Who is This FAQ for English Research

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Who is this FAQ for?

The primary audience for this FAQ are the mainstream (i.e. non-ESL)

teachers at Frankfurt International School. For this reason some of the

answers are related to the particular situation at FIS. Some of the links (e.g.

to internal documents) will not work outside of the school's intranet.

What is the best way to learn a second language?

There is no one universally accepted theory of how a child learns a second

language. Our philosophy in the ESL department is that language is learned

not for its own sake but in order to communicate and to find out about the

world. For that reason our teaching is organized around major topics, such

as animals, ecology, inventions, culture and language, etc. Each topic

consists of linguistic tasks, and incorporates study and computer skills.

Students are exposed to written and spoken languagethat is (made)comprehensible to them, and engaged in different kinds of productive

activities.

Professor Krashen, the eminent researcher who in my opinion has the most

coherent and convincing theory of language learning, has postulated that

language is acquired, both in the language andthe mainstream classroom,

when the student is motivated by the task, feels low or zero anxiety, and

has had his or her self-esteem protected or enhanced. If such conditions

prevail, and the input is comprehensible, interesting and relevant, then there

is no filter or barrier preventing the natural acquisition of language.

More oncomprehensible input. More onlanguage learning methods. Go

toKrashen's website.

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When is the best age to learn a new language?

If you want to be able to speak without an accent, then the younger the

better. Otherwise, researchers think that early adolescence is the optimal

time. See mynewsletter articleto parents on the same topic.

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How long does it take to learn a second language?
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How long is a piece of string? It depends on what you mean by "learning a

language". Even on the assumption that this means acquiring the language

skills and vocabulary of an average native-speaking adult, there is still no

simple answer to the question, since it depends on where and how the

second language is learned, and the age at which it was started. Obviously

the language learning situation of a young Peruvian child adopted byAmerica parents is totally different from that of a middle-aged Chinese man

try to teach himself English from English novels.

The question has to be made much more specific before an answer can be

given. So for example in the FIS situation we can ask: How long will it take a

beginning ESL student at FIS to learn sufficient English to be ready to enter

the full mainstream program in middle school (i.e. exit from ESL)?And now

it is possible to answer: on average students need about three years in ESL

before they have sufficient English to function successfully and

independently in the mainstream. However some students pass through theprogram much more quickly, while others need a fourth or even fifth year of

ESL. See the answer to the next question for reasons why this should be.

For a further discussion of this point, see my PTGnewsletter article.

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What are the factors that influence the acquisition of a secondlanguage?

The speed and ease of acquisition of a second language is a complex

interplay of internal and external factors. These are outlined in some detail

in anotherarticleon this website. The information is summarized for ESL

parents in a further article entitledThe good language learner.

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How is learning a second language different from learning yourmother tongue?

The differences are due to three main factors: the age at which you learn,who teaches you and how long you have to learn.

Generally, you learn a second language a lot later than you learn the first,

and this can give you certain advantages. Firstly, it means that you already

have experience as a language learner and that you are cognitively more

mature. You also have a metalinguistic knowledge; this means for example
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that you know what a word is and what it means to make a noun plural.

Finally, you have a greater knowledge of people and the world. This helps

you to make good guesses at the meaning of the unfamiliar language you

encounter. On the other hand, the fact that you are older may mean that

you are more inhibited and less spontaneous in using the new languagefor

fear of making mistakes or appearing silly.

The most important teachers of your first language are of course your

parents and immediate family. They generally have boundless patience and

enthusiasm with your efforts to learn the language, and by intuition offer

just the right kind of input to promote optimal language learning. This

modulated language input is called motherese, a feature of which is the fact

that mistakes of fact are corrected whereas mistakes of grammar generally

are not. This all contrasts strongly with the teaching that many learners of a

second language receive in the language classroom!

As far as available time is concerned, you are learning your mother tongue

from the moment you are born (some say you start even before you are

born!) You are then exposed to language every waking second of your day

until by the age of six or seven you have mastered its essentials. That is an

awful lot of time on task, and compare it with 3 or 4 hours a week in the

typical foreign language classroom!

In summary, everyone learns their first language because they have the

best teachers and the best circumstances, the most time and the least

pressure and the greatest motivation. Learners of a second language havecertain cognitive advantages but none of the others, so it is not surprising

how few go on to be as proficient in their second language as in their first.

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What is the difference between written and spoken language?

In general spoken language is spontaneous and unplanned, irrevocable and

transient (unless tape-recorded). When speaking, the speaker and the

listener(s) are both present and the listener responds to and can interrupt

the speaker. Part of the message can be conveyed by intonation. Writing onthe other hand is often preplanned, it can be revised for content, and

checked for grammatical accuracy. It is permanent. Often the writer does

not know the reader(s) and receives no feedback. Intonation obviously plays

no part.
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It is not surprising therefore that considerable differences between the two

kinds of language in terms of word choice and word order, grammatical

accuracy and complexity. For example, spoken language tends to have more

idioms and phrasal verbs than written language (put up withvs. tolerate).

There is much more repetition in spoken language, which also abounds with

fillers such as you know,I meanetc. Spoken language rarely has long,complex or complete sentences; it consists of strings of short phrases,

backtracking and restarting or reformulating.

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What is the best way to teach a language?

Over the last 30 years there has been an intensive study of how a second

language is learned, but as yet no-one has been able to come up with a

comprehensive theory. For this reason there is also no consensus on howlanguage should be taught. (Click herefor an outline of some of the teaching

methods that have been popular over the years.) Of course, how a language

is taught depends to a large extent on the age of the learner and his reasons

for learning. It also depends heavily on the learning situation. (For example,

see the FAQ on the difference between ESL and EFL.) At FIS ESL students

need to learn English for two main purposes: social and academic. The

content of ESL teaching reflects these two main aims, but as far as

methodologies are concerned, it depends to a certain extent on

individual ESL teachers, with some following a more structured, grammatical

line and others selecting an ad-hoc task-based approach.

But ESL students do not only learn English in the ESL classroom. It is very

important that mainstream teachers realize that they too are language

teachers. Much of the advice elsewhere in these FAQs is aimed at helping

mainstream teachers maximize the language learning opportunities of the

ESL students in their classes.

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Which is more important: learning grammar or learning vocabulary?

Clearly, no-one can claim to speak a foreign language unless they have

mastery of bothits essential grammar and its essential vocabulary. But the

question here is: Should the learner focus more on acquiring grammatical

knowledge or on acquiring an extensive wordstore?
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Over the last few decades vocabulary has been neglected at the expense of

grammar in a majority of the published English language teaching courses.

This focus will probably continue in mostEFLsituations, but

inESLsituations, such as at Frankfurt International School, there is a

growing understanding of the centrality of vocabulary. Certainly, to achieve

academic success the ESL student, like all students, must be able to readquickly and with comprehension. A large vocabulary is a necessary condition

of efficient reading.

It is true that a mastery of basic grammar is also a necessary condition of

academic success in an ESL situation. To a large extent, however, grammar

acquisition in such situations can take place without much directed learning

or teaching. It is clear, therefore, that ESL students need to focus on the

explicit learning of the large amount of vocabulary that they need to do well

in their subject classes, particularly academic vocabulary. So for them,

learning vocabulary is more important than learning grammar.

