrevents sneaking around behavior

Use ‘I’ or ‘help’ languageSwitch up punishers & reinforcers

Prevents habituation

Identify & reinforce acceptable behaviors

Make sure punishment fits the crime… & don’t change your mind

Model appropriate behaviorCOMBO OF PUNISHMENT &

REINFORCEMENT!

Learning Disabilities Normal or IQ but brain’s ability to receive & process info is affected Lasts a lifetime

DyscalculiaDyslexia Dysgraphia Aud. ProcessingComorbid w/ ADD or ADHD

SOCIAL LEARNING

LEARNING BY OBSERVING, MODELING, & IMITATING

SOCIAL LEARNING Alter own behavior by observing & imitating the behavior of others

We are able to analyze events & make decisions before responding or acting

can learn w/o it ever happening to us

HOW DOES IT WORK? @ least 2 ppl watching others & deciding what to imitate/model

We want to feel a connection & approval by other ppl

BOBO DOLLS Albert Bandura thought earlier explanations of learning were oversimplified & roboticSome learning can occur by exposure & imitation alone.

Do kids who observe aggressive adult models become aggressive themselves?

Scenario #1

Scenario # 2

Scenario # 3

Scenario # 4

SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECYWHEN WE BECOME THE LABEL!!People have a tendency to act in a way that is similar to the expectations of others… high or low!

We will look for exs. in our lives that confirm the label

STEREOTYPES!!! Are labels a good or bad thing?

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATIONSystematic application of learning principles to change people’s patterns of thoughts, actions, & feelings1) Overcome -- feelings & thoughts (CC)

2) Reform prob. behaviors (Op Cond.)

3) Teach & model desired behaviors (Soc)

COGNITIVE LEARNING

LEARNING THROUGH ABSTRACT THINKING &

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE Focus on how complex knowledge is obtained, processed, organized, & used (higher thinking processes)

We can learn by just being exposed to something

Role of motivation

LATENT LEARNINGLearning that occurs but isn’t exhibited until there’s a reason or incentive to do it

Adapt through experienceDifference btw learning how to do something & actually doing it. Aware (?)

Cognitive Map: form mental images of where we’re located in the environ; dev. naturally through experiencemental picture

G(1) rats in a maze for 1 hour. G(2) rats

didn’t explore @ all Food was placed @ the end of the maze.

Which G found it the fastest?

INSIGHT Analyze the problem as a whole

recognize previously unseen relationships

Moments when… it just ‘clicks’ & you ‘just know’ what to do

KOHLER &

THE CHIMPS

WHAT’S MEMORY? Ability to input, store, retain, & retrieve info

Selective: pay attn to, think about, & store!!!

3 STAGES OF MEMORY filter, organize, & store info

Each stage of memory meets difft needs

SENSORY MEMORYHolds exact replica of each sensory experience for ¼ of a second

Subconscious: Is it worth paying attn to?

No = disappears forever; not aware of it

Yes = transferred to working memoryWORKING/SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Everything you’re conscious of; lasts 20 sec. & holds 10 ‘items’

WORKING (WM) or SHORT TERM MEMORY (STM)20 seconds & hold up to 10 itemS

Anything in your conscious mind

LONG TERM MEMORYvast storage w/ no limitsMemories that make it here last FOREVER

* When info is put into LTM, chemical and neural changes occur in the brain – making it more permanent *

MEMORIES/INFO STORED IN LTM ARE USELESS UNLESS THEY CAN BE RETRIEVED!

TYPES OF MEMORIESIMPLICIT vs. EXPLICIT

DECLARATIVE vs. PROCEDURAL

Info that unconsciously enters & affects behaviors, thoughts, &

emotions

Conscious & intentional recall of info

factual info how to do things

EPISODIC

SEMANTICPersonal facts

& experiencesGeneral facts

(memorization)

YOUR INCREDIBLE FILING SYSTEM!

systematically make connections among certain memories & info… called a SCHEMAYour understanding of something…

framework used to make sense of the world; it’s how all that stuff fits in your head.

memories stored in an organized way that help us make sense of what we know & the world around us.

make connections among info. & help to ‘block’ incorrect connections from forming.

quickly recall & use information.New info:

1) alter (attach to old info)2) reject

Confusion occurs when what we see or hear something that doesn’t ‘match’ our existing schema.

WHAT EFFECTS WHAT WE REMEMBER?

emotional stateIntense/excitable

pay attn activates chemicals

meaningful More meaningful, the easier it is to remember

UsageMaintain neural connections

biological factorsSleep deprivation, hunger, illness

sensory experienceMore senses involved = more likely to remember

10% of what we READ

20% of what we HEAR

30% of what we SEE

50% of what we SEE & HEAR

70% of what we DISCUSS

80% of what we EXPERIENCE (do)

95% of what we TEACH OTHERS

WE REMEMBER

Accuracy of MemoryBASED ON OUR PERCEPTION!!!! INACCURATE MEMORY

‘fill in the gaps’ of memory record by making up what is missing

Adopt other ppl’s memoriesRECALL

Reconstruct previously learned infoRECOGNITION

Relies directly on experience – more accurate

WHICH FACES DO YOU RECOGNIZE?

DISORDERSANTEROGRADE AMNESIAcan’t form new lasting memories after brain trauma; memory span only lasts seconds or minutes

RETROGRADE AMNESIAinability to recall past memories; but can form new lasting memories after brain trauma

LACUNAR AMNESIAloss of memory of a specific traumatic event; creates a ‘gap’ in the memory record

REPRESSED MEMORYA certain memory is tied to trauma & unavailable for recall; psych. damaging if remembered

MEMORY DISTRUST SYNDROMEsomeone is unable to trust his/her own memory; constant confusion about the major aspects of many memories

BLACKOUT PHENOMENON excessive alcohol consumption; stress; extreme emotion; creates ‘gap’ in memory record

INFANT AMNESIA lack of memories from the 1st few years of life

Why?trauma (repressed) ◦These memories are nonverbal

◦Hippocampus isn’t mature

◦Babies don’t have sense of ‘self’

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASEprogressive, terminal, no cure; break-down of memories

Cause? – deposits of protein inside & between neurons: block ability of neurons to communicate

15% of ppl developAlzheimer’s by the time they’re 75

ALZHEIMER’S BRAINS

VS.NORMAL BRAINS

DEMENTIA SYNDROMEIrreversible decline of mental functions ◦thinking, memory, logic, & reasoning: severely interferes w/ daily functioning.

changes in personality, mood, and behavior; false memories, absent memories

Cause? – disease, age, stroke, head injury, substance abuse, infection, fluid in the brain

½ of ppl 80+ have dementia

THINGS YOU CAN DO TO IMPROVE YOUR MEMORY

A good memory depends on a healthy brain. Follow good health practices – exercise, nutrition, sleep, stress

Pay close attn, to what you really want to remember. It seems too much of the time we go through life on ‘auto pilot’ or ‘cruise control’!

Rehearsal is necessary. Repeat info. you need to remember in your head at least 3 times. Practice makes a memory closer to perfect!

Minimize distractions – minimize noise & mental distractions

Use imagery & visualization techniques. Memory tends to be very vivid. As you learn info, try to visualize along with words.

Mnemonic devices. Rhymes or acronyms

Relate info. to what you already know

Expose yourself to new experiences Read & learn to keep your brain active!

Keep yourself organized! Don’t unrealistically expect yourself to remember every due date, appt., schedule, & things to do – it’s impossible! Use an agenda book! Keepa file-folder system for important papers (i.e. insurance, receipts, bank statements, medical, school, etc.) for easy retrieval