Following are citations from research literature that support the above claim:

".. vocabulary is perhaps themost important component in L2 ability."

(Folse)

"While without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary

nothing can be conveyeyed." (Wilkins)

"Research has shown .. that a lack of vocabulary knowledge is the largest

obstacle for second-language readers to overcome." (Huckin and Bloch)

"Nonnative speakers must have good reading skills if they expect to have

any chance of academic success. Numerous researchers have shown the

relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading ability." (Folse)

References:

Folse, K.2004. Vocabulary Myths: Applying second language research

to classroom teaching.University of Michigan Press.




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Top

Is English an easy language?

There's a whole section of this website devoted to my hypothesis

thatEnglish is not the easy language that some hold it to be. The questionhas a certain theoretical interest, and it seems that judged by most objective

criteria, English is placed at the lower end of the scale of difficulty. (One

objective criterion is a simple count of the number of verb inflections:

English has a maximum of 5 - speak, speaks, spoke, spoken, speaking,

whereas a language like Turkish has dozens of forms.) My position is that

the objective simplicity of English - another example is that neither the

articles nor the adjectives are inflected, as they are in German - in fact

masks a grammar system of extreme complexity.

In an important sense, however, the question is irrelevant. Depending on amultitude of factors, some learners find English relatively easy while others

find it very difficult. The key is to try and analyze which aspects of English

are difficult for the individual learner, and why, and then work out how best

to overcome these difficulties.

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Why do some ESL students learn much more quickly than others?

There are a number of reasons why some students learn English a lot more

quickly than others. The first language is obviously a major factor here. It is

clearly easier for a Dutch or German child to learn English than a child from

Japan or China. Also, as children learn new languages they generally find

each successive one easier to master since they bring with them a great deal

of implicit knowledge of how to learn languages. So a Dutch child who has

already learned some French and German will probably find learning English

does not present very much difficulty at all.

Another factor influencing second language development is the childs

attitude to the target language and culture. The situation at FIS is a little

complicated as the new ESL student is exposed to 2 new cultures at thesame time - the culture of Germany, the host country, and the culture of our

school, which is dominated by Anglo-American practices. A child who is

unhappy about being in Germany, or uncomfortable in his new school will

probably learn English more slowly than a child for whom the move is no

problem. A related factor is the attitude of the child to his new teachers and

the classroom environment. Learning does not take place very easily where
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there is antipathy between the ESL student and the teacher or the other

students in the class. Another influence on the speed at which a child learns

a second language is self esteem, and linked to this, a lack of fear of taking

risks or making mistakes. Confident students who are not afraid of being

wrong have a language learning advantage over the fearful and timid.

Personality is another factor: a motivated, hard-working student willgenerally do better than someone with opposite characteristics.

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I have a student who speaks perfect English, yet is struggling badly

with reading and writing assignments. Why is this?

Some students, especially those with native languages similar to English,

can quickly acquire the interpersonal language skills of speaking and

listening. Research has shown however that it can take more than 5 yearsbefore the non-native speaker is operating at the same level of academic

language competence as his or her native English speaking peers. It can

take an especially long time for those students to catch up academically

whose main priority in learning English is to make friends and feel

comfortable in the school. When they have sufficient English to do this, they

may consciously or sub-consciously decide that they have learned all there is

to learn, and "switch off."

Professor J. Cummins hasmore informationon the different kinds of

language proficiency.

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Does it confuse ESL students that they have to learn English and

German at the same time?

In general it does not confuse them. There is research which suggests that

the brain can acquire and store two languages at the same time with no

problems except the occasional switching of words. In fact there are

compelling reasons why even beginning learners of English should also take

German at our school. Firstly, it is most important that they learn thelanguage of the host country so that they can make friends in their

neighbourhood and make the most of their shopping and other social or

sporting experiences. Children who feel alienated from Germany because

they do not know any language are more likely to be unhappy and

unsuccessful in school.
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Secondly, it is very important for ESL students to have at least one subject

in school in which the native English speakers do not have the special

advantage that their command of English bestows. Provided the teacher

speaks German most of the time in the German lesson, ESL students have

an equal opportunity to be successful. This is good for their self esteem and

has a positive effect on their learning of other subjects too.

More information on bilingualism.

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What should I know about the vocabulary of my subject?

Generally speaking, each discipline (mathematics, the sciences, the

humanities etc.) uses three different kinds of vocabulary, two of which are

shared by all disciplines, and the other specific to that discipline only.Examples of subject-specific vocabulary

are: hypotenuse(maths), convection(science), colonialism(history), glaciati

on(geography), inside-trading(economics). In many ways, subject-specific

vocabulary is not a problem for ESL students. the words will probably be

new to native-speakers too, and the teacher will usually spend some time

explaining, and often, testing the meanings of such words.

Also relatively unproblematic for ESL students is the cross-discipline,

everyday vocabulary that consists of the most common words of the

language - the words we use and hear again and again. Typically these are

short words with concrete meanings and direct relevance to the daily

experiences of our students.

Much more problematic is the vocabulary which is also cross-discipline but

which is restricted to academic texts. This vocabulary has been called semi-

technicaland it includes word such as simultaneous, consequence, whereby,

outcome, gradual, etc. Elsewhere on this website, there is a page of more

detailed information aboutsemi-technical vocabularyand how mainstream

teachers can faciliate the learning of vocabulary in their subjects.

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What is the difference between ESL and EFL?

At Frankfurt International School we have an ESL (English as a second

language) programme because English is the language of instruction for all

lessons. Students at our school are exposed to English all day in what they
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hear and read; they must also speak and write English in all their lessons. In

such situations a large amount of grammar and vocabulary is acquired

naturally in regular classes such as science or drama.

Students learning EFL (English as a foreign language) may have one lesson

of English per day, but the rest of their lessons are in their native language -e.g. a German student learning English at a German school. The acquistion

of English takes place only in the single English lesson.

In an ESL situation such as ours it is vital that all teachers regard

themselves not only as teachers of their subject but also as teachers of

language. An ESL students language development is influenced considerably

by the language learning experiences that he or she has in the mainstream

classroom.

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Where can I find more information about second language learning?

I have a number of books and articles in my room with more detailed

information on all the topics treated on this page. Please see me if you

would like abibliographyof what is available. I also have a bibliography of

what is available in the library on this topic.

If you have any other questions about learning languages, send me an e-

mail. I will either reply direct or include the question and answer in this

page.

The most important advice

There is a great dealof information for mainstream teachers in this section

of the website. In my opinion, however, the advice can be summarized in

just three words:

* Make it comprehensible! *

The term comprehensible inputwas first used more than 20 years ago by

Professor Stephen Krashen, a researcher into language acquisition. He

postulated that a sufficient condition of learning a language is to receive

input that is appropriate to the current level of language competence. In the

case of a young child learning its own language, this will be predominantly
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spoken input from parents and siblings. In the case of second language

learners, this input can come from a variety of sources and can be both

spoken and written. Byappropriate to the current level of language

competenceKrashen means that the input should be pitched so that it

slightly stretchesthe learner - being neither too easy nor too difficult.

(Krashen calls this level i + 1.)

If the mainstreamteacher can shape the input that each of the ESL

learnersreceive at this i + 1level - by modulation of the written and spoken

languageto which students are exposed, through appropriate classroom

organization and careful choice of activities and tasks - then she is creating

the most favourable conditions for her students, not only to learn English but

also to learn the subject content as well. (This is on the assumption that the

cognitive challenge of the activities is also at i + 1level - or in what

Vygotsky called thezone of proximal development. Krashen has recently

stressed the need for the tasks to be interesting and relevant as well ascomprehensible.)

Much of the advice elsewhere on this teachers' site is focused on what the

mainstream teacher should know and do in order to achieve this goal of task

comprehensibility, interest and relevance.

And finally, another thought which I believe is crucial in ensuring that ESL

students can derive the maximum benefit from each class they attend:

* All teachers are language teachers! *

Questions about learning a language 2

There are many other students of my child's nationality in her

classes. Won't this stop her learning English quickly?

It would be difficult to find any international schoolwhere your child is the

only speaker of her language. And in such a school she may well feelisolated and unhappy. In fact there are important advantages for having

students in your daughter's classes who speak the same language as her.

Firstly, concentrating on English for up to 2 hours at a time in lessons is a

hard and stressful task, and your daughter will be more able to do so if she

has had the chance to someone to talk to and relax with her same-language

friends at break and lunch times. Secondly, if your daughter fails to

understand something in class, particularly if she is a beginner, someone


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with the same language will be able to explain it to her. Or maybe she will

be the one who can explain to someone whose English is not as good as

hers. In this case, by explaining, she will be deepening her own

understanding of the topic and practising how to say it in her own language.

Thirdly, if your daughter has understood something in her own language,

she will be able to understand more of what the teacher says or of what shehas to read in English. And so, in fact, her English may well get better more

quickly if there are other students of the same nationality in her classes.

My child speaks English fluently but has a lot of problems in hersubject classes. Why is this?

It is not uncommon for students to speak English as fluently and accurately

as a native speaker, but to struggle with the reading and

writingassignments of their subject classes. The reason why this may

happen is that there are, according to current theories*, two different kindsof language proficiency.

Firstly, there are the basic interpersonal communication skills(BICS) of

listening and speaking which are typically acquired quickly by many

students; particularly by those from language backgrounds similar to

English, who spend a lot of their time interacting with native speakers.

Researchers* have found that it can take as little as two years to develop

native speaker fluency in the target language.

Secondly, we have what is known as cognitive academic languageproficiency (CALP). As the name suggests, this is the basis for a childs

ability to cope with the academic demands placed upon her in the

various school subjects. As I mentioned in the last newsletter, it can take

between 5-7 years for a child to be working at the same level as native

speaking peers as far as academic Englishis concerned. An important

reason why it takes so long is that a large and specialized vocabulary must

be acquired. While it is relatively easy to learn the words used in everyday

communication, the type of vocabulary needed to understand the more

difficult academic language of the classroom is much harder to acquire. For

example, everyday words suchas lesson, homework, vacation,meet, cafeteriaare more easily learned than

abstract and academic ones such

asrate, democracy, separate, doubt, evaluateetc.

This means that it is quite normal for an ESL studentwho sounds like a

native speaker to still be a long way from having the academic language

proficiency she needs for the classroom.


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* For a good summary of the research, see The Acquisition of English as a

Second Language, Cummins J (1994) In: Reading Instruction for ESL

StudentsSpangenberg-Urbschat, K and Pritchard, R, International Reading

Association.

What is the best way to learn a foreign language?

The fact that there are dozens of differentlanguage learning methods,each

with its own supporters, makes it clear that there is no simple answer to this

question. It depends very much on the learner and why he wants to learn.

An extrovert will be probably learn better with a method that involves lots of

role plays and participation in unstructured discussions, whereas a quieter,

more reflective person may prefer written exercises with plenty of

grammatical explanations. Someone who is only interested in being able to

communicate well enough on holiday in the foreign country will require a

different method of learning than another person who wants to study at aforeign university. For the general language learner an eclectic mix of

several different methods is often the best approach.

In fact, however, method is usually not the most important factor in whether

someone will learn a foreign language or not. A key issue is motivation. If

you have a good enough reason for learning; if you want or need to learn it

badly enough, you will probably be successful.

The good language learner

There has been a lot of researchin recent years into what makes a

good language learner. Here is a brief summary of the latest theories:

The good language learnerthinks about how she is learning. Shetries to find out what works for her and what doesn't. If she doesn'tunderstand the purpose of a particular exercise, she asks the teacher.

The good language learneris willing to experiment and take risks.For example, she will try out different ways of learning vocabulary

until she finds the way that suits her best. She is also not afraid of

making mistakes, because she knows that these will help her.

The good language learneris realistic. She knows that it will taketime and effort to become proficient in English, and that there will

periods where she does not seem to be making much progress.

The good language learneris independent. She does not expectto learn Englishjust by sitting in the classroom, and does not rely on

the teacher to totally direct her learning.
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The good language learneris organised and active. She uses hertime to learn English sensibly, and is always looking for

opportunitiesto develop her language both inside and outside of the

classroom.

The good language learnerhas a balancedconcern forcommunication and accuracy. Some studentsare experts at

communicating their thoughts but do not care that they make many

mistakes in doing so. The good language learner, on the other hand, isconcerned with both communicating and doing so as accurately as

possible.

Although these are the qualities that have been found in the most efficient

language learners, there are still manyother factorsthat influence howquickly a child will learn English.

"The good language learneris realistic. She knows that it will take time and effort to become proficient in English, andthat there will periods where she does not seem to be making much progress."

Language teaching methodolgies

Listed below are brief summaries of some of the more popular second language teachingmethods of the last

half century. For a more detailed analysis of the different methods, seeApproaches and Methods inLanguage

TeachingRichards, J. and Rodgers, T (1986) CUP Cambridge.

The Direct Method

In this method the teaching is done entirely in the target language. The

learner is not allowed to use his or her mother tongue. Grammar rules are

avoided and there is emphasis on good pronunciation. [More]

Grammar-translation

Learning is largely by translation to and from the target language. Grammar

rules are to be memorized and long lists of vocabulary learned by heart.

There is little or no emphasis placed on developing oral ability. [More]
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Audio-lingual

The theory behind this method is that learning a language means acquiring

habits. There is much practice of dialogues of every situations. New

languageis first heard and extensively drilled before being seen in its

written form. [More]

The structural approach

This method sees language as a complex of grammatical rules which are to

be learned one at a time in a set order. So for example the verb "to be" is

introduced and practised before the present continuous tense which uses "to

be" as an auxiliary.

Suggestopedia

The theory underlying this method is that a language can be acquired only

when the learner is receptive and has no mental blocks. By various methods

it is suggested to the student that the language is easy - and in this way the

mental blocks to learning are removed. [More]

Total Physical Response (TPR)

TPR works by having the learner respond to simple commands such as

"Stand up", "Close your book", "Go to the window and open it." The method

stresses the importance of aural comprehension. [More]

Communicative language teaching (CLT)

The focus of this method is to enable the learner to communicate effectively

and appropriately in the various situations she would be likely to find herself

in. The content of CLT courses are functions such as inviting, suggesting,

complaining or notions such as the expression of time, quantity, location.

[More]

The Silent Way

This is so called because the aim of the teacher is to say as little as possible

in order that the learner can be in control of what he wants to say. No use is

made of the mother tongue. [More]

Community Language Learning
http://www.eltnet.com.tw/teaching/smc/lt/audling.htmlhttp://www.eltnet.com.tw/teaching/smc/lt/audling.htmlhttp://www.fidalgo.net/~indigo/articles.htmhttp://www.tpr-world.com/http://www.tpr-world.com/http://www.tpr-world.com/http://www.salsem.ac.at/csacl/progs/disted/sandt/basic%2520CL.htmhttp://www.salsem.ac.at/csacl/progs/disted/sandt/basic%2520CL.htmhttp://www.class.udg.mx/~jpint/sw.htmhttp://www.class.udg.mx/~jpint/sw.htmhttp://www.salsem.ac.at/csacl/progs/disted/sandt/basic%2520CL.htmhttp://www.tpr-world.com/http://www.fidalgo.net/~indigo/articles.htmhttp://www.eltnet.com.tw/teaching/smc/lt/audling.html


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In this method attempts are made to build strong personal links between the

teacher and student so that there are no blocks to learning. There is much

talk in the mother tongue which is translated by the teacher for repetition by

the student. [More]

Immersion

This corresponds to a great extent to the situation we have at our

school. ESL studentsare immersed in the English languagefor the whole of

the school day and expected to learn math, science, humanities etc. through

the medium of the target language, English.

Immigrant students who attend local schools find themselves in an

immersion situation; for example refugee childrenfrom Bosnia

attending German schools, or Puerto Ricans in American schools. Click here

for many links to information aboutbilingual/immersion programs.

Task-based language learning

The focus of the teaching is on the completion of a task which in itself is

interesting to the learners. Learners use the language they already have to

complete the task and there is little correction of errors.

(This is the predominant method in middle school ESL teaching at Frankfurt

International School. The tasks are subsumed in a major topic that is studied

for a number of weeks. In the topic of ecology, for example, students are

engaged in a number of tasks culminating in a poster presentation to the

rest of the class. The tasks include reading, searching the internet, listening

to taped material, selecting important vocabulary to teach other students

etc.)

The Natural Approach

This approach, propounded by Professor S. Krashen, stresses the similarities

between learning the first and second languages. There is no correction of

mistakes. Learning takes place by the students being exposed to language

that is comprehensible or made comprehensible to them. [More]

The Lexical Syllabus

This approach is based on a computer analysis of language which identifies

the most common (and hence most useful) words in the language and their
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various uses. The syllabus teaches these words in broadly the order of their

frequency, and great emphasis is placed on the use of authentic materials.

Future time

This months article deals with thefuture tense, which in my opinion is oneof the most difficult aspects of English for the non-native speaker. In fact it

is a little misleading to speak of the future tense, because English does not

have one. At least, it doesnt have one in the sense of having a future tense

form, as in French for example:je joue(I play) -je jouerai (I will play).

Instead, the user of English has to choose between several possible ways of

referring to the future and each of them has a different meaning. Look at the

following examples:

Im playing Implaying golfwith my boss after work next Tuesday.

Im going to

play

Im going to play golf at least once a week this year - I want

to get fit.

Ill play (I will

play)

I think Ill play golf after work tomorrow.

I shall play I shall play golf - nobody is going to stop me.

I might play I might play golf tomorrow - it depends on the weather.

I played If I played golf tomorrow, Id probably break my back - Im so

unfit!

I will be

playing

At this time next week Ill be playing golf on thefirst dayof

my vacation.

I will have

played

At the end of my vacation I will have played enough golf to

last all year.

I will have

been playing

By the time Im 75 I will have been playing golf for half a

century.

I play I have a busy schedule next week: on Tuesday I arrive

in New York, on Wednesday I play golf with the Marketing

Manager..

Go to anexplanation of these future forms, and further examples.

Native English speakersintuitively choose the most appropriate way to

express themselves about the future, although few are aware of the rules

governing their choice. For the non-native speaker, however, this is a major

difficulty.
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Exercise 1

As a short test, imagine you are talking with your English colleagues in the

office. Someone asks you what you are going to have for lunch. How would

you respond?

I think Im going to have fish for a change. I think Ill have fish for a change. I think Im having fish for a change.

A little later you see a colleague you havent talked to for a while and

suggest having lunch together. What would you say?

Im going to have fish for lunch today. Would you like to join me? Ill have fish for lunch today. Would you like to join me? Im having fish for lunch today. Wouldyou like to join me?

Just after this you see your boss. What do you tell him?

Im going to have lunch with Mike today. I might be back a little late. Ill have lunch with Mike today. I might be back a little late. Im having lunch with Mike today. I mightbe back a little late.

See Answers

Exercise 2

Now try and supply the most appropriate form of the future in the following

sentence. (In some cases there may be more than one possible answer.)

Example: I (kill) you if you do that again!

Answer: Ill kill you if you do that again!

1. John (get married) next month.

2. Did you pass your test? - Im not sure. I (know) tomorrow.

3. I (call) Jane later and ask her to come to my party.

Dont phone her at between 6 and 7 oclock. She (have) a bath.

OK! I (ring) her tomorrow morning.
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4. My plane (leave) Frankfurt at 10.30 and I (arrive) in new York at

midnight.

5. Did you know your CD player is broken?

Oh, is it? I (have) it repaired tomorrow.


Yes, I (have) it repaired tomorrow.

7. This white bread tastes horrible. OK. I (buy) brown bread from now on.

8. Anne says she (buy) brown bread from now on.

9. you (come) to the dance on Friday? Yes, and I (dance) all night.

10. I (give) drive you to work tomorrowif you like.

Thanks, but Peter (take) me.

11. Oh dear, the batteries in my Walkman are flat. I (buy) some in town

tomorrow.

Theres no need. I (see) my brother this evening. Im sure he (lend)

you some.

12. Im really looking forward to my holiday. At this time next week I (lie) on

the beach in the sun (read) a good book.

13. I (buy) a new camera when Im in Japan next week, but Im not sure

yet.

14. I (meet) my mother at the airport tomorrow.

Answers

Exercise 1 Answers

Someone asks you what you are going to have for lunch. How would you

respond (1)?
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I think Im going to have fish for a change. I think Ill have fish for a change. I think Im having fish for a change.

The most likely answer is I think Ill have fish for a change, since the

speaker is making a spontaneous remark about the future. I think Im goingto have fish for a change is possible, but I think Im having fish for a change

is incorrect since it does not refer to an arrangement.

A little later you see a colleague you havent talked to for a while and

suggest having lunch together. What would you say?

Im going to have fish for lunch today. Would you like to join me?

Ill have fish for lunch today. Would you like to join me? Im having fish for lunch today. Would you like to join me?

The most usual here would be Im going to have fish for lunch today since

the "going to" form expresses an intention. The answer Im having fish for

lunch today.is also possible but far less likely; whereas Ill have fish for

lunch todaysounds very odd.

Just after this you see your boss. What do you tell him?

Im going to have lunch with Mike today. I might be back a little late. Ill have lunch with Mike today. I might be back a little late. Im having lunch with Mike today. I might be back a little late.

The most likely choice is answer Im having lunch with Mike todaysince this

form (the present continuous) is most often chosen to express an

arrangement. The answer Im going to have lunch with Mike todayis OK too,

but again the future form with "will" Ill have lunch with Mike todaysounds

very strange.

Back to article

Exercise 2 Answers

1.John is getting married next month.
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Marriage is clearly an arrangement and so the present continuous form is

used.

2. Did you pass your test? - Im not sure. Ill know tomorrow.

This is the pure future, with no expression of arrangement or intention.

3. Im going to call Jane later and ask her to come to my party.

The "going to" form expresses a plan or intention.

Dont phone her at between 6 and 7 oclock. Shell be having a bath.

This form is used when we want to indicate that the future event will be of a

certain duration

OK! Ill ring her tomorrow morning.

The will form is used here because the reference to the future is

spontaneous - i.e. there is no prior intention or arrangement, and the

statement is made at the moment of decision.

4. My plane leaves Frankfurt at 10.30 and I arrive in new York at midnight.

The present simple form is used when the future event is determined by a

schedule outside of the speaker's control.


Oh, is it? Ill have it repaired tomorrow.

As in nr. 3 above, the will form is used here because the reference to the

future is spontaneous - i.e. there is no prior intention or arrangement.


Yes, Im going to have it repaired tomorrow.

In this case the intention to have the CD player repaired already exists and

so the "going to" form is used.

7. This white bread tastes horrible. OK. Ill buy brown bread from now on.


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This is another example of the use of will for spontaneous references to the

future.

8.Anne says shes going to buy brown bread from now on.

The speaker knows that Anne has already made the intention to buy brownbread, so the going to form is used.

9.Are you coming to the dance on Friday? Yes, and Im going to dance all

night.

The speaker assumes that her friend has arranged with others to come to

the dance, and so uses the present continuous form here. Equally possible

would be:Are you going to come to the dance on Friday?

The answer uses the going toform to express the speaker's intention.

10. Ill give drive you to work tomorrow if you like.

The speaker has probably made spontaneous offer of help (e.g. on hearing

that his friends car has broken down) and so has used the will form.

Thanks, but Peter is taking me.

The person replying has used the present continuous form because he has

already discussed and arranged with Peter the future event.

11. Oh dear, the batteries in my Walkman are flat. Ill buy some in town

tomorrow.

Its clear from the exclamationOh dear!that the speaker has just discovered

that the batteries are flat and has made a spontaneous decision to buy some

the next day.

Theres no need. Im seeing my brother this evening. Im sure hell

lend you some.

The person replying has arranged to meet his brother (hence the use of the

present continuous tense) and then uses will (hell lend.)

12. Im really looking forward to my holiday. At this time next week I will be

lying on the beach in the sun reading a good book.


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The future continuous is used because the speaker wants to emphasize what

will be happening at a certain time in the future.

13. I might buy a new camera when Im in Japan next week, but Im not

sure yet.

Might is used to express possibility. The speaker may buy a camera but it is

far from certain that he will.

14. Im meeting my mother at the airport tomorrow.

The present continuous is used for arrangements. You could say Im going to

meet my mother at the airport tomorrow, but this form gives no indication

whether or not you have discussed your imtention with your mother. Your

arrival at the airport to meet her may be a surprise for your mother!

Explanations

1. Im playing (Im playing golf with my boss after work next Tuesday.)

This form of the future (the present continuous) is used to talk about an

arrangement that has been made in discussion with another person.

Further examples:

Im meeting my mother at the airport tomorrow afternoon. Im going to the dentist next week.

From the explanation above it, follows that the statement: (I feel tired

today). Im staying at home and reading my book this evening.is incorrect

since "reading a book" is not an arrangement that has been made with

another person.

2. Im going to play (Im going to play golf at least once a week this year - I

want to get fit.

a. The future form with "going to" has several uses. The most common use

is seen in the example sentence, where it expresses a plan or intention for

the future. In this case, it would be perfectly possible to say: (I feel tired

today). Im going to stay at home and read my book this evening.

Further examples:


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Im going to buy a new car next week. Shes going to try and stop smoking after Christmas.

b. "Going to" is also used to express a prediction.

Examples:

Look at those dark clouds. I think its going to rain. Youre going to get very fat if you keep eating so much chocolate!

3. Ill play(I think Ill play golf after work tomorrow.)

a. The form of the future with will has various uses. One of its uses is when

there is NOT a prior intention or arrangement; i.e. when you make a

spontaneous reference to the future. For example someone says: My cars

broken down!and you reply Noproblem, Ill drive you home. Im going todrive you homeor Im driving you homeor I drive you home(as some

native German speakers might say) are all wrong.

Further examples:

Look! You've broken my calculator. - Oh sorry. I'll buy you a newone tomorrow.

Don't worry about buying me a new calculator. I'm sure I'll be able toborrow one from my brother.

b. The future with "will" is sometimes called the pure future and is oftenused in a statement containing a time reference.

Examples:

The sun will rise at 6.30 tomorrow. In the year 2020 the ozone hole will probably be twice its present size.

c. "Will" is also used in sentences with the words "if" or "when" or "unless".

Examples:

Ill be very disappointed if you cant come. Ill tell him when I see him. Well be late unless you hurry up!

4. I shall play (I shall play golf tomorrow - nobody is going to stop me.)


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This use of "shall" to talk about a future event implies a determination to do

something despite opposition, and is spoken with stress on the word "shall".

5. I might play (I might play golf tomorrow - it depends on the weather.)

"Might" is used to express the possibility (but not the probability) that

something will happen in the future.

Further examples:

I might lend you the money, but then again, I might not! Shes been late to work so often that she might lose her job.

6. I played (If I played golf tomorrow, Id probably break my back - Imso unfit!)

The past tense form is used to express the future, as in this case, when the

speaker wishes to imply that the future event is unlikely. This grammar form

is often called the conditional 2. Here are more examples:

What would you do if you won a lot of money? I wouldnt tell you, even if you gaveme a thousand dollars!

7. I will be playing (At this time next week Ill be playing golf on the first

day of my vacation.

This future tense form (the future continuous) is used when the speaker

states a time and says what action will be happening at that time.

Further examples:

Dont call me between 7 and 8.30. Ill be watching the football on TV. I like Germany. I hope I will still be living here when I retire.

8. I will have played (At the end of my vacation I will have played enoughgolf to last all year.)

This is the future perfect tense. It is used when the speaker wants to talk

about what will have happened by a certain time.

Further examples:


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John always leaves the house at 8 oclock, so theres no point callinghim at 8.30. He will have left by then.

Were late! The meeting will have already started by the time we getthere.

By the time I leave school I will have sat through more than 300English lessons!

9. I will have been playing (By the time Im 75 I will have been playing

golf for half a century.

This tense is called the future perfect continuous. It is quite rare and

complicated to explain. Its main use is when the speaker refers to a time in

the future and then says how long an activity will have been going on from a

time in the past up to that point.

By the time shes 65 my mother will have been working for more than50 years. (She got her first job when she was 14!)

When my grandfather turns 80 next year he will have been living inthe same house for more than 70 years.

10. I play (I have a busy schedule next week: on Tuesday I arrive in New

York, on Wednesday I play golf with the Marketing Manager ..

The present simple form is often used for the future events that are set by a

timetable or are otherwise outside of the speakers control.

Further examples:

I start my new job on Monday. Sorry, I wont be able to join you for lunch. The meeting doesnt end

until 2.30.

What time does your plane arrive in New York?

Note: The explanations given here are extremely brief and by no means

cover all the ways a speaker can refer to a future event. For a

comprehensive analysis of this very complicated aspect of English grammar I

can recommend Practical English Usageby M. Swan, Oxford University

Press.


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Modal verbs

An aspect of English that troubles many learners is the correct use of themodal verbs - must, may, can, should, ought to, might etc. The difficulties

are of two kinds - firstly, there is the difficultyof learningwhich forms of the

modal verbs are possible in the various tenses, and secondly, there is themore subtle difficulty of choosing the correct modal to express the meaning

that you want to convey.

As a taster to some of the difficulties you will find on the pages listed below,consider the following question:

The statement You might have told me, when read rather than heard, isambiguous. Which two meanings does the sentence have, and how would

the sentences be spoken so that the listenerwould have no difficulty

understanding what you meant?

Answer

You might have told mecan mean either It is possible that you told me (but

Idon't remember). Or it can mean Why didn't you tell me?- for

example, You might have told me that she's divorced. I felt such a fool when

I asked where her husband was!With the first meaning, the word mightis

usually stressed and the rest of the sentence is spoken with falling pitch.With the second meaning, each of the words in the statement receive equal

stress and the pitch remains on the same level.

In fact, there isa way that the meaning could be determined from thewritten words alone. Of course, the context would usually be enough toknow what the writer wants to say, but in addition to this, the sentence

having the second meaning would probably end with an exclamation

mark. You might have told me!

must can may/might ought to should would other modals
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Life is like a B-movie. You dont want to leave in the middle of it but you dont want to seeit again.

Ted Turner

Modal verbs - must

The following quiz questions will give you a taste of the difficulties that non-

native speakershave in learning this troublesome modal

Question 1

Correct the mistakesin the use of mustin the following sentences:

I must get up early yesterday. I will must leave early tomorrow. I hate to must get up early.

Question 2

Explain the difference in meaning in the use of mustin the following

sentences:

You must be serious. You must be crazy.

Question 3

How would you disagree with the speaker of the first of the following

sentences?

It must be a spider - No, it ............ a spider because spiders don't havetails.

She must have forgottento tell him. - No, she ............. forgotten to tellhim, otherwise he wouldn't have called.


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Question 4

What's the difference between these sentences?

She had to tell him. She must have told him

Question 5

Are all the following statements correct?

I can swimmeans I am able to swim. I cannot swimmeans I am not able to swim. I must gomeans I am obliged to go. I mustn't gomeans I am not obliged to go.

Question 6

What's the difference between the following pairs of sentences?

I must eat lessjunk food. I have to eat less junk food. You must call me when you arrive. You have to call me when you arrive.

Answers

Question 1

Mustmust be replaced by a form of its near equivalenthave toin all tenses

other than the present.

I must get up early yesterday. - I had to get up early yesterday. I will must leave early tomorrow. - I will have to leave early tomorrow. I hate to must get up early. - I hate having to get up early.


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Question 2

The sentence You must be seriousmeans I want you to be seriousor It is

important that you are serious. If it is important that you are not serious,

then I say You must not be serious.

The statement You must be crazymeans I think you are crazy. You must not

be crazydoes not mean I don't think you're crazy, it means It is important

that you are not crazy.

Question 3

The previous answer illustrated the two most common uses of must: to

express obligation or necessity, and to express probability or certainty. In

the sentences below, mustis being used in its second sense. To disagree

with the speaker or to express your own probability/certainty that somethingis not true, you must use canand not must: The correct answers are:

It must be a spider - No, it can't be a spider because spiders don't have tails. She must have forgotten to tell him. - No, she can't have forgotten to tell

him, otherwise he wouldn't have called.

So when John McEnroeshouted You cannot be serious!at the umpire, it was

a perfect expression of his certainty that the umpire was not doing his job.

Question 4

She had to tell himmeans she was obliged to tell him, whereas She must

have told himis an expression of my certainty that she told him.

Question 5

The sentence in red below is incorrect.

I can swimmeans I am able to swim. I cannot swimmeans I am not able to swim. I must gomeans I am obliged to go. I mustn't gomeans I am not obliged to go.

I mustn't gomeans I am not allowed to go or It is very important that I

don't go. To express the idea that I am not obliged to go, you must say: I

don't have to go. No wonder German speakersoften get this wrong


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since Ich muss nicht gehenmeans I don't have to go. (I am not allowed to

go = Ich darf nicht gehen.)

Question 6

The difference in the pairs of sentences below is a subtle one. If the speakeruses must, she implies that she herself believes that the action is important

and should be done. If, on the other hand, she uses have to, she implies

that the obligation has been imposed on her by someone else.

So, I must eat less junk foodimplies that the decision is mine, whereas I

have to eat less junk foodimplies that someone else (for example, my

doctor) has told me what to do. Similarly, You must call me when you

arrivesuggests that I think it is very important for you to call me, while You

have to call me when you arriveimplies that it is a regulation (for example,

of the company that you work for) that you call on arrival.

Question 7

The red sentences below are incorrect.

You want to go, don't you? You must go, don't you? You have to go, don't you? You must go, mustn't you? You have to go, haven't you?

Modal verbs - can

As a simple expression of ability or permission to do something, canis not

very difficult. For example, Can you swim?or I can use his carwhen he's on

holiday. Unlike the other modals, canalso has a past simple formcould, as

in the sentences I could walk before I was one, or I couldn't find my keysthis morning. However, couldhas other functions and is not always so easy

to use correctly. The following questions will show the complexity of this

modal for English learners!

Quiz 1

This quiz tests your ability to choose the right form of the verb in the

different tenses to express either ability or permission.

Some time in the future doctors will ...... cure cancer.


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The door was locked but I ........... get in through the window. She ........... to enter the concert even though she didn't have a ticket. I would love .............. ride a horse. I don't think I ......... go to the party. My parentsare very strict. Finally, after trying all day I ......... find exactly the dress I was looking for.

The question was very easy. It .......... be answered by everyone.

Quiz 2

What does couldmean in each of the following sentences.

Could you tell me the answer? He could tell you the answer. He could have told you the answer. This could be the answer!

Quiz 3

Why is couldneeded in the first sentences below and was able toin thesecond?

I could read by the age of four. I was able to read the reporton the way to the airport. When I was younger I could run the marathon in under 3 hours. I was able to run the Berlin marathonin less than 3 hours.

Quiz 4

Which, if any, of the following sentences is not possible? Explain the

meanings of each sentence. (Some have more than one meaning!)

He could win the race. He could have won the race. He couldn't win the race. He couldn't have won the race.

Quiz 5

Finally, a quick question. Is there anything wrong with this short dialogue?

Could I borrowyour pen, please? - Yes, you could!


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Answers

Quiz 1

Some time in the future doctors will be able to cure cancer.(couldis NOTpossible here)

The door was locked but I was able toget in through the window. (couldisjust possible here too)

She was allowed toenter the concert even though she didn't have aticket.(couldis NOT possible here)

I would love to be able toride a horse. I don't think I will be allowed togo to the party. My parents are very strict.

(canis possible here, but couldis not) Finally, after trying all day I was able tofind exactly the dress I was looking

for. (couldis NOT possible here) The question was very easy. It couldbe answered by everyone. (was able to

beis NOT possible here)

Quiz 2

What does couldmean in each of the following sentences.

Could you tell me the answer?means Will you please tell me theanswer?.Couldis very often used to make a polite request.

He could tell you the answer. This does notmean that he did in fact tell youthe answer; it means he knows enough to be able to answer your question ifyou ask him.

He could have told you the answer. This means that he had the ability toanswer your question, but he didn't (possibly because you didn't ask him!) This could be the answermeans that there is apossibilitythis is the answer.

Quiz 3

I could read by the age of four. When I was younger I could run the marathon in under 3 hours.

In the sentences above, could is used to talk about a past ability; whereas

in the sentences below was able tois needed to talk about a single

past action.

I was able to read the report on the way to the airport. I was able to run the Berlin marathon in less than 3 hours.

Quiz 4

He could win the race.


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He could have won the race. He couldn't win the race. He couldn't have won the race.

All the sentences are possible, although He couldn't win the race, standing

alone, seems unlikely. In the answer to quiz 3 above I explainedthat couldis not usually used when referring to a past action rather than apast ability. In fact, it canbe used in negative sentences or questions.

E.g. I'd lost my key, so I couldn't get in. The sentence in question is possible

in the following context: He couldn't win the race, because he had forgottento bring the right shoes(although, even here it does not sound quite right;more likely is: He didn't win ..)

For the reason explained in answer 3, He could win the racedoes not meanthat the race is over and he won it; it means that the race is in the future

and he has a chance of winning it. If you want to negate the possibility that

he will win, you do notsay He couldn't win the race, you say somethinglike He has no chance of winning.

He could have won the race. This means the race is over and he did not win.

He had a chance of winning but through bad luck or by not training hardenough etc., he did not win. It could also mean that the race is over and it is

possible that he won, but I didn't see the finish so I am not sure.

He couldn't have won the racealso has two possible meanings: Firstly, itimplies that the race is over but I do not know the result. However, I am

deducing that he did not win or expressing my doubt that he did. E.g. Hecouldn't have won the race, because I saw him fall and twist his ankle at the3-mile mark.

The second meaning is that the race is over and (I know) he did't win, but I

am saying that he had had no chance of winning. E.g He couldn't have wonthe race, even if he had had an engine on his back. (But again, this use

of couldseems a little strained. More likely is: He wouldn't have ..or He hadno chance of ..

Quiz 5

The answer Yes, you couldis possible only if the speaker is trying to befunny. The usual response to the polite question Could I ..is Yes, you

can!The answerYes, you could!, with stress on the word could, implies thecontinuation Yes, you could but I'm not going to let youor Yes you could if

you asked very nicely!etc.


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War does not determine who is right - only who is left.

Bertrand Russell

Modal verbs - may

Allow me to start with an anecdote! I remember many times as a child

asking my father Can I have an ice cream?; Can I watch television?; Can Iget down from the table?etc. Each time I was happy to hear the

answer Yes, you can!- only to be stopped short the next second by the

continuation .. but you may not!

Not many people these days reject the use of canin asking permission,

but May I ..certainly sounds politer and is therefore better in some formal

situations.

If you have looked at the pages on the other modal verbs, you may

expect mayto be quite troublesome to use correctly; and you would be right!In the previous paragraph we saw its use in asking permission, and in the

the first sentence of this paragraph we see an example of its second

common function - in expressing possibility: you may expect.. . Testyour

knowledge on mayand its associated word mightby looking at the following

quiz questions:

Quiz 1

Fill in the blanks in the following sentences. In each case you should express

the idea ofpermission to do something:

As a child I ....... go to bed when I wanted. Will I ....... take photos at the museum tomorrow? I love ........ to use my parents' carwhenever I want.


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Quiz 2

Are any of the following sentences not possible?

May I open the window, please? May you open the window, please? I may be late tomorrow. May I be late tomorrow? May you be late tomorrow? May you never be late again! May I never be late again!

Quiz 3

Why is mayused in the first sentence below, but allowed toin the second?

May I park in your driveway? Am I allowed to park here? (said to a friend in your car outside a railway

station)

Quiz 4

Are there any problems in these two sentences?

I mayn't be home till late. I mightn't be home till late.

Quiz 5

Is there a difference between these sets of two sentences?

I may be home late tonight. I might be home late tonight. The doctors told him he may lose his sight.

The doctors told him he might lose his sight.

Quiz 6

What is the difference between these two sentences?

He may not be right. He cannot be right.


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Quiz 7

What does maymean in the following sentences?

I pray that she may recover from her illness. He may be very clever, but he sometimes does stupid things. I may as well go home.

Quiz 8

What does mightmean in the following sentences?

He might ask if he can use your computer. He might ask before he uses my computer!

Quiz 9

What are the two meanings of mightin the following sentence?

He might have paid for the computer but he might have asked beforereformatting the hard disk.

Answers

Quiz 1

As a child I was allowed togo to bed when I wanted. Will I be allowed totake photos at the museum tomorrow? I love being allowed touse my parents' car whenever I want.

Quiz 2

May I open the window, please? - Correct!This is a polite request for permission to do something.

May you open the window, please? - Not possible.This is a request for someone else to do something. It has to

be WouldorCould you..


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I may be late tomorrow. - Correct!This means: It is possible that I will be late tomorrow.

May I be late tomorrow? - Correct!This is a polite request for permission to be late tomorrow.

May you be late tomorrow? - IncorrectThe question should be expressed in one of the following ways,

depending on what you want to say:

o Do you have permission to be late tomorrow?o Is it possible that you will be late tomorrow?

May you never be late again! - Correct!

This is the expression of my hope that you will never be late.

May I never be late again! - UnlikelyMore likely is: I hope I will never be late again.

Quiz 3

May I park in your driveway? Am I allowed to park here? (said to a friend in your car outside a railway

station)

In the first sentence above, mayis used, but allowed toin the second. This

is because in the first sentence I am asking someone for permission to do

something, and in the second sentence I am asking about rules. Here are

two more examples:

May I smoke? - said in someone's house Am I allowed to smoke? - asked in a restaurant

Quiz 4

There is a problem in the first sentence. All the other modals and auxiliaries

can be combined into one word (e.g. mustn't, oughtn't, haven'tetc.), but for

some reason we can't do this with mayand not.


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I may not (mayn't) be home till late. I mightn't be home till late.

Quiz 5

If you say may, you think there is a greater chance of being late than if yousaymight. So:

I may be home late tonight. (20-50% chance) I might be home late tonight. (1-20% chance)

* The percentages are to show the relative possibilities expressed by the two

words - don't taken them as exact!

In the second pair of sentences mayand mightare in reported speech and

can be used by careful speakers to convey different meanings:

The doctors told him he may lose his sight. (There is still a possibility that hewill lose his sight.)

The doctors told him he might lose his sight. (He did not lose his sightdespite the doctors' fear.

For many native speakers the distinction would be too subtle and they would

interpret the sentences as meaning the same, i.e. he could possibly lose his

sight.

Quiz 6

He may not be right.This means there is a possibility that he is not right.

He cannot be right.This means that is no possibility that he is right.

Quiz 7

I pray that she may recover from her illness.In this sentence maymeans will.

He may be very clever, but he sometimes does stupid things.


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In this sentence mayhas the function of introducing the second clause

beginning with but. Translated it means:Ok, I agree that he is very

clever, but ..

I may as well go home.The expression may as wellgives this sentence the meaning: There is

no point in staying - I will go home. or There is nothing better to do

than to go home. Another example is: You may as well tell me - I'm

going to find out anyway.

Quiz 8

He might ask if he can use your computer.

This means that there is a possibility he will ask to use your computer.

He might ask before he uses my computer!This implies, thanks to the exclamation mark, that he hasused your

computer, but without asking, and you are annoyed about this. The

stress would be on the word ask. Another example is: You might have

told me she's divorced!

Quiz 9

He might have paid for the computer but he might have asked beforereformatting the hard disk.

Translated, this sentence means: It is true that he paid for the

computer but it would have been good if he had asked before ..

If your brain is addled after these explanations then take comfort in

Burchfield who writes: "I can see how easy it is to confuse the roles of 'may'

and 'might' when in some circumstances they are more or less

interchangeable." The New Fowler's Modern English Usage (Oxford 2004)

Modal verbs - ought

Oughtis a little different from the other modal verbs because it needs toin

front of the infinitive, e.g. You ought to tell him. It has several functionsbut

its most common uses seem to be to express some kindof obligation or to

make adeduction, as in the following sentences:


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You ought to do something about your cough. You sound awful! He ought to be on the plane by now.

It can be used to refer to past obligations ordeductions as in the following:

You ought to have told him. He ought to have arrivedby now.

In all of these sentences, ought toto could be replacedby should with no

change of meaning. And in fact, shouldis more common than ought.

Quiz

Which of the following sentences is correct?

I ought to not go I ought not to go. I don't ought to go. I ought to don't go.

Answer

The ticked sentence is correct. The others are not possible. (It is interesting

that the modal to needallows two forms. Both I don't need to goand I need

not go are correct.)

I ought to not go I ought not to go. I don't ought to go. I ought to don't go.

Modal verbs - should

Should, like the other modal verbs, has many different meanings according

to the context in which it is used. In the quiz below, you have to matchthemeaning/function of the word shouldon the left with the sentence containing

an example of that function on the right.

Quiz

Function of should Example sentence


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a. to give advice 1. She asked me when she should come.

b. to say what is (morally) right or wrong2. I should be grateful if you could give

me your reply by Monday.

c. to say what you expect to happen (orhave happened)

3. You shouldn't drink so much beer.

d. to express a wish or desire 4. I should like to be rich and famous.

e. to make a polite request 5. Young criminals should not be put in

prison.

f. to express the importance (etc.) of an

action

6. If you should bump into Susan, please

ask her to call me.

g. to express shallin indirectspeech 7. She should have arrived by now.

h. in ifclauses 8. It is vital that you should be there on

time.

Answers

Function of should Example sentence

a. to give advice 3. You shouldn't drink so much beer.

b. to say what is (morally) right or wrong5. Young criminals should not be put in

prison.

c. to say what you expect to happen (or

have happened)

7. She should have arrived by now.

d. to express a wish or desire * 4. I should like to be rich and famous.

e. to make a polite request 2. I should be grateful if you could give

me your reply by Monday.

f. to express the importance (etc.) of an

action **

8. It is vital that you should be there on

time.

g. to express shallin indirect speech 1. She asked me when she should come.


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h. in ifclauses *** 6. If you should bump into Susan, please

ask her to call me.

* - More common is: I wouldlike to be rich and famous.

** - American Englishis more likely to use a subjunctive than shouldinsentences like this. E.g. It is vital that you be there on timeor It is

notnecessarythat he come to the meeting.

*** - The word should makes it clear that the speakeris less certain that

Susan will "be bumped into" than if she (the speaker) had said: If you bump

into Susan ..

Modal verbs - would

Wouldis an interesting modal with numerous functions. For example, it is

used to make polite offers or requests: Would you like some more

tea?or Would youhelp me please?It is often used to expresswishes: I wish

you wouldn't keep tapping your pencil on the table.It is frequently found in

indirect speech as in the following: She said she would call you as soon as

she got back. And it is very common in conditional sentences such asI

would go if I had the timeorShe wouldn't have been so angry if you had

asked her first.

But wouldalso has its own special problems. Look at the following sentencesand decide first whether the sentence is possible or not. If it is possible, say

what it means; and if it is not possible, express the meaning in correct

English.

Quiz

When I was a child I would have a bath every Sunday evening. When I was a child I would have a lot of wonderful toys. I asked him to stop, but he wouldn't. When I was a child I would clean my room but I hated washing the dishes. I would clean my room yesterday. I wouldn't clean my room yesterday. If I were you, I would be careful what I said! If I would be rich, I'd buya new house. You would tell him about the present - I wanted to keep it a surprise! Would that I were rich!
http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/easy/wish.htmhttp://esl.fis.edu/grammar/easy/wish.htmhttp://esl.fis.edu/grammar/easy/wish.htm


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Answers

When I was a child I would have a bath every Sunday evening. - Correct!In this sentence wouldhas the meaning of used to.

When I was a child I would have a lot of wonderful toys. - Incorrect!We saw in the previous sentence that wouldoften has the meaning

of used to. However, it cannot be used in this way with the verb to

havewhen havemeans to possess. It must be: When I was a child I

had (or used to have) a lot of wonderful toys.

I asked him to stop, but he wouldn't. - Correct!Here would(not)means refused- He refused to stop.

When I was a child I would clean my room but I hated washing the dishes. -Correct!

Here wouldmeans was willing to.

I would clean my room yesterday. - Incorrect!

In the previous sentence would clean my room referred to a generalwillingness in the past to do something. However, wouldcannot be

used in this way when referring to a single eventin the past, so I

would clean my room yesterdayis not possible! It has to be: I was

willing to (or didn't refuse to) clean my room yesterday.

I wouldn't clean my room yesterday. - Correct!Just to make matters more confusing, it IS permissible to

use wouldwhen referring to a single past unwillingness. Another

example: He begged and begged, but I wouldn't tell him my secret.

If I were you, I would be careful what I said! - Correct!Wouldis very common in conditional 2 sentences (but see below!)

If I would be rich, I'd buy a new house. - Incorrect!


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It is not standard Englishto use wouldin the if clauseof a conditional

sentence. You have to say If I were (was) rich ..

You would tell him about the present - I wanted to keep it a surprise! -Correct!

In this sentence wouldhas the function of expressing annoyance. It

can be paraphrased: Why did you (have to) tell him about the present

..?

Would that I were rich! - Correct!This sentence means: I wish that I were rich!

Modal verbs - others

This last page contains some brief quiz questions on the modal verbs not

covered elsewhere.

Quiz

shallo What is the difference in the meaning of shallin the following

questions: Shall I call you when I arrive?and Shall we go swimming?

o Can you say Shall you call me when you arrive?o What is the shortened form of shall not?o What is the meaning of shallin the sentence She shall be here on

time.

willo What is the meaning of will in the sentence Boys will be boys!o What is wrong with the sentence I'll keep opening my big mouth!o What is the function of willin the sentence Will you shut up!o Can you say I will a new car?o What's the difference between the question Will you have some more

cake?and the question Won't you have some more cake?

o need

o Which the following sentences are wrong? I need to go. I don't need to go. I need not go. I need not to go. I don't need go.


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I need go. I didn't need to go. I didn't need go. I needed not go. I needed not to go. Need I go? Need I to go?

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